17:
520:
Present telecommunication spacecraft platforms tend to benefit more from high specific impulse than high thrust. The less fuel is consumed to get into orbit, the more is available for station keeping when on station. This increase in the remaining propellant can be directly translated to an increase
454:
to be used for space applications, however to mitigate this risk, companies are investigating alternative propellants and engine designs. A change over to these alternative propellants is not straightforward, and issues such as performance, reliability and compatibility (e.g. satellite propulsion
528:
manoeuvre can be executed, the higher the efficiency of this manoeuvre, and the less propellant is required. This reduction in the propellant required can be directly translated to an increase in the bus and payload mass (at design stage), enabling better science return on these
481:
Though marketed to deliver a particular nominal thrust and nominal specific impulse at nominal propellant feed conditions, these engines actually undergo rigorous testing where performance is mapped over a range of operating conditions before being deemed
1132:
Naicker, Lolan; Baker, Adam; Coxhill, Ian; Hammond, Jeff; Martin, Houston; Perigo, David; Solway, Nick; Wall, Ronan (2012). "Progress towards a 1.1 kN apogee engine for interplanetary propulsion".
840:
381:
82:. Despite the name, an apogee engine can be used for a range of other manoeuvres, such as end-of-life deorbit, Earth orbit escape, planetary orbit insertion and planetary descent/ascent.
20:
A 400 N hypergolic liquid apogee engine, including heat shield and mounting structure, on display at DLR visitors center, Lampoldshausen, Germany. The engine was designed for use on
1114:
Houston, Martin; Smith, Pete; Naicker, Lolan; Perigo, David; Wall, Ronan (2014). "A high flow rate apogee engine solenoid valve for the next generation of ESA planetary missions".
508:. The useful life of an engine at a particular performance level is dictated by the useful life of the materials of construction, primarily those used for the combustion chamber.
533:
The actual engine chosen for a mission is dependent on the technical details of the mission. More practical considerations such as cost, lead time and export restrictions (e.g.
301:
Hypergolic propellant combinations ignite upon contact within the engine combustion chamber and offer very high ignition reliability, as well as the ability for reignition.
471:
The characteristic velocity is influenced by design details such as propellant combination, propellant feed pressure, propellant temperature, and propellant mixture ratio.
572:
486:. This means that a flight-qualified production engine can be tuned (within reason) by the manufacturer to meet particular mission requirements, such as higher thrust.
1008:
478:
A typical 500 N-class hypergolic liquid apogee engine has a vacuum specific impulse in the region of 320 s, with the practical limit estimated to be near 335 s.
24:
satellites. These were the first three-axis stabilised communication satellites in geostationary orbit to use a liquid bipropellant apogee engine for orbit insertion.
1093:
658:
848:
524:
Planetary exploration spacecraft, especially the larger ones, tend to benefit more from high thrust than high specific impulse. The quicker a high delta-
494:
Most apogee engines are operated in an on–off manner at a fixed thrust level. This is because the valves used only have two positions: open or closed.
978:
905:
779:
764:
Stechman, Carl; Harper, Steve (2010). "Performance improvements in small earth storable rocket engines - an era of approaching the theoretical".
501:, depends both on the manoeuvre and the capability of the engine. Engines are qualified for a certain minimal and maximal single-burn duration.
875:
Naicker, Lolan; Wall, Ronan; David, Perigo (2014). "An overview of development model testing for the LEROS 4 High Thrust Apogee Engine".
534:
695:
Space
Technology Library Volume 1. An introduction to mission design for geostationary satellites. Chapter 4: The Apogee Manoeuvre
1063:
178:
To protect the spacecraft from the radiant heat of the combustion chamber, these engines are generally installed together with a
144:
Derivatives of these original engines are still used today and are continually being evolved and adapted for new applications.
743:
710:
642:
580:
1016:
948:
824:
Hyde, Simon (2012). "A design optimisation study of a generic bi-propellant injector for additive manufacturing".
659:"Industrial Policy Committee, Robotic Exploration Plan, Programme of Work 2009-2014 and relevant Procurement Plan"
665:
273:
1173:
516:
A simplified division can be made between apogee engines used for telecommunications and exploration missions:
162:
injector assembly containing (though dependent on the injector) central oxidant gallery and outer fuel gallery,
190:
Apogee engines typically use one fuel and one oxidizer. This propellant is usually, but not restricted to, a
141:
and The
Marquardt Company were all participants in developing engines for various satellites and spacecraft.
