40:
520:(except for auditing and insolvency work which legally require qualification by a professional body). In such cases, qualification by the professional bodies is effectively still considered a prerequisite to practice as most employers and clients stipulate that the individual hold such qualifications before hiring their services. For example, in order to become a fully qualified teaching professional in Hong Kong working in a state or government-funded school, one needs to have successfully completed a
553:, which feature (1) reduced protection against liability for professional negligence and (2) severe limitations or outright prohibitions on ownership by non-professionals. The obvious implication of this is that all equity owners of the professional business entity must be professionals themselves. This avoids the possibility of a non-professional owner of the firm telling a professional how to do his or her job and thereby protects professional autonomy. The idea is that the
561:; in other words, professional autonomy preserves the integrity of the two-party professional-client relationship. Above this client-professional relationship the profession requires the professional to use their autonomy to follow the rules of ethics that the profession requires. But because professional business entities are effectively locked out of the stock market, they tend to grow relatively slowly compared to public corporations.
291:
63:, who adhere to ethical standards and who hold themselves out as, and are accepted by the public as possessing special knowledge and skills in a widely recognised body of learning derived from research, education and training at a high level, and who are prepared to apply this knowledge and exercise these skills in the interest of others.
133:'s Directive on Recognition of Professional Qualifications (2005/36/EC), "those practised on the basis of relevant professional qualifications in a personal, responsible and professionally independent capacity by those providing intellectual and conceptual services in the interest of the client and the public". Under the
418:
have increasingly taken on this role, their members being appointed either by the profession or (increasingly) by the government. Proposals for the introduction or enhancement of statutory regulation may be welcomed by a profession as protecting clients and enhancing its quality and reputation, or as
758:
A profession has been further defined as: "a special type of occupation...(possessing) corporate solidarity...prolonged specialized training in a body of abstract knowledge, and a collectivity or service orientation...a vocational sub-culture which comprises implicit codes of behavior, generates an
540:
However, it also has other meanings. "Professional autonomy is often described as a claim of professionals that has to serve primarily their own interests...this professional autonomy can only be maintained if members of the profession subject their activities and decisions to a critical evaluation
544:
One major implication of professional autonomy is the traditional ban on corporate practice of the professions, especially accounting, architecture, engineering, medicine, and law. This means that in many jurisdictions, these professionals cannot do business through regular for-profit corporations
96:
Some professions change slightly in status and power, but their prestige generally remains stable over time, even if the profession begins to have more required study and formal education. Disciplines formalized more recently, such as architecture, now have equally long periods of study associated
716:
which is distinct from the profession itself. This abstract system is often not of direct practical use but is rather optimized for logical consistency and rationality, and to some degree acts to increase the status of the entire profession. One profession may seek control of another profession's
515:
Typically, individuals are required by law to be qualified by a local professional body before they are permitted to practice in that profession. However, in some countries, individuals may not be required by law to be qualified by such a professional body in order to practice, as is the case for
595:
and associations. Leading professionals tend to police and protect their area of expertise and monitor the conduct of their fellow professionals through associations, national or otherwise. Professionals often exercise a dominating influence over related trades, setting guidelines and standards.
750:
group," (Larson, p. 20) in all societies. Members of a profession have also been defined as "workers whose qualities of detachment, autonomy, and group allegiance are more extensive than those found among other groups...their attributes include a high degree of systematic knowledge; strong
721:
profession tried to challenge the legal profession for control over society's response to criminal behavior. Abbott argues the formalization of a profession often serves to make a jurisdiction easier or harder to protect from other jurisdictions: general principles making it harder for other
746:, colleague control... (and) code of ethics", to which Larson then also adds, "high standards of professional and intellectual excellence," (Larson, p. 221) that "professions are occupations with special power and prestige", (Larson, p.x) and that they comprise "an exclusive
725:
Professions may expand their jurisdiction by other means. Lay education on the part of professions as in part an attempt to expand jurisdiction by imposing a particular understanding on the world (one in which the profession has expertise). He terms this sort of jurisdiction
536:
Professions tend to be autonomous, which means they have a high degree of control of their own affairs: "professionals are autonomous insofar as they can make independent judgments about their work". This usually means "the freedom to exercise their professional judgement."
