778:
1650:
3893:
3562:
1545:
1536:
1527:
1563:
1554:
1275:
1170:
2964:
1476:
37:
1144:
912:
3791:
3450:
2740:
1024:
993:
and
February 1919 caused a spike in pro-independence activism; around this time, they were able to quickly secure a number of significant alliances. They found that some groups had already been independently planning protests. For example, Presbyterian leaders in Pyongyang reportedly had a plan to protest in the last week of January; these efforts were merged into the Cheondoist ones. They secured alliances from major Christian and Buddhist groups, as well as from several student organizations. They gained the support of several former government officials from the
643:. The movement grew and spread rapidly. Statistics on the protest are uncertain; there were around 1,500 to 1,800 protests with a total of around 0.8 to 2 million participants. The total population of Korea at the time was around 16 to 17 million. Despite the peaceful nature of the protests, they were frequently violently suppressed. One Korean estimate in 1920 claimed 7,509 deaths and 46,948 arrests. Japanese authorities reported much lower numbers, although there were instances where authorities were observed destroying evidence, such as during the
2684:
3815:
3509:
1013:
2856:. Chung gave dozens of talks on his book and, according to scholar Brandon Palmer, became a noted figure in American intellectual circles, with significant audiences at his talks. Some of their writings strategically focused on the disproportionate persecution of Korean Christians, which they knew would evoke sympathy from American audiences. They also placed Korea's situation in the context of increasing Japanese colonialism and aggression, particularly that in China.
1369:
818:
8919:
2798:, was in Seoul and witnessed Gojong's funeral and much of the early protests. He described Japanese investigators following him and searching his house in an apparent effort to stop him from leaking information about the protests. McClatchy would eventually leave Korea on March 17, but made a point of traveling around the peninsula and documenting what he saw before his departure. Upon his return, he dedicated the front page of the
2926:
2955:'s sympathy towards Korea reportedly increased after the protests. He became a significant voice in advocating for the protection of Korean art and architecture, although modern Korean nationalists have reportedly criticized his participation in what they view as the colonial government's subsequent superficial cultural appeasement efforts. Yanagi publicly condemned assimilation efforts and was eventually met with censorship.
2806:
1691:, reported that four nurses from his hospital were arrested for protesting in the winter of 1919. They were kept in conditions so cold that their hands, feet, and one of their faces froze. There are reports that prisoners were made to strip down in one building and run to another in the cold. One woman reportedly was made to walk from one prison barefoot through the snow to another in order to be processed for her release.
8833:
1709:
2723:, in which he argued that Koreans had been exaggerating or completely lying about the protests. He argued that Japan had "no other desire than to improve the condition of the Korean people". He claimed that he would create a government so good that Koreans would choose to abandon their identity in order to become Japanese. His administration published a number of texts in English about Korea, such as
3158:
1057:, a publisher affiliated with Cheondoism. On the morning of the 28th, they distributed these copies around the peninsula. They also coordinated the distribution of copies to members of the Korean diaspora, to U.S. President Wilson, and to participants in the Paris Peace Conference. That day, they held a final meeting at Son Byong-hi's house and reviewed their plans for the protests.
1763:) to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the movement. The compilation of the database began in 2016, and was reportedly the largest ever data gathering on the movement. It also represented the first time that the South Korean government promoted a single set of statistics on the movement. The database aggregates evidence and numbers from over 27,729 sources; these have been
6456:
3493:, both the North and South Korean governments have promoted differing analyses of Korean history. The scholar Dennis Hart argues that all nations participate in the curation of national histories in order to influence politics, and that the division and creation of rival states has created the need for two historical narratives from a single past.
8494:
1189:, their numbers had swelled to the tens of thousands. From there, a number of splinter groups marched in different directions throughout the city. News of the protests spread rapidly in Seoul, and marching and public demonstations continued for many hours afterwards. That day, around 3,000 copies of the declaration were distributed around Seoul.
1292:
played a larger role in regions with more developed transportation, and
Cheondoists in regions with less developed transportation. According to one estimate, 17% of arrests made during the protests were of Christians, when they composed less than 1% of the population. 58.4% of arrests were of peasants, and 3.9% were of laborers.
3066:
improvement to their socioeconomic conditions and civil rights as a result of these policies. Throughout the period of cultural rule, Japan continued violently suppressing the Korean independence movement. By the late 1930s, many of these concessions were retracted, and assimilation was enforced with greater intensity.
3707:. Social events, especially dinners (or if funds were insufficient, refreshments), and events such as sports festivals, also accompanied many ceremonies. Koreans are also attested to boarding cars decorated with nationalist symbols and driving around whilst distributing leaflets about the independence movement.
3806:(KPG) to celebrate these occasions. The KPG was the government-in-exile of Korea during the Japanese occupation, and a predecessor of the current government. North Korea refused to participate in the joint project of the anniversary due to "scheduling issues". The commission ceased its operation in June 2020.
3100:
2672:. Gotō argued that Japan was on a civilizing mission in Korea and that its intentions were noble. He blamed reported abuses on low-level colonial authorities. He argued that Korea's annexation was legal, and likened the legal arguments for the annexation to those used to justify the American occupations of
3547:
Under the leadership of the great and passionate anti-Japanese revolutionary Kang Jin Sok , the shout of "Long live Korean independence" spread like a wave throughout the country. From the outset the struggle had the characteristics of a riot and spread. At this time, our great and beloved leader Kim
3242:
Due to the civil war, overall awareness of the movement was likely low amongst the general
Russian public, although it was still covered in major papers. Reporting on it was also possibly relatively delayed compared to in other countries; a 2019 study on global coverage of the protests claimed that a
3140:
Palmer argues that "the overwhelming response of the
American public to the plight of Korea was apathy". The movement had occurred in the aftermath of World War I, and American attention was often focused on affairs in Europe. A number of non-politician Americans joined the League of Friends of Korea
2824:
A number of churches argued that Japan should alter its policies in Korea, although they did not openly advocate for Korea's independence. The
Commission on Relations with the Orient of the Federal Council of the Churches of Christ conducted a three-month investigation of the protests and published a
2642:
Japan had been conducting a public relations campaign in the U.S. for at least a decade prior to the movement. Information on Korea had previously largely reached the U.S. through well-funded
Japanese media channels. These narratives deliberately portrayed Korea as in need of civilizing, and Japan as
2590:
Japan attempted to stop information about the event from leaving the peninsula. Major
Japanese newspapers made some initial reports on the event; they almost uniformly downplayed its scale and did not cover it as the main story. Eventually, the Japanese government issued restrictions on what could be
1770:
The database intentionally provides conservative estimates on the protests; the database's curators suspect that actual numbers are much higher. Events and numbers are reportedly only included if there is known surviving evidence for them that is deemed sufficiently reliable. A significant portion of
1615:
Japan began massacring in Korea. Over thousand unarmed people killed in Seoul during three hours' demonstration on the twenty-eighth. Japanese troops, fire brigades, and civilians are ordered people mercilessly throughout Korea. Killed several thousand since twenty-seventh. Churches, schools, homes
1308:
was the last province to join the protests; they began on March 10. Its protests have been characterized as less intense than others, possibly due to transportation being less developed there, as well as security being tighter due to it being on the border with both Russia and China. In addition, the
3569:
The March First
Movement had some impact on other protest movements around this time, although the extent of the impact is actively debated. A number of historians have argued that the various protests occurred in differing political circumstances and with different causes, and are thus difficult to
3440:
on August 23. The article described the colonial government's reform efforts, and did not explicitly mention the protests. Several South Korean scholars argued that, as a colonial power itself, Italy was incentivized to not incite anti-colonialist sentiment. In addition, Italy and Japan had signed a
3257:
The government and press of the United
Kingdom generally expressed negative views on the protest. Sympathy to Korea possibly increased after the April 15 Jeamni massacre. No officials advocated for Korea's independence, and many promoted views that were aligned with Japanese narratives. The U.K. and
3148:
had published an article critical of the Korean independence movement just a month prior to the protest, but shifted to expressing sympathy soon afterwards. On June 15, the paper dedicated the entirety of one of its six pages to coverage of modern Korean history and the protests, with a full reprint
1672:
they put Korean women in the question box—this, mind you, is before they are condemned at all—they are stripped absolutely naked... From here they have to walk across an open court where they can be seen by any one who pleases... Some women, who tried to cover themselves, had their hands tied behind
1291:
The protests were decentralized and diverse. The diversity in the protests was influenced by local culture and religion. In some regions, Christians played a more significant role in organizing protests, and in others
Cheondoists were more significant. The scholar Kim Jin-bong argued that Christians
3536:
In North Korea, the event is taught as a turning point where the family of eight-year-old Kim Il Sung's took the lead of the independence movement. The epicenter of the movement is taught as being Pyongyang instead of Seoul, and the contributions of figures who became influential in the later South
3214:
One Yonhap News Agency reporter argued that a letter from an anonymous Korean student to U.S. President Wilson was possibly significant in influencing Chinese public opinion on the protests. Although it is unknown if the U.S. ever received the letter, it was widely republished in Chinese papers and
2868:
According to the analysis of one South Korean journalist, international publications became increasingly skeptical of Japan's narratives as time progressed. According to the analysis of Palmer, Korean public relations efforts continued into the early 1920s. They attempted to push for recognition at
992:
They dispatched representatives to negotiate and secure the cooperation of major politicians and groups in Korea. Some negotiations were strained and took months; they became so disheartened by these setbacks that they reportedly even considered abandoning their plan. However, the events of January
953:
proclaimed and publicly distributed a declaration of independence, which they sent to the Japanese government, attendees of the Paris Peace Conference, and to representatives of various countries. The students were arrested en masse by Japanese authorities, although news of their act reached Korea.
3872:
Koreans used unrelated events, such as school concerts and union meetings, as covers for commemoration ceremonies and rallies. Police officers arrived to break up some rallies. On a number of occasions, Koreans held surprise mass demonstrations in the open. In 1921, Korean students held a rally in
3095:
told their ambassador to Japan that "the consulate should be extremely careful not to encourage any belief that the United States will assist the Korean nationalists in carrying out their plans and that it should not do anything which may cause Japanese authorities to suspect American Government
3074:
Many governments and media outlets learned of the movement within several weeks of its beginning. No major foreign governments challenged Japan's rule over Korea. This was largely due to each government determining that forwarding their policy goals with Japan outweighed offering support to Korea.
2917:
published articles in Japanese and at least one in English, in which he described Japan's colonialism as a noble venture, but condemned the assimilation of and discrimination towards Koreans as causing humanitarian concerns. His writings reportedly attracted criticism from nationalists. Right-wing
2877:
and agreed to a number of demilitarization and openness policies. Palmer theorizes that these concessions quelled American criticisms of Japan. Palmer argued that the pro-Korea media campaign had some lasting success in influencing American opinion of Japan and Korea. However, the overall American
2646:
In response to the increasing numbers of foreign inquiries, various Japanese entities released public statements that promoted a range of narratives. Some denied that protests had occurred in Korea at all, some downplayed the scale of them, and some claimed that they had been fully suppressed much
1483:
The Japanese Government-General of Chōsen was reportedly unaware that the protests would occur until they began, and was surprised by the scale and intensity of them. It rushed to recruit people from various backgrounds, including firemen and security guards at railroads, to stop the protests. The
3238:
The Bolsheviks frequently expressed solidarity with the Koreans. Several South Korean and American scholars and journalists have since argued that the protesting Koreans were from across the political spectrum, and that Lenin and the Bolsheviks actively sought to link movements such as these with
3083:
The U.S. did not take any significant action in favor of Korea as a result of the protests. The scholar Brandon Palmer argued that even if the U.S. did publicly support Korean independence, circumstances still made it unlikely that Korea would be liberated as result of this. Furthermore, he noted
2886:
In Japan and abroad, the movement was widely seen as an embarrassment to the colonial government. Scholar Penny Bailey argues that the majority of Japanese opinions in publications supported the colonial government and Japanese colonialism. Others publicly debated what was dubbed "the Japan–Korea
2821:, who had previously served as a personal envoy of the Korean monarch Gojong, published articles and gave speeches on the Korean situation to large audiences in the U.S. On one occasion, he gave a speech to 1,200 people in Ohio. On March 1, 1921, he gave a speech to 1,300 people in New York City.
1729:
in Seoul and was arrested. Missionaries from her school negotiated her release. She then returned to her hometown of Cheonan, albeit with a smuggled copy of the Declaration of Independence. From there, she went from village to village, spreading the news of the protests and encouraging people to
3871:
Koreans who arrived in Japan before 1945 (called "Zainichi Koreans") and their descendents have commemorated the movement on an annual basis. Commemorations were more possible in the countryside than in the cities, as pressure from Japanese authorities was lower there. On a number of occasions,
3856:
anthem were widely associated with commemorations of the movement, but over time, these disappeared in both North Korean commemorations and historical writings on the movement. Choe theorizes that this is the result of these symbols becoming more associated with right-leaning Koreans over time.
3420:
launched a fundraising campaign in response to the movement, and sent the raised funds to Korean independence activists in Shanghai. Despite the community living in significant poverty, one estimate claims the Koreans there donated an average of 20% of their income to the independence movement.
2772:
In March, thirty foreign missionaries in Korea met and planned how they could draw international attention to Japan's acts in Korea; they reportedly adopted the slogan "No Neutrality for Brutality". Schofield and other foreign missionaries documented the protests and shared information with the
1574:
being performed on Korean Christians; this is attested to in one photograph, which was reprinted in American newspapers and paired with expressions of outrage. Korean schoolgirls are attested to being stripped and publicly flogged. An anecdote attested to claims a girl had her hand cut off by a
1389:
I heard that a large crowd of people gathered from all over to hear the news. After the noon bell finished ringing, a large flag celebrating Korea's independence was unfurled. Everyone raised their own flags and shouted "long live Korean independence". The flag blocked the sun, and the shouting
1384:
on March 13. Estimates of the number of protestors vary, although some put the number of protestors at around 20,000 to 30,000. This was around 10% of the total Korean population of the region at the time. One person, who had sent her son to the protest, later recalled what she had heard of it:
1303:
argued was an outsized role in the protests. Many of the movement's earliest protests were in the region, and a plurality of the signers were from there (11 of the 33). This region contained the second-largest city in Korea Pyongyang, was a center of Christianity, and produced a large number of
4170:
Scholar Penny Bailey argues that while the extent of regulations on Japanese coverage of the movement is unclear, such regulation was typical at the time. Bailey also argues that self-regulation was possibly practiced because of how the Home Ministry's Police Bureau had previously censored and
3065:
argues that colonial authority actually expanded during this period. Colonial expenditures doubled from 1919 to 1921, policies encouraged active management of Korean culture instead of passive punishment, and the police presence and intervention in Korea's economy increased. Koreans saw little
2200:
This sum reflects the overall total, and does not equal the sum of the above cells in the column. A small number of reported events took place across regions; for these, the counts are not separated by region. Summing the rows would result in participants in these events being counted multiple
919:
By the mid-1910s, several hundred Korean students were studying in Japan as part of Japan's cultural assimilation efforts. While there, they were exposed to and developed a variety of ideas, which they discussed and debated. Of particular interest to them were ideas from the West, particularly
2777:
and other prominent Japanese politicians and asked them to take action to stop the violent suppression of the protests. He gave a public lecture to hundreds of foreign missionaries in Japan, in which he strongly criticized colonial policies. The missionaries published a number of articles and
2712:
Koreans believe that after the President of the United States established the League of Nations, even small and weak countries would avoid the domination of Great Powers, and be able to maintain their national independence. How foolish they are! Ah, pitiful Koreans! You are governed by evil
1064:
in Seoul. However, they worried that if they were prominently arrested, angered Korean observers could possibly violently retaliate against authorities. In the interest of maintaining the non-violence of the protests, they decided to change the starting location to the less-visible restaurant
1344:
Women both led and participated in many of the protests. A group of female students wrote a public letter entitled "From Korean School Girls" to world leaders that was reprinted in international newspapers. The role of women in the protests was hailed by international feminist observers, and
731:
Japanese colonial policies mandated that Koreans send increasingly significant portions of their economic output to Japan, for what was seen as inadequate compensation. This caused a significant decline in the quality of life for many farmers and laborers, who began publicly protesting their
3391:
The French government, which was then hosting the Paris Peace Conference that Koreans were still petitioning to be represented at, reportedly cautiously monitored the movement's progression. A Yonhap reporter argued that the government was concerned that the movement would inspire similar
1602:
Police Station. At the entrance of the police office twenty or more Japanese policemen, who stood in line, kicked me and struck me in the face so many times... I was made to kneel down with my legs bound together, and each question and answer was accompanied alternately by blows to the
3935:, Koreans met and held rallies. Some of these meetings were documented in Japanese intelligence reports. In 1925, Koreans in Tianjin distributed thousands of fliers about the independence movement around the city. In Shanghai, ceremonies were hosted by the Korean Residents Association (
1192:
These protestors were reportedly consistently peaceful. The declaration contains the text "We entertain no spirit of vengeance towards Japan... et there be no violence". The protestors were often met with violent repression by Japanese authorities, which resulted in deaths and arrests.
3461:
The legacy of the March First Movement is still actively debated by scholars. While the movement did not secure Korea's liberation, it had a number of significant effects for Korea and a number of other countries. Independence activist sentiment amongst global Koreans flared. The 1926
3496:
Historian Michael Shin views the movement as a turning point for Korean nationalism, from being spearheaded by the elite to popular action. The resulting cultural rule period also led to the proliferation of Korean print media, which in turn further bolstered nationalist sentiment.
728:: forced cultural assimilation. Land was confiscated from Koreans and given to Japanese people, and economic and administrative systems were created that were systemically discriminatory. Resistance was violently suppressed, and freedom of speech and press were tightly controlled.
3655:
The March First Movement has been commemorated for each year since its occurrence, in both Korea and amongst the Korean diaspora. Historically, both left- and right-leaning Korean groups have celebrated the occasion. For example, in China in the 1920s, the rivaling right-leaning
3239:
their cause, as they stood to benefit from doing so. After the Soviet Union assumed control over territories with significant Korean populations in the Russian Far East, it allowed and sometimes encouraged Koreans to openly express support for the Korean independence movement.
2581:
From March 1 to April 11, Japanese officials reported 553 people killed, and more than 12,000 arrested. They said that 8 policemen and military were killed, and 158 wounded. Japanese soldiers were harmed during the protests, with a number of deaths and over a hundred wounded.
3710:
Commemorations have historically been funded by private donations, organization membership fees, and government grants. There are records of Koreans across the economic and social spectrum in Russia, China, the United States, and Cuba donating money for commemoration events.
2698:
toured the U.S. and gave speeches and wrote articles promoting these narratives. In a June 24 article, he argued that Koreans were so incapable of self-governance, that if Japan granted them independence for a six-month trial period, they would request to be colonized again.
2650:
A number of Japanese statements described the protests as the violent riots of extremist upstarts, highlighted Japanese casualties of the protests, and claimed any violence while suppressing the protests was done in self defense. Some statements, such as one published in the
1155:
after hearing there was going to be an announcement made there. Around 2 p.m., an unidentified young man rose up before the crowd and began reading the Korean Declaration of Independence aloud. Near the end of the document's reading, cheers of "long live Korean independence"
3131:
submitted into the Congressional Record dissents that cited Korea as an example of a nation the organization had failed to aid. Norris also served as vice-president of the League of Friends of Korea. A tabled resolution in support of Korean independence was rejected by the
1771:
evidence used for the database comes from Japanese sources; the colonial government was known to alter its records for political reasons. The instability during and extrajudicial actions taken during the movement's suppression also reduced the amount of surviving evidence.
1683:, reportedly witnessed 30 prisoners being kept in a single 10 ft × 6 ft (3.0 m × 1.8 m) room in a Pyongyang prison. Koreans were reportedly kept separate from Japanese prisoners, and given worse facilities. Another issue was heating; physician
3900:
Commemorations of the movement in the Soviet Union were allowed relative freedom. Koreans marched on streets and gave speeches in public venues. Buildings were also booked for ceremonies and rallies, and plays were performed by Korean theater companies. The Korean enclave
1641:, gatherings became treated with suspicion by Japanese authorities. In one instance, after a Korean attendee of a wedding was found to have documents linking him to the independence movement, Japanese authorities raided the wedding and conducted mass beatings and arrests.
3524:
mentions the movement in its first sentence: "We, the people of Korea, proud of a resplendent history and traditions dating from time immemorial, upholding the cause of the Provisional Republic of Korea Government born of the March First Independence Movement of 1919..."
931:
By early 1919, their ideas coalesced, and they also became angered by the rebuffing of the Korean representatives to the Paris Peace Conference, by the brutality of Japanese rule, and by the possibility that Gojong had been poisoned. On February 8, 600 students of the
2784:
claimed prison conditions were like those of a health resort; Schofield published a rebuttal that ridiculed the claim and described in detail the methods of torture employed by the Japanese. In retaliation for his acts, Japan pressured him into leaving Korea in 1920.
2751:
Foreigners sympathetic to Japan repeated claims that Koreans were uncivilized and incapable of self-governance; their statements were published in various newspapers internationally. Examples include Prof. Edmund Davison of Drew University (whom was born in Japan),
3136:
on March 18, 1920. In 1921, Congress condemned the violent suppression of the movement, but affirmed Japan's authority over Korea. The statement claimed that Korea was "as fixedly a part of as California, Arizona, and New Mexico are a part of the United States".
