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Some subjects, who were led to believe that their participation in the experiment had concluded, were then asked to perform a favor for the experimenter by telling the next participant, who was actually a confederate, that the task was extremely enjoyable. Dissonance was created for the subjects performing the favor, as the task was in fact boring. Half of the paid subjects were given $ 1 for the favor, while those of the other half received $ 20. As predicted by
Festinger and Carlsmith, those paid $ 1 reported the task to be more enjoyable than those paid $ 20. Those paid $ 1 were forced to reduce dissonance by changing their opinions of the task to produce consonance with their behavior of reporting that the task was enjoyable. The subjects paid $ 20 experienced less dissonance, as the large payment provided consonance with their behavior; they therefore rated the task as less enjoyable and their ratings were similar to those who were not asked to perform the dissonance-causing favor.
560:. The group studied a small apocalyptic cult led by Dorothy Martin (under the pseudonym Marian Keech in the book), a suburban housewife. Martin claimed to have received messages from "the Guardians," a group of superior beings from another planet called 'Clarion.' The messages purportedly said that a flood spreading to form an inland sea stretching from the Arctic Circle to the Gulf of Mexico would destroy the world on December 21, 1954. The three psychologists and several more assistants joined the group. The team observed the group firsthand for months before and after the predicted apocalypse. Many of the group members quit their jobs and disposed of their possessions in preparation for the apocalypse. When doomsday came and went, Martin claimed that the world had been spared because of the "force of Good and light" that the group members had spread. Rather than abandoning their discredited beliefs, group members adhered to them even more strongly and began proselytizing with fervor.
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stated, "Research can increasingly address itself to minor unclarities in prior research rather than to larger issues; people can lose sight of the basic problems because the field becomes defined by the ongoing research." He also stressed that laboratory experimentation "cannot exist by itself," but that "there should be an active interrelation between laboratory experimentation and the study of real-life situations." Also, while
Festinger is praised for his theoretical rigor and experimental approach to social psychology, he is regarded as having contributed to "the estrangement between basic and applied social psychology in the United States." He "became a symbol of the tough-minded, theory-oriented, pure experimental scientist," while Ron Lippitt, a fellow faculty member at Lewin's Research Center for Group Dynamics with whom Festinger often clashed, "became a symbol of the fuzzy-minded, do-gooder, practitioner of applied social psychology."
465:, the physical proximity between where students lived, and not just by similar tastes or beliefs as conventional wisdom assumed. In other words, people simply tend to befriend their neighbors. They also found that functional distance predicted social ties as well. For example, in a two-storey apartment building, people living on the lower floor next to a stairway are functionally closer to upper-floor residents than are others living on the same lower floor. The lower-floor residents near the stairs are more likely than their lower-floor neighbors to befriend those living on the upper floor. Festinger and his collaborators viewed these findings as evidence that friendships often develop based on passive contacts (e.g., brief meetings made as a result of going to and from home within the student housing community) and that such passive contacts are more likely to occur given closer physical and functional distance between people.
655:, which had dominated psychology until that time, characterized man as a creature of habit conditioned by stimulus-response reinforcement processes. Behaviorists focused only on the observable, i.e., behavior and external rewards, with no reference to cognitive or emotional processes. Theories like cognitive dissonance could not be explained in behaviorist terms. For example, liking was simply a function of reward according to behaviorism, so greater reward would produce greater liking; Festinger and Carlsmith's experiment clearly demonstrated greater liking with lower reward, a result that required the acknowledgement of cognitive processes. With Festinger's theories and the research that they generated, "the monolithic grip that reinforcement theory had held on social psychology was effectively and permanently broken."
490:(1954) can be viewed as an extension of his prior theory related to the reliance on social reality for evaluating attitudes and opinions to the realm of abilities. Starting with the premise that humans have an innate drive to accurately evaluate their opinions and abilities, Festinger postulated that people will seek to evaluate their opinions and abilities by comparing them with those of others. Specifically, people will seek out others who are close to one's own opinions and abilities for comparison because accurate comparisons are difficult when others are too divergent from those of oneself. To use Festinger's example, a chess novice does not compare his chess abilities to those of recognized chess masters, nor does a college student compare his intellectual abilities to those of a toddler.
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was interested in Lewin's earlier work on tension systems, but Lewin's focus had shifted to social psychology by the time
Festinger arrived at Iowa. However, Festinger continued to pursue his original interests, studying level of aspiration, working on statistics, developing a quantitative model of decision making, and even publishing a laboratory study on rats. Explaining his lack of interest in social psychology at the time, Festinger stated, "The looser methodology of the social psychology studies, and the vagueness of relation of the data to Lewinian concepts and theories, all seemed unappealing to me in my youthful penchant for rigor." Festinger considered himself to be a freethinker and an atheist.
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cognitive dissonance, arguably his most famous and influential contribution to the field of social psychology. Some also view this as an extension of
Festinger's prior work on group pressures toward resolving discrepancies in attitudes and abilities within social groups to how the individual resolves discrepancies at the cognitive level. Festinger also received considerable recognition during this time for his work, both from within the field, being awarded the Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award by the American Psychological Association in 1959, and outside of the field, being named as one of America's ten most promising scientists by
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drive to improve one's abilities. Thus
Festinger suggested that the "social influence processes and some kinds of competitive behavior are both manifestations of the same socio-psychological process... the drive for self evaluation and the necessity for such evaluation being based on comparison with other persons." Festinger also discussed implications of social comparison theory for society, hypothesizing that the tendency for people to move into groups that hold opinions which agree with their own and abilities that are near their own results in the segmentation of society into groups which are relatively alike.
384:) was an important direct finding from the study, Festinger and his collaborators also noticed correlations between the degree of friendship within a group of residents and the similarity of opinions within the group, thus raising unexpected questions regarding communication within social groups and the development of group standards of attitudes and behaviors. Indeed, Festinger's seminal 1950 paper on informal social communication as a function of pressures toward attitude uniformity within a group cites findings from this seemingly unrelated housing satisfaction study multiple times.
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attitudes and opinions, and that they look to their reference group to establish social reality; an opinion or attitude is therefore valid to the extent that it is similar to that of the reference group. He further argued that pressures to communicate arise when discrepancies in opinions or attitudes exist among members of a group, and laid out a series hypotheses regarding determinants of when group members communicate, whom they communicate with, and how recipients of communication react, citing existing experimental evidence to support his arguments.
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no damage from the earthquake, rumors were widely circulated and accepted about even worse disasters to come. Although seemingly counter-intuitive that people would choose to believe "fear-provoking" rumors, Festinger reasoned that these rumors were actually "fear-justifying." The rumors functioned to reduce the inconsistency of people's feelings of fear despite not directly experiencing the effects of the earthquake by giving people a reason to be fearful.