579:, regarded by society as highly important. This high esteem arises primarily from the higher social function of their work. The typical profession involves technical, specialized, and highly skilled work. This skill and experience is often referred to as "professional
129:. Originally borrowed by English users in the 19th century, it has been re-borrowed by international users from the late 20th, though the (upper-middle) class overtones of the term do not seem to survive re-translation: "liberal professions" are, according to the
73:, the purpose of which is to supply disinterested objective counsel and service to others, for a direct and definite compensation, wholly apart from expectation of other business gain. Medieval and early modern tradition recognized only three professions:
541:
by other members of the profession." The concept of autonomy can therefore be seen to embrace not only judgement, but also self-interest and a continuous process of critical evaluation of ethics and procedures from within the profession itself.
497:). Another example of a regulatory body that governs a profession is the Hong Kong Professional Teachers Union, which governs the conduct, rights, obligations, and duties of salaried teachers working in educational institutions in Hong Kong.
596:
Socially powerful professionals consolidate their power in organizations for specific goals. Working together, they can reduce bureaucratic entanglements and increase a profession's adaptability to the changing conditions of the world.
637:
in 1935, and following this publications studying the work of engineers, nurses, medical physicians and lawyers. In 1944, the
Department of Studies in the Professions was created at the Russell Sage Foundation with Brown as its head.
100:
Although professions may enjoy relatively high status and public prestige, not all professionals earn high salaries, and even within specific professions there exist significant differences in salary. In law, for example, a corporate
528:("BEd") at an approved tertiary educational institution or university. This requirement is set out by the Educational Department Bureau of Hong Kong, which is the governmental department that governs the Hong Kong education sector.
1313:
763:
among members of the same profession, and ensures them certain occupational advantages...(also) bureaucratic structures and monopolistic privileges to perform certain types of work...professional literature, legislation, etc."
1895:
Gailmard, S. & Patty, J. W. (2007). Slackers and zealots: Civil service, policy discretion, and bureaucratic expertise. American
Journal of Political Science, 51(4), 873–889. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-5907.2007.00286.x
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restricting access to the profession and hence enabling higher fees to be charged. It may be resisted as limiting the members' freedom to innovate or to practice as in their professional judgement they consider best.
1735:
1906:
Lindblom, C. E. (1959). The science of "muddling through". In J. Shafritz and A. Hyde (Eds.), Classics of public administration, eighth edition, (pp. 172–182). Boston, Massachusetts: Cengage
Learning.
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Gulick, L. (1937). Notes on the theory of organization. In J. Shafritz & A. Hyde (Eds.), Classics of public administration, eighth edition (pp. 105–114). Boston, Massachusetts: Cengage
Learning.
153:"... the development of formal qualifications based upon education, apprenticeship, and examinations, the emergence of regulatory bodies with powers to admit and discipline members, and some degree of
1903:
Howlett, M., McConnell, A., and Pearl, A. (2014). Streams and stages: Reconciling
Kingdon and policy process theory. European Journal of Political Research, 54(3) 419–434. doi: 10.1111/1475-6765.12064
742:
There is considerable agreement about defining the characteristic features of a profession. They have a "professional association, cognitive base, institutionalized training, licensing,
1305:
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professions to gain jurisdiction over one area, clear boundaries preventing encroachment, fuzzy boundaries making it easier for one profession to take jurisdiction over other tasks.
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1233:
1089:
422:
An example was in 2008, when the
British government proposed wide statutory regulation of psychologists. The inspiration for the change was a number of problems in the
1344:
206:
achieving professional status first (George
Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and Abraham Lincoln all worked as land surveyors before entering politics), followed by
1889:
Cruess, S. R., Johnston, S. & Cruess R. L. (2004). "Profession": a working definition for medical educators. Teaching and learning in
Medicine,16(1): 74–76.
474:
1458:
1155:
The
Industrial and Labour Law Digest, 1926-1959, Annotated 668; Sharma and Goyal, Hospital Administration And Human Resource Management, 5th Ed, PHI Learning,
470:
1122:; E. G. Eberle, "The practice of medicine held to be a profession and not a trade" (August 1939) 28 Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association 482
1104:
607:
argued that professions created a stable society by providing structure separate from the state and the military that was less inclined to create
426:
field, but there are various kinds of psychologists including many who have no clinical role, and where the case for regulation was not so clear.