2577:
One Japanese police report claimed that there were 1,214 protests with 1.1 million participants; South Korean historian Kwon Tae-eok argued that Japanese sources were incentivized to artificially lower these numbers, and evaluated Park's estimate as plausible.
1628:, two American women "were beaten by the Japanese soldiers for no other reason than they were sympathetic with the Koreans". Japanese authorities searched the residences of foreigners, reportedly without
882:
from his house arrest in Korea, and eventually bring him to the conference. However, on January 21, 1919, Gojong suddenly died. Japan reported that Gojong had died from natural causes, but he had reportedly been healthy just until his death. Koreans widely
3923:, as Japanese influence over the region increased, open commemoration of the movement became increasingly met with repression. There, in 1932, an anti-Japanese insurgency arose that was dedicated to the March First Movement. Elsewhere in China, such as in
2763:
The English Church Mission (ECM) in Korea, unlike a significant majority of other missionaries in Korea, often expressed views more sympathetic to Japan. Their reports expressed doubt that Japanese authorities were intentionally killing Korean protestors.
3470:, had many similar protest actions take place. Amidst the violent repression of the protests and the hunt for its participants and leaders, numerous Koreans fled the peninsula. A number of them congregated in Shanghai, and in April 1919, they founded the
698:. The North Korean government initially celebrated it as a national holiday, but eventually demoted it and now does not evaluate the movement's significance similarly. It now promotes writings about the event that seek to emphasize the role of the ruling
3552:
While scholars in both the South and North are in relative consensus that the movement was unlikely to result in Korea's prompt liberation, North Korean textbooks reportedly argue that the movement failed because it lacked Kim's central leadership.
1264:
from March 27 to mid-April. Protests often coincided with market days, and were often held at government offices. The protests were broadly supported across economic and religious spectrums, including groups such as merchants, noblemen, literati,
3373:, a 2019 South Korean examination did not find many newspapers articles about the movement. A Yonhap reporter theorized that this was possibly due to India being a British colony at the time. One article entitled "Korean Unrest" was published in
3781:), and ceremonies were designated to be organized by the federal and local governments. Each year, a reenactment of the reading of the declaration is held in Tapgol Park. In 1950, South Korea recognized a song about the movement by Jeong In-bo (
2947:), reportedly welcomed the movement and saw it as signaling the end of colonial rule in Korea. He reportedly saw it as a part of the global trend of liberalization, and argued that Japan had previously treated Koreans extremely poorly. Japanese
2829:
compiled and published a report with its evidence of the protests' suppression. One of its foreign mission board secretaries wrote, "Mails and cables are censored and the World is kept in ignorance whilst Japan is posing as a civilized nation".
8344:
3096:
sympathizes with the Korean nationalist movement". Leo A. Bergholz, American consul-general in Seoul, reportedly expressed some sympathy towards the Korean protestors and advocated for colonial reforms, but otherwise adopted a passive stance.
1282:
Korean shop owners reportedly closed their doors in solidarity with the protests, with some reportedly refusing to reopen even after Japanese soldiers attempted to force them to. Some shop owners demanded the release of imprisoned protestors.
1119:
Around noon on March 1, 1919, twenty-nine of the thirty-three signers of the declaration gathered in Taehwagwan to start the protest. The signers conducted a prominent reading of the declaration in the restaurant. The Korean restaurant owner
1439:
on August 12, a public rally in support of the March First Movement was held, and was reportedly attended by around 200 people, including at least one Soviet politician. The rally was left-leaning; its speakers, including an ethnic Korean
808:
against Japan. The Japanese colonial government suppressed discussion of the Fourteen Points; for example, around this time it reportedly banned a foreign film from being screened in Korea because the film had images of President Wilson.
804:, which Japan was not a part of. Historian Ku Daeyeol argues Wilson's efforts were sincere, but frustrated by geopolitical realities. The U.S. would not begin openly advocating for Korean independence until decades later, after it joined
2611:
Foreign witnesses in Korea played a significant role in documenting and photographing the movement, as well as sharing information on it abroad. The first communication on it to leave the Japanese empire was in English and went to
2289:
2647:
earlier than in reality. There are records of the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs requesting that the United States and Germany stop their newspapers from publishing claims about the protests that it deemed to be rumors.
3025:). These policies allowed several limited cultural freedoms and programs for Koreans. This included permission for several Korean newspapers to be founded, which resulted in the creation of the now newspapers of record
933:
1032:
9537:
3430:
on March 22, 1919, and consisted of two sentences: "The unrest in Korea has been suppressed. There is peace again". Subsequent coverage was reportedly often short, as much reporting was devoted to domestic issues.
1720:
Yu Gwan-sun, a 16-year-old participant in the protests, has since become a symbol of March First Movement, and is now remembered in South Korea as a martyr. On the first day of the protests, Yu, then a student at
3722:(USAMGIK), right- and left-leaning groups held separate commemorations. Right-leaning groups continued to prominently display nationalist symbols. Ceremonies also came to involve Korean reunification sentiment.
3294:
The English Church Mission in Korea reportedly attempted to maintain a middle ground position between what it viewed as Korean terrorism after the protests and the oppression of the colonial government. Bishop
647:. Japanese authorities then conducted a global disinformation campaign on the protests. They promoted a wide range of narratives, including outright denial of any protests occurring, portraying them as violent
612:
beginning on March 1, 1919. Protests were largely concentrated in March and April, although related protests continued until 1921. In South Korea, the movement is remembered as a landmark event of not only the
3941:) and not necessarily by the Korean Provisional Government, and various Korean organizations in the city were invited. Koreans have been attested to commemorating the day in the streets and in the open in the
3333:
sympathetically mentioned the issue of Korea, and asked what could be done for it. In addition, a society that advocated for Korea's independence formed in both the U.K. and France called The Friends of Korea
1104:
was asked to document the protests. Schofield's publicization of the protests proved so significant in influencing global public opinion, that he has since been described as the "Thirty-fourth Representative"
3843:) and demoted from the status of national holiday. Commemorations are reportedly mostly central, with few local celebrations. The events are geared towards inciting anti-American and anti-Japanese sentiment.
3174:
covered the protests on a daily basis for some time. One of its articles contained the line, "If the in front falls, the one behind continues marching forward. truly do not fear death". Chinese politician
9507:
1616:
of leaders destroyed. Women made naked and beaten before crowds, especially leaders' family. The imprisoned being severely tortured. Doctors are forbidden caring wounded. Foreign Red Cross urgently needed.
1598:, a Japanese policeman seized me by the hair, and I was thrown violently to the ground. He kicked me mercilessly, and I was rendered almost unconscious. He rushed me along by my hair, and I was led to the
3003:
3880:
in order to conduct another rally, but found that Japanese police had already been stationed there in high concentrations. The Koreans reportedly conducted the protest regardless. In 1925, a rally at
1325:) had protests that have been characterized as less intense than others. This has been attributed to the region being relatively depleted after having previously heavily participated in the 1894–1895
897:
Public outrage at the possibility that Gojong had been murdered has since been evaluated as having a critical impact on the timing of, and even the altogether occurrence of, the March First Movement.
3537:
Korean government are downplayed. The thirty-three national representatives are described as having surrendered immediately after reading their declaration. Hart printed this translated excerpt from
3052:
A number of commentators have evaluated these policy changes as being largely cosmetic and intended to appease Koreans and international observers. An August 22, 1919 article in American newspaper
3730:
In the USAMGIK, March 1 was made a holiday in February 1946. Various events were held in Seoul on that year's anniversary. Early on that day, a left-leaning group held a ceremony at the mountain
2842:
in April, which was dedicated to publicizing the independence movement. The organization would eventually have branches in 19 cities and upwards of 10,000 members. In 1921, Henry Chung published
1484:
government-general received more military police and police officers from Japan, as well as more army divisions. They equipped these groups with lethal weapons and distributed them around Korea.
2773:
international press. In August, Schofield traveled to Japan on behalf of the missionaries in Korea. He conducted a range of activities to publicize what he had seen. He met with Prime Minister
989:
and turning international public opinion against Japan would be effective in advocating for Korea's independence. They also agreed that they needed assistance from other major groups in Korea.
1398:
into suppressing the protest. This resulted in around 17 to 19 deaths. Like in Korea, the Koreans continued to hold protests for weeks afterwards; by mid-May they would host at least 50 more.
8717:
3168:
The Chinese government did not openly advocate for Korea's independence, but Chinese politicians and press frequently voiced sympathy and praise for the movement. The prominent newspaper
7739:
1694:
After experiencing poor treatment during her prison intake, one girl was reportedly let go the following day without ever being formally charged of any crimes, nor ever going to trial.
1677:
There are reports that conditions were extremely cramped and dirty, and that some rooms were so cramped that people were unable to sit or lie down. William R. Giles, a reporter for the
3413:
A Yonhap reporter argued that sentiment in Australia did not match that of the U.K., and claimed that articles often expressed skeptical criticism of Japan's handling of the movement.
3979:
have celebrated the anniversary of the movement with public events in recent years. Some celebrations have included reenactments of the reading of the declaration and public marches.
658:
The movement did not result in Korea's prompt liberation, but had a number of significant effects. It invigorated the Korean independence movement and resulted in the creation of the
287:
2937:
Some, especially those in the Japanese left wing, criticized the colonial government and argued that the movement began because colonial policies had been too repressive. Journalist
9456:
3481:
Since the occurrence of the movement, varying groups have interpreted its character and significance in a number of ways. Some left-leaning interpretations analyze the event using
2634:
in Korea, stated that he felt that Koreans in Shanghai had fabricated the story. He argued that Japan had been so repressive that such a large-scale protest was nearly impossible.
3383:
reports. This and another report on April 16 described the movement as a violent armed rebellion. Later coverage of Korean issues in the paper is reportedly infrequent and brief.
1733:
Yu was arrested and detained at Seodaemun Prison. She was reportedly unrepentant despite repeated beatings and torture. She eventually died of her injuries on September 28, 1920.
1513:
occurred, during which Japanese authorities entered a village at night, set it on fire, and killed people who attempted to put the fires out. On April 15, during the now infamous
3969:, have hosted annual March First Movement commemorations. In 2024, events were hosted in a range of countries, including Brazil, Mongolia, Kuwait, Taiwan, and the United States.
1730:
organize their own. On April 1, 3,000 protestors gathered in Cheonan. The Japanese military police opened fire on the protestors and killed 19; among the dead were Yu's parents.
1754:
1487:
A significant number of mass murders of Korean civilians occurred. There are numerous reports of Japanese authorities around the peninsula opening fire or conducting organized
3657:
3249:
is the earliest known Russian article on the protests. The article criticized Japan's violent suppression of the protests, as well as the subsequent disinformation campaign.
9474:
2839:
1625:
1020:
They decided to schedule their protest for March 1, the day of Gojong's public funeral, in order to capitalize on the significant number of people congregating in Seoul.
732:
treatment. In 1916, there were 6 strikes with 362 participants. In 1917, there were 8 strikes with 1,128, and by 1918 there were 50 strikes with 4,442. Historians of the
9543:
9295:
3762:
3299:
advocated for Japan's continued rule in Korea and praised the cultural rule reforms. The ECM's positions on these issues reportedly alienated potential Korean converts.
3207:
1575:
Japanese soldier because she was holding a copy of either the declaration. She then reportedly switched to holding the item in her other hand, and continued to protest.
694:
The anniversary of the movement's start has been celebrated since, although this was largely done in secret in Korea until its liberation in 1945. In South Korea, it is
3876:
in Tokyo. The police were reportedly surprised by its occurrence, and rushed to gather officers in order to disperse it. In 1923, around 300 Korean students approached
2616:. This led to the first international article on the movement being published there on March 4. News of the protests first reached the United States on March 10, via a
3062:
1300:
884:
100:
8069:"March 1st Independence Movement and Korean Provisional Government >Memories & Gratitude>March 1st Independence Movement>March 1st Independence Movement"
3693:(flag). A number of songs have been written and performed for these meetings, with several attested to in Shanghai and Manchuria in the 1920s. Scholar Choe Seon-ung (
3424:
Germany reportedly had little coverage of the movement, possibly due to instability after its loss in World War I. The first known mention of the protest appeared in
1502:, Japanese authorities reportedly burnt 276 private homes down, killed 29, and arrested around 2,000 people. Many Koreans were tortured and executed. On April 6, the
8808:
Kwon, Tae-eok. "Imperial Japan's 'civilization' rule in the 1910s and Korean sentiments: the causes of the national-scale dissemination of the March First Movement"
4161:저녁 때 들으니 사방에서 인사들이 소식을 듣고 모여 인산인해를 이루었다고 한다. 정오 종소리에 맞춰 용정 부근 서전대야에 큰 조선독립 깃발을 세우고 사람마다 태극기를 들고 조선독립만세를 부르며 독립을 선언했다. 깃발은 해를 가리고 함성은 우레와 같았다. 이를 본 왜인의 얼굴색이 잿빛으로 변했다.
3045:. Access to print materials and the arts significantly expanded. In addition, while the colonial government had previously been more consistently dismissive towards
3626:. Historian Youngseo Baik argues that it can be, as the movement advocated for significant political change and has had lasting impact on Korean political thought.
793:. Koreans who learned of Wilson's vision were inspired, and interpreted it as signaling support for their independence movement. Their sympathy to the U.S. and the
856:
409:
3489:
frameworks, with some reportedly interpreting the movement as a failed proletariat revolution, and something only to be remembered but not celebrated. Since the
3287:, described the movement as "riots" and the protestors as violent mobs that attacked authorities and burned down buildings. One article on the movement, titled "
337:
841:
280:
3392:
anti-colonial protests in its own territories. The movement received wide coverage in French newspapers. Left-leaning and anti-colonialist newspapers such as
800:
The sincerity behind Wilson's advocacy for self-determination is debated. Some scholars argue his advocacy was limited to the former colonies of the defeated
2593:
1503:
5149:
3539:
3356:
4827:
3322:" and "outrivalling Germans in war". A number of British officials advocated for degrees of self-governance in Korea, although this was opposed by Japan.
8864:
3201:
2844:
1517:, Japanese authorities lured 20 to 30 Korean civilians into a church, opened fire on them, then burned the church down to hide evidence of the killings.
4501:"The Centenary of Korea's Sam-il (March First) Independence Movement: Remembering Japanese Art Critic Yanagi Sōetsu's Solidarity with Colonized Koreans"
3687:
Commemorations typically involve readings of the declaration, speeches, nationalist music, and the displaying of nationalist symbols, particularly the
3528:
In South Korea, the event's link to the establishment of the Korean Provisional Government is promoted, so as to bolster that government's legitimacy.
2848:, a book that criticized Japanese colonialism and advocated for Korean independence. Japan attempted to halt the book's publication. In spite of this,
2151:
Each event has lower and upper bound estimates for its various statistics. Upper bounds still reflect the conservative methodology reportedly employed.
1428:, and had signed agreements to suppress the Korean independence movement. Inspired by the Ussuriysk protest, the Koreans of the enclave Sinhanch'on in
3144:
The movement did receive coverage in the American press, although often sporadically and not as the main story. A South Korean journalist claims that
967:
8620:"Imperial Japan's 'Civilization' Rule in the 1910s and Korean Sentiments: The Causes of the National-Scale Dissemination of the March First Movement"
2661:
uprisings, and portrayed Japan as attempting to halt the spread of communism. Many statements blamed Christian missionaries for inciting the unrest.
2631:
273:
2603:
published a number of articles that were about the violent suppression of the movement, with the latter covering the events of the Jeamni massacre.
789:
announced his vision for establishing peace and the new world order. This vision was dubbed the Fourteen Points, and included the right of national
6635:
4220:
reports also initially influenced coverage in France. A number of French articles cited the reports while describing the protests as violent riots.
3834:
3581:
cited the March First Movement as one of their inspirations. That protest has since been evaluated as a critical moment in modern Chinese history.
2296:
2569:
argues it is possible that the numbers are even higher, as Japanese authorities continued pursuing and arresting protestors for years afterwards.
9305:
8520:
3719:
3471:
3311:
3303:
2976:
2838:
Korean-American independence activists attempted to sway U.S. public opinion on the protests through writings and speeches. They established the
1767:
and are available on the website. The database has been updated on at least one occasion to reflect the NIKH's ongoing research on the movement.
1217:. Despite Japanese repression of information, news of the protest in Seoul reached these cities quickly, as they were connected to Seoul via the
667:
174:
2624:. By the following day, the story appeared in American papers. Some articles questioned the veracity of the story; in the March 11 issue of the
9427:
6631:
3767:
3548:
II Sung, who was eight years old, participated in the anti-Japanese demonstration and traveled to Bongťongdae Gate, which was about 30 li away.
1684:
1668:
of prisoners. There, women were stripped naked in front of male guards. An April 22, 1919 pamphlet by the Presbyterian Church in America read:
777:
9549:
1121:
1624:
was sentenced to hard labor for allegedly harboring demonstrators. An American woman was reportedly attacked in Pyongyang. According to the
1047:
9480:
8095:
2694:
Japanese diplomats published statements in which they claimed Koreans were uncivilized and incapable of self-governance. Japanese academic
1649:
1260:
Various locations often hosted multiple protests for weeks afterwards. Numerous small villages hosted three or four protests. For example,
1066:
629:
8531:
The case of Korea; a collection of evidence on the Japanese domination of Korea, and on the development of the Korean inependence movement
8068:
3187:), praised the protests and advocated for Chinese people to follow the Korean example. Other prominent figures in modern China, including
9350:
8902:
3837:
made the occasion a national holiday. This later changed; the holiday was renamed to "The People's Anti-Japanese Uprising Memorial Day" (
1621:
2922:, while not advocating for granting Koreans independence, reportedly promoted granting Korea some degree of "domestic self-governance".
3596:
3565:
Chinese protestors of the May 4 Movement. The protest's organizers reportedly were in part inspired by the March First Movement. (1919)
3318:
pressed the Japanese government to quell the violence. Alston reportedly told Japan that the Japanese authorities were "outhunning the
9402:
6178:
3667:
and left-leaning KNRP made a point of hosting a joint ceremony to bridge their political divide and demonstrate unity to observers.
2975:
The colonial government enacted a number of concessions after the protests. Many of these efforts have been grouped under the name "
874:
Chinese leaders, hoping to embarrass Japan, attempted to put a discussion of Korea's sovereignty on the agenda, but did not succeed.
9625:
9595:
9087:
3662:
3589:
3505:
In South Korea, the movement is widely considered to be a landmark moment in the formation of the modern Korean national identity.
3262:; the U.K. had previously advocated for Korea's annexation by Japan, and blocked Korea's attempts to protest the annexation at the
1508:
3088:
and violently suppressing its own subjects, and that expressing support for Korean independence would have appeared hypocritical.
2778:
rebuttals in Korea, Japan, and abroad about the protest. For example, a report in the colonial government–backed English-language
9422:
8857:
3360:
argued that Japan would not be able to stop the unrest through violence. A response to a reader question in the April 2 issue of
439:
364:
3042:
750:
Japan had been successfully rapidly industrializing since the late 19th century. Around this time, Western theories surrounding
7809:
3670:
During the colonial period, independence activists scheduled speeches, rallies, and protests for the day. In Korea and amongst
3199:
similarly wrote favorably of the protests. These sentiments were echoed by English-language newspapers in China, including the
906:
826:
9335:
3354:, while still generally in line with reporting in the U.K., shared information about Japan's violent response. One article of
1448:), interpreted the movement in a socialist framework and advocated for Koreans to ally with the Soviet Union and fight Japan.
9610:
9580:
9300:
9179:
8837:
8815:
Lee, Timothy S. "A political factor in the rise of Protestantism in Korea: Protestantism and the 1919 March First Movement."
8650:
8608:
8587:
8504:
6810:
5110:
3588:
read of the peaceful protests while in South Africa. He reportedly decided to return to India soon afterwards and launch the
3291:
in Korea", repeated Japanese claims that leftist Koreans in Shanghai were attempting to cause a violent revolution in Korea.
2713:
thoughts... Awake! Awake! ...If you do not have an understanding of the situation of the world, you will be doomed to perish.
9233:
8046:
6546:
6480:
6461:
6170:
5029:
4990:
4921:
4257:
2910:), and presented a range of opinions on what caused the protests, how serious they were, and how to prevent future unrest.
2669:
1750:
1459:
organized an impromptu meeting upon hearing of the protests that was attended by around 600. A followup meeting dubbed the
733:
352:
3561:
9077:
8820:
4180:
Palmer argues that much of this audience was likely non-Korean, as there were around 100 Koreans in New York at the time.
3892:
3700:
5646:
9630:
9590:
9280:
8850:
3607:
2963:
1467:, which they viewed as "the cradle of liberty" in the U.S. They sent statements to President Wilson, but were ignored.
1043:
625:
404:
394:
3949:
in 1938, Korean members of the Korean National Revolutionary Party are attested to celebrating the day by singing the
3802:'s administration established the Commission on the Centennial Anniversary of March 1st Independence Movement and the
3416:
Mexican newspapers began publishing on the movement on March 13, and reportedly widely condemned Japan's actions. The
8731:
6607:
5973:
3092:
1988:
1046:. From 6 p.m. to 10 p.m. on February 27, they printed 21,000 copies of the declaration at the printing facilities of
67:
2135:
A number of protest actions in some places occurred in quick succession; some of these are counted as single events.
