273:
the pisiform is the back of the knee. Below the knee is the cannon bone which is also known as the 3rd metacarpal. 55 million years ago when the
Eohippus existed, the cannon bone used to be the 3rd metacarpal of the foot. Its current enlargement took place in order to increase the height of the limb, which helps increase stride length. Behind the cannon bone are the splint bones. The splint bones are also known as the 2nd and 4th metacarpal and regressed 25 - 35 million years ago during the time of the Miohippus. Below the cannon bone is the fetlock joint in which lays a structure of many bones. Firstly are the sesamoid bones that act as part of the system that allows the leg to drop as pressure is applied and spring back up as pressure is released. Below this is the proximal phalanx also known as the long pastern which is followed by the middle phalanx (short pastern). Below these bones are the navicular bone and the distal phalanx. Below the navicular bone is the navicular bursa. There are three main muscle groups of the forelimb. The
575:
does not usually cause lameness or other problems, prolonged periods of stocking up can lead to other skin issues. Older horses and horse with heavy muscling are more prone to this condition. A shoe boil is an injury that occurs when there is trauma to the bursal sac of the elbow, causing inflammation and swelling. Multiple occurrences can cause a cosmetic sore and scar tissue, called a capped elbow, or infections. Shoe boils generally occur when a horse hits its elbow with a hoof or shoe when lying down. Windpuffs, or swelling to the back of the fetlock caused by inflammation of the sheaths of the deep digital flexor tendon, appear most often in the rear legs. Soft and fluid-filled, the swelling may initially be accompanied by heat and pain, but can remain long after the initial injury has healed without accompanying lameness. Repeated injuries to the tendon sheath, often caused by excessive training or work on hard surfaces, can cause larger problems and lameness.
132:
toes gradually disappeared into the tiny vestigial remnants that are found today on the lower leg bones. Prairie-dwelling equine species developed hooves and longer legs that were both sturdy and light weight to help them evade predators and cover longer distances in search of food. Forest-dwelling species retained shorter legs and three toes, which helped them on softer ground. Approximately 35 million years ago, a global drop in temperature created a major habitat change, leading to the transition of many forests to grasslands. This led to a die-out among forest-dwelling equine species, eventually leaving the long-legged, one-toed
399:
legs perform the functions of absorbing impact, bearing weight, and providing thrust. Good movement is sound, symmetrical, straight, free and coordinated, all of which depend on many factors, including conformation, soundness, care and training of the horse, and terrain and footing. The proportions and length of the bones and muscles in the legs can significantly impact the way an individual horse moves. The angles of certain bones, especially in the hind leg, shoulders, and pasterns, also affect movement.
89:
468:
419:, where the forehand then acts to control speed, balance and turning. The range of motion and propulsion power in horses varies significantly, based on the placement of muscle attachment to bone. The muscles are attached to bone relatively high in the body, which results in small differences in attachment making large differences in movement. A change of .5 inches (1.3 cm) in muscle attachment can affect range of motion by 3.5 inches (8.9 cm) and propulsion power by 20 percent.
158:
541:
309:
while moving, and prevents the fetlock joint from hyperextending, especially when the joint is bearing weight. During movement, the apparatus stores and releases energy in the manner of a spring: stretching while the joint is extended and contracting (and thus releasing energy) when the joint flexes. This provides a rebound effect, assisting the foot in leaving the ground. This ability to use stored energy makes horses' gaits more efficient than other large animals, including
453:
342:
385:
22:
80:, or movement at an abnormal gait. Injuries to and problems with horse legs can be relatively minor, such as stocking up, which causes swelling without lameness, or quite serious. Even leg injuries that are not immediately fatal may still be life-threatening to horses, as their bodies are adapted to bear weight on all four legs and serious problems can result if this is not possible.