137:, liberal professions are professions that require specialized training and that are regulated by "national governments or professional bodies".
583:." In the modern era, training for a profession involves obtaining degrees and certifications. Often, entry to the profession is barred without
438:
resisting the statutory regulation of "business psychologists" – descriptions of professional activity which it may not be easy to distinguish.
478:
458:
1494:
466:
1126:
1505:
1213:
Ideas and
Beliefs in Architecture and Industrial design: How attitudes, orientations and underlying assumptions shape the built environment
1190:
486:
1719:
1111:, British Medical Journal, 7 October 2001; A M Linz, "A profession, not a trade" (December 1990) New York State Dental Journal 56(10):16
1374:
485:, although their members are not necessarily considered to hold equivalent qualifications, and which operate alongside further bodies (
990:
653:
consider how professions can act in the interest of their own group to secure social and financial benefits were espoused by Johnson (
915:
1922:
Taylor, E. B. (1878). Researches into the early history of mankind and the development of civilization. Boston: Estes and Lauriat.
494:
427:
241:
With the rise of technology and occupational specialization in the 19th century, other bodies began to claim professional status:
1245:
1086:
39:
1096:; Sommerlad, Harris-Short, Vaughan and Young (eds), The Futures of Legal Education and the Legal Profession, Bloomsbury, 2015,
1841:
1768:
1729:
1651:
1619:
1401:
1280:
435:
387:
Regulatory organisations are typically charged with overseeing a defined industry. Usually they will have two general tasks:
1774:
1657:
1115:
676:
look at how the individual's understanding of reality influence the role of professions. These viewpoints were espoused by
1910:
Niskanen, Jr. (1971). Bureaucracy and Representative Government. New York: Imprint Routledge. doi: 10.4324/9781315081878
1571:
Tinsley, Ron; Hardy, James C. (2003). "Faculty pressures and professional self-esteem: Life in Texas teacher education".
937:
846:
355:
686:
490:
327:
17:
2071:
2039:
2016:
1993:
1969:
1946:
1220:
1133:; Wendler, Tremml and Buecker (eds), Key Aspects of German Business Law: A Practical Manual, 2nd Ed, Springer, 2002,
1038:
1000:
887:
521:
374:
973:
quoted with approval at paragraph 123 of a report by the UK Competition Commission, dated 8 November 1977, entitled
1892:
Freidson, E. (1994). Professionalism reborn: Theory, prophecyand policy. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
504:
profession is highly regulated in some countries (Canada and the United States) with a strict licensing system for
1501:
Revised in France in 2005, rescinded and archived in India in 2009, and rewritten and adopted in India in 2009 as
549:. Instead, if they wish to practice collectively they must form special business entities such as partnerships or
334:
1137:; William F Ryan, "Methods of Achieving Professional Recognition" (1946) The American Engineer, vols 16-17, p 8
312:
74:
1101:
462:
450:
431:
2005:
Professional Competition and Professional Power: Lawyers, Accountants and the Social Construction of Markets
341:
1810:
The Definition of a Profession: the Authority of Metaphor in the History of Intelligence Testing, 1890-1930
629:, an anthropologist, studied various professions starting the 1930s while working with Ralph Hurlin at the
403:
709:
over the right to carry out tasks with different possession vying for control of jurisdiction over tasks.
2031:
1938:
1492:"The World Medical Association Declaration of Madrid on Professional Autonomy and Self-Regulation", 1987.
825:
698:
391:
creating, reviewing and amending standards expected of individuals and organisations within the industry.
308:
31:
1961:
784:
323:
1522:
1336:
794:
661:, 1977). One way that a profession can derive financial benefits is limiting the supply of services.
820:
799:
616:
550:
1491:
755:; self-regulation; and a system of rewards defined and administered by the community of workers."
1123:
1085:
John J Parker, "A Profession Not a Skilled Trade" (1955-1956) 8 South Carolina Law Quarterly 179
805:
630:
623:
who considered how the function of a profession could change in responses to changes in society.