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psychology to date," and a theory without which "social psychology would not be what it is today." Cognitive dissonance spawned decades of related research, from studies focused on further theoretical refinement and development to domains as varied as decision making, the socialization of children, and color preference.
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Festinger's seminal 1957 work integrated existing research literature on influence and social communication under his theory of cognitive dissonance. The theory was motivated by a study of rumors immediately following a severe earthquake in India in 1934. Among people who felt the shock but sustained
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Festinger also later described the increased conviction and proselytizing by cult members after disconfirmation as a specific instantiation of cognitive dissonance (i.e., increased proselytizing reduced dissonance by producing the knowledge that others also accepted their beliefs) and its application
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In his 1950 paper, Festinger postulated that one of the major pressures to communicate arises from uniformity within a group, which in turn arises from two sources: social reality and group locomotion. Festinger argued that people depend on social reality to determine the subjective validity of their
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stated that it was "doubtful that experimental psychology would exist at all" without
Festinger. Yet it seems that Festinger was wary about burdensome demands for greater empirical precision. Warning against the dangers of such demands when theoretical concepts are not yet fully developed, Festinger
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Dissonance reduction can be achieved by changing cognition by changing actions, or selectively acquiring new information or opinions. To use
Festinger's example of a smoker who has knowledge that smoking is bad for his health, the smoker may reduce dissonance by choosing to quit smoking, by changing
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Forty years in my own life seems like a long time to me and while some things have been learned about human beings and human behavior during this time, progress has not been rapid enough; nor has the new knowledge been impressive enough. And even worse, from a broader point of view we do not seem to
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at the
University of Iowa, where Festinger received his MA in 1940 and PhD in 1942 in the field of child behavior. By his own admission, he was not interested in social psychology when he arrived at Iowa, and did not take a single course in social psychology during his entire time there; instead, he
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9. When there is a range of opinion or ability in a group, the relative strength of the three manifestations of pressures toward uniformity will be different for those who are close to the mode of the group than those who are distant from the mode. Specifically, those close to the mode of the group
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which examined how humans evolved and developed complex societies. Although seemingly the product of a disillusioned, wholesale abandonment of the field of psychology, Festinger considered this research as a return to the fundamental concerns of psychology. He described the goal of his new research
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view of social psychology by demonstrating the inadequacy of stimulus-response conditioning accounts of human behavior is largely attributed to his theories and research. Festinger is also credited with advancing the use of laboratory experimentation in social psychology, although he simultaneously
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Despite such recognition, Festinger left the field of social psychology in 1964, attributing his decision to "a conviction that had been growing in me at the time that I, personally, was in a rut and needed an injection of intellectual stimulation from new sources to continue to be productive." He
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as an assistant professor. It was at MIT that
Festinger, in his own words, "became, by fiat, a social psychologist, and immersed myself in the field with all its difficulties, vaguenesses, and challenges." It was also at MIT that Festinger began his foray into social communication and pressures in
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Festinger and James M. Carlsmith published their classic cognitive dissonance experiment in 1959. In the experiment, subjects were asked to perform an hour of boring and monotonous tasks (i.e., repeatedly filling and emptying a tray with 12 spools and turning 48 square pegs in a board clockwise).
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People will, moreover, take action to reduce discrepancies in attitudes, whether by changing others to bring them closer to oneself or by changing one's own attitudes to bring them closer to others. They will likewise take action to reduce discrepancies in abilities, for which there is an upward
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in 1955. During this time, Festinger published his highly influential paper on social comparison theory, extending his prior theory regarding the evaluation of attitudes in social groups to the evaluation of abilities in social groups. Following this, in 1957, Festinger published his theory of
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One of the greatest impacts of
Festinger's studies lies in their "depict of social behavior as the responses of a thinking organism continually acting to bring order into his world, rather than as the blind impulses of a creature of emotion and habit," as cited in his Distinguished Scientific
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Social comparison theory and cognitive dissonance have been described by other psychologists as "the two most fruitful theories in social psychology." Cognitive dissonance has been variously described as "social psychology's most notable achievement," "the most important development in social
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Festinger labeled communications arising from such pressures toward uniformity as "instrumental communication" in that the communication is not an end in itself but a means to reduce discrepancies between the communicator and others in the group. Instrumental communication is contrasted with
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from 1943 to 1945 during World War II. In 1943, Festinger married Mary Oliver Ballou, a pianist, with whom he had three children, Catherine, Richard, and Kurt. Festinger and Ballou were later divorced, and Festinger married Trudy Bradley, currently a professor of social work emeritus at
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interests as "see what can be inferred from different vantage points, from different data realms, about the nature, the characteristics, of this species we call human," and felt bemused when fellow psychologists asked him how his new research interests were related to psychology.
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In addition, Festinger is credited with the ascendancy of laboratory experimentation in social psychology as one who "converted the experiment into a powerful scientific instrument with a central role in the search for knowledge." An obituary published by the
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New York on May 8, 1919 to Russian-Jewish immigrants Alex Festinger and Sara Solomon Festinger. His father, an embroidery manufacturer, had "left Russia a radical and atheist and remained faithful to these views throughout his life." Festinger attended
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will have stronger tendencies to change the positions of others, relatively weaker tendencies to narrow the range of comparison, and much weaker tendencies to change their position compared to those who are distant from the mode of the group.
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Yet, this endeavor "started as almost an accident" while Festinger was conducting a study on the impact of architectural and ecological factors on student housing satisfaction for the university. Although the proximity effect (or
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In his 1954 paper, Festinger again systematically set forth a series of hypotheses, corollaries, and derivations, and he cited existing experimental evidence where available. He stated his main set of hypotheses as follows:
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7. Any factors which increase the importance of some particular group as a comparison group for some particular opinion or ability will increase the pressure toward uniformity concerning that ability or opinion within that
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in 1945. Despite his preeminence in social psychology, Festinger turned to visual perception research in 1964 and then archaeology, history, and the human evolutionary sciences in 1979 until his death in 1989. Following
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Haggbloom, Steven J.; Warnick, Renee; Warnick, Jason E.; Jones, Vinessa K.; Yarbrough, Gary L.; Russell, Tenea M.; Borecky, Chris M.; McGahhey, Reagan; Powell, John L. III; Beavers, Jamie; Monte, Emmanuelle (2002).