113:, however, uses solid propellant. These solid-propellant versions are not used on new-generation satellites.
75:
933:
Valencia-Bel, Ferran (2012). "Replacement of
Conventional Spacecraft Propellants with Green Propellants".
986:
787:
1147:
Perigo, David (2012). "Large platform satellite propulsion with a focus on exploration applications".
841:"Space propulsion - Moog sees higher-thrust liquid propellant engine as right fit for Mars missions"
504:
Engines are also qualified to deliver a maximal cumulative burn duration, sometimes referred to as
305:
67:
1168:
168:
1038:
735:
634:
110:
191:
45:
727:
626:
521:
in the service lifetime of the satellite, increasing the financial return on these missions.
55:
derives from the type of manoeuvre for which the engine is typically used, i.e. an in-space
221:
603:
8:
246:
79:
1071:
467:
and vacuum thrust. However, there are many other details which influence performance:
739:
728:
706:
638:
627:
106:
698:
474:
The thrust coefficient is influenced primarily by the nozzle supersonic area ratio.
464:
134:
71:
130:
702:
121:
The apogee engine traces its origin to the early 1960s, when companies such as
41:
16:
1162:
956:
546:
1094:"LEROS engine propels the Juno spacecraft on its historic voyage to Jupiter"
809:
Hyde, Simon (2012). "Combustion chamber design for additive manufacturing".
174:
Thrust coefficient limited by supersonic area ratio of the expansion nozzle.
330:
152:
A typical liquid apogee engine scheme could be defined as an engine with:
463:
The performance of an apogee engine is usually quoted in terms of vacuum
179:
126:
894:(AFRPL-TR-76-76 ed.). Martin Marietta Corporation. p. 2.3–3.
497:
The duration for which the engine is on, sometimes referred to as the
892:
USAF Propellant
Handbooks: Nitric Acid / Nitrogen Tetroxide Oxidizers
198:
21:
85:
In some parts of the space industry an LAE is also referred to as a
138:
122:
56:
63:
455:
system and launch-site infrastructure) require investigation.
726:
Ley, Wilfred; Wittmann, Klaus; Hallmann, Willi, eds. (2009).
171:
limited by thermal capability of combustion chamber material,
430:
will be prohibited or restricted in the near- to mid-term.
384:
regulations. In 2011 the REACH framework legislation added
1131:
97:(DMLAT). Despite the ambiguity with respect to the use of
1113:
156:
pressure-regulated hypergolic liquid bipropellant feed,
66:
of an elliptical orbit in order to circularise it. For
1149:
Space
Propulsion 2012 Conference, San Sebastian, Spain
780:"ESA investigates ALM for in-space satellite engines"
625:
Domingue, D. L.; Russell, C. T. (19 December 2007).
766:
46th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint
Propulsion Conference
725:
159:
thermally isolated solenoid or torque motor valves,
1116:Space Propulsion 2014 Conference, Cologne, Germany
935:Space Propulsion 2012 Conference, Bordeaux, France
877:Space Propulsion 2014 Conference, Cologne, Germany
826:Space Propulsion 2012 Conference, Bordeaux, France
811:Space Propulsion 2012 Conference, Bordeaux, France
906:"Considering hydrazine-free satellite propulsion"
633:. Springer Science & Business Media. p.
78:and place the satellite on station in a circular
1160:
928:
926:
874:
624:
409:. This step increases the risk that the use of
763:
109:(AKM) or apogee boost motor (ABM) such as the
105:in these names, all use liquid propellant. An
923:
693:Pocha, J. J. (1987). "The Apogee Manoeuvre".
165:radiative and film-cooled combustion chamber,
932:
567:
565:
1127:
1125:
870:
868:
866:
759:
757:
755:
618:
883:
93:(LAT) and, depending on the propellant, a
562:
1122:
1107:
863:
752:
688:
686:
573:"Unified Propulsion System - Background"
15:
1140:
1134:Space Propulsion 2012, Bordeaux, France
734:. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp.
664:. European Space Agency. Archived from
604:"Juno Jupiter probe gets British boost"
1161:
1146:
889:
838:
651:
595:
817:
692:
683:
433:Exemptions are being sought to allow
823:
808:
802:
601:
537:) also play a part in the decision.