546:
301:
169:
1502:
1429:
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that controls the practice but not in others (UK) where titles and qualifications are regulated
449:. There may be several such bodies for one profession in a single country, an example being the
2063:
1833:
1827:
242:
202:
Applying these milestones to the historical sequence of development in the United States shows
1919:
Taylor, F. W. (1912). The principles of scientific management. New York: Harper and Brothers.
1156:
1134:
1097:
121:
The term "profession" is a truncation of the term "liberal profession", which is, in turn, an
1823:
1459:""They set standards, hold a register, quality assure education and investigate complaints.""
1366:
767:
A critical characteristic of a profession is the need to cultivate and exercise professional
570:
505:
407:
394:
Intervening when there is a reasonable suspicion that a regulated individual or organisation
183:
52:
2143:
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jurisdiction by challenging it at this academic level. Abbott argues that in the 1920s the
588:
395:
8:
1309:
1241:
871:
851:
835:
830:
815:
665:
626:
277:, each of which could claim, using these milestones, to have become professions by 1900.
250:
189:
146:
134:
911:
348:
161:
Major milestones which may mark an occupation being identified as a profession include:
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1553:
810:
509:
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2067:
2045:
2035:
2012:
1989:
1965:
1942:
1874:
1837:
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1700:
1647:
1615:
1608:
1545:
1286:
1276:
1216:
1186:
1034:
1030:
996:
893:
883:
642:
442:
223:
211:
106:
1958:
In an Age of Experts: The Changing Role of Professionals in Politics and Public Life
1640:
Dent, Mike; Bourgeault, Ivy Lynn; Denis, Jean-Louis; Kuhlmann, Ellen (1 July 2016).
1557:
604:
2114:
2106:
1866:
1692:
1537:
1182:
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is a monopoly created by the state legislation, as applies to law in many nations.
673:
669:
608:
56:
1171:"The stability of longitudinal and cross-sectional occupational prestige rankings"
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1758:
1641:
1509:
1498:
1152:
1140:
1138:
1130:
1119:
1112:
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1093:
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681:
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and could create altruism and encourage social responsibility and altruism. This
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non-professional person who should be telling the professional what to do is the
110:
1603:
1170:
840:
592:
517:
454:
415:
130:
102:
43:
A 19th century etching of a farmer consulting with his doctor, vicar and lawyer
2097:
Montgomery, Jonathan (1989). "Medicine, Accountability, and Professionalism".
1541:
941:
897:
2137:
1704:
1272:
970:
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743:
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482:
423:
411:
266:
122:
2081:
2049:
2028:
Professional Powers: A Study of the Institutionalization of Formal Knowledge
1290:
2089:
1878:
1870:
1549:
789:
446:
231:
60:
587:. Learning new skills that are required as a profession evolves is called
966:
501:
274:
2118:
2126:
1799:
Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 1978, p. 208
1680:
1523:"Professional autonomy and the normative structure of medical practice"
718:
441:
Besides regulating access to a profession, professional bodies may set
254:
235:
176:
1456:
434:
favoring statutory regulation of "occupational psychologists" and the
2008:
1985:
1916:
Surowiecki, J. (2005). The wisdom of crowds. New York: Random House.
879:
650:
646:
584:
580:
525:
270:
227:
219:
203:
195:
67:
2110:
1696:
290:
1935:
The System of Professions: An Essay on the Division of Expert Labor
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The System of Professions: An Essay on the Division of Expert Labor
262:
246:
207:
154:
78:
70:
752:
258:
612:
1643:
The Routledge Companion to the Professions and Professionalism
775:
that cannot be determined by an absolute rule or instruction.
1812:, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992, p. 19
1074:
the three learned professions of divinity, law, and medicine
747:
90:
1913:
Sinek, S. (2019). The Infinite Game. New York: Random House
1503:"WMA Declaration of Madrid on Professionally-led Regulation"
701:
constructed a sociological model of professions in his book
1639:
59:. It can be defined as a disciplined group of individuals,
1591:
Health, Illness, and the Social Body: A Critical Sociology
1859:
Journal of Continuing Education in the Health Professions
1857:
Coles, Colin (2002). "Developing professional judgment".
