285:
753:. Thus, an argument that viruses should be classed as living organisms is their ability to undergo evolution and replicate through self-assembly. However, some scientists argue that viruses neither evolve nor self-reproduce. Instead, viruses are evolved by their host cells, meaning that there was co-evolution of viruses and host cells. If host cells did not exist, viral evolution would be impossible. As for reproduction, viruses rely on hosts' machinery to replicate. The discovery of viruses with genes coding for energy metabolism and protein synthesis fuelled the debate about whether viruses are living organisms, but the genes have a cellular origin. Most likely, they were acquired through
710:
156:
898:
1050:
1125:, and the ability to acquire resources necessary for reproduction, and sequences with such functions probably emerged early in the evolution of life. It is also likely that survival sequences present early in the evolution of organisms included sequences that facilitate the avoidance of damage to the self-replicating molecule and promote the capability to
97:
state that "organismality", the qualities or attributes that define an entity as an organism, has evolved socially as groups of simpler units (from cells upwards) came to cooperate without conflicts. They propose that cooperation should be used as the "defining trait" of an organism. This would treat
689:
Samuel DĂazâMuñoz and colleagues (2016) accept
Queller and Strassmann's view that organismality can be measured wholly by degrees of cooperation and of conflict. They state that this situates organisms in evolutionary time, so that organismality is context dependent. They suggest that highly
275:
Another view is that attributes like autonomy, genetic homogeneity and genetic uniqueness should be examined separately rather than demanding that an organism should have all of them; if so, there are multiple dimensions to biological individuality, resulting in several types of organism.
1091:
directs an elaborated series of interactions to produce successively more elaborate structures. The existence of chimaeras and hybrids demonstrates that these mechanisms are "intelligently" robust in the face of radically altered circumstances at all levels from molecular to organismal.
42:. Such a definition raises more problems than it solves, not least because the concept of an individual is also difficult. Many criteria, few of them widely accepted, have been proposed to define what an organism is. Among the most common is that an organism has autonomous
1112:
All organisms that exist today possess a self-replicating informational molecule (genome), and such an informational molecule is likely intrinsic to life. Thus, the earliest organisms also presumably possessed a self-replicating informational molecule
137:, meaning instrument, implement, tool, organ of sense or apprehension) first appeared in the English language in the 1660s with the now-obsolete meaning of an organic structure or organization. It is related to the verb "organize". In his 1790
1099:
or goal-seeking behaviour that enables them to correct errors of many kinds so as to achieve whatever result they are designed for. Such behaviour is reminiscent of intelligent action by organisms; intelligence is seen as an embodied form of
744:
and molecules like those in living organisms, they have no metabolism of their own; they cannot synthesize the organic compounds from which they are formed. In this sense, they are similar to inanimate matter. Viruses have their own
236:
Other scientists think that the concept of the organism is inadequate in biology; that the concept of individuality is problematic; and from a philosophical point of view, question whether such a definition is necessary.
435:
state that "organismality" has evolved socially, as groups of simpler units (from cells upwards) came to cooperate without conflicts. They propose that cooperation should be used as the "defining trait" of an organism.
880:
of an organism, but as a virocell - an ontologically mature viral organism that has cellular structure. Such virus is a result of infection of a cell and shows all major physiological properties of other organisms:
197:
stated this as "the quality of being sufficiently heterogeneous in form to be rendered non-functional if cut in half". However, many organisms can be cut into pieces which then grow into whole organisms.
1129:
that do occur. Repair of some of the genome damages in these early organisms may have involved the capacity to use undamaged information from another similar genome by a process of
2549:
424:; together, they are able to flourish as a kind of organism, the components having different functions, in habitats such as dry rocks where neither could grow alone.
2542:
2442:
1259:
Huneman, Philippe (2017). "Kant's
Concept of Organism Revisited: A Framework for a Possible Synthesis between Developmentalism and Adaptationism?".
876:
There is an argument for viewing viruses as cellular organisms. Some researchers perceive viruses not as virions alone, which they believe are just
1793:
127:
554:
Free-living unicellular amoebae for most of lifetime; swarm and aggregate to a multicellular slug, cells specialising to form a dead stalk and
914:
The philosopher Jack A. Wilson examines some boundary cases to demonstrate that the concept of organism is not sharply defined. In his view,
2535:
488:
No metabolism, so not living, not an organism, say many biologists; but they evolve, their genes collaborating to manipulate the host
1960:"Species in lichen-forming fungi: balancing between conceptual and practical considerations, and between phenotype and phylogenomics"
1080:
containing both electronic and biological elements, and other combinations of systems that have variously evolved and been designed.
690:
integrated life forms, which are not context dependent, may evolve through context-dependent stages towards complete unification.
2435:
2051:
2015:
1162:
1177:
1750:
Folse, H.J., III; Roughgarden, J. (December 2010). "What is an individual organism? A multilevel selection perspective".
1732:
1084:
1095:
Synthetic organisms already take diverse forms, and their diversity will increase. What they all have in common is a
681:
1556:"Shannon's information, Bernal's biopoiesis and Bernoulli distribution as pillars for building a definition of life"
2428:
2354:
Bernstein H, Byerly HC, Hopf FA, Michod RE (September 1985). "Genetic damage, mutation, and the evolution of sex".
