644:, in Africa, where the first evidence of iron metallurgy occurs, limonite is the most prevalent iron ore. Before smelting, as the ore was heated and the water driven off, more and more of the limonite was converted to hematite. The ore was then pounded as it was heated above 1250 °C, at which temperature the metallic iron begins sticking together and non-metallic impurities are thrown off as sparks. Complex systems developed, notably in Tanzania, to process limonite. Nonetheless, hematite and magnetite remained the ores of choice when smelting was by
467:
298:
479:
538:
494:
1340:
Abteilung für Ur- und Frühgeschichtliche Archäologie, Westfälische
Wilhelms-Universität Münster; abstract published as: Jockenhövel, A. (1997) "Archaeological Investigations on the Beginning of Blast Furnace-Technology in Central Europe". In Crew, Peter and Crew, Susan (editors) (1997)
29:
452:. This means that chemical weathering transforms the crystals of pyrite into limonite by hydrating the molecules, but the external shape of the pyrite crystal remains. Limonite pseudomorphs have also been formed from other iron oxides, hematite and magnetite; from the carbonate
601:, often resulted in the concentration of gold in the iron oxide and quartz of the gossans. The gold of the primary veins was concentrated into the limonites of the deeply weathered rocks. In another example the deeply weathered iron formations of
397:
is quite variable, ranging from 1 to 5. In thin section it appears as red, yellow, or brown and has a high index of refraction, 2.0–2.4. Limonite minerals are strongly birefringent, but grain sizes are usually too small for this to be detectable.
1031:
Zuo, Pengfei; Sun, Jiangtao; Liu, Xuefei; Hao, Jinhua; Zheng, Deshun; Li, Yu (November 2021). "Two types of jarosite in the early
Cambrian sedimentary rocks: Insights for genesis and transformation of jarosite on Mars".
811:
1080:
Rubisov, D.H; Krowinkel, J.M; Papangelakis, V.G (November 2000). "Sulphuric acid pressure leaching of laterites — universal kinetics of nickel dissolution for limonites and limonitic/saprolitic blends".
529:, and limonite laterite ores are a source of nickel and potentially cobalt and other valuable metals, present as trace elements. It is often deposited in run-off streams from mining operations.
509:
Limonite usually forms from the hydration of hematite and magnetite, from the oxidation and hydration of iron rich sulfide minerals, and chemical weathering of other iron rich minerals such as
393:
of limonite on an unglazed porcelain plate is always yellowish brown, a character which distinguishes it from hematite with a red streak, or from magnetite with a black streak. The
1108:
Gao, Jian-ming; Cheng, Fangqin (August 2018). "Study on the preparation of spinel ferrites with enhanced magnetic properties using limonite laterite ore as raw materials".
791:
444:, reniform or stalactitic. Because of its amorphous nature, and occurrence in hydrated areas limonite often presents as a clay or mudstone. However, there are limonite
1248:; hardcopy published 14 October 2011 under title "African Cave, Ancient Paint Factory Pushes Human Symbolic Thought ‘Far Back’" New York edition page A-14; archived by
1354:
1256:
697:
As saprolite deposits have been exhausted in many mining sites, limonite has become the most prominent source of nickel for use in energy dense batteries.
1153:
835:
1374:
568:
was famous, while the darker forms produced more earthy tones. Roasting the limonite changed it partially to hematite, producing red ochres,
1252:
1343:
Early
Ironworking in Europe: Archaeology and Experiment: Abstracts of the International Conference at Plas Tan y Bwlch 19–25 Sept. 1997
1297:
652:
in the 1st century BCE in China and about 1150 CE in Europe, that the brown iron ore of limonite could be used to best advantage.
1321:
807:
1384:
1337:
1170:
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314:
655:
Bog iron ore and limonite were mined in the US, but this ended with the development of advanced mining techniques.