60:, which locks major joints in the limbs, allowing horses to remain standing while relaxed or asleep. The limbs play a major part in the movement of the horse, with the legs performing the functions of absorbing impact, bearing weight, and providing thrust. In general, the majority of the weight is borne by the front legs, while the rear legs provide propulsion. The
415:. While the forelimbs carry the weight the hind limbs provide propulsion, due to the angle between the stifle and hock. This angle allows the hind legs to flex as weight is applied during the stride, then release as a spring to create forward or upward movement. The propulsion is then transmitted to the forehand through the structures of the
245:(cannon) and small metatarsal (splint) bones. Below these, the arrangement of sesamoid and phalanx bones and joints is the same as in the forelimbs. When the horse is moving, the distal interphalangeal joint (coffin joint) has the highest amount of stresses applied to it of any joint in the body, and it can be significantly affected by
519:(calf knees), inside (knock knees) or outside (bowleg); short or long pasterns; and many problems with the feet. Common defects of the hind limbs include the same base-wide and base-narrow stances and problems with the feet as the fore limbs, as well as multiple issues with the angle formed by the hock joint being too angled (
586:, and other infections. If a horse loses the use of one leg temporarily, there is the risk that other legs will break down during the recovery period because they are carrying an abnormal weight load. While horses periodically lie down for brief periods of time, a horse cannot remain lying in the equivalent of a human's "
316:
Horses use a group of ligaments, tendons and muscles known as the stay apparatus to "lock" major joints in the limbs, allowing them to remain standing while relaxed or asleep. The lower part of the stay apparatus consists of the suspensory apparatus, which is the same in both sets of limbs, while the
574:
There are numerous issues that can occur with horses' legs that may not necessarily cause lameness. Stocking up is an issue that occurs in horses that are held in stalls for multiple days after periods of activity. Fluid collects in the lower legs, producing swelling and often stiffness. Although it
499:
The ideal horse has legs which are straight, correctly set and symmetrical. Correct angles of major bones, clean, well-developed joints and tendons, and well-shaped, properly-proportioned hooves are also necessary for ideal conformation. "No legs, no horse" and "no hoof, no horse" are common sayings
272:
The anatomy of the forelegs begins at the scapula. This is the shoulder where the scapula contributes to the movement of the limb. The next bone is the humerus which leads onto the radius below. The radius is then connected to the bones of the knee. The carpus is located at the front of the knee and
75:
in the limbs leads to improved movement and decreased likelihood of injuries. Large differences in bone structure and size can be found in horses used for different activities, but correct conformation remains relatively similar across the spectrum. Structural defects, as well as other problems such
372:
The final structures are the lateral cartilages, connected to the upper coffin bone, which act as the flexible heels, allowing hoof expansion. These structures allow the hoof to perform many functions. It acts as a support and traction point, shock absorber and system for pumping blood back through
531:
are seldom found with serious conformation problems in the leg, as foals with these defects are generally easy prey for predators. Foals raised by humans have a better chance for survival, as there are therapeutic treatments that can improve even major conformation problems. However, some of these
398:
A sequence of movements in which a horse takes a step with all four legs is called a stride. During each step, with each leg, a horse completes four movements: the swing phase, the grounding or impact, the support period and the thrust. While the horse uses muscles throughout its body to move, the
364:
The digital cushion is a blood vessel-filled structure located in the rear of the hoof, which assists with blood flow throughout the leg. At the top of the hoof wall is the corium, tissue which continually produces the horn of the outer hoof wall, which is in turn protected by the periople, a thin
518:
Common defects of the forelegs include base-wide and base-narrow, where the legs are farther apart or closer together on the ground then they are when they originate in the chest; toeing-in and toeing-out, where the hooves point inwards or outwards; knee deviations to the front (buck knees), rear
368:
The main tendon in the hoof is the deep digital flexor tendon, which connects to the bottom of the coffin bone. The impact zone on the bottom of the hoof includes the sole, which has an outer, insensitive layer and a sensitive inner layer, and the frog, which lies between the heels and assists in
131:
According to evolutionary theory, equine hooves and legs have evolved over millions of years to the form in which they are found today. The original ancestors of horses had shorter legs, terminating in five-toed feet. Over millennia, a single hard hoof evolved from the middle toe, while the other
308:
There are two apparatus in the limbs of the horse - the suspensory apparatus and the stay apparatus. The fetlock joint is supported by group of lower leg ligaments, tendons and bones known as the suspensory apparatus. This apparatus carries much of the weight of the horse, both when standing and
258:
animal (one whose main form of defense is running), its bones evolved to facilitate speed in a forward direction over hard ground, without the need for grasping, lifting or swinging. The ulna shrank in size and its top portion became the point of the elbow, while the bottom fused with the radius
253:
techniques. Although having a small range of movement, the proximal interphalangeal joint (pastern joint) is also influential to the movement of the horse, and can change the way that various shoeing techniques affect tendons and ligaments in the legs. Due to the horse's development as a
317:
upper portion differs between the fore and hind limbs. The upper portion of the stay apparatus in the forelimbs includes the major attachment, extensor and flexor muscles and tendons. The same portion in the hind limbs consists of the major muscles, ligaments and tendons, as well as the
504:. Although certain defects and blemishes may not directly cause lameness, they can often put stress on other parts of the body, which can then cause lameness or injuries. Poor conformation and structural defects do not always cause lameness, however, as was shown by the champion
402:
The forelegs carry the majority of the weight, usually around 60 percent, with exact percentages depending on speed and gait. Movement adds concussive force to weight, increasing the likelihood that a poorly built leg will buckle under the strain. At different points in the
562:. While horses with poor conformation and congenital conditions are more likely to develop lameness, trauma, infection and acquired abnormalities are also causes. The largest cause of poor performance in equine athletes is lameness caused by abnormalities in the
570:
systems. The majority of lameness is found in the forelimbs, with at least 95 percent of these cases stemming from problems in the structures from the knee down. Lameness in the hind limbs is caused by problems in the hock and/or stifle 80 percent of the time.