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8. If persons who are very divergent from one's own opinion or ability are perceived as different from oneself on attributes consistent with the divergence, the tendency to narrow the range of comparability becomes
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his thoughts about the effects of smoking (e.g., smoking is not as bad for your health as others claim), or by acquiring knowledge pointing to the positive effects of smoking (e.g., smoking prevents weight gain).
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Festinger's next and final enterprise was to understand why an idea is accepted or rejected by a culture, and he decided that examining why new technology was adopted quickly in the West but not in the Eastern
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groups that marked a turning point in his own research. As Festinger himself recalls, "the years at M.I.T. seemed to us all to be momentous, ground breaking, the new beginning of something important." Indeed,
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Festinger, Stanley Schachter, and Kurt Back examined the choice of friends among college students living in married student housing at MIT. The team showed that the formation of ties was predicted by
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turned his attention to the visual system, focusing on human eye movement and color perception. In 1968, Festinger returned to his native New York City, continuing his perception research at
376:, Festinger's student and research assistant at the time, states, "I was lucky enough to work with Festinger at this time, and I think of it as one of the high points of my scientific life."
1306:"Festinger, a professed atheist, was an original thinker and a restless, highly motivated individual with (in his words) "little tolerance for boredom". " Franz Samelson: "Festinger, Leon",
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would illuminate the issue. However, Festinger was diagnosed with cancer before he was able to publish this material. He decided not to pursue treatment, and died on February 11, 1989.
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After graduating, Festinger worked as a research associate at Iowa from 1941 to 1943, and then as a statistician for the Committee on Selection and Training of Aircraft Pilots at the
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2. To the extent that objective, nonsocial means are available, people evaluate their opinions and abilities by comparison respectively with the opinions and abilities of others.
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6. The cessation of comparison with others is accompanied by hostility or derogation to the extent that continued comparison with those persons implies unpleasant consequences.
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Holtzman, J. D., Sedgwick, H. A., & Festinger, L. (1978). Interaction of perceptually monitored and unmonitored efferent commands for smooth pursuit eye movements.
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2. When dissonance is present, in addition to trying to reduce it, the person will actively avoid situations and information which would likely increase the dissonance.
292:, graduating in 1941; however, he did not develop an interest in social psychology until after joining the faculty at Lewin's Research Center for Group Dynamics at the
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Festinger, L., Cartwright, D., Barber, K., Fleischl, J., Gottsdanker, J., Keysen, A., & Leavitt, G. (1948). A study of rumor transition: Its origin and spread.
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Festinger, L. (1943d). Studies in decision: I. Decision-time, relative frequency of judgment and subjective confidence as related to physical stimulus difference.
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5. There are nonsocial restraints which make it difficult or even impossible to change one's ability. These nonsocial restraints are largely absent for opinions.
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Deutsch, M. (1999). A personal perspective on the development of social psychology in the twentieth century. In Rodriguez, A. and Levine, R. V. (Eds.),
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1. The existence of dissonance , being psychologically uncomfortable, will motivate the person to try to reduce the dissonance and achieve consonance .
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3. The tendency to compare oneself with some other specific person decreases as the difference between his opinion or ability and one's own increases.
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Writing in 1983, four years after closing his laboratory, Festinger expressed a sense of disappointment with what he and his field had accomplished:
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Komoda, M. K., Festinger, L., & Sherry, J. (1977). The accuracy of two-dimensional saccades in the absence of continuing retinal stimulation.
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to discuss ideas and visiting archaeological sites to investigate primitive toolmaking firsthand. His efforts eventually culminated in the book,
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Festinger, L. (1943b). An exact test of significance for means of samples drawn from populations with an exponential frequency distribution.
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Festinger, L. (1943b). An exact test of significance for means of samples drawn from populations with an exponential frequency distribution.
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Back, K., Festinger, L., Hymovitch, B., Kelley, H., Schachter, S., & Thibaut, J. (1950). The methodology of studying rumor transmission.
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Festinger, L., Gerard, H., Hymovitch, B., Kelley, H. H., & Raven, B. (1952). The influence process in the presence of extreme deviates.
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Festinger and his co-authors concluded that the following conditions lead to increased conviction in beliefs following disconfirmation:
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Festinger, L., & Hutte, H. A. (1954). An experimental investigation of the effect of unstable interpersonal relations in a group.
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Aronson, E. (1980). In L. Festinger (Ed.), Retrospections on Social Psychology (pp. 236–254). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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Hoffman, P. J., Festinger, L., & Lawrence, D. H. (1954). Tendencies toward group comparability in competitive bargaining.
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Festinger, L., & Holtzman, J. D. (1978). Retinal image smear as a source of information about magnitude of eye-movement.
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Festinger, L. (1946). The significance of difference between means without reference to the frequency distribution function.
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Greenwald, A. G., & Ronis, D. L. (1978). Twenty years of cognitive dissonance: Case study of the evolution of a theory.
554:, examined conditions under which disconfirmation of beliefs leads to increased conviction in such beliefs in the 1956 book
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Hochberg, J., & Festinger, L. (1979). Is there curvature adaptation not attributable to purely intravisual phenomena.
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Festinger, L. (1955a). Handbook of social psychology, vol 1, Theory and method, vol 2, Special fields and applications.
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Schachter, S., Festinger, L., Willerman, B., & Hyman, R. (1961). Emotional disruption and industrial productivity.
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3. The belief must be sufficiently specific and concerned with the real world such that it can be clearly disconfirmed.
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Festinger, L., Sedgwick, H. A., & Holtzman, J. D. (1976). Visual-perception during smooth pursuit eye-movements.
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stressed the importance of studying real-life situations, a principle he practiced when personally infiltrating a
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Festinger, L., Torrey, J., & Willerman, B. (1954). Self-evaluation as a function of attraction to the group.
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Festinger, L., & Canon, L. K. (1965). Information about spatial location based on knowledge about efference.
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Miller, J., & Festinger, L. (1977). Impact of oculomotor retraining on visual-perception of curvature.
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Festinger, L. (1942b). Wish, expectation, and group standards as factors influencing level of aspiration.
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Hertzman, M., & Festinger, L. (1940). Shifts in explicit goals in a level of aspiration experiment.
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Festinger, L. (1943e). Studies in decision: II. An empirical test of a quantitative theory of decision.
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4. There is a unidirectional drive upward in the case of abilities which is largely absent in opinions.
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1. The belief must be held with deep conviction and be relevant to the believer's actions or behavior.
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Allyn, J., & Festinger, L. (1961). Effectiveness of Unanticipated Persuasive Communications.
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Coren, S., & Festinger, L. (1967). Alternative view of the "Gibson normalization effect".