9392:
9197:
4023:
4016:
3120:
1562:
1553:
1544:
1535:
1526:
1363:
1274:
1261:
1169:
8316:
3107:
A small number of individual American politicians expressed sympathy for Korea and the protests. Missouri Senator
9650:
9417:
9412:
9055:
5361:"[Newsmaker] Handwritten English translation of Feb. 8 Declaration of Independence found after 104 years"
5139:
4952:"The 1919 Independence Movement in Korea and Interconnected East Asia: The Incremental Unfolding of a Revolution"
4195:, which was de facto operated by the colonial government. Previous papers were pressured to close or were banned.
2718:
1037:
1317:) and Chūseinan-dō, some radical groups attacked and destroyed Japanese government offices and police stations.
1137:
724:. Japanese rule was initially especially tight. Japan took control over Korea's economy, and began a process of
663:
210:
9397:
8115:
7921:
7224:
7193:
7133:
6573:
6140:
5869:
5393:
5015:
4976:
4907:
4837:
4587:
4404:
3905:
in Vladivostok commemorated the anniversary of the movement each year from 1920 until its dissolution in 1937.
2565:
1222:
721:
695:
342:
8579:
The Cross and the Rising Sun, Volume 2,: The British Protestant Missionary Movement in Japan, Korea and Taiwan
8545:"Proclaiming Identity, Claiming the Past: National Identity and Modernity in North and South Korean Education"
6802:
The Cross and the Rising Sun, Volume 2,: The British Protestant Missionary Movement in Japan, Korea and Taiwan
3754:, the author of the declaration; in the years succeeding the movement, he had collaborated with the Japanese.
9575:
8985:
5625:
3884:
led to violent clashes with police, the involvement of the military to suppress the unrest, and ten arrests.
3803:
3232:
2826:
2031:
1475:
1218:
889:
659:
369:
203:
157:
105:
36:
8898:
6354:
3703:
in the 1930s, efforts were made to reduce the number of nationalist symbols in ceremonies, so as to promote
3366:
attempted to justify why Korea's sovereignty was not approved for discussion at the Paris Peace Conference.
1411:
9270:
9031:
5024:
4985:
4916:
3704:
1456:
1089:
861:
715:
666:
to grant some limited cultural freedoms to Koreans under a series of policies that have since been dubbed "
614:
545:
297:
28:
9371:
9021:
9016:
6505:
6393:
3398:
praised the movement. A number of French newspapers published an anecdote about female Korean students in
3075:
Journalists and some individual politicians voiced criticism towards Japan's suppression of the protests.
1143:
655:
of Japan. These narratives were publicly challenged by sympathetic foreigners and by the Korean diaspora.
9605:
9290:
8409:
3822:
3521:
3513:
3426:
3307:
2870:
2422:
1896:
1608:
833:
496:
5045:""Awakening Asia": Korean Student Activists in Japan, The Asia Kunglun, and Asian Solidarity, 1910–1923"
4863:
4189:
Previously, from 1915 to early 1920, the only Korean newspaper allowed for publication in Korea was the
3787:), one of several written and performed about the movement, as the official song for its commemorations.
832:
Koreans made a number of unsuccessful attempts to be represented at the conference. The Korean-American
9615:
9600:
9462:
8141:
5938:
5654:
5277:
3942:
1326:
1314:
1246:
8719:
Korean National Identity under Japanese Colonial Rule: Yi Gwangsu and the March First Movement of 1919
7847:
2591:
published of the protests, and coverage on them significantly slowed. The English-language newspapers
1432:
launched their own that same day, which was also suppressed. They launched another the following day.
1257:
held their first protest. All but seven of the 218 administrative districts in Korea hosted protests.
8873:
8120:
7926:
7682:
7229:
7198:
7138:
7084:
6578:
6538:
6145:
5993:
5874:
5502:
5398:
4592:
4409:
3881:
3772:(opposition of the Allied occupation of Korea) was linked to the spirit of the March First Movement.
3475:
2878:
public remained apathetic about Korea, and no significant policy changes occurred as a result of it.
2653:
711:
605:
466:
424:
327:
62:
8692:
8661:
8619:
8469:
9407:
8951:
8945:
8747:
7165:
4249:
3946:
3611:
3263:
3008:
2985:
2900:
911:
699:
676:
555:
419:
183:
8933:
8793:
The March First Movement: A Study of the Rise of Korean Nationalism under the Japanese Colonialism
8642:
The Wilsonian Moment: Self-Determination and the International Origins of Anticolonial Nationalism
6994:"Marketing Assimilation: The Press and the Formation of the Japanese-Korean Colonial Relationship"
6827:
3038:
2968:
2802:'s April 6 issue to the protests, and criticized Japan for manipulating information on the event.
1042:
from these various groups held a series of secret meetings in Seoul, during which they signed the
9645:
9640:
9513:
9450:
3642:
for nine months, visited Seodaemun Prison and apologized for how the prisoners had been treated.
3639:
3603:
held a pro-independence protest in June 1919, and cited the March First Movement as inspiration.
3434:
Italy reportedly had limited coverage of the movement, with the first known article being in the
3259:
3049:, it began conceding that Korea had some unique traditions worthy of protection and development.
2981:
1305:
1097:
672:
461:
456:
179:
9097:
3790:
3058:
described one such concession as "merely one of those face-saving diplomatic schemes of Japan".
9635:
9620:
9585:
9531:
9161:
8289:
8072:
5902:
3115:. On July 15 and in August, in the context of opposing the ratification of the articles of the
2852:
published an abridged version of the book, and the entire book was submitted into the American
2789:
2626:
429:
414:
399:
8370:
1140:, which caused the signers to be arrested by around eighty Japanese military police officers.
681:". Furthermore, the movement went on to inspire other movements abroad, including the Chinese
9525:
9501:
9260:
9185:
7535:
5534:
4979:[March First Movement: Increasing Inequity and Impoverishment During Colonial Rule].
3684:
openly commemorated the day in Korea on a number of occasions and was punished for doing so.
1665:
1460:
1425:
1338:
1322:
986:
794:
511:
132:
6828:"[Korea Encounters] Frank Schofield, 'a most dangerous man' and an 'eternal Korean'"
5535:"선교사열전 ㉙ 3·1운동의 34번째 민족대표 캐나다 프랭크 윌리엄 스코필드 선교사〔Frank William Schofield: 석호필(石虎弼) 1889~1970〕"
5018:[March First Movement: The Emergence of Ideals of Self-determination and Equality].
3829:
flag is flying above Kim; both the north and south used the design from 1946 to 1948. (1946)
3449:
2188:, as well as events hosted in the U.S. with representatives from elsewhere in North America.
894:; these theories were in part motivated by knowledge of previous attempts on Gojong's life.
758:
gained significant traction in Japan. These theories were often used to justify and promote
9149:
9136:
8908:
5658:
4864:"In North Korea, March 1st is distortedly taught as being caused by the Kim Il-sung family"
3976:
3330:
3133:
3085:
2919:
2853:
2757:
2677:
2599:
2444:
1918:
1725:, participated in the protest in Seoul. On March 5, she participated in another protest at
1583:
759:
9361:
6427:
6355:"Overlooked No More: Yu Gwan-sun, a Korean Independence Activist Who Defied Japanese Rule"
3478:, and holds an important place in the independence movement and in South Korean identity.
2861:
1023:
766:
was a shock to many, and motivated intellectuals in Korea and around the world to discuss
736:
argue that this reflected increasing discontent in Korea around the time of the movement.
8:
9218:
9173:
5703:
5699:
First Korean congress, held in the Little theatre, and Delancey streets, April 14, 15, 16
5360:
3574:
3463:
3454:
3436:
3054:
2488:
2185:
1962:
1210:
682:
491:
476:
8472:[Formation of protocols for celebrating the March First Movement, and changes].
2739:
2717:
In January 1920, Governor-General Saitō published a four-page statement in the magazine
1741:
Statistics on the March First Movement are uncertain, and are a subject of controversy.
1620:
Foreigners were also reportedly persecuted by Japanese authorities. American missionary
925:
587:
9468:
9325:
9191:
9142:
8764:
8564:
8514:
8443:
7842:
7740:"Eight-year-old boy Kim Il Sung gathered the independence movement and travelled 30 li"
7570:
7511:
7429:
7296:
7021:
6664:
6625:
6111:
6042:
5837:
5767:
5735:
5593:
5576:
5066:
4782:
4727:
4670:
4011:
4006:
3228:
2794:
1688:
1679:
1310:
1250:
1071:
1052:
972:
846:
790:
755:
652:
634:
572:
481:
389:
317:
96:
8529:
3775:
On October 1, 1949, South Korea designated March 1 as the national holiday Samiljeol (
2683:
1390:
echoed like thunder. When the Japanese authorities saw this, their faces turned ashen.
9432:
9285:
8939:
8756:
8727:
8700:
8675:
8646:
8604:
8583:
8556:
8500:
8477:
7817:
7065:
7013:
6806:
6613:
6603:
6362:
5969:
5598:
5106:
5070:
4062: March First Movement. The South Korean name is sometimes transliterated as the
3715:
3490:
3417:
3407:
3362:
3235:
consulted with Japan in March, then officially took a neutral stance on the protest.
3224:
3196:
3116:
3108:
2888:
2400:
2356:
2334:
1874:
1830:
1808:
1242:
1234:
921:
533:
374:
332:
9167:
5697:
2914:
1345:
described as a milestone in their changing social status, especially in contrast to
1111:), effectively equating his significance to that of the signers of the declaration.
851:
to the conference, but the U.S. government denied them permission to go. A group of
347:
9438:
9376:
9118:
9061:
8535:
8410:"New York State to institute official day to honor Yu Gwan-sun and Mar. 1 movement"
7055:
7005:
6751:
5588:
5365:
5056:
4124:
4001:
3989:
3914:
3866:
3675:
3671:
3467:
3128:
3124:
2938:
2930:
2874:
2704:
2378:
1852:
1661:
1653:
1416:
Koreans in Russia also learned of the protests, and began organizing their own. In
1377:
1330:
1296:
852:
771:
751:
582:
434:
8041:
7565:
7506:
7424:
7291:
6659:
6106:
6037:
5832:
5762:
5730:
5577:""The arch agitator:" Dr. Frank W. Schofield and the Korean independence movement"
4777:
4722:
4665:
3394:
2952:
1060:
They initially planned to start the protest by inviting thousands of observers to
9255:
9130:
8962:
8883:
8640:
8598:
8577:
8438:
8321:
7160:
7089:
6832:
6800:
6739:
6510:
6398:
5998:
5507:
5282:
5100:
4832:
4526:
3982:
3972:
3731:
3680:
3403:
3335:
3170:
3033:
3027:
2780:
2466:
1940:
1514:
1407:
1381:
1346:
1249:). Protests continued to spread in this fashion, until by March 19, all thirteen
1201:
That same day, similar protests were held in other cities in Korea, including in
1174:
1101:
879:
873:
870:
745:
644:
609:
471:
9366:
9340:
8956:
5617:
4098:
4095:
2893:
2695:
2687:
2665:
2172:
1318:
1088:
Foreigners also played a role in the planning of the protests. In mid-February,
662:. It also caused some damage to Japan's international reputation and caused the
9519:
9248:
9238:
9155:
9082:
9026:
9000:
8110:
7916:
7219:
7188:
7128:
6568:
6135:
5864:
5388:
5144:
4582:
4399:
3962:
3902:
3814:
3635:
3585:
3351:
3046:
1629:
1488:
1421:
878:
Koreans in China also created a plan to secretly extract former Korean emperor
825:
After the conclusion of the war, various nations participated in the 1919–1920
801:
786:
577:
560:
379:
72:
8803:
Korea Under Colonialism: The March First Movement and Anglo-Japanese Relations
5928:
3718:, ceremonies reflected the increasing political polarization. In the southern
1660:
There are numerous reports of prison conditions being extremely poor. Seoul's
1334:
1271:, laborers, monks, Christians, Cheondoists, Buddhists, students, and farmers.
1162:) erupted continually from the crowd, and they filed out onto the main street
9569:
9508:
The Korean Council for the Women Drafted for Military Sexual Slavery by Japan
9491:
9345:
9330:
9051:
8760:
8704:
8679:
8666:
8560:
8481:
8414:
7821:
7069:
7017:
6617:
6366:
5662:
3761:
on March 1, 1947, a rally with 30,000 people in attendance was held in which
3751:
3508:
3370:
3326:
3315:
3296:
2818:
2810:
2753:
2744:
2621:
1206:
1002:
994:
523:
451:
9538:
Women's International War Crimes Tribunal on Japan's Military Sexual Slavery
8842:
7047:
3794:
Centennial celebration of the movement, with President Moon in center (2019)
1012:
9243:
8990:
8967:
8662:"The March First Movement in America: The Campaign to Win American Support"
6597:
5602:
3739:
3277:
2859:
In Russia, Korean journalists published writings in newspapers such as the
2774:
2302:
1764:
1722:
1579:
1464:
1445:
1395:
1238:
1092:
allowed secret meetings about the protests to be conducted in his house in
1006:
982:
837:
805:
725:
550:
528:
501:
322:
7009:
5061:
5044:
4152:
The remaining signers were reportedly in the countryside during this time.
3610:, students of Cairo University held a pro-independence protest amidst the
3215:
was followed by a shift towards more sympathetic reporting towards Korea.
1775:
March First Movement Database summary statistics (March 1 – May 31, 1919)
1368:
265:
9092:
8693:"Ch'ondogyo's(天道敎) Preparation for the March First Independence Movement"
8600:
Korea 1905–1945: From Japanese Colonialism to Liberation and Independence
8096:"Korea Commemorates 100th Anniversary of March 1st Independence Protests"
4191:
3873:
3818:
3799:
3758:
3578:
3192:
2805:
2673:
1703:
1571:
1429:
1309:
ratio of Japanese security forces to civilians was lower in the area. In
1254:
1152:
1061:
867:
763:
640:
384:
8768:
8742:
8568:
8544:
7025:
6993:
5935:
March 13, a large Manse Movement protest breaks out in Longjing, Jiandao
3821:
speaking at the first public celebration of the March First Movement in
3099:
1230:
817:
9223:
9102:
8995:
6173:[Independence activist of the month: Frank William Schofield].
3747:
3623:
3288:
3188:
3176:
3161:
2658:
2630:, judge John Albert Matthewman, who had previously volunteered for the
1595:
1186:
978:
963:
767:
687:
648:
506:
6755:
6740:"The Korean Student Movement in Japan and Japanese Anxiety, 1910–1923"
4910:[March First Movement: Pressures and Pains of Colonial Rule].
2690:
argued that Koreans were uncivilized and incapable of self-governance.
915:
A copy of the first page of the February 8 Declaration of Independence
9444:
8743:"Background to the March First Movement: Koreans in Japan, 1905–1919"
8723:
7060:
3966:
3920:
3877:
3848:
3689:
3486:
3474:(KPG). This government is now considered a predecessor to the modern
3375:
3271:
2948:
2617:
1726:
1591:
1417:
1202:
1182:
1077:
829:, during which the sovereignty of a number of nations was discussed.
173:
Colonial government granted limited cultural freedoms as part of its
5094:
5092:
3002:); this was in contrast to the previous era, which has been dubbed "
9228:
9208:
8146:
7744:
6970:
4868:
4531:
4500:
3735:
3103:
American Senator and Korean independence activist Selden P. Spencer
2925:
2613:
2288:
Many sources cite the statistics provided in the 1920 history book
1713:
1637:
1441:
1093:
774:, and ideals that would serve to discourage future such conflicts.
9355:
6476:
4207:
partially reversed course on its reporting on Korea in late April.
9457:
Treaty on Basic Relations Between Japan and the Republic of Korea
5950:
5089:
4951:
4828:"Why Did Mao, Nehru and Tagore Applaud the March First Movement?"
3950:
3928:
3924:
3853:
3482:
3399:
3283:
1984:
1499:
1267:
1226:
812:
739:
8785:
The March First Movement: Korean Challenge and Japanese Response
3573:
Several weeks after the March First Movement, organizers of the
8918:
8832:
7052:
Cipango - French Journal of Japanese Studies. English Selection
6680:
3932:
3743:
3600:
3302:
Some British officials expressed sympathy for Korea, including
3245:
1708:
1599:
1436:
1214:
1163:
998:
2734:
1083:
101:
theories that former Emperor Gojong had been poisoned by Japan
8708:
8683:
8631:
8485:
7406:
7404:
7254:
6960:
6958:
6909:
6907:
6905:
6903:
6875:
6873:
6871:
6858:
6856:
6854:
6852:
6850:
6779:
6777:
3441:
number of friendly treaties and agreements around this time.
3157:
2168:
1495:
621:
6253:
6251:
6063:
6061:
5142:[Son Sae-il's Comparative Critical Biography (64)],
4610:
4608:
3992:
designated March 1 as Yu Gwan-sun Day on February 27, 2024.
3622:
There is debate over where the movement can be considered a
3141:
and expressed support for the Korean independence movement.
2865:
about the protests that were quoted by Russian journalists.
1582:
gave a testimony that was later submitted into the American
821:
Western leaders at the Paris Peace Conference (May 27, 1919)
9544:
United States House of Representatives House Resolution 121
7714:
7712:
3319:
2873:, but were rebuffed. At the conference, Japan relinquished
9475:
Special Law to Redeem Pro-Japanese Collaborators' Property
7401:
7389:
7292:"[외신속 3·1 운동] ⑬ 중남미 언론 "코레아, 해방 원한다"…日 대량학살 고발(끝)"
6955:
6943:
6900:
6868:
6847:
6774:
6762:
6692:
6600:
East Asia : a cultural, social, and political history
6295:
6293:
5896:
5894:
5892:
5890:
5833:"[외신속 3·1운동] ⑦ WP "선언문 든 소녀의 손 잘라내"…日편들던 워싱턴 '충격'"
4890:
4888:
4886:
3678:, these events were often hosted in secret. The newspaper
3543:, a North Korean history textbook used from 1984 to 1990:
1635:
According to an August 15 article in the Soviet newspaper
1278:
Korean shops closing in solidarity with the protest (1919)
785:
After the end of the war in 1918, United States President
608:
that was held throughout Korea and internationally by the
50:
Mostly March and April 1919, continued possibly until 1921
7791:
7789:
7759:
7507:"[외신속 3·1 운동] ⑫ '식민굴레' 동남아 언론의 동병상련…"계층넘어 韓人 단결""
7329:
7327:
6721:
6719:
6248:
6058:
5212:
5175:
4605:
4431:
4429:
4427:
4425:
4052: March First People's Rebellion; South Korean name:
3342:). None of these efforts resulted in significant action.
2971:, created as a part of the cultural rule policies. (1922)
2825:
125-page report that concured with Korean reporting. The
1341:), students often played a significant role in protests.
900:
8259:
8257:
8220:
8218:
8205:
8203:
8166:
8164:
8011:
8009:
8007:
8005:
7872:
7870:
7868:
7866:
7709:
7651:
7639:
7617:
7615:
7613:
7122:
7120:
6533:
6531:
6529:
6451:
6449:
6329:
6211:
6209:
6207:
6038:"[외신속 3·1 운동] ⑧ 러 프라우다·이즈베스티야도 주목…"조선여성 영웅적 항쟁""
5479:
5477:
5452:
5450:
5260:
5258:
5256:
4750:
4748:
4746:
4691:
4689:
3614:, and cited the March First Movement as an inspiration.
3037:, as well as the establishment of institutions like the
2881:
7776:
7774:
7347:
United States Policy Regarding Korea, Part I: 1834–1941
6290:
5887:
5330:
5328:
5243:
5241:
5239:
5102:
Korea: Division, Reunification, and U.S. Foreign Policy
4883:
3379:
on March 27, and included synthesized information from
3223:
At the time of the movement, Russia was engaged in the
3149:
of the text of the Korean Declaration of Independence.
2747:
advocated for Japan's continued rule over Korea. (1919)
2668:
gave a speech at a luncheon attended by U.S. Treasurer
2657:
on April 15, 1919, portrayed the protests as left-wing
338:
Conscription disturbance at the Brisbane School of Arts
8534:. New York, Chicago Fleming H. Revell Co – via
7786:
7586:
7481:
7469:
7457:
7377:
7353:
7324:
7312:
6931:
6919:
6805:. Wilfrid Laurier University Press. pp. 205–207.