809:
1119:
313:. The suspensory apparatus consists of the suspensory ligament, the check ligament, the deep digital flexor tendon, the superficial flexor tendon, the common digital extensor tendon and the sesamoid bones.
365:
outer layer which prevents the interior structures from drying out. The wall is connected to the coffin bone by laminar attachments, a flexible layer which helps to suspend and protect the coffin bone.
422:"Form to function" is a term used in the equestrian world to mean that the "correct" form or structure of a horse is determined by the function for which it will be used. The legs of a horse used for
56:
that support the weight of the equine body. They include two apparatuses: the suspensory apparatus, which carries much of the weight, prevents overextension of the joint and absorbs shock, and the
558:
Lameness in horses is movement at an abnormal gait due to pain in any part of the body. It is most commonly caused by pain to the legs or feet. Lameness can also be caused by abnormalities in the
816:
64:
are also important structures, providing support, traction and shock absorption, and containing structures that provide blood flow through the lower leg. As the horse developed as a
433:, where forward speed is most important. However, despite the differences in bone structure needed for various uses, correct conformation of the leg remains relatively similar.
559:
1155:
1130:
108:, and many extinct families and species. Members of this order walk on either one toe (like horses) or three toes (like rhinos and tapirs). This is in contrast to
865:
318:
68:
animal, with a primary defense mechanism of running over hard ground, its legs evolved to the long, sturdy, light-weight, one-toed form seen today.
578:
Leg injuries that are not immediately fatal still may be life-threatening because a horse's weight must be distributed on all four legs to prevent
277:
straightens the elbow and foreleg, running from the elbow to the bottom of the shoulder blade. The muscles which extend the lower leg are called
692:
934:
Solounias, Nikos; Danowitz, Melinda; Stachtiaris, Elizabeth; Khurana, Abhilasha; Araim, Marwan; Sayegh, Marc; Natale, Jessica (2018).
293:, the large muscles in the hip, extend the femur. Forward motion and flexion of the hind legs is achieved through the movement of the
734:"Effect of toe and heel elevation on calculated tendon strains in the horse and the influence of the proximal interphalangeal joint"
782:
411:, horses are encouraged to shift their weight more to their hindquarters, which enables lightness of the forehand and increased
112:, members of the order Artiodactyla, which walk on cloven hooves, or two toes. This order includes many species associated with
651:
301:
group, provide forward motion of the body and rearward extension of the hind limbs. Extension of the hock is achieved by the
1192:
1401:
1317:
1380:
1359:
792:
349:
The hoof of the horse contains over a dozen different structures, including bones, cartilage, tendons and tissues. The
263:
in humans. A similar change occurred in the fibula bone of the hind limbs. These changes were first seen in the genus
898:
732:
Lawson, Sian E. M.; Chateau, Henry; Pourcelot, Philippe; Denoix, Jean-Marie; Crevier-Denoix, Nathalie (May 2007).
579:
532:
conformation problems can be transmitted to offspring, and so these horses are a poor choice for breeding stock.