252:
specialisation. If so, the same argument, or a criterion of high co-operation and low conflict, would include some
17:
440:
Queller and
Strassmann's view of organisms as cooperating entities at differing levels of biological organisation
284:
3203:
2798:
3339:
2987:
2668:
2067:
DĂaz-Muñoz, Samuel L.; Boddy, Amy M.; Dantas, Gautam; Waters, Christopher M.; Bronstein, Judith L. (2016).
942:, all lie in the boundary zone between being definite colonies and definite organisms (or superorganisms).
2673:
2907:
2663:
2231:"Endless forms most beautiful 2.0: teleonomy and the bioengineering of chimaeric and synthetic organisms"
1220:
1194:
2270:
Neveu, M.; Kim, H.J.; Benner, S.A. (April 2013). "The "strong" RNA world hypothesis: fifty years old".
1189:
1345:
Moreira, D.; LĂłpez-GarcĂa, P.N. (April 2009). "Ten reasons to exclude viruses from the tree of life".
3208:
249:
71:
1121:
sequences in all currently extant organisms contain information that functions to promote survival,
3055:
2956:
2873:
754:
1403:
Wilson, Jack A. (2000). "Ontological butchery: organism concepts and biological generalizations".
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946:
Jack A. Wilson's analysis of the similar organism-like nature of siphonophores and jellyfish
159:
One criterion proposes that an organism cannot be divided without losing functionality. This
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74:, with some insects reproducing, others not, like cells in an animal's body. The body of a
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is a being which functions as an individual but is composed of communicating individuals.
232:
can be used to identify organisms as capable of self-maintaining their information content
221:
8:
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Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences
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are not typically considered to be organisms, because they are incapable of autonomous
432:
229:
94:
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1933:
1687:
Pepper, J.W.; Herron, M.D. (November 2008). "Does biology need an organism concept?".
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203:â the entity has simultaneous holdings of genetic uniqueness, genetic homogeneity and
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2011:
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2198:
2181:
Bandea, Claudiu I. (1983). "A new theory on the origin and the nature of viruses".
2153:
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2096:
2080:
2069:"Contextual organismality: Beyond pattern to process in the emergence of organisms"
1971:
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2038:
Out of control: the new biology of machines, social systems and the economic world
1117:), perhaps RNA or an informational molecule more primitive than RNA. The specific
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noncompartmentability â structure cannot be divided without losing functionality.
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An evolved organism takes its form by the partially understood mechanisms of
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86:, the parts collaborating to provide the functions of the colonial organism.
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389:, consisting of many individuals working together as a single functional or
82:, but the whole structure looks and functions much like an animal such as a
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is not a cell; it contains only its genetic material, and a protein coat.
184:
47:
2393:
1920:
Santelices, B. (April 1999). "How many kinds of individual are there?".
1358:
1280:
312:
are mutually interdependent, like cells within a multicellular organism.
147:
defined an organism as "both an organized and a self-organizing being".
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Scientists and bio-engineers are experimenting with different types of
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111:
51:
39:
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1609:
Bateson, Patrick (February 2005). "The return of the whole organism".
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Among the criteria that have been proposed for being an organism are:
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Cells, grouped into organs for specific functions (e.g. reproduction)
510:
341:
329:
132:
83:
59:
2420:
1157:(10th ed.). St. Louis, Missouri: Elsevier. 2017. p. 1281.
155:
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2868:
2770:
2575:
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1763:
1485:
Pradeu, T. (2010). "What is an organism? An immunological answer".
1416:
902:
854:
567:
555:
204:
1958:
LĂŒcking, Robert; Leavitt, Steven D.; Hawksworth, David L. (2021).
1953:
1951:
1873:"Capturing the superorganism: a formal theory of group adaptation"
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2917:
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532:
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217:
167:
is however developing new adventitious roots from a small bit of
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1948:
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514:
409:
405:
360:
352:
289:
107:
99:
2405:
2010:(6th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 461.
1652:
Clarke, E. (2010). "The problem of biological individuality".
1155:
Mosby's
Dictionary of Medicine, Nursing and Health Professions
897:
220:", the ability to maintain order, a concept first proposed by
2828:
2820:
2638:
2600:
2467:
1178:
1029:
877:
775:
721:
704:
649:
630:
466:
413:
356:
297:
293:
160:
103:
79:
55:
3334:
3026:
2567:
2066:
746:
364:
304:(green) interspersed within the structure, and a bacterial
78:, a jelly-like marine animal, is composed of organism-like
35:
1730:
Wilson, R. (2007). "The biological notion of individual".
2353:
1817:
1815:
1813:
1811:
1809:
1807:
1805:
1803:
1745:
1743:
1689:
Biological
Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society
935:
837:
831:
668:
386:
1957:
1822:
Queller, David C.; Strassmann, Joan E. (November 2009).
280:
Organisms at differing levels of biological organisation
150:
2557:
1800:
1740:
680:
Organism specialisation (many ants do not reproduce);
2229:
Clawson, Wesley P.; Levin, Michael (1 January 2023).
