799:(CP-1), began on the morning of 16 November 1942. The work was carried out in twelve-hour shifts, with a day shift under Zinn and a night shift under Anderson. When completed, the wooden frame supported an elliptical-shaped structure, 20-foot (6.1 m) high, 6-foot (1.8 m) wide at the ends and 25 feet (7.6 m) across the middle. It contained 6 short tons (5.4 t) of uranium metal, 50 short tons (45 t) of uranium oxide and 400 short tons (360 t) of graphite, at an estimated cost of $ 2.7 million. On 2 December 1942, it achieved the first controlled self-sustaining nuclear reaction. On 12 December 1942, CP-1's power output was increased to 200 W, enough to power a light bulb. Lacking shielding of any kind, it was a radiation hazard for everyone in the vicinity. Thereafter, testing was continued at the lower power of 0.5 W.
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701:. Szilard later wrote that "the morale of the scientists could almost be plotted in a graph by counting the number of lights burning after dinner in the offices at Eckhart Hall." When the project outgrew its space in Eckhart Hall, it moved into the nearby Ryerson Hall. The Metallurgical Laboratory eventually occupied 205,000 square feet (19,000 m) of campus space. About $ 131,000 worth of alterations were made to buildings occupied by the laboratory but the University of Chicago also had to make alterations for users displaced by it.
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location. In
January 1942, soon after the United States entered World War II, Compton decided to concentrate the work at his own location, the University of Chicago, where he knew he had the unstinting support of university administration, whereas Columbia was engaged in uranium enrichment efforts and was hesitant to add another secret project. Other factors contributing to the decision were Chicago's central location and the availability of scientists, technicians and facilities in the
792:. Construction at Argonne fell behind schedule due to Stone & Webster's difficulty recruiting enough skilled workers and obtaining the required building materials. This led to an industrial dispute, with union workers taking action over the recruitment of non-union labor. When it became clear that the materials for Fermi's new pile would be on hand before the new structure was completed, Compton approved a proposal from Fermi to build the pile under the stands at Stagg Field.
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considered: homogeneous, in which the moderator and fuel were mixed together, and heterogeneous, in which the moderator and fuel were arranged in a lattice configuration. By late 1941, mathematical analysis had shown that the lattice design had advantages over the homogeneous type, and so it was chosen for CP-1, and for the later production reactors as well. For a neutron moderator, graphite was chosen on the basis of its availability compared with
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successful reactor had not yet been built, the scientists had already produced several different but promising design concepts. It fell to
Compton to decide which of these should be pursued. He proposed an ambitious schedule that aimed to achieve a controlled nuclear chain reaction by January 1943, and to have a deliverable atomic bomb by January 1945.
812:, and with overhead protection from 6 inches (15 cm) of lead and 50 inches (130 cm) of wood. More uranium was used, so it contained 52 short tons (47 t) of uranium and 472 short tons (428 t) of graphite. No cooling system was provided as it only ran at a few kilowatts. CP-2 became operational in March 1943.
844:. The reactor was a large aluminum tank, 6 feet (1.8 m) in diameter, which was filled with heavy water, which weighed about 6.5 short tons (5.9 t). The cover was pierced by regularly spaced holes through which 121 uranium rods sheathed in aluminum projected into the heavy water. The tank was surrounded by a graphite
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and stables owned by the university in
Chicago was made available in April 1943. Known as Site B, it was remodeled to provide 62,670 square feet (5,822 m) of laboratories and workshops for the health and metallurgy groups. The 124th Field Artillery Armory was leased from the state of Illinois to
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Payments made to the
University of Chicago under the original 1 May 1943 non-profit contract totaled $ 27,933,134.83, which included $ 647,671.80 in construction and remodeling costs. The contract expired on 30 June 1946, and was replaced by a new contract, which ended on 31 December 1946. A further
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at the
Hanford Site. By the end of 1944, the focus had switched to training operators. Much of the chemistry division moved to Oak Ridge in October 1943, and many personnel were transferred to other Manhattan Project sites in 1944, particularly Hanford and Los Alamos. Fermi became a division head at
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Metallurgical work concentrated on uranium and plutonium. Although it had been discovered over a century before, little was known about uranium, as evidenced by the fact that many references gave a figure for its melting point that was off by nearly 500 °F (280 °C). Edward Creutz investigated it and
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that might be formed when they were irradiated. Aluminum was chosen because the cladding had to transmit heat but not absorb too many neutrons. The aluminum canning process was given close attention, as ruptured slugs could jam or damage the channels in the reactor, and the smallest holes could vent
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was associate director of the
Metallurgical Project, and Richard L. Doan was appointed the Director of the Metallurgical Laboratory. While Doan was an able administrator, he had difficulty being accepted as the head of the laboratory, since he was not an academic. On 5 May 1943, Compton replaced him