872:
426:, in which quick starts, stops and turns are required, will be shorter and more thickly built than those of a
1271:
567:
563:
500:
in the equine world. Individual horses may have structural defects, some of which lead to poor movement or
442:
353:
or pedal bone is the major hoof bone, supporting the majority of the weight. Behind the coffin bone is the
297:
group of muscles on the front of the femur, while the muscles at the back of the hindquarters, called the
213:, and coffin joint, outwardly evidenced by the coronary band. Each hind limb of the horse runs from the
1007:
731:
1068:
707:
607:
1219:
1416:
629:
178:
1294:
186:
1372:
The United States Pony Club Manual of
Horsemanship: Advanced Horsemanship – B, HA, A Levels
1042:
8:
109:
100:, or members of the order Perissodactyla. This order also includes the extant species of
72:
1245:
1370:
1348:
1093:
960:
935:
758:
733:
412:
336:
97:
1396:
407:, all weight is resting on one front hoof, then all on one rear hoof. In the sport of
1376:
1355:
965:
788:
763:
749:
553:
501:
77:
955:
947:
753:
745:
278:
146:
936:"The evolution and anatomy of the horse manus with an emphasis on digit reduction"
863:
376:
Remnants of the "lost" digits of the horse are theorized to be found on the hoof.
166:
302:
290:
281:, while the flexion of the lower leg joints is achieved through movement of the
474:
358:
354:
282:
274:
238:
210:
88:
57:
1410:
520:
423:
286:
157:
134:
590:" because of the risk of developing sores, internal damage, and congestion.
182:
969:
767:
540:
512:
483:
467:
459:
427:
416:
202:
528:
490:
393:
350:
341:
265:
170:
951:
524:
508:
452:
330:
294:
250:
242:
190:
61:
285:. There are five main muscles and muscle groups in the hind legs. The
583:
545:
505:
486:
430:
298:
255:
116:, such as sheep, goats, pigs, cows and camels, as well as species of
113:
65:
1066:
933:
587:
408:
194:
121:
53:
384:
523:), too straight (straight behind) or having an inward deviation (
246:
222:
206:
198:
174:
143:
117:
16:
Structures made of bones, joints, muscles, tendons, and ligaments
1161:. Middle California Region - United States Pony Clubs. p. 1
21:
871:. Davis: University of California. pp. 6–7. Archived from
404:
310:
234:
226:
214:
49:
45:
260:
259:
above the radiocarpal (knee) joint, which corresponds to the
230:
218:
139:
105:
101:
41:
32:
864:
Ferraro, Gregory L.; Stover, Susan M.; Whitcomb, Mary Beth.
289:
flexes the hind leg and runs from stifle to hip, while the
125:
37:
138:
of today, which includes the horse, as the sole surviving
1345:
693:"Functional Anatomy of the Equine Interphalangeal Joints"
815:. Carnegie Mellon University. p. 7. Archived from
511:, who was considered undersized and knobby-kneed for a
482:
Comparison of the size and structure of the legs of a
1292:
205:(long pastern), pastern joint, second phalanx (short
787:. The Russell Meerdink Company Ltd. pp. 9–10.
1347:
632:. University of California Museum of Paleontology
610:. University of California Museum of Paleontology
1408:
1368:
1269:
780:
1117:
1036:
1034:
1032:
1030:
1028:
1178:
1176:
1067:Hansen, D. Karen; Schafer, Stephen R. (2007).
217:to the coffin bone. After the pelvis come the
1315:
896:
690:
1243:
1040:
1025:
850:
848:
846:
173:(coffin or pedal) bones. In between are the
1402:Equine Anatomy and Physiology: The Forelimb
1217:
1173:
1005:
899:"Horses' Physiologic Responses to Exercise"
807:
1156:"Movement and Conformational Unsoundness"
959:
843:
757:
165:Each forelimb of the horse runs from the
866:"Suspensory Ligament Injuries in Horses"
666:
539:
535:
383:
340:
156:
87:
20:
1293:Smith Thomas, Heather (March 1, 2009).
1409:
1354:(Second ed.). Howell Book House.
269:, approximately 17 million years ago.
76:as injuries and infections, can cause
1001:
999:
997:
436:
193:(cannon), small metacarpal (splint),
1346:Giffin, James M.; Gore, Tom (1998).
654:. American Museum of Natural History
608:"Introduction to the Perissodactyla"
548:with its legs wrapped for protection
357:, itself cushioned by the navicular
1099:. United States Dressage Federation
13:
1318:"State of the Art to Save Barbaro"
1270:Loving, Nancy S. (March 6, 2008).
994:
630:"Introduction to the Artiodactyla"
369:shock absorption and blood flow.
14:
1428:
1390:
1350:Horse Owner's Veterinary Handbook
725:
36:are structures made of dozens of
1118:Clayton, Hilary (October 2007).
750:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2007.00714.x
466:
451:
1309:
1286:
1263:
1237:
1211:
1185:
1148:
1111:
1086:
1060:
1008:"Horse Conformation Conundrums"
1006:Oke, Stacey (October 1, 2010).
985:
976:
927:
918:
909:
897:Larson, Erica (July 16, 2012).
890:
857:
834:
83:
1316:Grady, Denise (May 23, 2006).
801:
774:
684:
675:
644:
622:
600:
161:Skeleton of the lower forelimb
1:
1339:
1244:King, Marcia (July 1, 2007).
1041:Sellnow, Les (July 1, 1999).
1074:. University of Nevada, Reno
681:Giffin and Gore, pp. 262–263
443:Skeletal system of the horse
7:
388:The pastern absorbing shock
379:
25:Skeletal anatomy of a horse
10:
1433:
1225:. Blood Horse Publications
1120:"Components of Collection"
940:Royal Society Open Science
551:
440:
391:
334:
328:
305:, located above the hock.
1369:Harris, Susan E. (1996).
781:Rooney, James R. (1998).
169:or shoulder blade to the
593:
321:of the hock and stifle.
189:(knee) bones and joint,
181:(forearm), elbow joint,
1397:Lameness from The Horse
361:, a fluid-filled sac.
324:
241:(hock) bone and joint,
152:
691:Denoix, J. M. (1999).
549:
389:
346:
162:
93:
26:
1375:. Howell Book House.
1295:"Windpuffs in Horses"
543:
536:Lameness and injuries
387:
344:
335:Further information:
160:
91:
24:
1220:"Lameness in Horses"
1218:Oke, Stacey (2012).
1182:Harris, pp. 265–266.
1136:on February 13, 2013
991:Harris, pp. 260–264.
982:Harris, pp. 256–258.
924:Harris, pp. 254–256.
854:Harris, pp. 251–253.
840:Harris, pp. 228–229.
489:(left) to that of a
1193:"No Hoof, No Horse"
952:10.1098/rsos.171782
110:even-toed ungulates
1322:The New York Times
1043:"Leg Conformation"
738:Journal of Anatomy
550:
437:Structural defects
390:
347:
337:Navicular syndrome
163:
98:odd-toed ungulates
94:
27:
822:on August 5, 2013
810:"Horse Evolution"
554:Lameness (equine)
319:reciprocal joints
92:Rear limb anatomy
1424:
1386:
1365:
1353:
1333:
1332:
1330:
1328:
1313:
1307:
1306:
1304:
1302:
1290:
1284:
1283:
1281:
1279:
1267:
1261:
1260:
1258:
1256:
1246:"All Stocked Up"
1241:
1235:
1234:
1232:
1230:
1224:
1215:
1209:
1208:
1206:
1204:
1189:
1183:
1180:
1171:
1170:
1168:
1166:
1160:
1152:
1146:
1145:
1143:
1141:
1135:
1129:. Archived from
1124:
1115:
1109:
1108:
1106:
1104:
1098:
1090:
1084:
1083:
1081:
1079:
1073:
1064:
1058:
1057:
1055:
1053:
1038:
1023:
1022:
1020:
1018:
1003:
992:
989:
983:
980:
974:
973:
963:
931:
925:
922:
916:
913:
907:
906:
894:
888:
887:
885:
883:
878:on July 31, 2009
877:
870:
861:
855:
852:
841:
838:
832:
831:
829:
827:
821:
814:
808:Hunt, Kathleen.
805:
799:
798:
778:
772:
771:
761:
729:
723:
722:
720:
718:
713:on March 4, 2016
712:
706:. Archived from
700:AAEP Proceedings
697:
688:
682:
679:
673:
670:
664:
663:
661:
659:
648:
642:
641:
639:
637:
626:
620:
619:
617:
615:
604:
470:
455:
373:the lower limb.
279:extensor muscles
243:large metatarsal
191:large metacarpal
1432:
1431:
1427:
1426:
1425:
1423:
1422:
1421:
1407:
1406:
1393:
1383:
1362:
1342:
1337:
1336:
1326:
1324:
1314:
1310:
1300:
1298:
1291:
1287:
1277:
1275:
1268:
1264:
1254:
1252:
1242:
1238:
1228:
1226:
1222:
1216:
1212:
1202:
1200:
1191:
1190:
1186:
1181:
1174:
1164:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1153:
1149:
1139:
1137:
1133:
1122:
1116:
1112:
1102:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1091:
1087:
1077:
1075:
1071:
1065:
1061:
1051:
1049:
1039:
1026:
1016:
1014:
1004:
995:
990:
986:
981:
977:
932:
928:
923:
919:
915:Harris, p. 253.