2126:"The virocell concept and environmental microbiology"
404:
which each provide some of the needs of the other. A
248:
fulfills criteria such as adaptive organisation and
1344:
658:Organism specialisation; inter-organism signalling
2035:
1680:
1821:
1505:
340:, which may contain functional structures called
3359:
1824:"Beyond society: the evolution of organismality"
1749:
629:provides structure, absorbs water and minerals;
62:like organisms. Other problematic cases include
1107:
2269:
1340:
1338:
1336:
1334:
1332:
367:is composed of many cells, often specialised.
2543:
2436:
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2027:
1870:
1549:
1547:
1398:
1396:
1394:
1392:
1390:
1388:
1386:
1384:
889:, therefore, life in its effective presence.
761:Comparison of cellular organisms and viruses
592:Male and female permanently fastened together
256:(e.g. lichens) and sexual partnerships (e.g.
2228:
2001:
1999:
1997:
1995:
1792:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1686:
1292:
1290:
1068:composed of cells from two or more species,
110:, or the permanent sexual partnership of an
2174:
1723:
1645:
1511:
1487:History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences
1329:
1299:"A relational theory of biological systems"
1211:
1209:
1207:
98:many types of collaboration, including the
2550:
2536:
2443:
2429:
2024:
1919:
1544:
1514:"Biological Organization and Anti-entropy"
1445:
1381:
264:occurs, then a group could be viewed as a
34:is defined in a medical dictionary as any
2330:
2246:
2235:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
2157:
2100:
1992:
1975:
1888:
1847:
1512:Bailly, Francis; Longo, Giuseppe (2009).
1448:"How many kinds of individual are there?"
1287:
1147:
892:
2123:
1204:
1048:
896:
870:: high mutation rate, natural selection
708:
283:
154:
1608:
1303:The Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics
1258:
14:
3360:
2180:
1871:Gardner, A.; Grafen, A. (April 2009).
1729:
1651:
1484:
1402:
1044:
1009:Tentacles trap prey, pass it to mouth
602:; female provides all other functions
106:partnership of different species in a
2531:
2450:
2424:
2033:
1553:
1296:
910:that functions as a single individual
151:Whether criteria exist, or are needed
2414:aims to enumerate all known species.
2406:"Indexing the world's known species"
2304:
2124:Forterre, Patrick (4 October 2012).
2005:
292:consists of a body formed mainly by
2042:. Boston: Addison-Wesley. pp.
1733:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
579:Cell specialisation, communication
24:
1446:Santelices, Bernabé (April 1999).
1171:
1085:evolutionary developmental biology
523:Inter-cellular (inter-organismal)
25:
3379:
2386:
1922:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
1452:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
693:
70:is organised adaptively, and has
1890:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2008.01681.x
1701:10.1111/j.1469-185X.2008.00057.x
1554:Piast, RadosĆaw W. (June 2019).
1297:Rosen, Robert (September 1958).
400:is a partnership of two or more
2347:
2298:
2263:
2117:
1913:
1877:Journal of Evolutionary Biology
1864:
1752:The Quarterly Review of Biology
1602:
1478:
819:No, rely entirely on host cell
790:No, rely entirely on host cell
3204:Last universal common ancestor
2799:Defective interfering particle
2311:Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol
2183:Journal of Theoretical Biology
1560:Journal of Theoretical Biology
1439:
1252:
1234:
1006:ingest prey, feed other zooids
740:. Although viruses have a few
213:, separating self from foreign
122:The term "organism" (from the
13:
1:
3340:Clonally transmissible cancer
2776:Satellite-like nucleic acids
1934:10.1016/s0169-5347(98)01519-5
1518:Journal of Biological Systems
1464:10.1016/S0169-5347(98)01519-5
1140:
1020:Single functional individual
58:, despite the fact that they
2203:10.1016/0022-5193(83)90221-7
1347:Nature Reviews. Microbiology
1108:Early evolution of organisms
1017:Single functional individual
991:Body pulsates to pump water
584:Permanent sexual partnership
427:The evolutionary biologists
244:: for instance, a colony of
117:
89:The evolutionary biologists
7:
2323:10.1101/cshperspect.a006742
2307:"The RNA worlds in context"
1221:Online Etymology Dictionary
674:Individuals living together
224:; or in another form, that
38:thing that functions as an
27:Individual living life form
10:
3384:
2896:Class II or DNA transposon
2891:Class I or retrotransposon
2248:10.1093/biolinnean/blac116
1977:10.1007/s13225-021-00477-7
1580:10.1016/j.jtbi.2019.03.009
1179:
934:colonies such as those of
702:
698:
240:Problematic cases include
126:
3266:
3209:Earliest known life forms
3194:
3107:
3083:Repeated sequences in DNA
2975:
2857:
2846:
2819:
2791:
2741:
2730:
2703:
2692:
2637:
2566:
2458:
1530:10.1142/S0218339009002715
988:co-ordinate to pump water
682:inter-organism signalling
3056:Endogenous viral element
2874:Horizontal gene transfer
2398:Tree of Life Web Project
2305:Cech, T.R. (July 2012).