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Brehm, J., & Festinger, L. (1957). Pressures toward uniformity of performance in groups.
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APA Distinguished Scientific Award for an Early Career Contribution to Psychology recipients
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Festinger, L., & Carlsmith, J. M. (1959). Cognitive consequences of forced compliance.
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American Psychological Association. (1959). Distinguished Scientific Contribution Awards.
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In 1945, Festinger joined Lewin's newly formed Research Center for Group Dynamics at the
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Festinger, L. "Laboratory Experiments." In L. Festinger, & D. Katz (Eds.). (1953).
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Festinger, L. (1943a). A statistical test for means of samples from skew populations.
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Festinger, L., & Thibaut, J. (1951). Interpersonal communication in small groups.
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Festinger, L. (1943c). A statistical test for means of samples from skew populations.
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Festinger, L. (1942a). A theoretical interpretation of shifts in level of aspiration.
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1. There exists, in the human organism, a drive to evaluate his opinion and abilities.
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Festinger, L. (1942). A theoretical interpretation of shifts in level of aspiration.
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Festinger, L., & Maccoby, N. (1964). On resistance to persuasive communications.
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Festinger subsequently began exploring prehistoric archaeological data, meeting with
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Cartwright, D., & Festinger, L. (1943). A quantitative theory of decision.
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Cartwright, D., & Festinger, L. (1943). A quantitative theory of decision.
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Festinger, L. (1959a). Sampling and related problems in research methodology.
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Festinger, L. (1947a). The role of group belongingness in a voting situation.
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Festinger described the basic hypotheses of cognitive dissonance as follows:
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2. The belief must have produced actions that are arguably difficult to undo.
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After Lewin's death in 1947, Festinger moved with the research center to the
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Festinger, L. (1947b). The treatment of qualitative data by scale analysis.
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Festinger, L. (1959b). Some attitudinal consequences of forced decisions.
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Social Pressures in Informal Groups: A Study of Human Factors in Housing.
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Social Pressures in Informal Groups: A Study of Human Factors in Housing.
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Festinger, L. (1961). The psychological effects of insufficient rewards.
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Festinger, L. (1943c). Development of differential appetite in the rat.
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Festinger, L. (1952). Some consequences of de-individuation in a group.
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Festinger, L. (1943a). Development of differential appetite in the rat.
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Festinger, L. (1949). The analysis of sociograms using matrix algebra.
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Journal of Experimental Psychology-Human Perception and Performance, 3
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Journal of Experimental Psychology-Human Perception and Performance, 4
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Extending Psychological Frontiers: Selected Works of Leon Festinger.
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Extending Psychological Frontiers: Selected Works of Leon Festinger
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4. The disconfirmatory evidence must be recognized by the believer.
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2060:(pp. 97–110). Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
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Festinger, L. (1980) "Looking Backward." In L. Festinger (Ed.),
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Zanjonc, R. B. (1991). Obituaries: Leon Festinger (1919–1989).
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Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes.
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Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes.
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in Brooklyn, and received his BS degree in psychology from the
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Festinger, L. (1955b). Social psychology and group processes.
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5. The believer must have social support from other believers.
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Festinger, L. (1964). Behavioral support for opinion change.
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Aronson, E. (1991). Leon Festinger and the art of audacity.
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magazine shortly after publishing social comparison theory.
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Festinger, L., Riecken, H. W., & Schachter, S. (1956).
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Gazzaniga, M. S. (2006). Leon Festinger: Lunch With Leon.
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Reflections on 100 Years of Experimental Social Psychology
288:, an important figure in modern social psychology, at the
790:
Festinger, L. (1951). Architecture and group membership.
99:
1170:"The 100 most eminent psychologists of the 20th century"
3166:
University of Michigan Department of Psychology faculty
2063:
Schachter, S., & Gazzaniga, M. S. (Eds.). (1989).
883:
Human nature and human competence. Social Research, 48
2085:(pp. xi–xxiv). New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
2022:
Festinger, L., Schachter, S., & Back, K. (1950).
1969:
Festinger, L. (1950). Informal social communication.
954:
Festinger, L., Schachter, S., & Back, K. (1950).
776:
Festinger, L. (1950). Informal social communication.
2001:(pp. 236–254). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
427:
have been working on many of the important problems.
2081:In Schachter, S., & Gazzaniga, M. S. (Eds.),
2017:The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 58
1635:Festinger, Riecken, & Schachter, 1956, p. 169
897:The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 58
783:Festinger, L. (1950b). Psychological Statistics.
3102:
2096:National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir
468:
248:(8 May 1919 – 11 February 1989) was an American
1644:Festinger, Riecken, & Schachter, 1956, p. 4
951:Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
2011:Festinger, L., & Carlsmith, J. M. (1959).
1927:"Faculty Profile: Trudy B. Festinger MSW, DSW"
930:Festinger, L., & Katz, D. (Eds.). (1953).
2116:
2039:"The Science of Why We Don't Believe Science"
970:Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 46
939:Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 68
925:Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 49
799:Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 47
708:Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 37
666:Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 62
932:Research methods in the behavioral sciences.
853:Festinger, L. (1962). Cognitive dissonance.
2056:Schachter, S. "Leon Festinger." (1994). In
2013:Cognitive consequences of forced compliance
1978:Research methods in the behavioral sciences
481:
321:
260:. The rejection of the previously dominant
2123:
2109:
1891:(pp. 1–34) New York, NY: Basic Books.
584:to understanding complex, mass phenomena.
31:
3186:20th-century American non-fiction writers
3121:American people of Russian-Jewish descent
1980:(pp. 137–172). New York, NY: Dryden.
1617:Festinger, Riecken, & Schachter, 1956
1185:
834:American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 64
591:were the first experimental evidence for
196:Experimental test of a theory of decision
2031:Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1
2026:Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
1994:Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
958:Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
829:Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
1365:Schachter & Gazzaniga, 1989, p. 545
1331:Schachter & Gazzaniga, 1989, p. 545
598:
3103:
2067:New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
2036:
1964:Journal of Experimental Psychology, 32
1563:Festinger, Schachter, & Beck, 1950
1419:Festinger, Schachter, & Back, 1950
1310:, Feb. 2000 (accessed April 28, 2008)
1130:Festinger, Schachter, & Back, 1950
984:Journal of Experimental Psychology, 27
743:Journal of Experimental Psychology, 32
736:Journal of Experimental Psychology, 32
715:Journal of Experimental Psychology, 32
533:
2104:
1322:"Deaths: Mary Ballou Festinger," 2006
369:Massachusetts Institute of Technology
294:Massachusetts Institute of Technology
160:Massachusetts Institute of Technology
2008:New York: Columbia University Press.