335:), is used as a substitute for pure
719:
13:
1009:"400 N Bipropellant Apogee Motors"
74:is performed to transition from a
14:
1185:
380:is under threat in Europe due to
629:The MESSENGER Mission to Mercury
506:cumulative propellant throughput
95:dual-mode liquid apogee thruster
1086:
1056:
1031:
1001:
971:
941:
898:
890:Wright, A. C. (February 1977).
832:
511:
407:substances of very high concern
40:, refers to a type of chemical
979:"Apogee/Upper Stage Thrusters"
772:
458:
1:
1064:"Satellite Propulsion System"
1039:"Bipropellant Rocket Engines"
602:Amos, Jonathan (2012-09-04).
555:
185:
839:Werner, Debra (2013-07-15).
730:Handbook of space technology
697:. Springer. pp. 51–66.
489:
76:geostationary transfer orbit
7:
703:10.1007/978-94-009-3857-1_4
540:
46:main engine in a spacecraft
10:
1190:
116:
405:to its candidate list of
147:
1013:Astrium Space Propulsion
577:Airbus Defence and Space
306:mixed oxides of nitrogen
68:geostationary satellites
169:characteristic velocity
308:(MON), such as MON-3 (
194:combination such as:
91:liquid apogee thruster
44:typically used as the
25:
1174:Spacecraft propulsion
19:
851:on November 15, 2014
30:liquid apogee engine
1074:on 24 November 2014
959:on 29 November 2014
87:liquid apogee motor
80:geostationary orbit
62:change made at the
949:"Green propulsion"
304:In many instances
26:
845:www.spacenews.com
745:978-0-470-69739-9
712:978-94-010-8215-0
644:978-0-387-77214-1
107:apogee kick motor
72:orbital manoeuvre
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1070:. Archived from
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1015:. Archived from
1005:
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985:. Archived from
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955:. Archived from
953:www.sscspace.com
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847:. Archived from
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579:. Archived from
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484:flight-qualified
465:specific impulse
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135:Bell Aerosystems
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131:Reaction Motors
119:
70:, this type of
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5:
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1169:Rocket engines
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1154:
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1043:www.rocket.com
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1068:www.ihi.co.jp
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1019:on 2014-04-26
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989:on 2015-03-02
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583:on 2014-09-25
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547:Rocket engine
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499:burn duration
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53:apogee engine
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42:rocket engine
39:
38:apogee engine
35:
31:
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1133:
1115:
1109:
1097:. Retrieved
1088:
1076:. Retrieved
1072:the original
1067:
1058:
1046:. Retrieved
1042:
1033:
1021:. Retrieved
1017:the original
1012:
1003:
991:. Retrieved
987:the original
983:www.moog.com
982:
973:
961:. Retrieved
957:the original
952:
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934:
913:. Retrieved
909:
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885:
876:
853:. Retrieved
849:the original
844:
834:
825:
819:
810:
804:
792:. Retrieved
788:the original
783:
774:
768:(2010–6884).
765:
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666:the original
653:
628:
620:
608:. Retrieved
597:
585:. Retrieved
581:the original
576:
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532:
525:
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512:Applications
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1099:15 November
1078:15 November
1048:15 November
1023:15 November
993:15 November
963:15 November
915:15 November
855:15 November
794:15 November
459:Performance
359:The use of
329:with 3 wt%
180:heat shield
1163:Categories
1136:(2394092).
1118:(2962486).
879:(2969298).
675:25 January
610:29 January
606:. BBC News
587:29 January
556:References
192:hypergolic
186:Propellant
127:Rocketdyne
784:LayerWise
529:missions.
490:Operation
89:(LAM), a
51:The name
22:Symphonie
541:See also
139:TRW Inc.
123:Aerojet
117:History
111:Waxwing
742:
738:–324.
709:
641:
148:Layout
99:engine
64:apogee
57:delta-
36:), or
669:(PDF)
662:(PDF)
382:REACH
103:motor
1101:2014
1080:2014
1050:2014
1025:2014
995:2014
965:2014
917:2014
857:2014
796:2014
740:ISBN
707:ISBN
677:2015
639:ISBN
612:2015
589:2015
535:ITAR
274:UDMH
101:and
910:ESA
736:323
699:doi
635:197
247:MMH
34:LAE
1165::
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