755:horizontal gene transfer
385:is a colony, such as of
72:germ-soma specialisation
2753:dsDNA satellite virus (
2368:10.1126/science.3898363
2008:A Dictionary of Biology
1195:A GreekâEnglish Lexicon
617:Organisms of different
336:, composed of a single
3311:Helper dependent virus
2627:Biological dark matter
2142:10.1038/ismej.2012.110
1840:10.1098/rstb.2009.0095
1611:Journal of Biosciences
1057:
1032:, possibly individuals
911:
893:Organism-like colonies
718:
563:Multicellular organism
542:(cellular slime mould)
517:for specific functions
349:multicellular organism
313:
172:
171:, forming a new plant.
3071:Endogenous retrovirus
3044:Origin of replication
2760:ssDNA satellite virus
2750:ssRNA satellite virus
2284:10.1089/ast.2012.0868
2034:Kelly, Kevin (1994).
1405:Philosophy of Science
1273:10.1093/monist/onx016
1186:Liddell, Henry George
1133:(a primitive form of
1052:
900:
712:
287:
268:, optimized by group
158:
54:. This would exclude
3015:Secondary chromosome
3010:Extrachromosomal DNA
2886:Transposable element
2508:Biomolecular complex
1666:10.1162/BIOT_a_00068
1246:Critique of Judgment
1014:Functional structure
715:tobacco mosaic virus
494:Unicellular organism
472:Tobacco mosaic virus
318:unicellular organism
140:Critique of Judgment
3251:Model lipid bilayer
3093:Interspersed repeat
2195:1983JThBi.105..591B
2006:Hine, R.S. (2008).
1834:(1533): 3143â3155.
1572:2019JThBi.470..101P
1359:10.1038/nrmicro2108
1127:repair such damages
1045:Synthetic organisms
947:
826:genetic information
762:
598:Male provides male
441:
420:, with a bacterial
296:, with unicellular
260:) as organisms. If
2561:organic structures
2394:"The Tree of Life"
1623:10.1007/BF02705148
1315:10.1007/BF02478302
1135:sexual interaction
1062:synthetic organism
1058:
945:
912:
760:
757:from viral hosts.
719:
439:
314:
242:colonial organisms
230:information theory
173:
114:, as an organism.
64:colonial organisms
3355:
3354:
3296:Non-cellular life
3103:
3102:
2842:
2841:
2815:
2814:
2769:ssRNA satellite (
2525:
2524:
2452:Hierarchy of life
2362:(4719): 1277â81.
2085:10.1111/evo.13078
2079:(12): 2669â2677.
2053:978-0-201-48340-6
2017:978-0-19-920462-5
1654:Biological Theory
1164:978-0-3232-2205-1
1074:electromechanical
1042:
1041:
874:
873:
863:natural selection
687:
686:
633:photosynthesises
372:colonial organism
222:Erwin Schrödinger
16:(Redirected from
3375:
3032:Gene duplication
2855:
2854:
2851:self-replication
2739:
2738:
2701:
2700:
2559:Self-replicating
2552:
2545:
2538:
2529:
2528:
2518:
2445:
2438:
2431:
2422:
2421:
2413:
2401:
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2379:
2351:
2345:
2344:
2334:
2302:
2296:
2295:
2267:
2261:
2260:
2250:
2226:
2215:
2214:
2178:
2172:
2171:
2161:
2130:The ISME Journal
2121:
2115:
2114:
2104:
2064:
2058:
2057:
2041:
2031:
2022:
2021:
2003:
1990:
1989:
1979:
1964:Fungal Diversity
1955:
1946:
1945:
1917:
1911:
1910:
1892:
1868:
1862:
1861:
1851:
1819:
1798:
1797:
1791:
1783:
1747:
1738:
1737:
1727:
1721:
1720:
1684:
1678:
1677:
1649:
1643:
1642:
1606:
1600:
1599:
1551:
1542:
1541:
1509:
1503:
1502:
1493:(2â3): 247â267.
1482:
1476:
1475:
1443:
1437:
1436:
1400:
1379:
1378:
1342:
1327:
1326:
1294:
1285:
1284:
1256:
1250:
1238:
1232:
1231:
1229:
1227:
1213:
1202:
1182:
1181:
1175:
1169:
1168:
1151:
948:
944:
828:about themselves
763:
759:
713:A virus such as
442:
438:
246:eusocial insects
136:
130:
68:eusocial insects
21:
18:Living creatures
3383:
3382:
3378:
3377:
3376:
3374:
3373:
3372:
3358:
3357:
3356:
3351:
3301:Synthetic virus
3289:Artificial cell
3262:
3190:
3099:
2988:RNA replication
2983:DNA replication
2971:
2962:Group II intron
2860:
2850:
2838:
2829:Mammalian prion
2811:
2787:
2766:dsRNA satellite
2763:ssDNA satellite
2733:
2726:
2695:
2688:
2633:
2562:
2556:
2526:
2521:
2462:
2454:
2449:
2418:
2404:
2392:
2389:
2384:
2383:
2352:
2348:
2303:
2299:
2268:
2264:
2227:
2218:
2179:
2175:
2122:
2118:
2065:
2061:
2054:
2032:
2025:
2018:
2004:
1993:
1956:
1949:
1918:
1914:
1869:
1865:
1820:
1801:
1785:
1784:
1748:
1741:
1728:
1724:
1685:
1681:
1650:
1646:
1607:
1603:
1552:
1545:
1510:
1506:
1483:
1479:
1444:
1440:
1401:
1382:
1343:
1330:
1295:
1288:
1257:
1253:
1239:
1235:
1225:
1223:
1217:"organism (n.)"