440:
structure, and limonite often occurs in concretionary forms or in compact and earthy masses; sometimes mammillary,
73:
980:
888:
466:
394:
126:
880:
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550:
335:
159:
1345:(Plas Tan y Bwlch Occasional Papers No 3) Snowdonia National Park Study Centre, Gwynedd, Wales, pp. 56–58.
1268:
Iron oxide becomes metallic iron at roughly 1250°C, almost 300 degrees below iron's melting point of 1538°C.
1185:
Constantinou, G. and Govett, G. J. S. (1972). "Genesis of sulphide deposits, ochre and umber of Cyprus".
493:
1242:
828:
659:
625:
Limonite was one of the earliest materials used as a pigment by humans, and can be seen in
Neolithic
597:
Limonite was mined for its ancillary gold content. The oxidation of sulfide deposits which contained
549:
Nickel-rich limonite ores represent the largest reserves of nickel. Such minerals are classified as
246:
671:
771:
683:
1278:
1338:"Archaeological Investigations on the Beginning of Blast Furnace-Technology in Central Europe"
922:(revised edition) University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, New Mexico, pp. 329–333,
478:
1222:
1203:
116:
1117:
1041:
1005:
876:
1221:
California State Mining Bureau, California State
Printing Office, Sacramento, California,
751:
8:
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149:
139:
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varying from 2.7 to 4.3. It is usually medium to dark yellowish brown in color. The
1158:
1125:
1090:
1049:
1017:
1013:
839:
829:"La question de l'Âge du fer en Afrique" ("The question of the Iron Age in Africa")
815:
437:
386:
203:
169:
49:
1301:
1053:
401:
Although originally defined as a single mineral, limonite is now recognized as a
1404:
1129:
594:
ore deposits. These gossans were used by prospectors as guides to buried ore.
346:
325:
1393:
1219:
Mines and mineral resources of Shasta county, Siskiyou county, Trinity county
1162:
1066:
Boswell, P. F. and
Blanchard, Roland (1929) "Cellular structure in limonite"
800:
Aspects of
African Archaeology: Proceedings of the Tenth Pan-African Congress
649:
637:
626:
417:
309:
96:
897:
1350:
792:"Iron Age beginnings north of the Mandara Mountains, Cameroon and Nigeria"
428:. Determination of the precise mineral composition is practical only with
852:
726:
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297:
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927:
858:
732:
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576:. Bog iron ore and limonite mudstones are mined as a source of iron.
537:
691:
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620:
605:
served to concentrate gold with the limonite of the resulting soils.
587:
518:
457:
340:
319:
278:
266:
249:
in varying composition. The generic formula is frequently written as
996:
Mackay, A. L. (December 1962). "β-Ferric oxyhydroxide—akaganéite".
687:
645:
641:
526:
514:
453:
425:
413:
352:
301:
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239:
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of siliceous iron oxide typically form as the result of intensive
436:, but limonite does not, although specimens may show a fibrous or
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28:
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Mineralogical
Magazine and Journal of the Mineralogical Society
602:
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484:
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358:
282:
350:), meaning "marshy lake", as an allusion to its occurrence as
269:
can vary quite widely. Limonite is one of the three principal
667:
561:
362:
262:
1079:
658:
Goldbearing limonite gossans were productively mined in the
1279:"Complex Iron Smelting and Prehistoric Culture in Tanzania"
598:
286:
227:
218:
212:
261:, although this is not entirely accurate as the ratio of
1277:
Schmidt, Peter and Avery, Donald H. (22 September 1978)
1187:
Transactions of the
Institution of Mining and Metallurgy
950:. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 371–372.
432:
techniques. Individual minerals in limonite may form
224:
221:
1243:"In African Cave, Signs of an Ancient Paint Factory"
1150:
230:
209:
971:Klein, Cornelis; Hurlbut, Cornelius S. Jr. (1993).