6716:
6704:
6387:
6385:
6383:
6278:
6268:
6266:
6192:
5903:"[아! 만주⑰] 용정 3.13반일의사릉: 만주에서 울린 그 날의 함성을 기억하다"
5195:
The Koreans in Hawai'i: A Pictorial History, 1903–2003
4422:
3020:
2997:
2905:
2291:
The Bloody History of the Korean Independence Movement
1380:
learned of the movement. They held a large protest in
1225:
railway lines. On March 2, more protests were held in
8254:
8230:
8215:
8200:
8176:
8161:
8002:
7990:
7978:
7939:
7897:
7863:
7610:
7117:
6890:
6888:
6526:
6446:
6204:
6165:
6163:
6161:
5858:
5856:
5807:
5783:
5763:"[외신속 3·1 운동] ③ 상하이서 첫 '타전'…은폐 급급하던 日, 허 찔렸다"
5710:
5695:
5677:
5474:
5447:
5435:
5423:
5313:
5303:
5301:
5253:
5119:
5077:
5049:
Cross-Currents: East Asian History and Culture Review
4743:
4686:
4666:"[외신속 3·1 운동] ① 그 날 그 함성…통제·조작의 '프레임' 뚫고 세계로"
4393:
4391:
4389:
4387:
4385:
4383:
4381:
4379:
4377:
4375:
4373:
4371:
4369:
4367:
4365:
4363:
4361:
4359:
4357:
4355:
4353:
4351:
4349:
4347:
4345:
4343:
4341:
4339:
4337:
4335:
4333:
4331:
4329:
4327:
4325:
4323:
4321:
4319:
4317:
4315:
4313:
4311:
4309:
4307:
4305:
4303:
4301:
4299:
4297:
4295:
2833:
2702:
Articles in the colonial government–backed newspaper
2620:
sent by Korean independence activists in Shanghai to
1590:
It was on the 5th of March that I procession at the
1420:, a protest was held and suppressed on March 17. The
1151:
Meanwhile, around 4,000 to 5,000 people assembled at
1136:) rushed over and reported the event to the Japanese
1096:. Protests in Sŏngjin went on to become the first in
8021:
7968:
7966:
7887:
7885:
7771:
7663:
7627:
7598:
7566:"[외신속 3·1 운동] ⑪ 獨·伊언론 '짤막' 보도…'내코가 석자'·日 눈치"
7425:"[외신속 3·1운동] ④ 韓人 여학생이 띄운 편지, '대륙의 심금'을 울리다"
7266:
7105:
6987:
6985:
6598:
Ebrey, Patricia Buckley, and Walthall, Anne (1947).
6317:
6305:
6226:
6224:
5325:
5236:
4778:"[외신속 3·1 운동] ⑥ 美 타임스스퀘어에 울려퍼진 독립선언…세계가 눈뜨다"
4293:
4291:
4289:
4287:
4285:
4283:
4281:
4279:
4277:
4275:
4244:
4242:
4240:
4238:
4236:
3195:, also voiced their support. Student journalists of
962:
In late 1918, leaders of the native Korean religion
7365:
7242:
6819:
6660:"[외신속 3·1 운동] ⑩ 일제 치하서 울려퍼진 佛혁명가 '라 마르세예즈'"
6380:
6263:
6107:"[외신속 3·1 운동] ⑤ 샌프란發 대서특필…美서 대일여론전 '포문' 열다"
5795:
5575:Legault, Barbara; Prescott, John F. (August 2009).
5411:
5340:
4723:"[외신속 3·1 운동] ⑨ '영일동맹' 허울에 英언론 日 '받아쓰기' 그쳐"
4576:
4574:
3516:, with mention of the March First Movement visible.
2585:
1394:Japanese authorities pressured the Chinese warlord
7810:"Opinion | May Fourth, the Day That Changed China"
7697:
7445:
6885:
6499:
6497:
6158:
5853:
5298:
4441:
4123:; named for the year the movement occurred in the
3325:In the early 1920s, British members of parliament
1479:Japanese authorities blockading Tapgol Park (1919)
1347:their status during the conservative Joseon period
41:A march during one of the protests in Seoul (1919)
8389:
8269:
8242:
8188:
7963:
7951:
7882:
6982:
6236:
6221:
5639:
5462:
5224:
5200:
5163:
4272:
4233:
3466:, which was sparked by the death of Gojong's son
1607:An April 12 cablegram, sent from Shanghai to the
950:
936:
9567:
7733:
7731:
7729:
7727:
5941:역사저널 그날. February 6, 2019. Event occurs at 1:30
4571:
4559:
4547:
3570:directly attribute to the March First Movement.
2708:echoed these narratives. One such article read:
1744:
1027:A copy of the Korean Declaration of Independence
8133:
7559:
7557:
7500:
7498:
7496:
7285:
7283:
7281:
6653:
6651:
6649:
6647:
6645:
6494:
5574:
4659:
4657:
4655:
4653:
4651:
4649:
4647:
4645:
4643:
3720:United States Army Military Government in Korea
3617:
3556:
1412:Sinhanch'on § Korean independence movement
934:Korean Young People's Independence Organization
924:, which they received in part via the Japanese
9428:List of war apology statements issued by Japan
6100:
6098:
6096:
5098:
4641:
4639:
4637:
4635:
4633:
4631:
4629:
4627:
4625:
4623:
4494:
4492:
4490:
4488:
4486:
4484:
4482:
4480:
4478:
4476:
3014:
2991:
2942:
813:Paris Peace Conference and the death of Gojong
740:Fourteen Points and philosophical developments
163:Inspiration for other protest movements abroad
8872:
8858:
7724:
7675:
6825:
6094:
6092:
6090:
6088:
6086:
6084:
6082:
6080:
6078:
6076:
6031:
6029:
6027:
6025:
6023:
6021:
6019:
6017:
5826:
5824:
5822:
5756:
5754:
4821:
4771:
4769:
4767:
4765:
4763:
4716:
4714:
4712:
4710:
4708:
4706:
4704:
4474:
4472:
4470:
4468:
4466:
4464:
4462:
4460:
4458:
4456:
3835:Provisional People's Committee of North Korea
3444:
3231:. The foreign ministry of the anti-Bolshevik
3086:U.S. had been engaging in its own colonialism
2933:reportedly welcomed the March First Movement.
1424:and the Empire of Japan had been part of the
281:
9490:
9481:Museum of Japanese Colonial History in Korea
8142:"Kim Tu Bong and the Flag of Great Extremes"
7554:
7493:
7278:
6642:
5987:
5985:
5968:(in Korean). 독립기념관 한국독립운동사연구소. p. 173.
5036:
4819:
4817:
4815:
4813:
4811:
4809:
4807:
4805:
4803:
4801:
4138:
4132:
4118:
4112:
4093:
4087:
4053:
4043:
3936:
3838:
3782:
3776:
3694:
2767:
2283:
1758:
1372:The Longjing Manse Movement (March 13, 1919)
1286:
1157:
1131:
1125:
1106:
945:
939:
147:No official support from foreign governments
9351:Japanese General Government Building, Seoul
9296:List of militant independence organizations
8519:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
7807:
7048:"Criticising Colonialism in pre‑1945 Japan"
7046:Souyri, Pierre-François (January 1, 2015).
6634:) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
6428:"잘못된 '3·1운동 참가 인원' 통계...호남지역 15분의 1축소 '유감'"
5278:"Did you know that ...(22) The coffee plot"
4857:
4855:
4620:
4104:
4067:
4059:
4049:
3985:are also attested to holding celebrations.
2735:Statements from foreign supporters of Japan
1352:
1262:Hoengseong County held a series of protests
1084:Role of foreigners in planning the protests
1016:Gojong's funeral procession (March 1, 1919)
295:
8865:
8851:
8798:(Seoul) 14, no. 1–2 (1972) pp. 14–33.
8796:Koreana Quarterly: A Korean Affairs Review
8349:Embassy of the Republic of Korea in Mexico
8139:
6630:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
6073:
6014:
5819:
5751:
4760:
4701:
4453:
3650:
3069:
1753:(NIKH) of South Korea published an online
1181:By the time the marchers reached the gate
651:uprisings, and claiming that Koreans were
288:
274:
35:
9550:Japan–South Korea Comfort Women Agreement
9403:Controversies surrounding Yasukuni Shrine
7349:. US Department of State. pp. 35–36.
7059:
6479:[March First Movement Database].
6348:
6346:
6344:
6179:Ministry of Patriots and Veterans Affairs
5982:
5647:"Department History: Dr. Frank Schofield"
5592:
5060:
4798:
3896:Anniversary marches in Vladivostok (1920)
2941:, as part of his "Small Japan" ideology (
2756:, and former diplomatic advisor to Japan
1664:became infamous for the mistreatment and
9009:
8493:한국역사연구회 3·1운동100주년기획위원회 (June 3, 2019).
6737:
5358:
5099:Hart-Landsberg, Martin (December 1998).
4852:
3891:
3813:
3789:
3560:
3507:
3448:
3156:
3098:
2962:
2924:
2804:
2738:
2682:
2196:
2194:
2163:
2161:
2159:
2157:
2147:
2145:
2143:
2141:
1707:
1656:, where many arrestees were kept. (1945)
1648:
1521:Photographs of the protests' suppression
1474:
1367:
1273:
1168:
1142:
1100:. On February 28th, Canadian missionary
1022:
1011:
910:
816:
776:
410:Revolutions and interventions in Hungary
9423:Japanese history textbook controversies
8782:
7808:Wasserstrom, Jeffrey N. (May 4, 2019).
7683:"Constitution of the Republic of Korea"
5570:
5568:
5566:
5564:
5562:
5560:
5558:
5556:
5042:
3243:May 3 article in the leftist newspaper
2643:a positive influence on the peninsula.
928:movement and Wilson's Fourteen Points.
762:. The devastation during the 1914–1918
9568:
8659:
8638:
8290:"대만, 브라질, 쿠웨이트, 몽골 등 해외 곳곳에서 3.1절 기념식"
8093:
7685:. Korea Legislation Research Institute
7410:
7395:
7333:
7045:
7041:
7039:
7037:
7035:
6991:
6976:
6964:
6949:
6913:
6879:
6862:
6826:VanVolkenburg, Matt (April 20, 2021).
6794:
6792:
6783:
6768:
6725:
6710:
6698:
6686:
6341:
6257:
6215:
6067:
5789:
5319:
5264:
5247:
5218:
5181:
5083:
4754:
4695:
4614:
4498:
4269:To download dataset, click "다운로드 출력수".
3734:. A major celebration was held at the
2809:American Korean independence activist
2637:
2572:
907:February 8 Declaration of Independence
901:February 8 Declaration of Independence
9180:Gwangju Student Independence Movement
9088:Korean Women's Volunteer Labour Corps
8846:
8740:
8527:
8492:
8437:Hwang, Seok-Joo (February 29, 2024).
8436:
7371:
6738:Yoshiaki, Ishiguro (March 30, 2004).
6421:
6419:
6417:
6394:"3·1운동 103만명 참가·934명 사망… 첫 공식 집계 나왔다"
6335:
6323:
6311:
6299:
6284:
6272:
6198:
5994:"두만강 건너간 한인들이 세운 '신한촌'… 해외 독립운동 상징으로"
5528:
5526:
5503:"구례선 목사 사택서 시작된 '독립열망'… 日帝 도끼-총으로 탄압"
5496:
5494:
5492:
5417:
5334:
5307:
5197:. University of Hawaii Press, p. 100.
5010:
5008:
5006:
5004:
5002:
5000:
4956:The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus
4945:
4943:
4941:
4939:
4937:
4935:
4933:
4931:
4505:The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus
3406:, which is often associated with the
3269:Early on, British newspapers such as
3111:wrote the foreword for Henry Chung's
2882:Japanese reactions and policy changes
2191:
2154:
2138:
885:suspected that Japan had poisoned him
269:
99:, discontent with colonial rule, and
9234:Korean History Compilation Committee
8805:(Royal Asiatic Society, Seoul, 1985)
8715:
8617:
8582:. Wilfrid Laurier University Press.
8542:
8140:Tertitskiy, Fyodor (June 20, 2014).
8047:Encyclopedia of Korean Local Culture
8027:
7780:
7765:
7738:Han, Yeong-jin (February 28, 2006).
7718:
7703:
7669:
7657:
7645:
7633:
7604:
7272:
7260:
7248:
7111:
6547:National Institute of Korean History
6481:National Institute of Korean History
6462:National Institute of Korean History
6352:
5813:
5801:
5553:
5346:
5105:. Monthly Review Press. p. 30.
5030:National Institute of Korean History
4991:National Institute of Korean History
4949:
4922:National Institute of Korean History
4894:
4825:
4565:
4447:
4435:
4258:National Institute of Korean History
3738:pavilion. Present at the event were
3043:Government-General of Chōsen Library
1751:National Institute of Korean History
1644:
781:U.S. President Woodrow Wilson (1919)
734:National Institute of Korean History
16:1919 anti-colonial protests in Korea
9336:Government-General Museum of Chōsen
9078:Aso Mining forced labor controversy
8575:
8407:
7737:
7032:
6798:
6789:
6506:"3·1운동 당시 시위 1716건… 日帝 통계보다 2배 많았다"
5359:Hae-yeon, Kim (February 23, 2023).
5152:from the original on March 20, 2023
5137:
4950:Baik, Youngseo (November 1, 2021).
4862:Kim, Hyeon-gyeong (March 1, 1997).
4861:
4826:Shin, Yong-ha (February 27, 2009).
4107: Ten-thousand Year Movement),
3701:Korean National Revolutionary Party
2664:In April 1919, Japanese politician
2606:
1333:conflicts. In this province and in
150:Damaged Japan's international image
13:
8810:Journal of Northeast Asian History
8776:
8690:
8624:Journal of Northeast Asian History
8596:
7795:
7592:
7564:현, 윤경; 이, 광빈 (February 22, 2019).
7563:
7487:
7475:
7463:
7451:
7383:
7359:
7318:
6937:
6925:
6894:
6414:
6242:
6230:
5716:
5683:
5616:김, 진흥; 박, 미선 (February 28, 2019).
5615:
5523:
5489:
5483:
5468:
5456:
5441:
5429:
5230:
5206:
5187:
5169:
5125:
4997:
4928:
4900:
4553:
3846:Before the division of Korea, the
3699:) wrote that for the left-leaning
3386:
3078:
2834:Rebuttals from the Korean diaspora
2309:1920 statistics from Park Eun-sik
1253:had hosted protests. On March 21,
1044:Korean Declaration of Independence
626:Korean Declaration of Independence
14:
9662:
8826:
8812:15#1 (Win 2018) pp. 113–142.
8691:Ra, Dong-Kwang (September 2003).
8660:Palmer, Brandon (December 2020).
8467:
8439:"New York enacts Yu Gwan-sun Day"
8395:
8314:
8287:
8275:
8263:
8248:
8236:
8224:
8209:
8194:
8182:
8170:
8015:
7996:
7984:
7972:
7957:
7945:
7903:
7891:
7876:
7621:
7533:
7504:
7422:
7289:
7082:
6657:
6503:
6457:"3.1운동 100주년 기념 "삼일운동 데이터베이스" 공개"
6425:
6391:
6104:
6035:
5991:
5963:
5900:
5830:
5760:
5728:
5532:
5500:
5028:] (in Korean). Vol. 47.
4989:] (in Korean). Vol. 47.
4920:] (in Korean). Vol. 47.
4775:
4720:
4663:
4524:
4499:Bailey, Penny (August 15, 2019).
3645:
3345:
3252:
3164:praised the March First Movement.
1237:). On March 3, more were held in
997:, although they were rebuffed by
604:was a series of protests against
153:Invigorated independence activism
9393:Anti-Japanese sentiment in Korea
9198:Korean Language Society Incident
8917:
8831:
8430:
8408:Cho, Il-joon (January 2, 2019).
8401:
8363:
8337:
8308:
8281:
8102:
8087:
8061:
8033:
7909:
7835:
7801:
7527:
7416:
7339:
7211:
7180:
7152:
7085:"[동아일보 속의 근대 100景]미술전람회"
7076:
6731:
6591:
6353:Kang, Inyoung (March 29, 2018).
5043:Neuhaus, Dolf-Alexander (2017).
4252:[Incident information].
4210:
4198:
4183:
4174:
4164:
4024:National Liberation Day of Korea
4017:Anti-Japanese sentiment in Korea
3956:
3809:
3725:
2958:
2731:, that promoted these messages.
2586:Japanese disinformation campaign
1561:
1552:
1543:
1534:
1525:
1451:
1364:March First Movement in Longjing
617:, but of all of Korean history.
9626:Massacres of protesters in Asia
9596:1919 in international relations
8618:Kwon, Tae-eok (December 2018).
8371:"한복 입고 3·1절 기념행사 참석한 멕시코 한인후손들"
8094:Gibson, Jenna (March 1, 2019).
6560:
6469:
6127:
5957:
5921:
5722:
5689:
5609:
5581:The Canadian Veterinary Journal
5380:
5352:
5270:
5131:
4969:
4155:
4146:
3887:
3638:, who had previously served as
2178:
2129:
957:
9398:Anti-Korean sentiment in Japan
9301:List of independence activists
8639:Manela, Erez (July 23, 2007).
8116:Encyclopedia of Korean Culture
7922:Encyclopedia of Korean Culture
7225:Encyclopedia of Korean Culture
7194:Encyclopedia of Korean Culture
7134:Encyclopedia of Korean Culture
7126:
6574:Encyclopedia of Korean Culture
6141:Encyclopedia of Korean Culture
5930:3월 13일, 간도 용정에서 대규모 만세시위가 벌어지다
5870:Encyclopedia of Korean Culture
5696:First Korean Congress (1919).
5394:Encyclopedia of Korean Culture
4588:Encyclopedia of Korean Culture
4518:
4405:Encyclopedia of Korean Culture
4139:
4133:
4119:
4113:
4094:
4088:
4054:
4044:
4036:
3937:
3839:
3783:
3777:
3695:
3531:
3500:
2566:Encyclopedia of Korean Culture
1759:
1697:
1470:
1158:
1132:
1126:
1107:
946:
940:
797:reportedly greatly increased.
653:in need of the benevolent rule
624:, with public readings of the
1:
8108:
8039:
7217:
7186:
7158:
6998:The Journal of Korean Studies
6566:
6133:
5862:
5626:Seoul Metropolitan Government
5386:
4977:"3·1운동: 식민지 지배의 모순 격화와 민생 피폐"
4580:
4397:
4227:
3804:Korean Provisional Government
3750:. Absent at the ceremony was
3584:Indian independence activist
3472:Korean Provisional Government
2827:Presbyterian Church in Canada
1755:March First Movement Database
1745:March First Movement Database
1736:
705:
660:Korean Provisional Government
260:46,948 (1920 Korean estimate)
204:Korean independence activists
158:Korean Provisional Government
9611:Massacres committed by Japan
9581:Korean independence movement
9032:Oriental Development Company
8787:. Columbia University Press.
8317:"105주년 3.1절, 워싱턴 동포들도 '한마음'"
6979:, pp. 207–208, 213–214.
5731:"횡성 4·1만세운동 공원 호국 성지화 사업 추진"
5138:Son, Sae-il (July 2, 2007),
5025:Korean History (New Edition)
4986:Korean History (New Edition)
4917:Korean History (New Edition)
4171:punished critical reporting.
3705:proletarian internationalism
3618:The movement as a revolution
3557:Other independence movements
3281:, based on information from
1357:
1138:Government-General of Chōsen
1114:
1033:thirty-three representatives
871:with the Chinese delegation.
756:colonial civilizing missions
722:Japan formally annexed Korea
716:Korean independence movement
664:Japanese colonial government
615:Korean independence movement
211:Government-General of Chōsen
29:Korean independence movement
7:
9418:Japan–South Korea relations
9413:Japan–North Korea relations
9291:Korean National Association
9281:Declaration of Independence
9098:Slavery during World War II
8645:. Oxford University Press.
8476:(in Korean) (74): 203–234.
8042:"3·1절 기념 시위 사건 - 디지털제주문화대전"
7536:"쿠바의 한인, 우리가 알지 못했던 독립운동가들"
7505:황, 철환 (February 23, 2019).
7423:차, 대운 (February 15, 2019).
7290:국, 기헌 (February 24, 2019).
7083:김, 동근 (December 31, 2009).
6658:김, 용래 (February 21, 2019).
6036:유, 철종 (February 19, 2019).
5831:임, 주영 (February 18, 2019).
5761:차, 병섭 (February 14, 2019).
4776:이, 준서 (February 17, 2019).
4721:박, 대한 (February 20, 2019).
4664:김, 상훈 (February 14, 2019).
4525:윤, 호창 (February 19, 2019).
3995:
3714:Choe argues that after the
3522:constitution of South Korea
3514:constitution of South Korea
3427:Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung
3308:William Grenfell Max Muller
3218:
3021:
2998:
2906:
2871:Washington Naval Conference
2213:# protests by month (1919)
1609:Korean National Association
1185:of the former royal palace
985:, reached a consensus that
834:Korean National Association
497:Turkish War of Independence
119:Secure Korea's independence
10:
9667:
9463:Independence Hall of Korea
8899:Governor-General of Chōsen
8741:Wells, Kenneth M. (1989).
8461:
8377:(in Korean). March 4, 2024
6602:(Third ed.). Boston.
6105:옥, 철 (February 16, 2019).
5992:안, 영배 (January 18, 2020).
5655:Ontario Veterinary College
5533:이, 국희 (January 31, 2023).
5016:"3·1운동: 해방과 평등의 새로운 사조 등장"
4527:"3.1혁명 100년, 이젠 복지국가 혁명이다"
4109:Gimi Independence Movement
3943:Shanghai French Concession
3912:
3908:
3864:
3763:anti-trusteeship sentiment
3629:
3445:Legacy and interpretations
3418:Korean community in Mexico
2840:League of Friends of Korea
1701:
1626:League of Friends of Korea
1494:During an intense raid on
1408:Koryo-saram § History
1405:
1361:
1327:Donghak Peasant Revolution
1315:North Chungcheong Province
1247:South Chungcheong Province
904:
743:
709:
122:Gain international support
9631:1919 in the United States
9591:Anti-imperialism in Korea
9385:
9372:Keijō Imperial University
9318:
9269:
9207:
9111:
9070:
9044:
9022:Chōsen Government Railway
9017:Chōsen Anthracite Company
8986:Bank of Korea (1909–1950)
8978:
8926:
8915:
8891:
8880:
8874:Korea under Japanese rule
8630:(1): 115–142 – via
8345:"메리다 3.1운동 100주년 만세운동 재현"
8121:Academy of Korean Studies
7927:Academy of Korean Studies
7534:남, 문희 (October 3, 2021).