1215:
1214:
1205:
1200:Perseus Project
1176:
1172:
1165:
1153:
1152:
1148:
1143:
1110:
1087:, in which the
1047:
895:
707:
701:
696:
652:joined together
570:-forming fungus
556:a fruiting body
457:
455:
433:Joan Strassmann
282:
262:group selection
211:immune response
195:Richard Dawkins
153:
131:, derived from
120:
95:Joan Strassmann
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3381:
3371:
3370:
3353:
3352:
3350:
3349:
3344:
3343:
3342:
3337:
3327:
3321:
3315:
3314:
3313:
3308:
3298:
3293:
3292:
3291:
3286:
3276:
3270:
3268:
3264:
3263:
3261:
3260:
3259:
3258:
3253:
3245:
3240:
3235:
3230:
3224:
3223:
3222:
3211:
3206:
3200:
3198:
3192:
3191:
3189:
3188:
3183:
3182:
3181:
3176:
3168:
3166:Kappa organism
3163:
3162:
3161:
3156:
3151:
3146:
3141:
3131:
3130:
3129:
3124:
3113:
3111:
3105:
3104:
3101:
3100:
3098:
3097:
3096:
3095:
3090:
3080:
3079:
3078:
3073:
3068:
3063:
3053:
3052:
3051:
3041:
3040:
3039:
3037:Non-coding DNA
3034:
3029:
3019:
3018:
3017:
3012:
3007:
3002:
2992:
2991:
2990:
2979:
2977:
2973:
2972:
2970:
2969:
2964:
2959:
2957:Group I intron
2954:
2949:
2948:
2947:
2937:
2936:
2935:
2932:
2923:
2920:
2915:
2910:
2900:
2899:
2898:
2893:
2883:
2882:
2881:
2879:Genomic island
2876:
2865:
2863:
2859:Mobile genetic
2852:
2844:
2843:
2840:
2839:
2837:
2836:
2831:
2825:
2823:
2817:
2816:
2813:
2812:
2810:
2809:
2808:
2807:
2804:
2795:
2793:
2789:
2788:
2786:
2785:
2784:
2783:
2780:
2774:
2767:
2764:
2761:
2758:
2751:
2747:
2745:
2736:
2728:
2727:
2725:
2724:
2717:
2709:
2707:
2698:
2690:
2689:
2687:
2686:
2684:dsDNA-RT virus
2681:
2679:ssRNA-RT virus
2676:
2674:(â)ssRNA virus
2671:
2669:(+)ssRNA virus
2666:
2661:
2656:
2655:
2654:
2643:
2641:
2635:
2634:
2632:
2631:
2630:
2629:
2624:
2614:Incertae sedis
2610:
2609:
2608:
2603:
2598:
2593:
2583:
2578:
2572:
2570:
2564:
2563:
2555:
2554:
2547:
2540:
2532:
2523:
2522:
2520:
2519:
2459:
2456:
2455:
2448:
2447:
2440:
2433:
2425:
2416:
2415:
2402:
2388:
2387:External links
2385:
2382:
2381:
2346:
2317:(7): a006742.
2297:
2278:(4): 391â403.
2262:
2216:
2189:(4): 591â602.
2173:
2136:(2): 233â236.
2116:
2059:
2052:
2023:
2016:
1991:
1947:
1928:(4): 152â155.
1912:
1883:(4): 659â671.
1863:
1799:
1764:10.1086/656905
1758:(4): 447â472.
1739:
1722:
1695:(4): 621â627.
1679:
1660:(4): 312â325.
1644:
1601:
1543:
1504:
1477:
1458:(4): 152â155.
1438:
1417:10.1086/392827
1380:
1353:(4): 306â311.
1328:
1309:(3): 245â260.
1286:
1267:(3): 373â390.