215:
105:
working on an hourly basis may earn several times what a
82:
2060:
Doctors & Rules: A Sociology of Professional Values
1267:
Bullock, Alan; Trombley, Stephen; Lawrie, Alf (1999).
66:
Professional occupations are founded upon specialized
27:
Vocation founded upon specialized educational training
1797:
The Rise of Professionalism: a Sociological Analysis,
1437:
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
1266:
876:
The Rise of Professional Society: England Since 1880
1721:
The Word as Scalpel: A History of Medical Sociology
315:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1607:
1389:
402:Originally, any regulation of the professions was
1520:
89:. In some legal definitions, profession is not a
2135:
1718:Bloom, Samuel William; Bloom, Samuel W. (2002).
1058:Fisher's National Magazine and Industrial Record
940:. Professional Standards Council. Archived from
2002:
1982:Power and the Professions in Britain, 1700-1850
188:the establishment of a national association of
149:when any trade or occupation transforms itself:
1602:
1418:. Melville, Los Angeles. Quoted by Perks, p.4.
1169:Fossum, John; Moore, Michael (December 1975).
564:
1593:, New Jersey, US: Prentice Hall, 1995, p.211.
1850:
1589:Peter E. S. Freund and Meredith B. McGuire.
1570:
1457:Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC).
1269:The New Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought
771:- that is, the ability to make case by case
165:an occupation becomes a full-time occupation
1821:
1430:"Good Governance And Regulatory Management"
1168:
914:. Australian Council of Professions. 2003.
145:A profession arises through the process of
2096:
2062:(2nd ed.). New Brunswick and London:
1717:
1414:Buckley, J.W. & Buckley, M.H. (1974):
1215:. Oslo School of Architecture and Design.
1021:
1019:
445:of competence and enforce adherence to an
375:Learn how and when to remove this message
2025:
1979:
1400:sfn error: no target: CITEREFPerks1993 (
693:
430:brought especial disagreement, with the
38:
2003:Dezalay, Yves; Sugarman, David (1995).
1678:
1521:Hoogland, Jan; Jochemsen, Henk (2000).
1482:. Belmont, California: Wadsworth, 1981.
1016:
664:Theories based on discourse, following
414:. With the growing role of government,
14:
2136:
1932:
1756:
1681:"The Professions and Social Structure"
1102:"Medicine is a profession not a trade"
1051:
870:
547:initial public offerings or flotations
2057:
1955:
1856:
1635:
1633:
1631:
1395:
1334:
1054:"Statistics of the State of New-York"
988:
918:from the original on 1 September 2022
705:. Abbott views professions as having
436:Association of Business Psychologists
1427:
1306:"Washington as Public Land Surveyor"
1201:– via Elsevier Science Direct.
1052:Fisher, Redwood, ed. (August 1846).
313:adding citations to reliable sources
284:
1829:Professions and Professionalization
1711:
1377:from the original on 18 August 2022
1303:
847:Centre for the Study of Professions
524:("PGDE") or a bachelor's degree in
512:but the practice is not regulated.
24:
1925:
1757:Abbott, Andrew (7 February 2014).
1628:
1610:Professionalizing the Organization
1530:Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics
1193:from the original on 25 April 2022
737:
687:The Social Construction of Reality
545:and raise capital rapidly through
481:), all of which have been given a
25:
2155:
1832:. Sociological Studies. pp.
1822:Turner, C.; Hodge, M. N. (1970).
1777:from the original on 6 March 2023
1738:from the original on 6 March 2023
1660:from the original on 6 March 2023
1316:from the original on 6 March 2023
989:Popat, Nitin (18 February 2016).
522:Postgraduate Diploma in Education
1347:from the original on 2 June 2023
712:A profession often possesses an
575:Professions tend to have a high
289:
2026:Freidson, Eliot (15 May 1988).
1815:
1802:
1789:
1763:. University of Chicago Press.