878:New York: Columbia University Press.
869:Retrospections on Social Psychology.
3156:20th-century American psychologists
1999:Retrospections on Social Psychology
456:
284:Festinger studied psychology under
13:
3176:Boys High School (Brooklyn) alumni
1308:American National Biography Online
14:
3202:
3131:Jewish American social scientists
2089:
1992:A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance.
1734:as cited in Aronson, 1991, p. 214
1026:Journal of Applied Psychology, 45
827:A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance.
813:Journal of Applied Psychology, 39
694:Perception & Psychophysics, 2
546:Festinger and his collaborators,
2332:
991:Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 2
871:Oxford: Oxford University Press.
3181:City College of New York alumni
3171:University of Minnesota faculty
2037:Mooney, Chris (May–June 2011).
1896:"Deaths: Mary Ballou Festinger"
1845:
1842:Festinger & Carlsmith, 1959
1836:
1827:
1818:
1809:
1800:
1791:
1782:
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1764:
1755:
1746:
1737:
1728:
1719:
1710:
1707:Festinger & Carlsmith, 1959
1701:
1692:
1683:
1674:
1665:
1656:
1647:
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1629:
1620:
1611:
1602:
1593:
1584:
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1557:
1548:
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1521:
1512:
1503:
1494:
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1476:
1467:
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1449:
1440:
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1404:
1395:
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1377:
1368:
1359:
1334:
1325:
1316:
1300:
1291:
1282:
1279:Carlsmith & Festinger, 1943
1273:
1264:
1255:
1246:
1237:
1228:
1219:
2130:
1902:. May 10, 2006. Archived from
1210:
1160:
1151:
1142:
1133:
1124:
1115:
1106:
1097:
820:Annual Review of Psychology, 6
391:in 1948. He then moved to the
1:
3146:American social psychologists
2428:Industrial and organizational
2072:The American Psychologist, 45
1865:The American Psychologist, 14
1857:
1121:Festinger, 1953, pp. 169–170.
867:Festinger, L. (Ed.). (1980).
587:The observations reported in
469:Informal social communication
417:
252:who originated the theory of
2669:Human factors and ergonomics
1653:Festinger, 1957, pp. 252–259
1383:Festinger, 1980, pp. 237–238
1174:Review of General Psychology
862:Public Opinion Quarterly, 28
342:He proceeded to study under
16:American social psychologist
7:
1752:Greenwald & Ronis, 1978
1671:Festinger, 1957, p. 236–239
1032:
792:Journal of Social Issues, 7
10:
3207:
1509:Gazzaniga, 2006, pp. 91–92
764:Psychological Bulletin, 44
602:
539:
3126:University of Iowa alumni
3055:
2992:
2699:
2609:
2521:
2358:Applied behavior analysis
2341:
2330:
2166:
2138:
2058:Biographical Memoirs V.64
1196:10.1037/1089-2680.6.2.139
848:American Psychologist, 16
632:
362:
274:
239:
218:
206:
188:
152:
142:
135:
109:
74:
58:
39:
30:
23:
3136:Jewish American atheists
1971:Psychological Review, 57
1943:Psychological Review, 49
1920:Psychological Review, 85
1882:Psychological Review, 50
1875:Psychological Science, 2
1833:Zukier, 1989, pp. xiv–xv
1091:
1079:The Great Disappointment
1064:Social comparison theory
890:Psychological Review, 72
855:Scientific American, 207
778:Psychological Review, 57
701:Psychological Review, 49
687:Psychological Review, 50
658:
488:social comparison theory
486:Festinger's influential
482:Social comparison theory
395:in 1951, and then on to
337:City College of New York
322:Early life and education
258:social comparison theory
127:Social comparison theory
82:City College of New York
2634:Behavioral neuroscience
2198:Behavioral neuroscience
1797:Festinger, 1953, p. 170
1788:Festinger, 1989, p. 253
1698:Festinger, 1957, p. 5–6
1599:Festinger, 1954, p. 138
1590:Festinger, 1954, p. 120
1581:Festinger, 1950, p. 281
1554:Schachter, 1994, p. 106
1536:Schachter, 1994, p. 106
1527:Festinger, 1980, p. 253
1482:Festinger, 1980, p. 248
1473:Schachter, 1994, p. 103
1455:Schachter, 1994, p. 104
1401:Schachter, 1994, p. 101
1392:Schachter, 1994, p. 102
1374:Festinger, 1980, p. 237
1297:Festinger, 1980, p. 237
1243:Festinger, 1980, p. 237
1148:Festinger, 1980, p. 237
451:
393:University of Minnesota
352:University of Rochester
316:
170:University of Minnesota
3161:The New School faculty
2684:Psychology of religion
2624:Behavioral engineering
2561:Human subject research
2217:Cognitive neuroscience
2183:Affective neuroscience
2004:Festinger, L. (1983).
1990:Festinger, L. (1957).
1824:American, 1959, p. 784
1545:Gazzaniga, 2006, p. 92
1500:Festinger, 1983, p. ix
1491:Festinger, 1983, p. ix
1234:American, 1959, p. 784
1225:Schacter, 1994, p. 100
1216:Schachter, 1994, p. 99
1139:American, 1959, p. 784
881:Festinger, L. (1981).
874:Festinger, L. (1983).
825:Festinger, L. (1957).
389:University of Michigan
326:Festinger was born in
269:. He is also known in
165:University of Michigan
3060:Wiktionary definition
2596:Self-report inventory
2591:Quantitative research
1929:. New York University
1851:Aronson, 1991, p. 215
1716:Aronson, 1991, p. 215
1689:Festinger, 1957, p. 6
1680:Festinger, 1957, p. 3
1410:Zukier, 1989, p. xiii
1157:Aronson, 1991, p. 216
934:New York, NY: Dryden.
841:Acta Psychologica, 15
644:American Psychologist
271:social network theory
2586:Qualitative research
2541:Behavior epigenetics
1815:Deutsch, 1999, p. 11
1806:Deutsch, 1999, p. 11
1779:Zajonc, 1990, p. 661
1761:Aronson, 1989, p. 11
1743:Zajonc, 1990, p. 661
1725:Zukier, 1989, p. xxi
1342:"Trudy B. Festinger"
1112:Zukier, 1991, p. xiv
1044:Cognitive dissonance
651:Contribution Award.
605:Cognitive dissonance
599:Cognitive dissonance
254:cognitive dissonance
122:Effort justification
117:Cognitive dissonance
3065:Wiktionary category
2629:Behavioral genetics
2601:Statistical surveys
2458:Occupational health
2193:Behavioral genetics
2077:Zukier, H. (1989).