215:
206:
798:Pwiti, Gilbert and Soper, Robert (editors) (1996)
662:mining district. Similar deposits were mined near
973:Manual of mineralogy : (after James D. Dana)
871:Jackson, Julia A., ed. (1997). "brown hematite".
1391:
802:University of Zimbabwe Press, Harare, Zimbabwe,
1198:Heckel, George B. (1910) "Iron Oxide Paints".
1154:Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry
1030:
970:
941:
939:
937:
935:
834:4/5: pp. 278–303, in French; archived
365:. In its brown form, it is sometimes called
1110:Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials
914:
912:
648:, and it was only with the development of
525:. It is often the major iron component in
1144:
932:
1284:201(4361): pp. 1085–1089
1213:
1211:
1107:
536:
296:
1151:Kerfoot, Derek G. E. (2005). "Nickel".
909:
903:
870:
101:Fine grained aggregate, powdery coating
1392:
1241:Wilford, John Noble (13 October 2011)
995:
918:Northrop, Stuart A. (1959) "Limonite"
1208:
945:
845:
456:and from iron rich silicates such as
345:
324:
636:While the first iron ore was likely
1295:"The earliest use of iron in China"
560:. The yellow form produced yellow
472:Limonite deposited from mine runoff
13:
1070:24(8): pp. 791–796
975:(21st ed.). New York: Wiley.
686:gold was mined from limonite-rich
499:Limonite pseudomorphs after garnet
376:
91:Various shades of brown and yellow
14:
1416:
1368:
640:, and hematite was far easier to
772:"Limonite (hydrated iron oxide)"
492:
477:
465:
202:
27:
1326:
1316:Archaeopress, Oxford, England,
1287:
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989:
964:
827:Diop-Maes, Louise Marie (1996)
556:One of the first uses was as a
1018:10.1180/minmag.1962.033.259.02
864:
821:
784:
764:
744:
719:
405:term for a mixture of related
1:
1095:10.1016/S0304-386X(00)00094-3
881:American Geological Institute
615:History of ferrous metallurgy
551:lateritic nickel ore deposits
541:Limonite concretion from the
448:after other minerals such as
1054:10.1016/j.icarus.2021.114651
504:
7:
700:
242:consisting of a mixture of
16:Hydrated iron oxide mineral
10:
1421:
1200:Paint, oil and drug review
1130:10.1016/j.jmmm.2018.04.010
948:Introduction to mineralogy
946:Nesse, William D. (2000).
618:
612:
608:
334:
313:
308:Limonite is named for the
247:iron(III) oxide-hydroxides
1293:Wagner, Donald B. (1999)
1217:Brown, G. Chester (1915)
790:MacEachern, Scott (1996)
660:Shasta County, California
188:
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1163:10.1002/14356007.a17_157
712:
292:
1157:. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH.
752:"Mineral 1.0: Limonite"
684:Lumpkin County, Georgia
532:
381:Limonite is relatively
289:since at least 400 BC.
1332:Jockenhövel, Albrecht
920:Minerals of New Mexico
546:
305:
285:for the production of
1308:Young, Suzanne M. M.
1202:. 50(4): pp. 14–21,
619:Further information:
540:
412:minerals, among them
300:
74:Strunz classification
44:Amorphous, mineraloid
877:Alexandria, Virginia
621:Ochre § History
1314:Metals in Antiquity
1304:pp. 1–9
1122:2018JMMM..460..213G
1046:2021Icar..36914651Z
1010:1962MinM...33..270M
906:, "brown iron ore".
873:Glossary of Geology
326:[leː.mɔ̌ːn]
273:, the others being
1300:2006-07-18 at the
1246:The New York Times
842:on 25 January 2008
794:pp. 489–496
547:
306:
1385:Gold and limonite
1375:Mineral galleries
1322:978-1-84171-008-2
1312:(editors) (1999)
1223:pages 15–16
808:978-0-908307-55-5
545:of a uranium mine
458:almandine garnets
430:X-ray diffraction
347:[lím.nɛː]
195:
194:
184:2.7–4.3 g/cm
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1004:(259): 270–280.