914:
910:
895:
891:
881:
879:
875:
868:
862:
858:
853:
844:
839:
835:
825:
823:
819:
812:
806:
802:
795:
779:
775:
730:
726:
716:
714:
710:
695:
689:
685:
680:
676:
672:Harris, p. 226.
671:
667:
657:
655:
650:
649:
645:
635:
633:
628:
627:
623:
613:
611:
606:
605:
601:
596:
556:
538:
497:
496:
495:
494:
479:
478:
477:
471:
463:
462:
456:
445:
439:
396:
382:
345:The coffin bone
339:
333:
327:
303:Achilles tendon
291:gluteal muscles
155:
86:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1430:
1420:
1419:
1405:
1404:
1399:
1392:
1391:External links
1389:
1388:
1387:
1382:978-0876059814
1381:
1366:
1361:978-0876056066
1360:
1341:
1338:
1335:
1334:
1308:
1285:
1274:. HorseChannel
1262:
1236:
1210:
1199:. May 13, 2009
1184:
1172:
1147:
1127:Dressage Today
1110:
1085:
1059:
1024:
993:
984:
975:
926:
917:
908:
889:
856:
842:
833:
800:
794:978-0929346557
793:
784:The Lame Horse
773:
744:(5): 583–591.
724:
683:
674:
665:
652:"On Your Toes"
643:
621:
598:
597:
595:
592:
560:nervous system
552:Main article:
537:
534:
481:
480:
475:Ardennes horse
472:
465:
464:
457:
450:
449:
448:
447:
446:
438:
435:
392:Main article:
381:
378:
355:navicular bone
329:Main article:
326:
323:
283:flexor muscles
275:triceps muscle
211:navicular bone
154:
151:
85:
82:
58:stay apparatus
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1429:
1418:
1417:Horse anatomy
1415:
1414:
1412:
1403:
1400:
1398:
1395:
1394:
1384:
1378:
1374:
1373:
1367:
1363:
1357:
1352:
1351:
1344:
1343:
1323:
1319:
1312:
1296:
1289:
1273:
1266:
1251:
1247:
1240:
1221:
1214:
1198:
1194:
1188:
1179:
1177:
1165:September 15,
1157:
1151:
1140:September 15,
1132:
1128:
1121:
1114:
1103:September 17,
1095:
1089:
1078:September 17,
1070:
1069:"Horse Gaits"
1063:
1048:
1044:
1037:
1035:
1033:
1031:
1029:
1013:
1009:
1002:
1000:
998:
988:
979:
971:
967:
962:
957:
953:
949:
946:(1): 171782.
945:
941:
937:
930:
921:
912:
904:
900:
893:
882:September 16,
874:
867:
860:
851:
849:
847:
837:
826:September 15,
818:
811:
804:
796:
790:
786:
785:
777:
769:
765:
760:
755:
751:
747:
743:
739:
735:
728:
709:
705:
701:
694:
687:
678:
669:
658:September 14,
653:
647:
631:
625:
609:
603:
599:
591:
589:
585:
581:
576:
572:
569:
565:
561:
555:
547:
542:
533:
530:
526:
522:
521:sickle-hocked
516:
514:
510:
507:
503:
492:
488:
485:
476:
469:
461:
454:
444:
434:
432:
429:
425:
420:
418:
414:
410:
406:
400:
395:
386:
377:
374:
370:
366:
362:
360:
356:
352:
343:
338:
332:
322:
320:
314:
312:
306:
304:
300:
296:
292:
288:
287:vastus muscle
284:
280:
276:
270:
268:
267:
262:
257:
252:
248:
244:
240:
236:
232:
228:
224:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
203:first phalanx
200:
196:
192:
188:
184:
180:
176:
172:
171:third phalanx
168:
159:
150:
148:
145:
141:
137:
136:
129:
127:
123:
119:
115:
111:
107:
103:
99:
90:
81:
79:
74:
69:
67:
63:
59:
55:
51:
47:
43:
39:
35:
34:
31:limbs of the
23:
19:
1371:
1349:
1325:. Retrieved
1321:
1311:
1299:. Retrieved
1288:
1278:February 20,
1276:. Retrieved
1272:"Shoe Boils"
1265:
1255:February 20,
1253:. Retrieved
1249:
1239:
1229:November 16,
1227:. Retrieved
1213:
1203:November 16,
1201:. Retrieved
1196:
1187:
1163:. Retrieved
1150:
1138:. Retrieved
1131:the original
1126:
1113:
1101:. Retrieved
1088:
1076:. Retrieved
1072:(Powerpoint)
1062:
1052:November 16,
1050:. Retrieved
1046:
1017:November 16,
1015:. Retrieved
1011:
987:
978:
943:
939:
929:
920:
911:
902:
892:
880:. Retrieved
873:the original
859:
836:
824:. Retrieved
817:the original
803:
783:
776:
741:
737:
727:
715:. Retrieved
708:the original
703:
699:
686:
677:
668:
656:. Retrieved
646:
634:. Retrieved
624:
612:. Retrieved
602:
577:
573:
557:
529:Feral horses
517:
513:Thoroughbred
498:
484:Thoroughbred
460:Thoroughbred
428:Thoroughbred
421:
401:
397:
375:
371:
367:
363:
348:
315:
307:
271:
264:
164:
133:
130:
95:
84:Limb anatomy
73:conformation
70:
30:
28:
18:
1327:January 12,
1297:. The Horse
1094:"Half Halt"
636:January 15,
614:January 15,
580:circulatory
491:draft horse
394:Horse gaits
266:Merychippus
96:Horses are
1340:References
582:problems,
525:cow-hocked
509:Seabiscuit
441:See also:
413:collection
331:Horse hoof
295:quadriceps
1250:The Horse
1197:The Horse
1047:The Horse
1012:The Horse
903:The Horse
584:laminitis
546:polo pony
506:racehorse
487:racehorse
431:racehorse
299:hamstring
256:cursorial
221:(thigh),
185:(elbow),
122:antelopes
114:livestock
66:cursorial
54:ligaments
1411:Category
970:29410871
768:17451533
588:bed rest
568:skeletal
564:muscular
502:lameness
409:dressage
380:Movement
247:trimming
195:sesamoid
118:giraffes
78:lameness
1301:May 31,
961:5792948
759:2375746
717:June 1,
493:(right)
424:cutting
251:shoeing
229:joint,
223:patella
207:pastern
201:joint,
199:fetlock
177:(arm),
175:humerus
167:scapula
144:Equidae
142:of the
50:tendons
46:muscles
1379:
1358:
968:
958:
791:
766:
756:
405:gallop
351:coffin
311:cattle
239:tarsal
235:fibula
227:stifle
215:pelvis
187:carpus
179:radius
147:family
106:tapirs
102:rhinos
62:hooves
52:, and
42:joints
1223:(PDF)
1159:(PDF)
1134:(PDF)
1123:(PDF)
1097:(PDF)
876:(PDF)
869:(PDF)
820:(PDF)
813:(PDF)
711:(PDF)
696:(PDF)
594:Notes
359:bursa
261:wrist
231:tibia
219:femur
140:genus
135:Equus
71:Good
38:bones
33:horse
1377:ISBN
1356:ISBN
1329:2013
1303:2013
1280:2013
1257:2013
1231:2012
1205:2012
1167:2013
1142:2013
1105:2013
1080:2013
1054:2012
1019:2012
966:PMID
884:2013
828:2013
789:ISBN
764:PMID
719:2013
660:2013
638:2013
616:2013
417:back
325:Hoof
249:and
183:ulna
153:Legs
126:deer
124:and
104:and
29:The
956:PMC
948:doi
754:PMC
746:doi
742:210
566:or
527:).
473:An
209:),
1413::
1320:.
1248:.
1195:.
1175:^
1125:.
1045:.
1027:^
1010:.
996:^
964:.
954:.
942:.
938:.
901:.
845:^
762:.
752:.
740:.
736:.
704:45
702:.
698:.
544:A
515:.
458:A
237:,
233:,
225:,
197:,
149:.
128:.
120:,
48:,
44:,
40:,
1385:.
1364:.
1331:.
1305:.
1282:.
1259:.
1233:.
1207:.
1169:.
1144:.
1107:.
1082:.
1056:.
1021:.
972:.
950::
944:5
905:.
886:.
830:.
797:.
770:.
748::
721:.
662:.
640:.
618:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