1251:
1241:Kant, Immanuel
1233:
1203:
1170:
1163:
1145:
1144:
1142:
1139:
1109:
1106:
1046:
1043:
1040:
1039:
1033:
1026:
1022:
1021:
1018:
1015:
1011:
1010:
1007:
997:
993:
992:
989:
983:
979:
978:
975:
968:
964:
963:
958:
952:
940:naked molerats
894:
891:
885:, growth, and
872:
871:
865:
848:
841:
840:
834:
829:
821:
820:
817:
814:
808:
807:
801:
798:
792:
791:
788:
785:
779:
778:
773:
767:
703:Main article:
700:
697:
695:
694:Boundary cases
692:
685:
684:
678:
675:
672:
666:
660:
659:
656:
653:
647:
642:
635:
634:
624:
621:
615:
610:
604:
603:
596:
593:
590:
585:
581:
580:
577:
574:
571:
565:
559:
558:
552:
549:
543:
535:
528:
527:
521:
518:
503:
496:
490:
489:
486:
483:
474:
469:
463:
462:
459:
452:
449:
446:
281:
278:
234:
233:
226:Claude Shannon
214:
207:
198:
191:
152:
149:
119:
116:
66:; a colony of
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3380:
3369:
3366:
3365:
3363:
3348:
3345:
3341:
3338:
3336:
3333:
3332:
3331:
3328:
3326:
3322:
3320:
3319:Nanobacterium
3316:
3312:
3309:
3307:
3304:
3303:
3302:
3299:
3297:
3294:
3290:
3287:
3285:
3284:Cell division
3282:
3281:
3280:
3277:
3275:
3272:
3271:
3269:
3265:
3257:
3254:
3252:
3249:
3248:
3246:
3244:
3241:
3239:
3236:
3234:
3231:
3229:
3225:
3221:
3218:
3217:
3216:
3212:
3210:
3207:
3205:
3202:
3201:
3199:
3197:
3193:
3187:
3184:
3180:
3177:
3175:
3172:
3171:
3169:
3167:
3164:
3160:
3157:
3155:
3152:
3150:
3147:
3145:
3142:
3140:
3137:
3136:
3135:
3132:
3128:
3127:Hydrogenosome
3125:
3123:
3120:
3119:
3118:
3117:Mitochondrion
3115:
3114:
3112:
3110:
3109:Endosymbiosis
3106:
3094:
3091:
3089:
3088:Tandem repeat
3086:
3085:
3084:
3081:
3077:
3074:
3072:
3069:
3067:
3064:
3062:
3059:
3058:
3057:
3054:
3050:
3047:
3046:
3045:
3042:
3038:
3035:
3033:
3030:
3028:
3025:
3024:
3023:
3020:
3016:
3013:
3011:
3008:
3006:
3003:
3001:
2998:
2997:
2996:
2993:
2989:
2986:
2985:
2984:
2981:
2980:
2978:
2976:Other aspects
2974:
2968:
2965:
2963:
2960:
2958:
2955:
2953:
2950:
2946:
2943:
2942:
2941:
2938:
2933:
2931:
2927:
2924:
2921:
2919:
2916:
2914:
2911:
2909:
2906:
2905:
2904:
2901:
2897:
2894:
2892:
2889:
2888:
2887:
2884:
2880:
2877:
2875:
2872:
2871:
2870:
2867:
2866:
2864:
2862:
2856:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2835:
2832:
2830:
2827:
2826:
2824:
2822:
2818:
2805:
2802:
2801:
2800:
2797:
2796:
2794:
2790:
2781:
2778:
2777:
2775:
2772:
2768:
2765:
2762:
2759:
2756:
2752:
2749:
2748:
2746:
2744:
2740:
2737:
2735:
2729:
2723:
2722:
2721:Avsunviroidae
2718:
2716:
2715:
2714:Pospiviroidae
2711:
2710:
2708:
2706:
2702:
2699:
2697:
2691:
2685:
2682:
2680:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2662:
2660:
2657:
2653:
2650:
2649:
2648:
2645:
2644:
2642:
2640:
2636:
2628:
2625:
2623:
2622:
2618:
2617:
2616:
2615:
2611:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2594:
2592:
2589:
2588:
2587:
2584:
2582:
2579:
2577:
2574:
2573:
2571:
2569:
2568:Cellular life
2565:
2560:
2553:
2548:
2546:
2541:
2539:
2534:
2533:
2530:
2517:
2513:
2512:Macromolecule
2509:
2505:
2501:
2497:
2493:
2489:
2485:
2481:
2477:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2460:
2457:
2453:
2446:
2441:
2439:
2434:
2432:
2427:
2426:
2423:
2419:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2391:
2390:
2377:
2373:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2350:
2342:
2338:
2333:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2301:
2293:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2277:
2273:
2266:
2258:
2254:
2249:
2244:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2225:
2223:
2221:
2212:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2177:
2169:
2165:
2160:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2120:
2112:
2108:
2103:
2098:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2063:
2055:
2049:
2045:
2040:
2039:
2030:
2028:
2019:
2013:
2009:
2002:
2000:
1998:
1996:
1987:
1983:
1978:
1973:
1970:(1): 99â154.
1969:
1965:
1961:
1954:
1952:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1916:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1891:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1867:
1859:
1855:
1850:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1818:
1816:
1814:
1812:
1810:
1808:
1806:
1804:
1795:
1789:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1746:
1744:
1735:
1734:
1726:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1683:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1648:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1612:
1605:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1550:
1548:
1539:
1535:
1531:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1508:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1481:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1442:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1399:
1397:
1395:
1393:
1391:
1389:
1387:
1385:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1341:
1339:
1337:
1335:
1333:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1293:
1291:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1255:
1249:: §65, 5:374.