1159:(FUSRAP). This included those used by the Metallurgical Laboratory. Stagg Field had been demolished in 1957, but 23 locations in Kent Laboratory were decontaminated in 1977, and another 99 at the Eckhart, Ryerson, and the Jones Laboratory in 1984. About 600 cubic feet (17 m) of solid and three
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Where possible, the
University of Chicago attempted to re-employ workers who had been transferred from the Metallurgical Laboratory to other projects once their work had ended. Replacing staff was nearly impossible, as Groves had ordered a staffing freeze. The only division to grow between November
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The design used a thin layer of aluminum to protect the uranium from corrosion by the cooling water. Cylindrical uranium slugs with aluminum jackets would be pushed through channels through the reactor and drop out the other side into a cooling pond. Once the radioactivity subsided, the slugs would
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The design of the reactors for plutonium production involved several problems, not just in nuclear physics but in engineering and construction. Issues such as the long-term effect of radiation on materials received considerable attention from the
Metallurgical Laboratory. Two types of reactors were
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The operation of
Chicago Pile-1 was terminated on 28 February 1943. It was dismantled and moved to Argonne, where the original materials were used to build Chicago Pile-2 (CP-2). Instead of being spherical, the new reactor was built in a cube-like shape, about 25 feet (7.6 m) tall with a base
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used to separate plutonium from uranium. When it became certain that nuclear reactors would involve radioactive materials on a gigantic scale, there was considerable concern about the health and safety aspects, and the study of the biological effects of radiation assumed greater importance. It was
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The metallurgy of plutonium was completely unknown, for it had only recently been discovered. In August 1942, Seaborg's team chemically isolated the first weighable amount of plutonium from uranium irradiated in the Jones
Laboratory. Until reactors became available, minuscule amounts of plutonium
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commenced work on this in September 1942 and it was completed in December. It was soon found to be too small and an adjacent 0.85-acre (0.34 ha) plot was added to the lease, on which a 30,000-square-foot (2,800 m) annex was built and completed in November 1943. Extensive work was then
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Over 5,000 people in 70 research groups participated in Compton's Metallurgical Project, also known as the "Pile" or "X-10" Project, of whom some 2,000 worked in the Metallurgical Laboratory in Chicago. Despite the good salaries being offered, recruiting was difficult. There was competition for
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The new research establishment was formed in February 1942, and named the "Metallurgical Laboratory" or "Met Lab". Some real metallurgy was carried out, but the name was intended as a cover for its activities. The University of Chicago had been considering establishing a research institute into
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Compton felt that having teams at Columbia, Princeton, the University of Chicago and the University of California created too much duplication and not enough collaboration, and he resolved to concentrate the work in one location. Nobody wanted to move, and everybody argued in favor of their own
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Under pressure to identify a source of processed uranium, in April 1942 Compton, Spedding and Hilberry met with Edward Mallinckrodt at his chemical company's headquarters in St. Louis, Missouri. The company devised and implemented a novel uranium processing technique using ether, submitted
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that brought the United States into the war, Compton was placed in charge of the plutonium project. Its objectives were to produce reactors to convert uranium to plutonium, to find ways to chemically separate the plutonium from the uranium, and to design and build an atomic bomb. Although a
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of liquid waste were collected and shipped to various sites for disposal. The Atomic Energy Commission terminated its lease on the Armory site in 1951, and it was restored to the state of Illinois. Testing in 1977, 1978 and 1987 indicated residual levels of radioactivity that exceeded
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produced a design for a production reactor with water cooling. The choice of water as a coolant was controversial, as it was known to absorb neutrons, thereby reducing the efficiency of the reactor, but Wigner was confident that his group's calculations were correct and that with the
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The use of water as a coolant raised the problem of corrosion and oxidation of the aluminum tubing. The Metallurgical Laboratory tested various additives to the water to determine their effect. It was found that corrosion was minimized when the water was slightly acidic, so dilute
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for the duration of the war plus one year for a dollar. Construction of facilities including laboratories and service buildings and an access road was commenced in September 1942 and completed in early 1943. Compton appointed Fermi as the first director of the Argonne Laboratory.
969:. Under bombardment by neutrons, the carbon atoms in the graphite moderator can be knocked out of the graphite's crystalline structure. Over time, this causes the graphite to heat and swell. Investigation of the problem would take most of 1946 before a fix was found.