7230:Academy of Korean Studies
7199:Academy of Korean Studies
7139:Academy of Korean Studies
6579:Academy of Korean Studies
6171:"이달의 독립운동가: 프랭크 윌리엄 스코필드"
6146:Academy of Korean Studies
5875:Academy of Korean Studies
5865:"3·13반일시위운동 (三·一三反日示威運動)"
5729:김, 영인 (January 3, 2019).
5618:"우리가 몰랐던 '34번째 민족대표' 이야기"
5501:성, 동기 (August 31, 2019).
5399:Academy of Korean Studies
4593:Academy of Korean Studies
4410:Academy of Korean Studies
3882:Tokyo Imperial University
3599:, university students in
3597:U.S.-occupied Philippines
3476:government of South Korea
3208:Peking and Tientsin Times
3184:
3015:
2992:
2943:
2892:
2768:Rebuttals from foreigners
2654:Great Falls Daily Tribune
2284:Park Eun-sik's statistics
2124:
1463:was symbolically held in
1401:
1287:Character of the protests
1196:
712:Korea under Japanese rule
467:Irish War of Independence
343:Australian general strike
307:
256:
248:
243:
226:
221:
197:
192:
169:
138:
128:
113:
91:
63:Korea under Japanese rule
54:
46:
34:
26:
21:
8952:Office of the Yi Dynasty
8946:Colored Clothes Campaign
7263:, pp. 115, 117–119.
7166:Korean Newspaper Archive
6992:Caprio, Mark E. (2011).
6541:[Introduction].
5901:안, 상경 (March 11, 2022).
4848:– via Korea Focus.
4029:
3947:Second Sino-Japanese War
3860:
3612:1919 Egyptian revolution
3590:non-cooperation movement
3402:singing the French song
3264:Hague Convention of 1907
3152:
2875:its holdings in Shandong
1611:in San Francisco, read:
1353:Korean diaspora protests
1031:From February 25 to 27,
556:Uprising in West Hungary
370:German strike of January
9514:Wednesday demonstration
9451:Treaty of San Francisco
8783:Baldwin, Frank (1972).
8576:Ion, A. Hamish (1990).
8499:(in Korean). Humanist.
8468:최, 선웅 (December 2009).
8315:김, 윤미 (March 6, 2024).
8288:이, 석호 (March 2, 2024).
7848:Encyclopædia Britannica
6799:Ion, A. Hamish (1990).
6689:, p. 204; 213–214.
6569:"한국독립운동지혈사 (韓國獨立運動之血史)"
6504:유, 석재 (July 18, 2020).
6426:이, 화구 (March 1, 2023).
6392:김, 성현 (July 18, 2020).
6136:"수원 수천리 참변 (水原 狩川里 慘變)"
5193:Chang, Roberta (2003).
4908:"3·1운동: 식민지 지배의 압박과 고통"
4583:"수원 제암리 참변 (水原 堤岩里 慘變)"
3651:History and description
3640:Prime Minister of Japan
3410:, during the protests.
3260:Anglo-Japanese Alliance
3258:Japan were then in the
3070:International reactions
1491:on unarmed protestors.
1306:North Hamgyong Province
1098:North Hamgyong Province
440:Greater Poland uprising
365:Austro-Hungarian strike
232:Around 0.8 to 2 million
9651:Disinformation in Asia
9306:Provisional Government
9162:Shinano River incident
8819:69.1 (2000): 116–142.
8716:Shin, Michael (2018).
4129:March First Revolution
3988:In the United States,
3897:
3830:
3795:
3608:British-occupied Egypt
3566:
3550:
3517:
3512:The first page of the
3458:
3339:
3165:
3104:
2972:
2934:
2814:
2790:Valentine S. McClatchy
2748:
2715:
2691:
2627:Honolulu Star-Bulletin
1717:
1675:
1666:extrajudicial killings
1657:
1618:
1605:
1578:One female student of
1480:
1392:
1373:
1299:played what historian
1279:
1178:
1148:
1028:
1017:
916:
857:New Korean Youth Party
827:Paris Peace Conference
822:
782:
620:The protests began in
606:Japanese colonial rule
430:1918 protest in Zagreb
400:Canadian Labour Revolt
395:British police strikes
353:Brazil strike movement
9502:Futsukaichi Rest Home
9319:Places and structures
9272:Independence movement
9186:Hongkou Park Incident
8934:Chōsen Art Exhibition
8840:at Wikimedia Commons
8603:. Renaissance Books.
8543:Hart, Dennis (2000).
8528:Chung, Henry (1921).
8496:3·1운동 100년 2 사건과 목격자들
8470:"3ㆍ1운동 기념 의례의 창출과 변화"
7843:"May Fourth Movement"
7010:10.1353/jks.2011.0006
6744:国際基督教大学学報 3-A,アジア文化研究
5665:on September 25, 2009
5062:10.1353/ach.2017.0021
4840:on September 28, 2011
3895:
3817:
3793:
3658:Korean National Party
3564:
3545:
3511:
3452:
3160:
3102:
3093:U.S. State Department
3039:Chōsen Art Exhibition
2969:Chōsen Art Exhibition
2966:
2928:
2808:
2742:
2710:
2686:
1711:
1670:
1652:
1613:
1588:
1570:There are reports of
1478:
1461:First Korean Congress
1426:Allies of World War I
1387:
1371:
1339:South Jeolla Province
1323:North Jeolla Province
1277:
1172:
1146:
1026:
1015:
987:nonviolent resistance
914:
820:
780:
512:Luton Peace Day Riots
133:Nonviolent resistance
9576:March First Movement
9408:Japan–Korea disputes
9150:Battle of Qingshanli
9137:Battle of Fengwudong
9125:March First Movement
8909:Japanese Korean Army
8838:March First Movement
8597:Ku, Daeyeol (2021).
7161:"경남일보[慶南日報]"
6465:. February 20, 2019.
6175:e-gonghun.mpva.go.kr
5659:University of Guelph
5622:mediahub.seoul.go.kr
5389:"2·8독립선언서 (二八獨立宣言書)"
3340:Les Amis de la Corée
3331:Thomas Walter Grundy
2929:Japanese journalist
2913:Public intellectual
2854:Congressional Record
2817:American missionary
2788:American journalist
2758:George Trumbull Ladd
2600:The Japan Advertiser
1584:Congressional Record
1378:Koreans in Manchuria
770:reforms, especially
760:Japanese colonialism
602:March First Movement
546:Mongolian Revolution
487:March First Movement
425:Swiss general strike
328:French Army mutinies
22:March First Movement
9219:Five Eulsa Traitors
9174:June Tenth Movement
8266:, pp. 215–216.
8239:, pp. 209–212.
8227:, pp. 209–210.
8212:, pp. 223–224.
8185:, pp. 211–212.
8173:, pp. 229–230.
8018:, pp. 227–228.
7999:, pp. 226–227.
7987:, pp. 213–215.
7948:, pp. 220–221.
7906:, pp. 208–212.
7879:, pp. 208–209.
7798:, pp. 107–108.
7768:, p. 144; 154.
7721:, pp. 151–152.
7660:, pp. 210–211.
7648:, pp. 140–141.
7624:, pp. 206–207.
7595:, pp. 106–107.
7490:, pp. 115–116.
7478:, pp. 114–117.
7466:, pp. 114–115.
7413:, pp. 204–205.
7398:, pp. 212–213.
7386:, pp. 135–136.
7362:, pp. 126–128.
7321:, pp. 131–132.
7220:"국립중앙도서관 (國立中央圖書館)"
7189:"조선미술전람회 (朝鮮美術展覽會)"
6967:, pp. 213–214.
6952:, pp. 201–202.
6940:, pp. 133–134.
6928:, pp. 132–133.
6916:, pp. 199–201.
6882:, pp. 206–207.
6865:, pp. 205–206.
6786:, pp. 211–212.
6771:, pp. 209–210.
6701:, pp. 210–211.
6338:, pp. 102–103.
6260:, pp. 202–203.
6070:, pp. 199–200.
5937:] (in Korean).
5719:, pp. 168–169.
5704:Library of Congress
5686:, pp. 179–181.
5486:, pp. 179–180.
5444:, pp. 176–177.
5432:, pp. 173–176.
5286:. September 9, 2011
5221:, pp. 196–197.
5184:, pp. 129–130.
5128:, pp. 125–126.
4897:, pp. 153–154.
4617:, pp. 208–209.
4438:, pp. 115–116.
4082:). Alternate names
4042:North Korean name:
3798:In 2018, President
3575:May Fourth Movement
3464:June Tenth Movement
3455:June Tenth Movement
3437:Corriere della Sera
3171:Republic Daily News
3091:In April 1919, the
2918:expansionist group
2743:Westerners such as
2638:Japanese statements
2594:The Japan Chronicle
2573:Japanese statistics
2310:
2214:
2186:Territory of Hawaii
1776:
1594:. As we neared the
1504:Sucheon-ri massacre
1166:for a public march.
683:May Fourth Movement
492:May Fourth Movement
477:La Canadenca strike
420:Egyptian Revolution
252:Around 798 to 7,509
144:Violent suppression
9606:Massacres in Korea
9526:Asian Women's Fund
9469:Murayama Statement
9326:Altteureu Airfield
9192:Battle of Pochonbo
9143:Battle of Samdunja
8699:. 14·15: 167–183.
8444:Yonhap News Agency
7814:The New York Times
7571:Yonhap News Agency
7512:Yonhap News Agency
7430:Yonhap News Agency
7297:Yonhap News Agency
6665:Yonhap News Agency
6359:The New York Times
6302:, pp. 99–100.
6112:Yonhap News Agency
6043:Yonhap News Agency
5838:Yonhap News Agency
5768:Yonhap News Agency
5736:Yonhap News Agency
5459:, p. 177–178.
5032:– via 우리역사넷.
4993:– via 우리역사넷.
4924:– via 우리역사넷.
4783:Yonhap News Agency
4728:Yonhap News Agency
4671:Yonhap News Agency
4077:three-one movement
4012:June 10th Movement
4007:Korean nationalism
3898:
3831:
3796:
3567:
3518:
3459:
3357:The Malaya Tribune
3229:Russian Revolution
3179:, in his magazine
3166:
3146:The New York Times
3105:
2973:
2951:and art historian
2935:
2850:The New York Times
2815:
2795:The Sacramento Bee
2749:
2692:
2678:of the Philippines
2563:An article in the
2308:
2301:by Korean scholar
2212:
2184:Includes the U.S.
1774:
1718:
1689:Severance Hospital
1680:Chicago Daily News
1658:
1481:
1374:
1280:
1251:provinces of Korea
1179:
1149:
1147:Tapgol Park (1968)
1029:
1018:
917:
866:, managed to send
836:attempted to send
823:
791:self-determination
783:
696:a national holiday
628:in the restaurant
573:September Uprising
482:Kinmel Park mutiny
462:Southampton mutiny
318:Russian Revolution
97:self-determination
9616:Conflicts in 1919
9601:Protests in Korea
9563:
9562:
9559:
9558:
9532:Shimonoseki Trial
9433:Division of Korea
9362:Keijō Post Office
9314:
9313:
9286:Independence Club
9040:
9039:
8940:Chosun Exhibition
8927:Cultural policies
8886:from 1910 to 1945
8836:Media related to
8652:978-0-19-803915-0
8610:978-1-912961-21-4
8589:978-0-88920-218-4
8549:Asian Perspective
8506:979-11-6080-262-7
8111:"우리의 건설 (우리의 建設)"
6812:978-0-88920-218-4
6756:10.34577/00002705
6287:, pp. 92–93.
6201:, pp. 94–96.
5816:, pp. 21–23.
5706:. pp. 80–82.
5140:"孫世一의 비교 傳記 (64)"
5112:978-0-85345-928-6
3716:division of Korea
3577:in China such as
3491:division of Korea
3408:French Revolution
3363:The Straits Times
3225:Russian Civil War
3202:Peking Daily News
3197:Peking University
3181:The Weekly Review
3117:League of Nations
3113:The Case of Korea
3109:Selden P. Spencer
2904:
2845:The Case of Korea
2729:Educational Korea
2561:
2560:
2281:
2280:
2210:
2209:
1645:Prison conditions
1457:Koreans in Hawaii
1235:Gyeonggi Province
1001:-era politicians
922:liberal democracy
702:in the protests.
597:
596:
534:Patagonia Rebelde
405:German Revolution
375:Finnish Civil War
264:
263:
239:
238:
217:
216:
9658:
9494:
9488:
9487:
9439:Koreans in Japan
9377:Seodaemun Prison
9273:
9211:
9119:105-Man Incident
9068:
9067:
9062:Sakhalin Koreans
9007:
9006:
8921:
8920:
8867:
8860:
8853:
8844:
8843:
8835:
8791:Ko, Seung Kyun.
8788:
8772:
8737:
8722:(1st ed.).
8712:
8687:
8656:
8635:
8614:
8593:
8572:
8539:
8536:Internet Archive
8524:
8518:
8510:
8489:
8456:
8455:
8453:
8451:
8434:
8428:
8427:
8425:
8423:
8405:
8399:
8393:
8387:
8386:
8384:
8382:
8367:
8361:
8360:
8358:
8356:
8341:
8335:
8334:
8332:
8330:
8312:
8306:
8305:
8303:
8301:
8285:
8279:
8273:
8267:
8261:
8252:
8246:
8240:
8234:
8228:
8222:
8213:
8207:
8198:
8192:
8186:
8180:
8174:
8168:
8159:
8158:
8156:
8154:
8137:
8131:
8130:
8129:
8127:
8106:
8100:
8099:
8091:
8085:
8084:
8082:
8080:
8075:on June 16, 2020
8071:. Archived from
8065:
8059:
8058:
8056:
8054:
8037:
8031:
8025:
8019:
8013:
8000:
7994:
7988:
7982:
7976:
7970:
7961:
7955:
7949:
7943:
7937:
7936:
7935:
7933:
7913:
7907:
7901:
7895:
7889:
7880:
7874:
7861:
7860:
7858:
7856:
7851:. March 22, 2024
7839:
7833:
7832:
7830:
7828:
7805:
7799:
7793:
7784:
7778:
7769:
7763:
7757:
7756:
7754:
7752:
7735:
7722:
7716:
7707:
7701:
7695:
7694:
7692:
7690:
7679:
7673:
7667:
7661:
7655:
7649:
7643:
7637:
7631:
7625:
7619:
7608:
7602:
7596:
7590:
7584:
7583:
7581:
7579:
7561:
7552:
7551:
7549:
7547:
7531:
7525:
7524:
7522:
7520:
7502:
7491:
7485:
7479:
7473:
7467:
7461:
7455:
7449:
7443:
7442:
7440:
7438:
7420:
7414:
7408:
7399:
7393:
7387:
7381:
7375:
7369:
7363:
7357:
7351:
7350:
7343:
7337:
7331:
7322:
7316:
7310:
7309:
7307:
7305:
7287:
7276:
7270:
7264:
7258:
7252:
7246:
7240:
7239:
7238:
7236:
7215:
7209:
7208:
7207:
7205:
7184:
7178:
7177:
7175:
7173:
7156:
7150:
7149:
7147:
7145:
7124:
7115:
7109:
7103:
7102:
7100:
7098:
7080:
7074:
7073:
7063:
7061:10.4000/cjs.1121
7043:
7030:
7029:
6989:
6980:
6974:
6968:
6962:
6953:
6947:
6941:
6935:
6929:
6923:
6917:
6911:
6898:
6892:
6883:
6877:
6866:
6860:
6845:
6844:
6842:
6840:
6823:
6817:
6816:
6796:
6787:
6781:
6772:
6766:
6760:
6759:
6735:
6729:
6723:
6714:
6708:
6702:
6696:
6690:
6684:
6678:
6677:
6675:
6673:
6655:
6640:
6639:
6629:
6621:
6595:
6589:
6588:
6587:
6585:
6564:
6558:
6557:
6555:
6553:
6535:
6524:
6523:
6521:
6519:
6501:
6492:
6491:
6489:
6487:
6473:
6467:
6466:
6453:
6444:
6443:
6441:
6439:
6423:
6412:
6411:
6409:
6407:
6389:
6378:
6377:
6375:
6373:
6350:
6339:
6333:
6327:
6321:
6315:
6309:
6303:
6297:
6288:
6282:
6276:
6270:
6261:
6255:
6246:
6240:
6234:
6228:
6219:
6213:
6202:
6196:
6190:
6189:
6187:
6185:
6167:
6156:
6155:
6154:
6152:
6131:
6125:
6124:
6122:
6120:
6102:
6071:
6065:
6056:
6055:
6053:
6051:
6033:
6012:
6011:
6009:
6007:
5989:
5980:
5979:
5961:
5955:
5954:
5948:
5946:
5925:
5919:
5918:
5916:
5914:
5898:
5885:
5884:
5883:
5881:
5860:
5851:
5850:
5848:
5846:
5828:
5817:
5811:
5805:
5799:
5793:
5787:
5781:
5780:
5778:
5776:
5758:
5749:
5748:
5746:
5744:
5726:
5720:
5714:
5708:
5707:
5693:
5687:
5681:
5675:
5674:
5672:
5670:
5661:. Archived from
5643:
5637:
5636:
5634:
5632:
5613:
5607:
5606:
5596:
5572:
5551:
5550:
5548:
5546:
5530:
5521:
5520:
5518:
5516:
5498:
5487:
5481:
5472:
5466:
5460:
5454:
5445:
5439:
5433:
5427:
5421:
5415:
5409:
5408:
5407:
5405:
5384:
5378:
5377:
5375:
5373:
5366:The Korea Herald
5356:
5350:
5344:
5338:
5332:
5323:
5317:
5311:
5305:
5296:
5295:
5293:
5291:
5274:
5268:
5262:
5251:
5245:
5234:
5228:
5222:
5216:
5210:
5204:
5198:
5191:
5185:
5179:
5173:
5167:
5161:
5160:
5159:
5157:
5135:
5129:
5123:
5117:
5116:
5096:
5087:
5081:
5075:
5074:
5064:
5040:
5034:
5033:
5012:
4995:
4994:
4973:
4967:
4966:
4964:
4962:
4947:
4926:
4925:
4904:
4898:
4892:
4881:
4880:
4878:
4876:
4859:
4850:
4849:
4847:
4845:
4836:. Archived from
4823:
4796:
4795:
4793:
4791:
4773:
4758:
4752:
4741:
4740:
4738:
4736:
4718:
4699:
4693:
4684:
4683:
4681:
4679:
4661:
4618:
4612:
4603:
4602:
4601:
4599:
4578:
4569:
4563:
4557:
4551:
4545:
4544:
4542:
4540:
4522:
4516:
4515:
4513:
4511:
4496:
4451:
4445:
4439:
4433:
4420:
4419:
4418:
4416:
4395:
4270:
4268:
4266:
4264:
4246:
4221:
4214:
4208:
4202:
4196:
4187:
4181:
4178:
4172:
4168:
4162:
4159:
4153:
4150:
4144:
4142:
4141:
4136:
4135:
4125:sexagenary cycle
4122:
4121:
4116:
4115:
4106:
4102:
4101:
4091:
4090:
4081:
4078:
4075:
4072:
4069:
4061:
4057:
4056:
4051:
4047:
4046:
4040:
4002:History of Korea
3940:
3939:
3915:Koreans in China
3867:Zainichi Koreans
3842:
3841:
3786:
3785:
3780:
3779:
3771:
3698:
3697:
3672:Koreans in Japan
3666:
3634:In August 2015,
3186:
3129:George W. Norris
3125:Miles Poindexter
3055:The Evening Star
3024:
3018:
3017:
3012:
3001:
2995:
2994:
2989:
2946:
2945:
2939:Tanzan Ishibashi
2931:Tanzan Ishibashi
2909:
2899:
2897:
2607:Information leak
2311:
2307:
2300:
2215:
2211:
2202:
2198:
2189:
2182:
2176:
2165:
2152:
2149:
2136:
2133:
1777:
1773:
1762:
1761:
1662:Seodaemun Prison
1654:Seodaemun Prison
1565:
1556:
1547:
1538:
1529:
1512:
1444:officer (likely
1161:
1160:
1135:
1134:
1129:
1128:
1110:
1109:
1075:
1056:
1041:
976:
952:
949:
948:
943:
942:
938:
926:Taishō Democracy
893:
875:
872:
865:
853:Koreans in China
850:
772:anti-colonialism
752:social Darwinism
680:
638:
583:Hamburg Uprising
435:Darwin rebellion
302:
290:
283:
276:
267:
266:
228:
227:
199:
198:
187:
156:Creation of the
109:
39:
19:
18:
9666:
9665:
9661:
9660:
9659:
9657:
9656:
9655:
9566:
9565:
9564:
9555:
9492:
9486:
9381:
9310:
9271:
9265:
9256:Song Byeong-jun
9209:
9203:
9131:Jeamri Massacre
9107:
9066:
9036:
9005:
8974:
8963:Shinto in Korea
8922:
8913:
8887:
8884:Empire of Japan
8876:
8871:
8829:
8779:
8777:Further reading
8734:
8653:
8611:
8590:
8512:
8511:
8507:
8464:
8459:
8449:
8447:
8435:
8431:
8421:
8419:
8406:
8402:
8394:
8390:
8380:
8378:
8369:
8368:
8364:
8354:
8352:
8351:. March 6, 2019
8343:
8342:
8338:
8328:
8326:
8322:The Korea Daily
8313:
8309:
8299:
8297:
8286:
8282:
8274:
8270:
8262:
8255:
8247:
8243:
8235:
8231:
8223:
8216:
8208:
8201:
8193:
8189:
8181:
8177:
8169:
8162:
8152:
8150:
8138:
8134:
8125:
8123:
8107:
8103:
8092:
8088:
8078:
8076:
8067:
8066:
8062:
8052:
8050:
8038:
8034:
8030:, pp. 1–3.