1906:on January 31, 2013
1103:Zukier, 1989, p. xv
1085:When Prophecy Fails
1039:Belief perseverance
1012:Vision Research, 17
1005:Vision Research, 18
963:Vision Research, 16
947:When Prophecy Fails
680:Human Relations, 10
593:belief perseverance
589:When Prophecy Fails
557:When Prophecy Fails
542:When Prophecy Fails
535:When Prophecy Fails
397:Stanford University
357:New York University
250:social psychologist
175:Stanford University
69:New York City, U.S.
53:New York City, U.S.
3037:Schools of thought
2940:Richard E. Nisbett
2820:Donald T. Campbell
2498:Sport and exercise
1985:Human Relations, 7
1346:socialwork.nyu.edu
998:Human Relations, 7
977:Human Relations, 7
911:Human Relations, 5
904:Human Relations, 1
806:Human Relations, 7
771:Human Relations, 2
757:Human Relations, 1
673:Human Relations, 3
290:University of Iowa
92:University of Iowa
3151:Vision scientists
3141:American atheists
3098:
3097:
3075:Wikimedia Commons
3002:Counseling topics
2965:Ronald C. Kessler
2955:Shelley E. Taylor
2880:Lawrence Kohlberg
2855:Stanley Schachter
2654:Consumer behavior
2536:Archival research
2304:Psycholinguistics
2188:Affective science
2006:The Human Legacy.
1074:Stanley Schachter
1069:Social psychology
876:The Human Legacy.
785:Psychometrika, 15
750:Psychometrika, 11
552:Stanley Schachter
437:The Human Legacy,
433:Stephen Jay Gould
374:Stanley Schachter
333:Boys' High School
243:
242:
231:Stanley Schachter
219:Doctoral students
137:Scientific career
62:February 11, 1989
3198:
3032:Research methods
2975:Richard Davidson
2970:Joseph E. LeDoux
2845:George A. Miller
2835:David McClelland
2830:Herbert A. Simon
2730:Edward Thorndike
2551:Content analysis
2336:
2309:Psychophysiology
2125:
2118:
2111:
2102:
2101:
2053:
2051:
2049:
1957:Psychometrika, 8
1950:Psychometrika, 8
1938:
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1900:Palo Alto Online
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1288:Festinger, 1943c
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1270:Festinger, 1943b
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1261:Festinger, 1943a
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1014:(10), 1231–1232.
1007:(11), 1545–1555.
965:(12), 1377–1386.
729:Psychometrika, 8
722:Psychometrika, 8
457:Proximity effect
446:Byzantine Empire
275:proximity effect
208:Doctoral advisor
202:
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3027:Psychotherapies
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2945:Martin Seligman
2910:Daniel Kahneman
2850:Richard Lazarus
2800:Raymond Cattell
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2289:Neuropsychology
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2079:"Introduction."
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1608:Festinger, 1954
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1428:Festinger, 1950
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2805:Abraham Maslow
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1538:
1529:
1520:
1511:
1502:
1493:
1484:
1475:
1466:
1464:American, 1959
1457:
1448:
1439:
1430:
1421:
1412:
1403:
1394:
1385:
1376:
1367:
1358:
1333:
1324:
1315:
1299:
1290:
1281:
1272:
1263:
1254:
1245:
1236:
1227:
1218:
1209:
1180:(2): 139–152.
1159:
1150:
1141:
1132:
1123:
1114:
1105:
1095:
1093:
1090:
1089:
1088:
1081:
1076:
1071:
1066:
1061:
1056:
1051:
1049:Elliot Aronson
1046:
1041:
1034:
1031:
1030:
1029:
1022:
1015:
1008:
1001:
994:
987:
980:
973:
966:
959:
952:
942:
935:
928:
921:
914:
907:
900:
893:
886:
879:
872:
865:
858:
851:
844:
837:
830:
823:
816:
809:
802:
795:
788:
781:
774:
767:
760:
753:
746:
739:
732:
725:
718:
711:
704:
697:
696:(12), 621–626.
690:
683:
676:
669:
660:
657:
634:
631:
622:
621:
618:
603:Main article:
600:
597:
581:
580:
577:
574:
571:
568:
540:Main article:
537:
532:
531:
530:
526:
522:
518:
515:
512:
509:
506:
503:
483:
480:
470:
467:
458:
455:
453:
450:
429:
428:
419:
416:
412:The New School
364:
361:
323:
320:
318:
315:
311:Albert Bandura
246:Leon Festinger
241:
240:
237:
236:
234:
233:
228:
222:
220:
216:
215:
210:
204:
203:
192:
186:
185:
183:
182:
180:The New School
177:
172:
167:
162:
156:
154:
150:
149:
144:
140:
139:
133:
132:
130:
129:
124:
119:
113:
111:
110:Known for
107:
106:
104:
103:
89:
78:
76:
72:
71:
68:
66:(aged 69)
60:
56:
55:
52:
41:
37:
36:
28:
27:
25:Leon Festinger
24:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3203:
3192:
3189:
3187:
3184:
3182:
3179:
3177:
3174:
3172:
3169:
3167:
3164:
3162:
3159:
3157:
3154:
3152:
3149:
3147:
3144:
3142:
3139:
3137:
3134:
3132:
3129:
3127:
3124:
3122:
3119:
3117:
3114:
3112:
3109:
3108:
3106:
3091:
3088:
3086:
3083:
3081:
3078:
3076:
3073:
3071:
3068:
3066:
3063:
3061:
3058:
3057:
3054:
3048:
3045:
3043:
3040:
3038:
3035:
3033:
3030:
3028:
3025:
3023:
3022:Psychologists
3020:
3018:
3015:
3013:
3012:Organizations
3010:
3008:
3005:
3003:
3000:
2999:
2997:
2995:
2991:
2986:
2983:
2981:
2978:
2976:
2973:
2971:
2968:
2966:
2963:
2961:
2960:John Anderson
2958:
2956:
2953:
2951:
2948:
2946:
2943:
2941:
2938:
2936:
2933:
2931:
2928:
2926:
2923:
2921:
2918:
2916:
2913:
2911:
2908:
2906:
2903:
2901:
2898:
2896:
2893:
2891:
2890:Ulric Neisser
2888:
2886:
2883:
2881:
2878:
2876:
2875:Endel Tulving
2873:
2871:
2868:
2866:
2863:
2861:
2860:Robert Zajonc
2858:
2856:
2853:
2851:
2848:
2846:
2843:
2841:
2838:
2836:
2833:
2831:
2828:
2826:
2823:
2821:
2818:
2816:
2815:Jerome Bruner
2813:
2811:
2808:
2806:
2803:
2801:
2798:
2796:
2793:
2791:
2788:
2786:
2783:
2781:
2780:B. F. Skinner
2778:
2776:
2773:
2771:
2768:
2766:
2763:
2761:
2758:
2756:
2753:
2751:
2748:
2746:
2745:Clark L. Hull
2743:
2741:
2738:
2736:
2733:
2731:
2728:
2726:
2725:Sigmund Freud
2723:
2721:
2718:
2716:
2715:William James
2713:
2711:
2710:Wilhelm Wundt
2708:
2706:
2703:
2702:Psychologists
2698:
2690:
2689:Psychometrics
2687:
2685:
2682:
2680:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2655:
2652:
2650:
2649:Consciousness
2647:
2645:
2642:
2640:
2637:
2635:
2632:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2616:
2612:
2608:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2594:
2592:
2589:
2587:
2584:
2582:
2581:Psychophysics
2579:
2577:
2574:
2572:
2569:
2567:
2564:
2562:
2559:
2557:
2554:
2552:
2549:
2547:
2544:
2542:
2539:
2537:
2534:
2532:
2529:
2528:
2526:
2524:
2523:Methodologies
2520:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2499:
2496:
2494:
2491:
2489:
2486:
2484:
2483:Psychotherapy
2481:
2479:
2478:Psychometrics
2476:
2474:
2471:
2469:
2466:
2464:
2461:
2459:
2456:
2454:
2451:
2449:
2446:
2444:
2441:
2439:
2436:
2434:
2431:
2429:
2426:
2424:
2421:
2419:
2416:
2414:
2411:
2409:
2406:
2404:
2401:
2399:
2396:
2394:
2391:
2389:
2386:
2384:
2381:
2379:
2376:
2374:
2371:
2369:
2366:
2364:
2361:
2359:
2356:
2354:
2351:
2350:
2348:
2346:
2340:
2335:
2325:
2322:
2320:
2317:
2315:
2312:
2310:
2307:
2305:
2302:
2300:
2297:
2295:
2292:
2290:
2287:
2285:
2282:
2280:
2277:
2275:
2272:
2270:
2267:
2265:
2262:
2260:
2257:
2255:
2252:
2250:
2247:
2245:
2244:Developmental
2242:
2240:
2237:
2235:
2232:
2230:
2227:
2223:
2220:
2219:
2218:
2215:
2213:
2209:
2206:
2204:
2201:
2199:
2196:
2194:
2191:
2189:
2186:
2184:
2181:
2179:
2176:
2175:
2173:
2171:
2165:
2159:
2156:
2154:
2151:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2141:
2140:
2137:
2133:
2126:
2121:
2119:
2114:
2112:
2107:
2106:
2103:
2097:
2094:
2093:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2074:(5), 661–662.
2073:
2069:
2066:
2062:
2059:
2055:
2044:
2040:
2035:
2032:
2028:
2025:
2021:
2019:(2), 203–210.
2018:
2014:
2010:
2007:
2003:
2000:
1996:
1993:
1989:
1986:
1982:
1979:
1975:
1973:(5), 271–282.
1972:
1968:
1966:(3), 226–234.
1965:
1961:
1958:
1954:
1951:
1947:
1944:
1940:
1928:
1924:
1921:
1917:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1890:
1886:
1883:
1879:
1877:(4), 213–217.
1876:
1872:
1869:
1866:
1862:
1861:
1848:
1839:
1830:
1821:
1812:
1803:
1794:
1785:
1776:
1767:
1758:
1749:
1740:
1731:
1722:
1713:
1704:
1695:
1686:
1677:
1668:
1659:
1650:
1641:
1632:
1623:
1614:
1605:
1596:
1587:
1578:
1569:
1560:
1551:
1542:
1533:
1524:
1515:
1506:
1497:
1488:
1479:
1470:
1461:
1452:
1443:
1434:
1425:
1416:
1407:
1398:
1389:
1380:
1371:
1362:
1347:
1343:
1337:
1328:
1319:
1312:
1309:
1303:
1294:
1285:
1276:
1267:
1258:
1249:
1240:
1231:
1222:
1213:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1188:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1171:
1163:
1154:
1145:
1136:
1127:
1118:
1109:
1100:
1096:
1087:
1086:
1082:
1080:
1077:
1075:
1072:
1070:
1067:
1065:
1062:
1060:
1057:
1055:
1052:
1050:
1047:
1045:
1042:
1040:
1037:
1036:
1028:(4), 201–213.
1027:
1023:
1021:(2), 187–200.
1020:
1016:
1013:
1009:
1006:
1002:
1000:(2), 141–159.
999:
995:
992:
988:
986:(4), 439–452.
985:
981:
979:(2), 161–174.
978:
974:
971:
967:
964:
960:
957:
953:
950:
948:
943:
941:(4), 359–366.
940:
936:
933:
929:
927:(4), 513–522.
926:
922:
920:(4), 573–585.
919:
915:
913:(4), 327–346.
912:
908:
906:(4), 464–486.
905:
901:
899:(2), 203–210.
898:
894:
892:(5), 373–384.
891:
887:
885:(2), 306–321.
884:
880:
877:
873:
870:
866:
864:(3), 404–417.
863:
859:
856:
852:
849:
845:
842:
838:
836:(2), 358–369.
835:
831:
828:
824:
821:
817:
815:(5), 384–385.
814:
810:
807:
803:
801:(2), 382–389.
800:
796:
793:
789:
787:(2), 209–213.
786:
782:
780:(5), 271–282.
779:
775:
773:(2), 153–158.
772:
768:
766:(2), 149–161.
765:
761:
759:(2), 154–180.
758:
754:
751:
747:
745:(5), 411–423.
744:
740:
738:(4), 291–306.
737:
733:
730:
726:
723:
719:
717:(3), 226–234.
716:
712:
709:
705:
702:
698:
695:
691:
688:
684:
681:
677:
675:(3), 307–312.