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metals, and indeed would do so after the war, so its creation attracted little attention. Compton's plutonium project then became known as the Metallurgical Project. The Metallurgical Laboratory was administered by the University of Chicago under contract to the
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to produce it, and developed chemical processes to separate it from other elements. In August 1942 the lab's chemical section was the first to chemically separate a weighable sample of plutonium, and on 2 December 1942, the Met Lab produced the first controlled
856:. As well as the control rods, there was an emergency mechanism for dumping the heavy water into a tank below. Construction began on 1 January 1944. The reactor went critical in May 1944, and was first operated at full power of 300 kW in July 1944.
900:. Special blowers would be required to circulate the gas through the reactor, and the problem of leakage of radioactive gases would have to be solved. None of these problems were regarded as insurmountable. The decision to use helium was conveyed to
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The University of Chicago made a 0.73-acre (0.30 ha) site occupied by tennis courts available to the Manhattan District on a one dollar lease, for the construction of a new chemistry building with 20,000 square feet (1,900 m) of space.
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Los Alamos in September 1944, and Zinn became the director of the Argonne Laboratory. Allison followed in November 1944, taking with him many of the Metallurgical Laboratory's staff, including most of the instrument section. He was replaced by
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discovered that at the right temperature range, uranium could be hammered and rolled, and drawn into the rods required by the production reactor design. It was found that when uranium was cut, the shavings would burst into flame. Working with
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be taken away and the plutonium extracted. After reviewing the two designs, the DuPont engineers chose the water-cooled one. In 1959 a patent for the reactor design would be issued in the name of Creutz, Ohlinger, Weinberg, Wigner, and Young.
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at the University of California, was recruited to head the Metallurgical Project's health and safety program. Simeon Cutler, a radiologist, assumed responsibility for radiation safety in Chicago, before moving on to head the program at the
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1944 and March 1945 was the health division; all the rest lost 20 percent or more of their staff. From a peak of 2,008 staff on 1 July 1944, the number of people working at the Metallurgical Laboratory fell to 1,444 on 1 July 1945.
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and determine the neutron capture cross section of elements and compounds that might be used to construct future reactors, or occur in impurities. They were also used for trials of instrumentation, and in experiments to determine
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The end of the war did not end the flow of departures. Seaborg left on 17 May 1946, taking much of what remained of the chemistry division with him. On 11 February 1946, the Army reached an agreement with University President
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successful test materials by mid-May, supplied the material for the first self-sustaining reaction in December, and had satisfied the project's entire order of the first sixty tons before the contract was signed.
1152:$ 2,756,730.54 was paid under this contract, of which $ 161,636.10 was spent on construction and remodeling. An additional $ 49,509.83 was paid to the University of Chicago for the restoration of its facilities.
1022:. When it became certain that nuclear reactors would involve radioactive materials on a gigantic scale, there was considerable concern about the health and safety aspects. Robert S. Stone, who had worked with
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for the staff and equipment of the Metallurgical Project to be taken over by a regional laboratory based at Argonne, which the university still manages. On 1 July 1946, the Metallurgical Laboratory became
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were also introduced to the water to prevent a build up of film that could inhibit the circulation of the cooling water. The fuel slugs were given a jacket of aluminum to protect the uranium metal from
848:, which in turn was surrounded by a lead shield, and by concrete. Shielding on the top of the reactor consisted of layers of 1-foot (30 cm) square removable bricks composed of layers of iron and
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as head of the Manhattan Project's Medical Section. Over time, the study of the biological effects of radiation assumed greater importance. It was discovered that plutonium, like radium, was a
896:, because it could be both a coolant and a neutron moderator. The difficulties of its use were not overlooked. Large quantities would be required, and it would have to be very pure, with no
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1136:, with Zinn as its first director. The new laboratory had 1,278 staff on 31 December 1946, when the Manhattan Project ended, and responsibility for the national laboratories passed to the
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1054:, which recorded cumulative dosage. Stone's Health Division worked closely with William P. Jesse's Instrumentation Group in the Physics Division to develop detectors, including portable
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The Metallurgical Laboratory's Health Division set standards for radiation exposure. Workers were routinely tested at University of Chicago clinics, but this could be too late. Personal
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During the war Zinn allowed it to be run around the clock, and its design made it easy to conduct experiments. This included tests to investigate the properties of isotopes such as
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For reasons of safety and security, it was not desirable to locate the facilities for experiments with nuclear reactors in densely populated Chicago. Compton selected a site in the
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of uranium-235. While minute quantities of plutonium-239 could be created in cyclotrons, it was not feasible to produce a large quantity that way. Compton conferred with
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333:, where the original materials were used to build an improved Chicago Pile-2 to be employed in new research into the products of nuclear fission. Another reactor,
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Atomic Energy for Military Purposes; the Official Report on the Development of the Atomic Bomb under the Auspices of the United States Government, 1940–1945
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At first, most of the Laboratory facilities were provided by the University of Chicago. The physicists took over space under the North and West Stands of
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and uranium that was now available, water would work, while the technical difficulties involved in using helium as a coolant would delay the project.