8026:
8022:
8014:
8003:
7995:
7991:
7983:
7979:
7971:
7964:
7956:
7952:
7944:
7940:
7931:
7929:
7915:
7914:
7910:
7902:
7898:
7890:
7883:
7875:
7864:
7854:
7852:
7841:
7840:
7836:
7826:
7824:
7806:
7802:
7794:
7787:
7779:
7772:
7764:
7760:
7750:
7748:
7736:
7725:
7717:
7710:
7702:
7698:
7688:
7686:
7681:
7680:
7676:
7668:
7664:
7656:
7652:
7644:
7640:
7632:
7628:
7620:
7611:
7603:
7599:
7591:
7587:
7577:
7575:
7562:
7555:
7545:
7543:
7532:
7528:
7518:
7516:
7503:
7494:
7486:
7482:
7474:
7470:
7462:
7458:
7450:
7446:
7436:
7434:
7421:
7417:
7409:
7402:
7394:
7390:
7382:
7378:
7370:
7366:
7358:
7354:
7345:
7344:
7340:
7332:
7325:
7317:
7313:
7303:
7301:
7288:
7279:
7275:, pp. 3–4.
7271:
7267:
7259:
7255:
7247:
7243:
7234:
7232:
7216:
7212:
7203:
7201:
7185:
7181:
7171:
7169:
7157:
7153:
7143:
7141:
7125:
7118:
7110:
7106:
7096:
7094:
7090:The Dong-a Ilbo
7081:
7077:
7044:
7033:
6990:
6983:
6975:
6971:
6963:
6956:
6948:
6944:
6936:
6932:
6924:
6920:
6912:
6901:
6893:
6886:
6878:
6869:
6861:
6848:
6838:
6836:
6833:The Korea Times
6824:
6820:
6813:
6797:
6790:
6782:
6775:
6767:
6763:
6736:
6732:
6724:
6717:
6709:
6705:
6697:
6693:
6685:
6681:
6671:
6669:
6656:
6643:
6623:
6622:
6610:
6596:
6592:
6583:
6581:
6565:
6561:
6551:
6549:
6537:
6536:
6527:
6517:
6515:
6511:The Chosun Ilbo
6502:
6495:
6485:
6483:
6475:
6474:
6470:
6455:
6454:
6447:
6437:
6435:
6424:
6415:
6405:
6403:
6399:The Chosun Ilbo
6390:
6381:
6371:
6369:
6351:
6342:
6334:
6330:
6322:
6318:
6310:
6306:
6298:
6291:
6283:
6279:
6271:
6264:
6256:
6249:
6241:
6237:
6229:
6222:
6214:
6205:
6197:
6193:
6183:
6181:
6169:
6168:
6159:
6150:
6148:
6132:
6128:
6118:
6116:
6103:
6074:
6066:
6059:
6049:
6047:
6034:
6015:
6005:
6003:
5999:The Dong-a Ilbo
5990:
5983:
5976:
5962:
5958:
5944:
5942:
5927:
5926:
5922:
5912:
5910:
5899:
5888:
5879:
5877:
5861:
5854:
5844:
5842:
5829:
5820:
5812:
5808:
5800:
5796:
5788:
5784:
5774:
5772:
5759:
5752:
5742:
5740:
5727:
5723:
5715:
5711:
5694:
5690:
5682:
5678:
5668:
5666:
5651:ovc.uoguelph.ca
5645:
5644:
5640:
5630:
5628:
5614:
5610:
5573:
5554:
5544:
5542:
5531:
5524:
5514:
5512:
5508:The Dong-A Ilbo
5499:
5490:
5482:
5475:
5467:
5463:
5455:
5448:
5440:
5436:
5428:
5424:
5416:
5412:
5403:
5401:
5385:
5381:
5371:
5369:
5357:
5353:
5345:
5341:
5337:, pp. 8–9.
5333:
5326:
5318:
5314:
5306:
5299:
5289:
5287:
5283:The Korea Times
5276:
5275:
5271:
5263:
5254:
5246:
5237:
5229:
5225:
5217:
5213:
5205:
5201:
5192:
5188:
5180:
5176:
5168:
5164:
5155:
5153:
5136:
5132:
5124:
5120:
5113:
5097:
5090:
5082:
5078:
5041:
5037:
5014:
5013:
4998:
4975:
4974:
4970:
4960:
4958:
4948:
4929:
4906:
4905:
4901:
4893:
4884:
4874:
4872:
4860:
4853:
4843:
4841:
4833:The Chosun Ilbo
4824:
4799:
4789:
4787:
4774:
4761:
4753:
4744:
4734:
4732:
4719:
4702:
4694:
4687:
4677:
4675:
4662:
4621:
4613:
4606:
4597:
4595:
4579:
4572:
4564:
4560:
4552:
4548:
4538:
4536:
4523:
4519:
4509:
4507:
4497:
4454:
4446:
4442:
4434:
4423:
4414:
4412:
4396:
4273:
4262:
4260:
4248:
4247:
4234:
4230:
4225:
4224:
4215:
4211:
4203:
4199:
4188:
4184:
4179:
4175:
4169:
4165:
4160:
4156:
4151:
4147:
4079:
4076:
4073:
4070:
4064:Sam-il Movement
4041:
4037:
4032:
3998:
3983:Koreans in Cuba
3973:Korean Mexicans
3963:ethnic enclaves
3959:
3951:national anthem
3917:
3911:
3890:
3869:
3863:
3812:
3765:
3728:
3681:The Dong-A Ilbo
3660:
3653:
3648:
3632:
3620:
3559:
3534:
3503:
3447:
3404:La Marseillaise
3389:
3387:Other countries
3348:
3255:
3221:
3155:
3081:
3072:
3034:The Chosun Ilbo
3028:The Dong-A Ilbo
3006:
2979:
2961:
2884:
2836:
2792:, publisher of
2781:The Seoul Press
2770:
2737:
2725:Pictorial Korea
2720:The Independent
2640:
2609:
2588:
2575:
2320:# participants
2294:
2286:
2206:
2205:
2199:
2192:
2183:
2179:
2166:
2155:
2150:
2139:
2134:
2130:
1802:
1797:
1792:
1787:
1747:
1739:
1706:
1700:
1647:
1566:
1557:
1548:
1539:
1530:
1515:Jeamni massacre
1506:
1489:bayonet charges
1473:
1454:
1414:
1404:
1366:
1360:
1355:
1329:and subsequent
1304:intellectuals.
1289:
1199:
1175:Seoul City Hall
1117:
1102:Frank Schofield
1090:Robert Grierson
1086:
1069:
1050:
1035:
970:
960:
909:
903:
887:
859:
844:
815:
764:First World War
748:
746:Fourteen Points
742:
718:
708:
670:
645:Jeamni massacre
632:
610:Korean diaspora
598:
593:
592:
472:First Red Scare
303:
299:
296:
294:
233:
213:
206:
177:
103:
87:
86:
42:
17:
12:
11:
5:
9664:
9654:
9653:
9648:
9646:1919 in Mexico
9643:
9641:1919 in Russia
9638:
9633:
9628:
9623:
9618:
9613:
9608:
9603:
9598:
9593:
9588:
9583:
9578:
9561:
9560:
9557:
9556:
9554:
9553:
9547:
9541:
9535:
9529:
9523:
9520:Kono Statement
9517:
9511:
9505:
9498:
9496:
9485:
9484:
9478:
9472:
9466:
9460:
9454:
9448:
9442:
9436:
9430:
9425:
9420:
9415:
9410:
9405:
9400:
9395:
9389:
9387:
9383:
9382:
9380:
9379:
9374:
9369:
9364:
9359:
9353:
9348:
9343:
9338:
9333:
9328:
9322:
9320:
9316:
9315:
9312:
9311:
9309:
9308:
9303:
9298:
9293:
9288:
9283:
9277:
9275:
9267:
9266:
9264:
9263:
9258:
9253:
9252:
9251:
9249:Park Jung-yang
9241:
9239:Park Yeong-hyo
9236:
9231:
9226:
9221:
9215:
9213:
9205:
9204:
9202:
9201:
9195:
9189:
9183:
9177:
9171:
9168:Kantō Massacre
9165:
9159:
9156:Gando Massacre
9153:
9147:
9146:
9145:
9134:
9128:
9122:
9115:
9113:
9109:
9108:
9106:
9105:
9100:
9095:
9090:
9085:
9083:Hashima Island
9080:
9074:
9072:
9065:
9064:
9059:
9048:
9046:
9042:
9041:
9038:
9037:
9035:
9034:
9029:
9027:Chosen Railway
9024:
9019:
9013:
9011:
9004:
9003:
8998:
8993:
8988:
8982:
8980:
8976:
8975:
8973:
8972:
8971:
8970:
8960:
8954:
8949:
8943:
8937:
8930:
8928:
8924:
8923:
8916:
8914:
8912:
8911:
8906:
8895:
8893:
8889:
8888:
8882:Colony of the
8881:
8878:
8877:
8870:
8869:
8862:
8855:
8847:
8828:
8827:External links
8825:
8824:
8823:
8817:Church History
8813:
8806:
8801:Ku, Dae-yeol.
8799:
8789:
8778:
8775:
8774:
8773:
8748:Korean Studies
8738:
8732:
8713:
8688:
8674:(4): 194–216.
8657:
8651:
8636:
8615:
8609:
8594:
8588:
8573:
8555:(3): 135–158.
8540:
8525:
8505:
8490:
8463:
8460:
8458:
8457:
8429:
8400:
8398:, p. 215.
8388:
8362:
8336:
8307:
8280:
8278:, p. 214.
8268:
8253:
8251:, p. 209.
8241:
8229:
8214:
8199:
8197:, p. 211.
8187:
8175:
8160:
8132:
8101:
8086:
8060:
8032:
8020:
8001:
7989:
7977:
7975:, p. 222.
7962:
7960:, p. 227.
7950:
7938:
7908:
7896:
7894:, p. 226.
7881:
7862:
7834:
7800:
7785:
7783:, p. 154.
7770:
7758:
7723:
7708:
7696:
7674:
7672:, p. 139.
7662:
7650:
7638:
7636:, p. 138.
7626:
7609:
7607:, p. 206.
7597:
7585:
7553:
7526:
7492:
7480:
7468:
7456:
7454:, p. 115.
7444:
7415:
7400:
7388:
7376:
7364:
7352:
7338:
7336:, p. 208.
7323:
7311:
7277:
7265:
7253:
7241:
7210:
7179:
7151:
7127:정, 진석; 최, 진우.
7116:
7114:, p. 115.
7104:
7075:
7031:
6981:
6969:
6954:
6942:
6930:
6918:
6899:
6897:, p. 132.
6884:
6867:
6846:
6818:
6811:
6788:
6773:
6761:
6730:
6728:, p. 195.
6715:
6713:, p. 209.
6703:
6691:
6679:
6641:
6608:
6590:
6559:
6525:
6493:
6468:
6445:
6413:
6379:
6340:
6328:
6326:, p. 101.
6316:
6314:, p. 100.
6304:
6289:
6277:
6262:
6247:
6245:, p. 127.
6235:
6233:, p. 129.
6220:
6218:, p. 203.
6203:
6191:
6157:
6126:
6072:
6057:
6013:
5981:
5974:
5964:윤, 병석 (2008).
5956:
5920:
5886:
5852:
5818:
5806:
5804:, p. 141.
5794:
5792:, p. 202.
5782:
5750:
5721:
5709:
5688:
5676:
5638:
5608:
5587:(8): 865–872.
5552:
5522:
5488:
5473:
5471:, p. 179.
5461:
5446:
5434:
5422:
5410:
5379:
5351:
5349:, p. 211.
5339:
5324:
5322:, p. 125.
5312:
5297:
5269:
5267:, p. 132.
5252:
5235:
5233:, p. 124.
5223:
5211:
5209:, p. 125.
5199:
5186:
5174:
5172:, p. 109.
5162:
5145:Monthly Chosun
5130:
5118:
5111:
5088:
5086:, p. 131.
5076:
5055:(2): 608–638.
5035:
4996:
4968:
4927:
4899:
4882:
4851:
4797:
4759:
4757:, p. 210.
4742:
4700:
4698:, p. 204.
4685:
4619:
4604:
4570:
4558:
4556:, p. 108.
4546:
4517:
4452:
4450:, p. 151.
4440:
4421:
4400:"3·1운동 (三一運動)"
4271:
4231:
4229:
4226:
4223:
4222:
4209:
4197:
4182:
4173:
4163:
4154:
4145:
4084:Manse Movement
4034:
4033:
4031:
4028:
4027:
4026:
4021:
4020:
4019:
4014:
4009:
3997:
3994:
3990:New York state
3958:
3955:
3910:
3907:
3889:
3886:
3862:
3859:
3823:northern Korea
3811:
3808:
3727:
3724:
3652:
3649:
3647:
3646:Commemorations
3644:
3636:Yukio Hatoyama
3631:
3628:
3619:
3616:
3586:Mahatma Gandhi
3558:
3555:
3533:
3530:
3502:
3499:
3446:
3443:
3388:
3385:
3352:British Malaya
3347:
3346:British Empire
3344:
3254:
3253:United Kingdom
3251:
3220:
3217:
3154:
3151:
3080:
3077:
3071:
3068:
3047:Korean culture
2967:The inaugural
2960:
2957:
2915:Sakuzō Yoshino
2883:
2880:
2869:the 1921–1922
2835:
2832:
2769:
2766:
2736:
2733:
2639:
2636:
2608:
2605:
2587:
2584:
2574:
2571:
2559:
2558:
2553:
2548:
2543:
2538:
2533:
2527:
2526:
2523:
2520:
2517:
2514:
2511:
2507:
2506:
2503:
2500:
2497:
2494:
2491:
2485:
2484:
2481:
2478:
2475:
2472:
2469:
2463:
2462:
2459:
2456:
2453:
2450:
2447:
2441:
2440:
2437:
2434:
2431:
2428:
2425:
2419:
2418:
2415:
2412:
2409:
2406:
2403:
2397:
2396:
2393:
2390:
2387:
2384:
2381:
2375:
2374:
2371:
2368:
2365:
2362:
2359:
2353:
2352:
2349:
2346:
2343:
2340:
2337:
2331:
2330:
2327:
2324:
2321:
2318:
2315:
2285:
2282:
2279:
2278:
2275:
2272:
2269:
2266:
2263:
2260:
2257:
2254:
2251:
2247:
2246:
2243:
2240:
2237:
2234:
2231:
2228:
2225:
2222:
2219:
2208:
2207:
2204:
2203:
2190:
2177:
2153:
2137:
2127:
2126:
2122:
2121:
2116:
2111:
2106:
2101:
2096:
2090:
2089:
2086:
2083:
2080:
2077:
2074:
2070:
2069:
2066:
2063:
2060:
2057:
2054:
2053:United States
2050:
2049:
2046:
2043:
2040:
2037:
2034:
2028:
2027:
2024:
2021:
2018:
2015:
2012:
2008:
2007:
2004:
2001:
1998:
1995:
1992:
1981:
1980:
1977:
1974:
1971:
1968:
1965:
1959:
1958:
1955:
1952:
1949:
1946:
1943:
1937:
1936:
1933:
1930:
1927:
1924:
1921:
1915:
1914:
1911:
1908:
1905:
1902:
1899:
1893:
1892:
1889:
1886:
1883:
1880:
1877:
1871:
1870:
1867:
1864:
1861:
1858:
1855:
1849:
1848:
1845:
1842:
1839:
1836:
1833:
1827:
1826:
1823:
1820:
1817:
1814:
1811:
1805:
1804:
1803:(upper bound)
1799:
1798:(lower bound)
1794:
1793:(upper bound)
1791:# participants
1789:
1788:(lower bound)
1786:# participants
1784:
1781:
1746:
1743:
1738:
1735:
1702:Main article:
1699:
1696:
1646:
1643:
1568:
1567:
1560:
1558:
1551:
1549:
1542:
1540:
1533:
1531:
1524:
1522:
1472:
1469:
1453:
1450:
1422:Russian Empire
1403:
1400:
1362:Main article:
1359:
1356:
1354:
1351:
1331:righteous army
1297:Pyongan region
1288:
1285:
1198:
1195:
1116:
1113:
1085:
1082:
959:
956:
905:Main article:
902:
899:
814:
811:
802:Central Powers
787:Woodrow Wilson
741:
738:
707:
704:
595:
594:
591:
590:
585:
580:
578:German October
575:
569:
568:
564:
563:
561:Rand Rebellion
558:
553:
548:
542:
541:
537:
536:
531:
526:
520:
519:
515:
514:
509:
504:
499:
494:
489:
484:
479:
474:
469:
464:
459:
454:
448:
447:
443:
442:
437:
432:
427:
422:
417:
412:
407:
402:
397:
392:
387:
382:
380:Cattaro mutiny
377:
372:
367:
361:
360:
356:
355:
350:
348:Étaples mutiny
345:
340:
335:
330:
325:
320:
314:
313:
309:
308:
305:
304:
298:Revolutions of
293:
292:
285:
278:
270:
262:
261:
258:
254:
253:
250:
246:
245:
241:
240:
237:
236:
234:
231:
224:
223:
219:
218:
215:
214:
209:
207:
202:
195:
194:
190:
189:
171:
167:
166:
165:
164:
161:
154:
151:
148:
145:
140:
136:
135:
130:
126:
125:
124:
123:
120:
115:
111:
110:
93:
89:
88:
85:
84:
81:
78:
75:
73:Russian Empire
70:
65:
59:
58:
56:
52:
51:
48:
44:
43:
40:
32:
31:
24:
23:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
9663:
9652:
9649:
9647:
9644:
9642:
9639:
9637:
9636:1919 in Japan
9634:
9632:
9629:
9627:
9624:
9622:
9621:1919 protests
9619:
9617:
9614:
9612:
9609:
9607:
9604:
9602:
9599:
9597:
9594:
9592:
9589:
9587:
9586:1919 in Korea
9584:
9582:
9579:
9577:
9574:
9573:
9571:
9551:
9548:
9545:
9542:
9539:
9536:
9533:
9530:
9527:
9524:
9521:
9518:
9515:
9512:
9509:
9506:
9503:
9500:
9499:
9497:
9495:
9493:Comfort women
9489:
9482:
9479:
9476:
9473:
9470:
9467:
9464:
9461:
9458:
9455:
9452:
9449:
9446:
9443:
9440:
9437:
9434:
9431:
9429:
9426:
9424:
9421:
9419:
9416:
9414:
9411:
9409:
9406:
9404:
9401:
9399:
9396:
9394:
9391:
9390:
9388:
9384:
9378:
9375:
9373:
9370:
9368:
9365:
9363:
9360:
9357:
9354:
9352:
9349:
9347:
9346:Hyochang Park
9344:
9342:
9339:
9337:
9334:
9332:
9331:Gyeongbokgung
9329:
9327:
9324:
9323:
9321:
9317:
9307:
9304:
9302:
9299:
9297:
9294:
9292:
9289:
9287:
9284:
9282:
9279:
9278:
9276:
9274:
9268:
9262:
9259:
9257:
9254:
9250:
9247:
9246:
9245:
9242:
9240:
9237:
9235:
9232:
9230:
9227:
9225:
9222:
9220:
9217:
9216:
9214:
9212:
9210:Collaborators
9206:
9199:
9196:
9193:
9190:
9187:
9184:
9181:
9178:
9175:
9172:
9169:
9166:
9163:
9160:
9157:
9154:
9151:
9148:
9144:
9141:
9140:
9138:
9135:
9132:
9129:
9126:
9123:
9120:
9117:
9116:
9114:
9110:
9104:
9101:
9099:
9096:
9094:
9091:
9089:
9086:
9084:
9081:
9079:
9076:
9075:
9073:
9069:
9063:
9060:
9057:
9053:
9052:Comfort women
9050:
9049:
9047:
9045:Controversies
9043:
9033:
9030:
9028:
9025:
9023:
9020:
9018:
9015:
9014:
9012:
9008:
9002:
8999:
8997:
8994:
8992:
8989:
8987:
8984:
8983:
8981:
8977:
8969:
8966:
8965:
8964:
8961:
8958:
8955:
8953:
8950:
8947:
8944:
8941:
8938:
8935:
8932:
8931:
8929:
8925:
8910:
8907:
8904:
8900:
8897:
8896:
8894:
8890:
8885:
8879:
8875:
8868:
8863:
8861:
8856:
8854:
8849:
8848:
8845:
8841:
8839:
8834:
8822:
8818:
8814:
8811:
8807:
8804:
8800:
8797:
8794:
8790:
8786:
8781:
8780:
8770:
8766:
8762:
8758:
8754:
8750:
8749:
8744:
8739:
8735:
8733:9780367438654
8729:
8725:
8721:
8720:
8714:
8710:
8706:
8702:
8698:
8694:
8689:
8685:
8681:
8677:
8673:
8669:
8668:
8667:Korea Journal
8663:
8658:
8654:
8648:
8644:
8643:
8637:
8633:
8629:
8625:
8621:
8616:
8612:
8606:
8602:
8601:
8595:
8591:
8585:
8581:
8580:
8574:
8570:
8566:
8562:
8558:
8554:
8550:
8546:
8541:
8537:
8533:
8532:
8526:
8522:
8516:
8508:
8502:
8498:
8497:
8491:
8487:
8483:
8479:
8475:
8471:
8466:
8465:
8446:
8445:
8440:
8433:
8417:
8416:
8415:The Hankyoreh
8411:
8404:
8397:
8392:
8376:
8372:
8366:
8350:
8346:
8340:
8324:
8323:
8318:
8311:
8295:
8291:
8284:
8277:
8272:
8265:
8260:
8258:
8250:
8245:
8238:
8233:
8226:
8221:
8219:
8211:
8206:
8204:
8196:
8191:
8184:
8179:
8172:
8167:
8165:
8149:
8148:
8143:
8136:
8122:
8119:(in Korean),
8118:
8117:
8112:
8105:
8097:
8090:
8074:
8070:
8064:
8049:
8048:
8043:
8036:
8029:
8024:
8017:
8012:
8010:
8008:
8006:
7998:
7993:
7986:
7981:
7974:
7969:
7967:
7959:
7954:
7947:
7942:
7928:
7925:(in Korean),
7924:
7923:
7918:
7917:"동아일보 (東亞日報)"
7912:
7905:
7900:
7893:
7888:
7886:
7878:
7873:
7871:
7869:
7867:
7850:
7849:
7844:
7838:
7823:
7819:
7815:
7811:
7804:
7797:
7792:
7790:
7782:
7777:
7775:
7767:
7762:
7747:
7746:
7741:
7734:
7732:
7730:
7728:
7720:
7715:
7713:
7705:
7700:
7684:
7678:
7671:
7666:
7659:
7654:
7647:
7642:
7635:
7630:
7623:
7618:
7616:
7614:
7606:
7601:
7594:
7589:
7573:
7572:
7567:
7560:
7558:
7541:
7537:
7530:
7514:
7513:
7508:
7501:
7499:
7497:
7489:
7484:
7477:
7472:
7465:
7460:
7453:
7448:
7432:
7431:
7426:
7419:
7412:
7407:
7405:
7397:
7392:
7385:
7380:
7373:
7368:
7361:
7356:
7348:
7342:
7335:
7330:
7328:
7320:
7315:
7299:
7298:
7293:
7286:
7284:
7282:
7274:
7269:
7262:
7257:
7251:, p. 69.