674:
670:
667:
663:
662:
656:
654:
648:
645:
639:
630:
626:
619:
616:
615:
614:
611:
606:
596:
594:
590:
585:
578:
575:
572:
569:
566:
565:
564:
561:
559:
558:
553:
549:
548:Henry Riecken
543:
536:
527:
523:
519:
516:
513:
510:
507:
504:
501:
500:
499:
495:
491:
489:
479:
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449:
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438:
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425:
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415:
413:
407:
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404:
398:
394:
390:
385:
383:
377:
375:
370:
360:
358:
353:
348:
345:
340:
338:
334:
329:
314:
312:
308:
307:Sigmund Freud
304:
300:
299:B. F. Skinner
295:
291:
287:
282:
280:
276:
272:
268:
267:doomsday cult
263:
259:
255:
251:
247:
238:
232:
229:
227:
226:Bertram Raven
224:
223:
221:
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211:
209:
205:
198:
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176:
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168:
166:
163:
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148:
145:
141:
138:
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128:
125:
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120:
118:
115:
114:
112:
108:
101:
97:
93:
90:
87:
83:
80:
79:
77:
73:
61:
57:
42:
38:
34:
29:
22:
19:
2935:Larry Squire
2930:Bruce McEwen
2925:Amos Tversky
2895:Jerome Kagan
2885:Noam Chomsky
2839:
2825:Hans Eysenck
2795:Harry Harlow
2775:Erik Erikson
2674:Intelligence
2571:Neuroimaging
2314:Quantitative
2279:Mathematical
2274:Intelligence
2264:Experimental
2259:Evolutionary
2249:Differential
2158:Psychologist
2082:
2071:
2064:
2057:
2048:November 19,
2046:. Retrieved
2043:Mother Jones
2042:
2030:
2023:
2016:
2005:
1998:
1991:
1984:
1977:
1970:
1963:
1956:
1949:
1942:
1933:November 16,
1931:. Retrieved
1919:
1910:November 13,
1908:. Retrieved
1904:the original
1899:
1888:
1881:
1874:
1864:
1847:
1838:
1829:
1820:
1811:
1802:
1793:
1784:
1775:
1766:
1757:
1748:
1739:
1730:
1721:
1712:
1703:
1694:
1685:
1676:
1667:
1658:
1649:
1640:
1631:
1626:Mooney, 2011
1622:
1613:
1604:
1595:
1586:
1577:
1568:
1559:
1550:
1541:
1532:
1523:
1514:
1505:
1496:
1487:
1478:
1469:
1460:
1451:
1442:
1433:
1424:
1415:
1406:
1397:
1388:
1379:
1370:
1361:
1349:. Retrieved
1345:
1336:
1327:
1318:
1307:
1302:
1293:
1284:
1275:
1266:
1257:
1248:
1239:
1230:
1221:
1212:
1177:
1173:
1162:
1153:
1144:
1135:
1126:
1117:
1108:
1099:
1083:
1025:
1018:
1011:
1004:
997:
990:
983:
976:
969:
962:
955:
945:
938:
931:
924:
917:
910:
903:
896:
889:
882:
875:
868:
861:
857:(4), 93–107.
854:
847:
840:
833:
826:
819:
812:
805:
798:
791:
784:
777:
770:
763:
756:
752:(2), 97–105.
749:
742:
735:
728:
721:
714:
707:
700:
693:
686:
679:
672:
665:
649:
643:
640:
636:
627:
623:
612:
608:
588:
586:
582:
562:
555:
545:
534:
496:
492:
485:
476:
472:
460:
442:
436:
430:
421:
408:
401:
386:
378:
366:
349:
341:
325:
283:
245:
244:
194:
153:Institutions
136:
64:(1989-02-11)
18:
3116:1989 deaths
3111:1919 births
3007:Disciplines
2980:Susan Fiske
2870:Roger Brown
2770:Carl Rogers
2755:Jean Piaget
2720:Ivan Pavlov
2576:Observation
2556:Experiments
2503:Suicidology
2398:Educational
2353:Anomalistic
2324:Theoretical
2299:Personality
2229:Comparative
2212:Cognitivism
2203:Behaviorism
2033:(1), 88–94.
1922:(1), 53–57.
1059:Propinquity
993:(1), 71–71.
972:(1), 92–99.
682:(1), 85–91.
668:(1), 35–40.
653:Behaviorism
463:propinquity
382:propinquity
359:, in 1968.
303:Jean Piaget
279:propinquity
262:behaviorist
50:May 8, 1919
3105:Categories
3070:Wikisource
2915:Paul Ekman
2750:Kurt Lewin
2644:Competence
2566:Interviews
2546:Case study
2423:Humanistic
2403:Ergonomics
2388:Counseling
2363:Assessment
2345:psychology
2294:Perception
2254:Ecological
2170:psychology
2148:Philosophy
2132:Psychology
1987:, 117–140.
1959:, 153–160.
1952:, 205–210.
1945:, 235–250.
1884:, 595–621.
1858:References
1054:Kurt Lewin
850:(1), 1–11.
843:, 389–390.
822:, 187–216.
808:, 117–140.
731:, 205–210.
724:, 153–160.
710:, 184–200.
703:, 235–250.
689:, 595–621.
418:Later life
344:Kurt Lewin
286:Kurt Lewin
213:Kurt Lewin
147:Psychology
46:1919-05-08
3090:Wikibooks
3080:Wikiquote
2950:Ed Diener
2735:Carl Jung
2639:Cognition
2468:Political
2378:Community
2208:Cognitive
1204:145668721
1182:CiteSeerX
525:stronger.
339:in 1939.
3085:Wikinews
3042:Timeline
2664:Feelings
2659:Emotions
2619:Behavior
2610:Concepts
2488:Religion
2473:Positive
2463:Pastoral
2448:Military
2413:Forensic
2408:Feminist
2393:Critical
2383:Consumer
2373:Coaching
2368:Clinical
2343:Applied
2239:Cultural
2178:Abnormal
1033:See also
328:Brooklyn
273:for the
3017:Outline
2513:Traffic
2508:Systems
2443:Medical
2269:Gestalt
2143:History
1351:June 2,
403:Fortune
3047:Topics
2493:School
2418:Health
2319:Social
2222:Social
2168:Basic
2153:Portal
1202:
1184:
633:Legacy
521:group.
363:Career
309:, and
201:(1942)
199:
190:Thesis
143:Fields
2994:Lists
2453:Music
2438:Media
2433:Legal
2284:Moral
1200:S2CID
1092:Notes
659:Works
2679:Mind
2050:2012
1935:2012
1912:2012
1353:2023
550:and
452:Work
317:Life
277:(or
256:and
59:Died
40:Born
1192:doi
281:).
100:PhD
3107::
2041:.
2015:.
1898:.
1344:.
1198:.
1190:.
1176:.
1172:.
595:.
305:,
301:,
98:,
96:MA
86:BS
2210:/
2124:e
2117:t
2110:v
2052:.
1937:.
1914:.
1355:.
1313:.
1206:.
1194::
1178:6
949:.
102:)
94:(
88:)
84:(
48:)
44:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