1248:
1247:
1242:
1237:
1222:
1218:
1212:
1210:
1208:
1201:
1197:
1196:
1191:
1190:Scott, Robert
1187:
1183:
1174:
1166:
1160:
1156:
1150:
1146:
1138:
1136:
1132:
1131:recombination
1128:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1105:
1103:
1098:
1093:
1090:
1086:
1081:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1056:
1051:
1038:
1034:
1031:
1027:
1024:
1023:
1019:
1016:
1013:
1012:
1008:
1005:
1001:
998:
995:
994:
990:
987:
984:
981:
980:
976:
974:is gas-filled
973:
969:
966:
965:
962:
959:
957:
953:
950:
949:
943:
941:
937:
933:
929:
925:
924:siphonophores
921:
917:
909:
906:, a colonial
905:
904:
899:
890:
888:
884:
879:
869:
866:
864:
860:
859:recombination
856:
852:
849:
847:
843:
842:
839:
835:
833:
830:
827:
823:
822:
818:
815:
813:
810:
809:
806:
805:self-assembly
802:
799:
797:
794:
793:
789:
786:
784:
781:
780:
777:
774:
771:
768:
765:
764:
758:
756:
752:
748:
743:
739:
735:
731:
727:
723:
716:
711:
706:
691:
683:
679:
676:
673:
670:
667:
665:
664:Superorganism
662:
661:
657:
654:
651:
648:
646:
643:
641:
637:
636:
632:
628:
625:
622:
620:
616:
614:
611:
609:
606:
605:
601:
597:
594:
591:
589:
586:
583:
582:
578:
575:
572:
569:
566:
564:
561:
560:
557:
553:
550:
548:
544:
541:
540:
539:Dictyostelium
536:
534:
530:
529:
526:
522:
519:
516:
512:
508:
504:
502:
501:
497:
495:
492:
491:
487:
484:
482:
478:
475:
473:
470:
468:
465:
464:
461:Co-operation
460:
453:
450:
447:
444:
443:
437:
434:
430:
429:David Queller
425:
423:
419:
418:cyanobacteria
415:
411:
407:
403:
399:
394:
392:
388:
384:
383:superorganism
379:
377:
373:
368:
366:
362:
358:
354:
350:
345:
343:
339:
335:
331:
327:
323:
322:microorganism
319:
311:
307:
303:
302:cyanobacteria
299:
295:
291:
286:
277:
273:
271:
267:
266:superorganism
263:
259:
255:
251:
247:
243:
238:
231:
227:
223:
219:
215:
212:
208:
206:
202:
201:individuality
199:
196:
192:
190:
186:
182:
178:
177:
176:
170:
166:
162:
157:
148:
146:
145:Immanuel Kant
142:
141:
135:
129:
125:
124:Ancient Greek
115:
113:
109:
105:
101:
96:
92:
91:David Queller
87:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
19:
3306:Viral vector
3273:
3149:Gerontoplast
3076:Transpoviron
2848:Nucleic acid
2834:Fungal prion
2732:Helper-virus
2719:
2712:
2619:
2612:
2514: >
2510: >
2506: >
2502: >
2498: >
2494: >
2490: >
2488:Organ system
2486: >
2483:
2482: >
2478: >
2474: >
2470: >
2466: >
2417:
2410:Species 2000
2409:
2397:
2359:
2355:
2349:
2314:
2310:
2300:
2275:
2272:Astrobiology
2271:
2265:
2238:
2234:
2186:
2182:
2176:
2133:
2129:
2119:
2076:
2072:
2062:
2037:
2007:
1967:
1963:
1925:
1921:
1915:
1880:
1876:
1866:
1831:
1827:
1788:cite journal
1755:
1751:
1731:
1725:
1692:
1688:
1682:
1657:
1653:
1647:
1617:(1): 31â39.
1614:
1610:
1604:
1563:
1559:
1524:(1): 63â96.
1521:
1517:
1507:
1490:
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1480:
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1408:
1404:
1350:
1346:
1306:
1302:
1264:
1260:
1254:
1244:
1236:
1224:. Retrieved
1193:
1173:
1154:
1149:
1123:reproduction
1111:
1094:
1082:
1059:
1004:gastrozooids
956:siphonophore
928:slime moulds
913:
908:siphonophore
901:
887:reproduction
875:
812:Reproduction
726:reproduction
720:
688:
645:Siphonophore
545:Unicellular
537:
498:
477:Nucleic acid
458:reproduction
426:
408:consists of
395:
380:
376:siphonophore
369:
346:
315:
274:
239:
235:
181:reproduction
174:
138:
133:
121:
88:
76:siphonophore
44:reproduction
31:
29:
3330:Cancer cell
3196:Abiogenesis
3144:Chromoplast
3139:Chloroplast
2922:Degradative
2664:dsRNA virus
2659:ssDNA virus
2652:Giant virus
2647:dsDNA virus
2516:Biomolecule
2476:Biocoenosis
1566:: 101â107.
1411:: 301â311.
1025:Composition
986:Nectophores
749:, and they
738:homeostasis
454:Metabolism,
451:Composition
391:social unit
351:such as an
254:mutualistic
179:autonomous
3238:Proteinoid
3233:Coacervate
3186:Nitroplast
3179:Trophosome
3174:Bacteriome
3159:Apicoplast
3154:Leucoplast
2995:Chromosome
2913:Resistance
2621:Parakaryon
2480:Population
2241:(1): 141.