7250:
7245:
7231:
7228:(in Korean),
7227:
7226:
7221:
7214:
7200:
7197:(in Korean),
7196:
7195:
7190:
7183:
7168:
7167:
7162:
7155:
7140:
7137:(in Korean).
7136:
7135:
7130:
7123:
7121:
7113:
7108:
7092:
7091:
7086:
7079:
7071:
7067:
7062:
7057:
7053:
7049:
7042:
7040:
7038:
7036:
7027:
7023:
7019:
7015:
7011:
7007:
7003:
6999:
6995:
6988:
6986:
6978:
6973:
6966:
6961:
6959:
6951:
6946:
6939:
6934:
6927:
6922:
6915:
6910:
6908:
6906:
6904:
6896:
6891:
6889:
6881:
6876:
6874:
6872:
6864:
6859:
6857:
6855:
6853:
6851:
6835:
6834:
6829:
6822:
6814:
6808:
6804:
6803:
6795:
6793:
6785:
6780:
6778:
6770:
6765:
6757:
6753:
6749:
6745:
6741:
6734:
6727:
6722:
6720:
6712:
6707:
6700:
6695:
6688:
6683:
6667:
6666:
6661:
6654:
6652:
6650:
6648:
6646:
6637:
6633:
6627:
6619:
6615:
6611:
6609:9781133606475
6605:
6601:
6594:
6580:
6577:(in Korean),
6576:
6575:
6570:
6563:
6548:
6544:
6540:
6534:
6532:
6530:
6513:
6512:
6507:
6500:
6498:
6482:
6478:
6477:"삼일운동 데이터베이스"
6472:
6464:
6463:
6458:
6452:
6450:
6433:
6429:
6422:
6420:
6418:
6401:
6400:
6395:
6388:
6386:
6384:
6368:
6364:
6360:
6356:
6349:
6347:
6345:
6337:
6332:
6325:
6320:
6313:
6308:
6301:
6296:
6294:
6286:
6281:
6275:, p. 96.
6274:
6269:
6267:
6259:
6254:
6252:
6244:
6239:
6232:
6227:
6225:
6217:
6212:
6210:
6208:
6200:
6195:
6180:
6176:
6172:
6166:
6164:
6162:
6147:
6144:(in Korean),
6143:
6142:
6137:
6130:
6114:
6113:
6108:
6101:
6099:
6097:
6095:
6093:
6091:
6089:
6087:
6085:
6083:
6081:
6079:
6077:
6069:
6064:
6062:
6045:
6044:
6039:
6032:
6030:
6028:
6026:
6024:
6022:
6020:
6018:
6001:
6000:
5995:
5988:
5986:
5977:
5975:9788993026658
5971:
5967:
5966:북간도지역 한인 민족운동
5960:
5952:
5940:
5936:
5932:
5931:
5924:
5908:
5904:
5897:
5895:
5893:
5891:
5876:
5873:(in Korean),
5872:
5871:
5866:
5859:
5857:
5840:
5839:
5834:
5827:
5825:
5823:
5815:
5810:
5803:
5798:
5791:
5786:
5770:
5769:
5764:
5757:
5755:
5738:
5737:
5732:
5725:
5718:
5713:
5705:
5701:
5700:
5692:
5685:
5680:
5664:
5660:
5656:
5652:
5648:
5642:
5627:
5624:(in Korean).
5623:
5619:
5612:
5604:
5600:
5595:
5590:
5586:
5582:
5578:
5571:
5569:
5567:
5565:
5563:
5561:
5559:
5557:
5540:
5536:
5529:
5527:
5510:
5509:
5504:
5497:
5495:
5493:
5485:
5480:
5478:
5470:
5465:
5458:
5453:
5451:
5443:
5438:
5431:
5426:
5420:, p. 14.
5419:
5414:
5400:
5397:(in Korean),
5396:
5395:
5390:
5383:
5372:September 28,
5368:
5367:
5362:
5355:
5348:
5343:
5336:
5331:
5329:
5321:
5316:
5309:
5304:
5302:
5285:
5284:
5279:
5273:
5266:
5261:
5259:
5257:
5250:, p. 29.
5249:
5244:
5242:
5240:
5232:
5227:
5220:
5215:
5208:
5203:
5196:
5190:
5183:
5178:
5171:
5166:
5151:
5148:(in Korean),
5147:
5146:
5141:
5134:
5127:
5122:
5114:
5108:
5104:
5103:
5095:
5093:
5085:
5080:
5072:
5068:
5063:
5058:
5054:
5050:
5046:
5039:
5031:
5027:
5026:
5021:
5017:
5011:
5009:
5007:
5005:
5003:
5001:
4992:
4988:
4987:
4982:
4978:
4972:
4957:
4953:
4946:
4944:
4942:
4940:
4938:
4936:
4934:
4932:
4923:
4919:
4918:
4913:
4909:
4903:
4896:
4891:
4889:
4887:
4871:
4870:
4865:
4858:
4856:
4839:
4835:
4834:
4829:
4822:
4820:
4818:
4816:
4814:
4812:
4810:
4808:
4806:
4804:
4802:
4785:
4784:
4779:
4772:
4770:
4768:
4766:
4764:
4756:
4751:
4749:
4747:
4730:
4729:
4724:
4717:
4715:
4713:
4711:
4709:
4707:
4705:
4697:
4692:
4690:
4673:
4672:
4667:
4660:
4658:
4656:
4654:
4652:
4650:
4648:
4646:
4644:
4642:
4640:
4638:
4636:
4634:
4632:
4630:
4628:
4626:
4624:
4616:
4611:
4609:
4594:
4591:(in Korean),
4590:
4589:
4584:
4577:
4575:
4567:
4562:
4555:
4550:
4534:
4533:
4528:
4521:
4506:
4502:
4495:
4493:
4491:
4489:
4487:
4485:
4483:
4481:
4479:
4477:
4475:
4473:
4471:
4469:
4467:
4465:
4463:
4461:
4459:
4457:
4449:
4444:
4437:
4432:
4430:
4428:
4426:
4411:
4408:(in Korean),
4407:
4406:
4401:
4394:
4392:
4390:
4388:
4386:
4384:
4382:
4380:
4378:
4376:
4374:
4372:
4370:
4368:
4366:
4364:
4362:
4360:
4358:
4356:
4354:
4352:
4350:
4348:
4346:
4344:
4342:
4340:
4338:
4336:
4334:
4332:
4330:
4328:
4326:
4324:
4322:
4320:
4318:
4316:
4314:
4312:
4310:
4308:
4306:
4304:
4302:
4300:
4298:
4296:
4294:
4292:
4290:
4288:
4286:
4284:
4282:
4280:
4278:
4276:
4259:
4256:(in Korean).
4255:
4251:
4245:
4243:
4241:
4239:
4237:
4232:
4219:
4213:
4206:
4201:
4194:
4193:
4186:
4177:
4167:
4158:
4149:
4130:
4126:
4110:
4100:
4097:
4085:
4065:
4039:
4035:
4025:
4022:
4018:
4015:
4013:
4010:
4008:
4005:
4004:
4003:
4000:
3999:
3993:
3991:
3986:
3984:
3980:
3978:
3974:
3970:
3968:
3965:, especially
3964:
3957:Other regions
3954:
3952:
3948:
3945:. Amidst the
3944:
3934:
3930:
3926:
3922:
3916:
3906:
3904:
3894:
3885:
3883:
3879:
3875:
3868:
3858:
3855:
3851:
3850:
3844:
3836:
3833:In 1946, the
3828:
3824:
3820:
3816:
3807:
3805:
3801:
3792:
3788:
3773:
3769:
3764:
3760:
3755:
3753:
3752:Choe Nam-seon
3749:
3745:
3741:
3737:
3733:
3723:
3721:
3717:
3712:
3708:
3706:
3702:
3692:
3691:
3685:
3683:
3682:
3677:
3673:
3668:
3664:
3659:
3643:
3641:
3637:
3627:
3625:
3615:
3613:
3609:
3604:
3602:
3598:
3593:
3591:
3587:
3582:
3580:
3576:
3571:
3563:
3554:
3549:
3544:
3542:
3541:
3540:Chosŏn Ryŏksa
3529:
3526:
3523:
3515:
3510:
3506:
3498:
3494:
3492:
3488:
3484:
3479:
3477:
3473:
3469:
3465:
3456:
3451:
3442:
3439:
3438:
3432:
3429:
3428:
3422:
3419:
3414:
3411:
3409:
3405:
3401:
3397:
3396:
3384:
3382:
3378:
3377:
3372:
3371:British India
3367:
3365:
3364:
3359:
3358:
3353:
3343:
3341:
3337:
3332:
3328:
3327:Arthur Hayday
3323:
3321:
3317:
3316:Beilby Alston
3314:. Curzon and
3313:
3312:George Curzon
3309:
3305:
3304:William Royds
3300:
3298:
3297:Mark Trollope
3292:
3290:
3286:
3285:
3280:
3279:
3274:
3273:
3267:
3265:
3261:
3250:
3248:
3247:
3240:
3236:
3234:
3233:Russian State
3230:
3226:
3216:
3212:
3210:
3209:
3204:
3203:
3198:
3194:
3190:
3182:
3178:
3173:
3172:
3163:
3159:
3150:
3147:
3142:
3138:
3135:
3130:
3126:
3122:
3118:
3114:
3110:
3101:
3097:
3094:
3089:
3087:
3079:United States
3076:
3067:
3064:
3059:
3057:
3056:
3050:
3048:
3044:
3040:
3036:
3035:
3030:
3029:
3023:
3010:
3005:
3004:military rule
3000:
2987:
2983:
2978:
2977:cultural rule
2970:
2965:
2959:Cultural rule
2956:
2954:
2953:Yanagi Sōetsu
2950:
2940:
2932:
2927:
2923:
2921:
2916:
2911:
2908:
2907:Nissen mondai
2902:
2895:
2890:
2879:
2876:
2872:
2866:
2864:
2863:
2857:
2855:
2851:
2847:
2846:
2841:
2831:
2828:
2822:
2820:
2819:Homer Hulbert
2812:
2811:Homer Hulbert
2807:
2803:
2801:
2797:
2796:
2791:
2786:
2783:
2782:
2776:
2765:
2761:
2759:
2755:
2754:Sidney Gulick
2746:
2745:Sidney Gulick
2741:
2732:
2730:
2726:
2722:
2721:
2714:
2709:
2707:
2706:
2700:
2697:
2689:
2685:
2681:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2667:
2662:
2660:
2656:
2655:
2648:
2644:
2635:
2633:
2629:
2628:
2623:
2622:San Francisco
2619:
2615:
2604:
2602:
2601:
2596:
2595:
2583:
2579:
2570:
2568:
2567:
2557:
2554:
2552:
2549:
2547:
2544:
2542:
2539:
2537:
2534:
2532:
2529:
2528:
2524:
2521:
2518:
2515:
2512:
2509:
2508:
2504:
2501:
2498:
2495:
2492:
2490:
2487:
2486:
2482:
2479:
2476:
2473:
2470:
2468:
2465:
2464:
2460:
2457:
2454:
2451:
2448:
2446:
2443:
2442:
2438:
2435:
2432:
2429:
2426:
2424:
2421:
2420:
2416:
2413:
2410:
2407:
2404:
2402:
2399:
2398:
2394:
2391:
2388:
2385:
2382:
2380:
2377:
2376:
2372:
2369:
2366:
2363:
2360:
2358:
2355:
2354:
2350:
2347:
2344:
2341:
2338:
2336:
2333:
2332:
2328:
2325:
2322:
2319:
2316:
2313:
2312:
2306:
2304:
2298:
2293:
2292:
2276:
2273:
2270:
2267:
2264:
2261:
2258:
2255:
2252:
2249:
2248:
2244:
2241:
2238:
2235:
2232:
2229:
2226:
2223:
2220:
2217:
2216:
2197:
2195:
2187:
2181:
2174:
2170:
2164:
2162:
2160:
2158:
2148:
2146:
2144:
2142:
2132:
2128:
2123:
2120:
2117:
2115:
2112:
2110:
2107:
2105:
2102:
2100:
2097:
2095:
2092:
2091:
2087:
2084:
2081:
2078:
2075:
2072:
2071:
2067:
2064:
2061:
2058:
2055:
2052:
2051:
2047:
2044:
2041:
2038:
2035:
2033:
2032:Russian State
2030:
2029:
2025:
2022:
2019:
2016:
2013:
2010:
2009:
2005:
2002:
1999:
1996:
1993:
1990:
1986:
1983:
1982:
1978:
1975:
1972:
1969:
1966:
1964:
1961:
1960:
1956:
1953:
1950:
1947:
1944:
1942:
1939:
1938:
1934:
1931:
1928:
1925:
1922:
1920:
1917:
1916:
1912:
1909:
1906:
1903:
1900:
1898:
1895:
1894:
1890:
1887:
1884:
1881:
1878:
1876:
1873:
1872:
1868:
1865:
1862:
1859:
1856:
1854:
1851:
1850:
1846:
1843:
1840:
1837:
1834:
1832:
1829:
1828:
1824:
1821:
1818:
1815:
1812:
1810:
1807:
1806:
1800:
1795:
1790:
1785:
1782:
1779:
1778:
1772:
1768:
1766:
1756:
1752:
1749:In 2019, the
1742:
1734:
1731:
1728:
1724:
1715:
1710:
1705:
1695:
1692:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1681:
1674:
1669:
1667:
1663:
1655:
1651:
1642:
1640:
1639:
1633:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1617:
1612:
1610:
1604:
1601:
1597:
1593:
1587:
1585:
1581:
1576:
1573:
1564:
1559:
1555:
1550:
1546:
1541:
1537:
1532:
1528:
1523:
1520:
1519:
1518:
1516:
1510:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1492:
1490:
1485:
1477:
1468:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1452:United States
1449:
1447:
1443:
1438:
1433:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1419:
1413:
1409:
1399:
1397:
1391:
1386:
1383:
1379:
1370:
1365:
1350:
1348:
1342:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1311:Chūseihoku-dō
1307:
1302:
1298:
1293:
1284:
1276:
1272:
1270:
1269:
1263:
1258:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1194:
1190:
1188:
1184:
1176:
1171:
1167:
1165:
1154:
1145:
1141:
1139:
1123:
1112:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1081:
1079:
1073:
1068:
1063:
1058:
1054:
1049:
1045:
1039:
1034:
1025:
1021:
1014:
1010:
1008:
1004:
1003:Park Yung-hyo
1000:
996:
995:Korean Empire
990:
988:
984:
980:
974:
969:
968:Kwŏn Tong-jin
965:
955:
935:
929:
927:
923:
913:
908:
898:
895:
891:
886:
881:
876:
869:
863:
858:
854:
848:
843:
839:
835:
830:
828:
819:
810:
807:
803:
798:
796:
792:
788:
779:
775:
773:
769:
765:
761:
757:
753:
747:
737:
735:
729:
727:
723:
717:
713:
703:
701:
697:
692:
690:
689:
684:
678:
674:
669:
668:cultural rule
665:
661:
656:
654:
650:
646:
642:
636:
631:
627:
623:
618:
616:
611:
607:
603:
589:
586:
584:
581:
579:
576:
574:
571:
570:
566:
565:
562:
559:
557:
554:
552:
549:
547:
544:
543:
539:
538:
535:
532:
530:
527:
525:
524:Ruhr uprising
522:
521:
517:
516:
513:
510:
508:
505:
503:
500:
498:
495:
493:
490:
488:
485:
483:
480:
478:
475:
473:
470:
468:
465:
463:
460:
458:
455:
453:
452:Biennio Rosso
450:
449:
445:
444:
441:
438:
436:
433:
431:
428:
426:
423:
421:
418:
416:
413:
411:
408:
406:
403:
401:
398:
396:
393:
391:
388:
386:
383:
381:
378:
376:
373:
371:
368:
366:
363:
362:
358:
357:
354:
351:
349:
346:
344:
341:
339:
336:
334:
331:
329:
326:
324:
321:
319:
316:
315:
311:
310:
306:
301:
291:
286:
284:
279:
277:
272:
271:
268:
259:
255:
251:
247:
242:
235:
230:
229:
225:
220:
212:
208:
205:
201:
200:
196:
191:
185:
181:
176:
175:cultural rule
172:
168:
162:
159:
155:
152:
149:
146:
143:
142:
141:
137:
134:
131:
127:
121:
118:
117:
116:
112:
107:
102:
98:
94:
90:
82:
79:
77:United States
76:
74:
71:
69:
66:
64:
61:
60:
57:
53:
49:
45:
38:
33:
30:
25:
20:
9367:Keijō Shrine
9341:Heijō Shrine
9244:Refrain Club
9124:
9071:Forced labor
8991:Hwacheon Dam
8968:State Shinto
8957:Sōshi-kaimei
8830:
8816:
8809:
8802:
8795:
8792:
8784:
8752:
8746:
8718:
8707:– via
8696:
8682:– via
8671:
8665:
8641:
8627:
8623:
8599:
8578:
8552:
8548:
8530:
8495:
8484:– via
8473:
8448:. Retrieved
8442:
8432:
8420:. Retrieved
8413:
8403:
8391:
8379:. Retrieved
8374:
8365:
8353:. Retrieved
8348:
8339:
8327:. Retrieved
8320:
8310:
8298:. Retrieved
8293:
8283:
8271:
8244:
8232:
8190:
8178:
8151:. Retrieved
8145:
8135:
8124:, retrieved
8114:
8104:
8089:
8077:. Retrieved
8073:the original
8063:
8051:. Retrieved
8045:
8035:
8023:
7992:
7980:
7953:
7941:
7930:, retrieved
7920:
7911:
7899:
7853:. Retrieved
7846:
7837:
7825:. Retrieved
7813:
7803:
7761:
7749:. Retrieved
7743:
7706:, p. 1.
7699:
7687:. Retrieved
7677:
7665:
7653:
7641:
7629:
7600:
7588:
7576:. Retrieved
7569:
7544:. Retrieved
7539:
7529:
7517:. Retrieved
7510:
7483:
7471:
7459:
7447:
7435:. Retrieved
7428:
7418:
7391:
7379:
7374:, p. 7.
7367:
7355:
7346:
7341:
7314:
7302:. Retrieved
7295:
7268:
7256:
7244:
7233:, retrieved
7223:
7213:
7202:, retrieved
7192:
7182:
7170:. Retrieved
7164:
7154:
7144:February 11,
7142:. Retrieved
7132:
7107:
7095:. Retrieved
7088:
7078:
7051:
7004:(1): 16–17.