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Video of west stands of Stagg Field, Institute for the Study of Metals (Metallurgical Laboratory), Enrico Fermi, and an active experiment using CP-1
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As well as the work on reactor development, the Metallurgical Laboratory studied the chemistry and metallurgy of plutonium, and worked with
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that had not yet been taken away by war work. Housing was more readily available, and an inland city was less vulnerable to enemy attack.
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constructed sixteen experimental reactors (known at the time as "piles") under the Stagg Field stands. Fermi designed a new uranium and
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provide more space in March 1944 and about 360,000 square feet (33,000 m) of space was leased or built, at a cost of $ 2 million.
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New Chemistry Building on the University of Chicago campus. The Gothic tower of Stagg Field is barely visible in the left background.
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guidelines, so decontamination was carried out in 1988 and 1989, after which the site was declared suitable for unrestricted use.
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1082:(μg) in the body, and work practices and workplaces at Chicago and Clinton were modified to ensure that this standard was met.
2936:. Vancouver, British Columbia: Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of British Columbia. pp. physics/0206076.
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840:. It had been unavailable when CP-1 was built, but was now becoming available in quantity thanks to the Manhattan Project's
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in December 1942. Peterson remained until October 1944. Captain J. F. McKinley became Chicago Area Engineer on 1 July 1945.
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as the standard measure of radiation exposure. Work to assess the toxicity of plutonium got under way when the plutonium
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approximately 30 feet (9.1 m) square. It was surrounded by concrete walls 5 feet (1.5 m) thick that acted as a
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scientists and engineers from other defense-related projects, and Chicago was expensive compared with university towns.
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carried out on the ventilation system to allow the laboratory to work with plutonium more safely. A site containing an
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radioactive gases. The Metallurgical Laboratory investigated production and testing regimes for the canning process.
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2630:. Swords of Armageddon: US Nuclear Weapons Development since 1945. Sunnyvale, California: Chukelea Publications.
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about how the plutonium produced in a reactor might then be chemically separated from uranium it was bred from.
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Salvetti, Carlo (2001). "The Birth of Nuclear Energy: Fermi's Pile". In Bernardini, C.; Bonolis, Luisa (eds.).
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Manhattan District History, Book IV – Pile Project X-10, Volume 2 – Research, Part 1 – Metallurgical Laboratory
669:. The Manhattan District assumed full responsibility for the Metallurgical Laboratory contract on 1 May 1943.
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in May 1944, and was first operated at full power in July 1944. The Metallurgical Laboratory also designed the
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in charge of the bomb design effort in June 1942. In November 1942, this became a separate project, known as
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that would occur if it came into contact with the water, and to prevent the venting of gaseous radioactive
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The decision of what coolant to use attracted more debate. The Metallurgical laboratory's first choice was
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Eckhart Hall at the University of Chicago was used for the Metallurgical Project's administrative offices
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coordinated the work. From 17 February 1943, Compton reported to the director of the Manhattan Project,
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and the Kent Chemical Laboratory. The health group took space in the Anatomy Building, Drexel House,
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1107:, who became associate director on 1 September 1944, succeeded Stearns as director on 1 July 1945.
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In 1974, the United States government began cleaning up the old Manhattan Project sites under the
832:, or CP-3, was built at the Argonne site in early 1944. This was the world's first reactor to use
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J. F. Grafton was appointed the Chicago Area Engineer in August 1942. He was succeeded by Captain
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to co-sign it. This resulted in support for research into nuclear fission by the U.S. government.
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as associate director. Initially there were three physics groups, headed by Allison, Fermi and
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The Metallurgical Laboratory was established as part of the Metallurgical Project, under the
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The dangers of radiation poisoning had become well known due to the experience of the
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to take over the research into bomb design in June 1942, and that became the separate
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and in the Service Building, where there was a cyclotron. The chemists took over the
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Manhattan District History, Book IV – Pile Project X-10, Volume 1 – General Features
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234:. It researched plutonium's chemistry and metallurgy, designed the world's first
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During 1943 and 1944, the Metallurgical Laboratory focused on first getting the
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2982:(1994). "The First Nuclear Era: The Life and Times of a Technological Fixer".