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377:Characteristics
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899:
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823:
799:
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786:
775:. Retrieved
766:
755:. Retrieved
746:
736:, retrieved
727:
721:
696:
672:Mount Morgan
657:
654:
635:
624:
596:
579:
578:
570:burnt umbers
555:
548:
508:
487:and limonite
446:pseudomorphs
400:
380:
370:
366:
341:
329:), meaning "
320:
307:
252:
197:
196:
78:Unclassified
60:
1353:. Archived
1116:: 213–222.
1089:(1): 1–11.
810:; archived
707:Ore genesis
631:pictographs
160:Diaphaneity
1394:Categories
1040:: 114651.
982:047157452X
890:0922152349
859:Mindat.org
777:2011-10-16
757:2011-10-16
738:2011-10-16
733:Mindat.org
646:bloomeries
564:for which
543:spoil bank
442:botryoidal
422:akaganeite
410:iron oxide
331:wet meadow
189:References
127:Mohs scale
1400:Iron ores
1351:470699473
1138:125368631
692:saprolite
688:lateritic
680:Dahlonega
678:. In the
676:Australia
664:Rio Tinto
588:oxidation
580:Iron caps
519:amphibole
505:Formation
279:magnetite
271:iron ores
267:hydroxide
1298:Archived
854:Limonite
728:Limonite
701:See also
515:pyroxene
454:siderite
434:crystals
426:jarosite
414:goethite
407:hydrated
395:hardness
353:bog iron
302:Bog iron
275:hematite
244:hydrated
240:iron ore
238:) is an
198:Limonite
130:hardness
117:Fracture
107:Cleavage
41:Category
22:Limonite
1359:WebCite
1336:(1997)
1282:Science
1250:WebCite
1231:5458708
1204:page 14
1118:Bibcode
1042:Bibcode
1006:Bibcode
928:2753195
694:soil.
609:History
592:sulfide
584:gossans
574:siennas
558:pigment
523:biotite
511:olivine
385:with a
363:marshes
359:meadows
180:Density
174:2.9–4.3
50:Formula
36:General
1380:Mindat
1349:
1334:et al.
1320:
1310:et al.
1257:page 2
1253:page 1
1229:
1169:
1136:
1034:Icarus
979:
954:
926:
887:
806:
603:Brazil
566:Cyprus
521:, and
485:Galena
450:pyrite
424:, and
391:streak
333:", or
321:leimṓn
315:λειμών
164:Opaque
150:Streak
144:Earthy
140:Luster
121:Uneven
111:Absent
1405:Rocks
1134:S2CID
713:Notes
668:Spain
642:smelt
562:ochre
403:field
383:dense
342:límnē
336:λίμνη
312:word
293:Names
283:mined
263:oxide
134:4–5.5
88:Color
1355:here
1347:OCLC
1318:ISBN
1255:and
1227:OCLC
1167:ISBN
977:ISBN
952:ISBN
924:OCLC
885:ISBN
836:here
832:Ankh
812:here
804:ISBN
670:and
629:and
599:gold
572:and
533:Uses
361:and
287:iron
277:and
1357:by
1159:doi
1126:doi
1114:460
1091:doi
1050:doi
1038:369
1014:doi
838:by
814:by
690:or
674:in
666:in
590:of
582:or
369:or
357:in
355:ore
304:ore
265:to
1396::
1306:In
1225:,
1210:^
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1087:58
1085:.
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1002:33
1000:.
934:^
911:^
883:.
879::
857:,
796:In
731:,
633:.
553:.
517:,
513:,
460:.
420:,
416:,
373:.
228:aɪ
213:aɪ
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339:(
318:(
259:O
257:2
255:H
253:n
234:/
231:t
225:n
222:ˌ
219:ə
216:m
210:l
207:ˈ
204:/
200:(
67:O
65:2
63:H
61:n
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