1261:The Monist
1141:References
1119:nucleotide
1097:teleonomic
1072:including
982:Propulsion
883:metabolism
783:Metabolism
766:Capability
734:metabolism
588:Anglerfish
525:signalling
511:organelles
500:Paramecium
422:microbiome
374:such as a
342:organelles
324:such as a
306:microbiome
270:adaptation
258:anglerfish
189:metabolism
128:áœÏÎłÎ±ÎœÎčÏÎŒÏÏ
112:anglerfish
52:metabolism
40:individual
3368:Organisms
3247:Research
3228:Protocell
2967:Retrozyme
2926:Virulence
2908:Fertility
2755:Virophage
2743:Satellite
2734:dependent
2586:Eukaryota
2504:Organelle
2472:Ecosystem
2464:Biosphere
2257:0024-4066
2150:1751-7362
2093:0014-3820
2073:Evolution
1986:1560-2745
1538:0218-3390
1323:0007-4985
1102:cognition
1066:chimaeras
961:Jellyfish
954:Colonial
803:No, just
608:Mutualism
533:protistan
531:Swarming
398:mutualism
330:bacterium
250:germ-soma
118:Etymology
84:jellyfish
3362:Category
3274:Organism
3267:See also
3243:Sulphobe
3220:Ribozyme
3215:RNA life
3122:Mitosome
3066:Prophage
3061:Provirus
3049:Replicon
3005:Circular
2952:Phagemid
2869:Mobilome
2861:elements
2771:Virusoid
2694:Subviral
2606:Protista
2591:Animalia
2576:Bacteria
2484:Organism
2341:21441585
2292:23551238
2168:23038175
2111:27704542
1942:10322523
1899:19210588
1858:19805423
1780:19816447
1772:21243964
1709:18947335
1674:28501709
1639:26656790
1631:15824439
1596:80625250
1588:30876803
1499:21162370
1472:10322523
1433:84168536
1367:19270719
1281:26370801
1226:11 April
967:Buoyancy
951:Function
932:eusocial
903:Apolemia
855:mutation
844:Able to
772:organism
770:Cellular
568:Mushroom
334:archaean
205:autonomy
32:organism
3256:Jeewanu
3170:Organs
3134:Plastid
2934:Cryptic
2903:Plasmid
2601:Plantae
2581:Archaea
2376:3898363
2356:Science
2332:3385955
2211:6672474
2191:Bibcode
2159:3554396
2102:5132100
1907:8413751
1849:2781869
1717:4942890
1568:Bibcode
1375:3907750
1198:at the
1180:áœÏÎłÎ±ÎœÎżÎœ
1078:hybrots
1076:limbs,
1070:cyborgs
1064:, from
1053:Insect
1000:Palpons
996:Feeding
970:Top of
920:lichens
916:sponges
836:DNA or
742:enzymes
722:Viruses
699:Viruses
638:Joined
619:species
600:gametes
547:amoebae
509:, with
481:protein
456:growth,
448:Example
402:species
326:protist
310:species
218:entropy
165:cutting
134:Ăłrganon
56:viruses
3347:Virome
3325:Nanobe
3022:Genome
3000:Linear
2945:Fosmid
2940:Cosmid
2705:Viroid
2696:agents
2496:Tissue
2374:
2339:
2329:
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1425:188676
1423:
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1365:
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1279:
1161:
1115:genome
1089:genome
1055:cyborg
1030:zooids
977:Jelly
972:colony
930:, and
878:spores
846:evolve
824:Store
796:Growth
751:evolve
730:growth
671:colony
650:Zooids
640:colony
627:Fungus
613:Lichen
406:lichen
361:fungus
353:animal
308:. The
290:lichen
216:"anti-
187:, and
185:growth
163:plant
108:lichen
100:fungus
80:zooids
60:evolve
50:, and
48:growth
36:living
2821:Prion
2792:Other
2639:Virus
2596:Fungi
2492:Organ
2468:Biome
1903:S2CID
1776:S2CID
1713:S2CID
1670:S2CID
1635:S2CID
1592:S2CID
1429:S2CID
1421:JSTOR
1371:S2CID
1277:JSTOR
1037:cells
1035:Many
1028:Many
776:Virus
747:genes
736:, or
705:Virus
515:cilia
513:e.g.
467:Virus
445:Level
414:algae
410:fungi
363:, or
357:plant
332:, or
320:is a
298:algae
294:fungi
161:basil
3335:HeLa
3279:Cell
3027:Gene
2500:Cell
2372:PMID
2337:PMID
2288:PMID
2253:ISSN
2207:PMID
2164:PMID
2146:ISSN
2107:PMID
2089:ISSN
2048:ISBN
2012:ISBN
1982:ISSN
1938:PMID
1895:PMID
1854:PMID
1794:link
1768:PMID
1705:PMID
1627:PMID
1584:PMID
1534:ISSN
1495:PMID
1468:PMID
1363:PMID
1319:ISSN
1228:2024
1159:ISBN
1002:and
936:ants
631:alga
507:cell
505:One
431:and
412:and
387:ants
365:alga
338:cell
169:stem
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2806:DNA
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2782:DNA
2779:RNA
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832:DNA
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