1750:
1672:
1596:
1583:
1564:
1514:
1485:
1472:
1450:
1421:
1408:
1367:"Lincoln's New Salem 1830–1837"
1359:
1328:
1297:
1260:
1226:
1205:
1162:
300:needs additional citations for
1614:. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
1175:Journal of Vocational Behavior
1145:
1079:
1044:
982:
956:
930:
904:
864:
13:
1:
1824:"Occupations and Professions"
1341:Thomas Jefferson's Monticello
1244:. 5 July 2016. Archived from
857:
432:British Psychological Society
280:
182:the establishment of a local
1187:10.1016/0001-8791(75)90072-X
965:, 21 April 1917, article by
619:perspective was extended by
599:
140:
116:
7:
2032:University of Chicago Press
1939:University of Chicago Press
1826:. In Jackson, J. A. (ed.).
1724:. Oxford University Press.
826:Professional responsibility
778:
659:The Rise of Professionalism
635:Social Work as a Profession
565:Status, prestige, and power
531:
406:through bodies such as the
194:the establishment of state
55:that has been successfully
32:Profession (disambiguation)
10:
2160:
2099:Journal of Law and Society
1962:Princeton University Press
992:Introduction to Accounting
785:Anticipatory socialization
751:community orientation and
568:
29:
1679:Parsons, Talcott (1939).
1416:The Accounting Profession
1335:Boehm, Jay (March 1998).
795:First professional degree
703:The System of Professions
551:professional corporations
2058:Jacob, Joseph M (1999).
1980:Corfield, P. J. (1995).
1956:Brint, Steven G (1994).
1795:Magali Sarfatti Larson,
1129:15 December 2021 at the
1107:15 December 2021 at the
821:Professional development
800:Professional association
85:, which were called the
1933:Abbott, Andrew (1988).
1542:10.1023/A:1009925423036
1497:5 December 2010 at the
806:Professional boundaries
714:expert knowledge system
655:Professions and Powers,
631:Russell Sage Foundation
591:. Standards are set by
175:the establishment of a
168:the establishment of a
2064:Transaction Publishers
1871:10.1002/chp.1340220102
1508:27 August 2012 at the
1027:Accounting and Society
938:"What is a Profession"
912:"What is a Profession"
668:and applying ideas of
243:mechanical engineering
159:
44:
1371:National Park Service
1234:"Liberal professions"
1092:6 August 2020 at the
694:System of professions
571:Occupational prestige
506:Professional Engineer
408:College of Physicians
398:with its obligations.
151:
42:
1118:16 June 2018 at the
1025:Perks, R.W. (1993):
872:Perkin, Harold James
589:continuing education
396:may not be complying
309:improve this article
30:For other uses, see
1573:Essays in Education
1480:Professional Ethics
1478:Bayles, Michael D.
1310:Library of Congress
1242:European Commission
1211:Holm, Ivar (2006):
976:Architects Services
852:List of occupations
836:Professionalization
831:Professional ethics
816:Professional degree
728:public jurisdiction
627:Esther Lucile Brown
516:accountancy in the
251:veterinary medicine
190:professional ethics
147:professionalization
135:European Commission
127:profession libérale
125:of the French term
87:learned professions
1248:on 11 January 2017
1100:; Richard Colman,
1031:Chapman & Hall
811:Professional class
732:Legal jurisdiction
657:1972) and Larson (
641:Theories based on
510:Chartered Engineer
451:accountancy bodies
45:
18:Liberal profession
1843:978-0-521-07982-2
1770:978-0-226-18966-6
1731:978-0-19-507232-7
1653:978-1-317-69948-4
1621:978-1-55542-039-0
1373:. 10 April 2015.
1304:Redmond, Edward.
1282:978-0-00-255871-6
1050:See for example:
643:conflict theories
385:
384:
377:
359:
224:civil engineering
212:actuarial science
93:nor an industry.
16:(Redirected from
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1952:
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922:19 February
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502:engineering
275:social work
184:association
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1464:6 November
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1396:Perks 1993
1271:. London:
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1029:. London:
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845:Norwegian
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769:discretion
645:following
335:newspapers
281:Regulation
255:psychology
236:accounting
177:university
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263:teaching
247:pharmacy
208:medicine
170:training
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1157:p 445
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1124:Wiley
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