7001:
6997:
6972:
6945:
6933:
6921:
6837:. Retrieved
6831:
6821:
6801:
6764:
6747:
6743:
6733:
6706:
6694:
6682:
6670:. Retrieved
6663:
6599:
6593:
6582:, retrieved
6572:
6562:
6550:. Retrieved
6542:
6516:. Retrieved
6509:
6484:. Retrieved
6471:
6460:
6436:. Retrieved
6431:
6404:. Retrieved
6397:
6370:. Retrieved
6358:
6331:
6319:
6307:
6280:
6238:
6194:
6182:. Retrieved
6174:
6149:, retrieved
6139:
6129:
6117:. Retrieved
6110:
6048:. Retrieved
6041:
6004:. Retrieved
5997:
5965:
5959:
5949:– via
5943:. Retrieved
5934:
5929:
5923:
5911:. Retrieved
5906:
5878:, retrieved
5868:
5843:. Retrieved
5836:
5809:
5797:
5785:
5773:. Retrieved
5766:
5741:. Retrieved
5734:
5724:
5712:
5698:
5691:
5679:
5669:November 12,
5667:. Retrieved
5663:the original
5650:
5641:
5629:. Retrieved
5621:
5611:
5584:
5580:
5543:. Retrieved
5538:
5513:. Retrieved
5506:
5464:
5437:
5425:
5413:
5402:, retrieved
5392:
5382:
5370:. Retrieved
5364:
5354:
5342:
5315:
5310:, p. 7.
5290:September 6,
5288:. Retrieved
5281:
5272:
5226:
5214:
5202:
5194:
5189:
5177:
5165:
5154:, retrieved
5143:
5133:
5121:
5101:
5079:
5052:
5048:
5038:
5023:
5019:
4984:
4980:
4971:
4959:. Retrieved
4955:
4915:
4911:
4902:
4873:. Retrieved
4867:
4842:. Retrieved
4838:the original
4831:
4788:. Retrieved
4781:
4733:. Retrieved
4726:
4676:. Retrieved
4669:
4596:, retrieved
4586:
4568:, p. 3.
4561:
4549:
4537:. Retrieved
4530:
4520:
4508:. Retrieved
4504:
4443:
4413:, retrieved
4403:
4261:. Retrieved
4253:
4217:
4212:
4205:The Guardian
4204:
4200:
4190:
4185:
4176:
4166:
4157:
4148:
4128:
4108:
4083:
4063:
4038:
3987:
3981:
3971:
3960:
3918:
3899:
3888:Soviet Union
3870:
3847:
3845:
3832:
3826:
3797:
3774:
3756:
3740:Syngman Rhee
3729:
3713:
3709:
3688:
3686:
3679:
3676:in Manchuria
3669:
3654:
3633:
3621:
3605:
3594:
3583:
3572:
3568:
3551:
3546:
3538:
3535:
3527:
3519:
3504:
3495:
3480:
3460:
3435:
3433:
3425:
3423:
3415:
3412:
3393:
3390:
3380:
3374:
3368:
3361:
3355:
3349:
3324:
3301:
3293:
3282:
3278:The Guardian
3276:
3270:
3268:
3256:
3244:
3241:
3237:
3222:
3213:
3206:
3200:
3180:
3169:
3167:
3145:
3143:
3139:
3112:
3106:
3090:
3082:
3073:
3063:Michael Shin
3060:
3053:
3051:
3032:
3026:
2974:
2936:
2912:
2885:
2867:
2860:
2858:
2849:
2843:
2837:
2823:
2816:
2799:
2793:
2787:
2779:
2775:Hara Takashi
2771:
2762:
2750:
2728:
2724:
2719:
2716:
2711:
2703:
2701:
2696:Nitobe Inazō
2693:
2688:Nitobe Inazō
2666:Gotō Shinpei
2663:
2652:
2649:
2645:
2641:
2625:
2610:
2598:
2592:
2589:
2580:
2576:
2564:
2562:
2555:
2550:
2545:
2540:
2535:
2530:
2303:Park Eun-sik
2290:
2287:
2180:
2175:on March 19.
2173:Tennōji Park
2131:
2118:
2113:
2108:
2103:
2098:
2093:
1769:
1748:
1740:
1732:
1723:Ewha Haktang
1719:
1716:of Yu (1919)
1693:
1685:Jessie Hirst
1678:
1676:
1671:
1659:
1636:
1634:
1622:Eli M. Mowry
1619:
1614:
1606:
1589:
1580:Ewha Haktang
1577:
1572:crucifixions
1569:
1493:
1486:
1482:
1465:Philadelphia
1455:
1446:Yi Ouitjyong
1434:
1415:
1396:Zhang Zuolin
1393:
1388:
1376:On March 7,
1375:
1343:
1319:Zenrahoku-dō
1301:Michael Shin
1294:
1290:
1281:
1266:
1259:
1243:Chūseinan-dō
1200:
1191:
1180:
1177:(March 1919)
1150:
1118:
1087:
1059:
1030:
1019:
991:
983:Son Byong-hi
966:, including
961:
958:Organization
930:
918:
896:
877:
838:Syngman Rhee
831:
824:
806:World War II
799:
784:
749:
730:
726:Japanization
719:
693:
686:
657:
619:
601:
599:
551:March Action
529:Iraqi Revolt
502:Sette Giugno
486:
333:Potato riots
323:Pistolerismo
27:Part of the
9504:(1946–1947)
9261:Yi Yun-yong
9158:(1920–1921)
9093:Sado Island
9001:Sup'ung Dam
8959:(1939–1945)
8948:(1920–1945)
8936:(1922–1944)
8418:(in Korean)
8325:(in Korean)
8296:(in Korean)
7574:(in Korean)
7542:(in Korean)
7515:(in Korean)
7433:(in Korean)
7411:Palmer 2020
7396:Palmer 2020
7334:Palmer 2020
7300:(in Korean)
7172:February 2,
7093:(in Korean)
6977:Palmer 2020
6965:Palmer 2020
6950:Palmer 2020
6914:Palmer 2020
6880:Palmer 2020
6863:Palmer 2020
6784:Palmer 2020
6769:Palmer 2020
6726:Palmer 2020
6711:Palmer 2020
6699:Palmer 2020
6687:Palmer 2020
6668:(in Korean)
6543:삼일운동 데이터베이스
6514:(in Korean)
6434:(in Korean)
6402:(in Korean)
6258:Palmer 2020
6216:Palmer 2020
6115:(in Korean)
6068:Palmer 2020
6046:(in Korean)
6002:(in Korean)
5909:(in Korean)
5841:(in Korean)
5790:Palmer 2020
5771:(in Korean)
5739:(in Korean)
5541:(in Korean)
5511:(in Korean)
5320:Manela 2007
5265:Manela 2007
5248:Manela 2007
5219:Palmer 2020
5182:Manela 2007
5084:Manela 2007
4786:(in Korean)
4755:Palmer 2020
4731:(in Korean)
4696:Palmer 2020
4674:(in Korean)
4615:Palmer 2020
4535:(in Korean)
4254:삼일운동 데이터베이스
4192:Maeil Sinbo
3903:Sinhanch'on
3874:Hibiya Park
3819:Kim Il Sung
3810:North Korea
3800:Moon Jae-in
3766: [
3759:Jeju Island
3726:South Korea
3661: [
3579:Fu Ssu-nien
3532:North Korea
3501:South Korea
3193:Fu Ssu-nien
3022:budan seiji
3007: [
2999:bunka seiji
2980: [
2862:Hanin Sinbo
2705:Keijō Nippō
2674:Puerto Rico
2445:Chungcheong
2326:# injuries
2317:# protests
2295: [
2167:Protest in
1919:Chungcheong
1783:# protests
1760:삼일운동 데이터베이스
1704:Yu Gwan-sun
1698:Yu Gwan-sun
1507: [
1471:Suppression
1430:Vladivostok
1335:Zenranan-dō
1255:Jeju Island
1153:Tapgol Park
1122:An Sun-hwan
1070: [
1062:Tapgol Park
1051: [
1036: [
1007:Han Kyu-sŏl
971: [
888: [
868:Kim Kyu-sik
860: [
845: [
842:Henry Chung
685:and Indian
671: [
641:Tapgol Park
633: [
588:Kraków riot
457:Tragic Week
385:Arab Revolt
178: [
170:Concessions
139:Resulted in
104: [
9570:Categories
9224:Hong Sa-ik
9103:Utoro, Uji
8996:Korean yen
8892:Government
8153:August 10,
7372:Chung 1921
6336:Chung 1921
6324:Chung 1921
6312:Chung 1921
6300:Chung 1921
6285:Chung 1921
6273:Chung 1921
6199:Chung 1921
5515:January 1,
5418:Wells 1989
5335:Wells 1989
5308:Wells 1989
4228:References
3967:Koreatowns
3913:See also:
3865:See also:
3748:O Se-chang
3624:revolution
3395:L'Humanité
3350:Papers in
3289:Bolshevism
3189:Mao Zedong
3177:Chen Duxiu
3162:Chen Duxiu
3121:Republican
3061:Historian
2920:Kokuryūkai
2887:problem" (
2670:John Burke
2489:Gyeongsang
2329:# arrests
2236:September
1963:Gyeongsang
1737:Statistics
1687:, head of
1592:South Gate
1406:See also:
1207:Chinnamp'o
1187:Deoksugung
1173:Crowds at
1067:Taehwagwan
979:O Se-chang
964:Cheondoism
744:See also:
710:See also:
706:Background
700:Kim family
691:protests.
688:satyagraha
630:Taehwagwan
507:Epsom riot
390:Rice riots
244:Casualties
95:Ideals of
9445:Hibakusha
9010:Companies
8761:0145-840X
8724:Routledge
8705:1226-6140
8680:0023-3900
8561:0258-9184
8515:cite book
8482:1225-6919
8381:April 29,
8355:April 29,
8079:March 14,
8028:Shin 2018
7855:April 30,
7827:April 30,
7822:0362-4331
7781:Hart 2000
7766:Hart 2000
7719:Hart 2000
7704:Shin 2018
7670:Hart 2000
7658:Shin 2018
7646:Hart 2000
7634:Hart 2000
7605:Shin 2018
7546:April 30,
7304:April 30,
7273:Shin 2018
7261:Shin 2018
7249:Shin 2018
7235:March 12,
7204:March 12,
7129:"신문 (新聞)"
7112:Shin 2018
7097:March 12,
7070:2268-1744
7018:0731-1613
6750:: 94–95.
6626:cite book
6618:811729581
6584:April 29,
6372:April 30,
6367:0362-4331
5814:Shin 2018
5802:Shin 2018
5775:April 30,
5743:April 29,
5404:April 29,
5347:Shin 2018
5071:148778883
4895:Hart 2000
4678:April 30,
4598:April 30,
4566:Shin 2018
4448:Hart 2000
4436:Kwon 2018
4415:April 29,
3921:Manchuria
3878:Ueno Park
3852:flag and
3849:taegeukgi
3840:반일인민봉기기념일
3827:taegeukgi
3690:taegeukgi
3487:socialist
3376:The Hindu
3272:The Times
3123:senators
3084:that the
2949:Koreanist
2901:romanized
2659:Bolshevik
2632:Red Cross
2618:cablegram
2541:2,023,098
2510:Overseas
2323:# deaths
2245:December
2242:November
2109:1,065,172
1765:digitized
1727:Namdaemun
1418:Ussuriysk
1358:Manchuria
1223:Gyeongwon
1203:Pyongyang
1183:Daehanmun
1115:Beginning
1078:Insa-dong
720:In 1910,
649:Bolshevik
300:1917–1923
92:Caused by
9229:Iljinhoe
8769:23717806
8755:: 5–21.
8569:42704275
8147:Daily NK
7932:March 9,
7751:March 8,
7745:Daily NK
7026:41490268
6006:April 1,
5945:April 3,
5913:April 3,
5880:April 3,
5603:19881928
5539:고신뉴스 KNC
5150:archived
4961:June 16,
4875:March 8,
4869:MBC News
4844:June 27,
4532:Pressian
3996:See also
3736:Bosingak
3041:and the
2889:Japanese
2614:Shanghai
2496:154,498
2474:294,800
2452:120,850
2401:Hamgyong
2386:514,670
2357:Hwanghae
2342:665,900
2335:Gyeonggi
2239:October
1973:174,467
1970:129,695
1929:133,431
1926:103,355
1875:Hamgyong
1863:213,863
1860:166,430
1831:Hwanghae
1819:297,380
1816:217,009
1809:Gyeonggi
1801:# deaths
1796:# deaths
1714:mug shot
1638:Izvestia
1442:Red Army
1382:Longjing
1231:Keiki-dō
1219:Gyeongui
1108:민족대표 34인
1048:Posŏngsa
415:Red Week
257:Arrested
249:Death(s)
188:policies
160:in exile
55:Location
9516:(1992–)
9510:(1990–)
9483:(2018–)
9465:(1987–)
9447:(1945–)
9441:(1945–)
9435:(1945–)
9358:(Seoul)
9139:(1920)
8979:Economy
8462:Sources
8294:월드코리안뉴스
8109:이, 명자,
8053:June 8,
8040:김, 동만.
7796:Ku 2021
7689:May 16,
7593:Ku 2021
7488:Ku 2021
7476:Ku 2021
7464:Ku 2021
7452:Ku 2021
7384:Ku 2021
7360:Ku 2021
7319:Ku 2021
7218:강, 주진,
7187:이, 경성,
7159:김, 덕영.
6938:Ku 2021
6926:Ku 2021
6895:Ku 2021
6567:송, 병기,
6243:Ku 2021
6231:Ku 2021
6134:김, 진봉,
5951:YouTube
5907:월드코리안뉴스
5863:김, 광재,
5717:Ra 2003
5684:Ra 2003
5594:2711476
5484:Ra 2003
5469:Ra 2003
5457:Ra 2003
5442:Ra 2003
5430:Ra 2003
5387:박, 성수,
5231:Ku 2021
5207:Ku 2021
5170:Ku 2021
5126:Ku 2021
4581:김, 진봉,
4554:Ku 2021
4539:May 14,
4398:김, 진봉,
4218:Reuters
4127:), and
4071:
3961:Korean
3929:Nanjing
3925:Tianjin
3854:Aegukga
3630:Apology
3595:In the
3483:Marxist
3468:Sunjong
3400:Kaesong
3381:Reuters
3284:Reuters
2903::
2516:48,700
2430:99,510
2423:Gangwon
2408:59,850
2395:11,610
2379:Pyongan
2364:92,670
2314:Region
2233:August
2125:Notes:
2104:823,702
2073:Mexico
2042:26,050
2039:25,500
2000:52,875
1997:46,715
1985:Jiandao
1951:21,626
1948:13,693
1907:25,629
1904:20,376
1897:Gangwon
1885:60,453
1882:51,667
1853:Pyongan
1841:57,179
1838:46,943
1780:Region
1630:warrant
1603:face...
1600:Chongno
1500:Anseong
1268:kisaeng
1227:Kaesong
1159:대한독립 만세
1094:Sŏngjin
947:朝鮮靑年獨立團
941:조선청년독립단
768:liberal
639:and in
193:Parties
129:Methods
9552:(2015)
9546:(2007)
9540:(2000)
9534:(1998)
9528:(1994)
9522:(1993)
9477:(2005)
9471:(1995)
9459:(1965)
9453:(1952)
9386:Legacy
9200:(1942)
9194:(1937)
9188:(1932)
9182:(1929)
9176:(1926)
9170:(1923)
9164:(1922)
9152:(1920)
9133:(1919)
9127:(1919)
9121:(1911)
9112:Events
8942:(1929)
8821:online
8767:
8759:
8730:
8703:
8678:
8649:
8607:
8586:
8567:
8559:
8503:
8480:
8450:May 2,
8422:May 2,
8396:최 2009
8375:재외동포신문
8329:May 2,
8300:May 2,
8276:최 2009
8264:최 2009
8249:최 2009
8237:최 2009
8225:최 2009
8210:최 2009
8195:최 2009
8183:최 2009
8171:최 2009
8126:May 3,
8016:최 2009
7997:최 2009
7985:최 2009
7973:최 2009
7958:최 2009
7946:최 2009
7904:최 2009
7892:최 2009
7877:최 2009
7820:
7622:최 2009
7578:May 2,
7519:May 3,
7437:May 1,
7068:
7024:
7016:
6839:May 2,
6809:
6672:May 2,
6616:
6606:
6552:May 7,
6518:May 7,
6486:May 6,
6438:May 7,
6406:May 7,
6365:
6184:May 2,
6151:May 5,
6119:May 1,
6050:May 1,
5972:
5845:May 1,
5631:May 5,
5601:
5591:
5545:May 7,
5156:May 1,
5109:
5069:
5020:신편 한국사
4981:신편 한국사
4912:신편 한국사
4790:May 1,
4735:May 1,
4510:May 4,
4263:May 7,
4250:"사건정보"
4216:These
4137:;
4134:3.1 혁명
4120:己未獨立運動
4117:;
4114:기미독립운동
4103:;
4092:;
4058:;
4055:3·1 운동
4048:;
4045:삼일인민봉기
3977:Mérida
3933:Hankou
3931:, and
3746:, and
3744:Kim Ku
3732:Namsan
3601:Manila
3457:(1926)
3336:French
3310:, and
3246:Pravda
3219:Russia
3134:Senate
2556:46,948
2551:15,961
2505:1,085
2502:5,295
2499:2,470
2483:2,900
2467:Jeolla
2461:5,233
2458:1,116
2439:1,360
2417:6,215
2392:3,665
2389:2,042
2373:4,218
2351:4,680
2348:3,124
2345:1,472
2250:1,067
2221:April
2218:March
2201:times.
2062:2,550
2059:2,550
2011:Japan
1941:Jeolla
1596:Palace
1437:Moscow
1410:, and
1402:Russia
1215:Wonsan
1213:, and
1197:Spread
1164:Jongno
1130:;
999:Joseon
981:, and
944:;
880:Gojong
855:, the
795:Allies
222:Number
80:Mexico
9356:Keijō
8765:JSTOR
8709:DBpia
8684:DBpia
8632:DBpia
8565:JSTOR
8486:DBpia
8474:역사와현실
7054:(4).
7022:JSTOR
6432:전북의소리
5933:[
5067:S2CID
5022:[
4983:[
4914:[
4030:Notes
3909:China
3861:Japan
3770:]
3665:]
3153:China
3011:]
2988:]
2944:小日本主義
2546:7,509
2536:1,542
2531:Total
2299:]
2230:July
2227:June
2169:Osaka
2119:1,170
2099:1,798
2094:Total
1989:China
1673:them.
1511:]
1496:Suwon
1239:Yesan
1074:]
1055:]
1040:]
975:]
892:]
864:]
849:]
679:]
637:]
622:Seoul
186:]
114:Goals
108:]
83:Japan
68:China
9056:list
8903:list
8757:ISSN
8728:ISBN
8701:ISSN
8697:동학연구
8676:ISSN
8647:ISBN
8605:ISBN
8584:ISBN
8557:ISSN
8521:link
8501:ISBN
8478:ISSN
8452:2024
8424:2024
8383:2024
8357:2024
8331:2024
8302:2024
8155:2016
8128:2024
8081:2020
8055:2024
7934:2024
7857:2024
7829:2024
7818:ISSN
7753:2023
7691:2022
7580:2024
7548:2024
7540:시사IN
7521:2024
7439:2024
7306:2024
7237:2024
7206:2024
7174:2024
7146:2024
7099:2024
7066:ISSN
7014:ISSN
6841:2024
6807:ISBN
6674:2024
6636:link
6632:link
6614:OCLC
6604:ISBN
6586:2024
6554:2024
6539:"안내"
6520:2024
6488:2024
6440:2024
6408:2024
6374:2024
6363:ISSN
6186:2024
6153:2024
6121:2024
6052:2024
6008:2024
5970:ISBN
5947:2024
5915:2024
5882:2024
5847:2024
5777:2024
5745:2024
5671:2017
5633:2024
5599:PMID
5547:2024
5517:2022
5406:2024
5374:2023
5292:2017
5158:2023
5107:ISBN
4963:2024
4877:2023
4846:2009
4792:2024
4737:2024
4680:2024
4600:2024
4541:2024
4512:2024
4417:2024
4265:2024
4140:三一革命
4105:lit.
4089:만세운동
4068:lit.
4060:lit.
4050:lit.
3825:. A
3674:and
3520:The
3485:and
3453:The
3369:For
3329:and
3320:Huns
3275:and
3227:and
3205:and
3191:and
3185:每週評論
3127:and
3031:and
3016:武断政治
2993:文化政治
2727:and
2676:and
2597:and
2522:157
2493:223
2480:767
2477:384
2471:222
2455:590
2449:156
2436:645
2433:144
2414:667
2411:135
2405:101
2383:315
2370:414
2367:238
2361:115
2339:297
2253:695
2224:May
1979:317
1976:153
1967:273
1935:109
1923:225
1879:144
1869:426
1866:285
1857:276
1835:180
1825:151
1822:121
1813:415
1498:and
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1241:and
1229:and
1221:and
1211:Anju
1005:and
840:and
754:and
714:and
600:The
567:1923
540:1921
518:1920
446:1919
359:1918
312:1917
47:Date
7056:doi
7006:doi
6752:doi
5939:KBS
5589:PMC
5057:doi
3975:in
3938:교민단
3919:In
3784:정인보
3778:삼일절
3757:On
3696:최선웅
3606:In
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2990:" (
2800:Bee
2519:34
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2427:57
2274:10
2256:11
2171:'s
2114:798
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2079:69
2056:13
2036:13
2006:26
2003:23
1994:86
1957:12
1954:12
1945:89
1932:84
1913:35
1910:33
1901:81
1891:52
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