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began exploring how this might be achieved. In August 1939, Szilard drafted a
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Former laboratory at the University of Chicago, part of the Manhattan Project
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that was established in February 1942 to study and use the newly discovered
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2239:(Report). University of California, Berkeley Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory.
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397:, on 1 July 1946. The work of the Met Lab also led to the creation of the
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2966:. Chicago, Illinois: Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. pp. 105–123.
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2125:(1946). "Theoretical Physics in the Metallurgical Laboratory of Chicago".
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Fermi, Enrico (1946). "The Development of the first chain reaction pile".
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Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures, West Asia & North Africa
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2529:. Chicago, Illinois: Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. pp. 66–104.
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Stagg Field at the University of Chicago. The stadium was razed in 1957.
286:. The Metallurgical Laboratory was successively led by Richard L. Doan,
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The Dragon's Tail: Radiation Safety in the Manhattan Project, 1942–1946
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in November. At its peak on 1 July 1944, the Met Lab had 2,008 staff.
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Laboratory at the New Chemistry Building at the University of Chicago
954:
878:
704:
525:
422:
362:
319:
231:
77:
3046:
2245:
3928:
3738:
3571:
3105:
2749:. Washington, D.C.: United States Army Center of Military History.
2045:
1336:
1334:
849:
781:
697:
and the Killis Laboratory and the administrative offices went into
627:
was in charge of the Chemistry Division. He was later succeeded by
128:
2342:
2325:
1913:
1911:
1909:
1790:"Reactors Designed by Argonne National Laboratory: Chicago Pile 1"
1758:
1728:
1632:
1536:
1521:
1506:
1484:
1482:
1467:
1346:
429:
in December 1938, and its theoretical explanation (and naming) by
3728:
3595:
2843:. Bologna, Italy: Società Italiana di Fisica: Springer. pp.
1586:(4). Educational Foundation For Nuclear Science: 32. April 1979.
1409:
860:
569:
509:
438:
418:
247:, which was constructed under the stands of the university's old
124:
1853:
1331:
1319:
3114:
2407:
2369:
2357:
2253:
1906:
1770:
1716:
1668:
1479:
1295:
1256:
901:
893:
739:
709:
377:
326:
62:
28:
907:
In early 1943, Wigner and his Theoretical Group that included
2964:
All In Our Time: The Reminiscences of Twelve Nuclear Pioneers
2527:
All In Our Time: The Reminiscences of Twelve Nuclear Pioneers
987:
897:
3833:
Graham School of Continuing Liberal and Professional Studies
1363:
1361:
4334:
3676:
3145:
1094:
at the Clinton Engineer Works up and running, and then the
1006:. The chemistry division worked with DuPont to develop the
2277:
2009:
1680:
1494:
1283:
1235:
1208:
2431:
2165:
2021:
1949:
1704:
1622:
1620:
1358:
1078:
began producing it in 1943. The project set a limit of 5
2600:. Berkeley, California: University of California Press.
2103:
1430:
1428:
1426:
1424:
1273:
1271:
1178:
772:
Between 15 September and 15 November 1942, groups under
2313:
2301:
2289:
2237:
History of MET Lab Section C-I, April 1942 – April 1943
1445:
1443:
1307:
937:
528:
there in May 1941, and found that it had 1.7 times the
2962:(1975). "Present at Creation". In Wilson, Jane (ed.).
2567:
Now It Can Be Told: The Story of the Manhattan Project
2265:
2177:
2033:
1894:
1644:
1617:
1373:
1062:
created a metric for radiation exposure he called the
4389:
2879:. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
1692:
1656:
1421:
1397:
1385:
1268:
2419:
1440:
1190:
746:
leased 1,088 acres (440 ha) of land there from
654:
took over the Manhattan Project in August 1942, the
2790:
2776:
2449:
2351:
2159:
2097:
2051:
2003:
1991:
1979:
1967:
1847:
1764:
1638:
1611:
1560:
1545:
1515:
1461:
1415:
587:(left) the head of the Metallurgical Project, with
2725:. Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press.
2593:
2525:(1975). "Assisting Fermi". In Wilson, Jane (ed.).
1740:
4461:Academic and educational organizations in Chicago
2716:
2413:
2375:
2363:
2336:
2259:
1917:
1875:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society
1859:
1776:
1734:
1722:
1674:
1530:
1488:
1473:
852:. The heavy water was cooled with a water-cooled
488:, a Nobel-Prize-winning physics professor at the
4451:Research institutes of the University of Chicago
4437:
473:, and convinced his old friend and collaborator
2652:
2628:Volume I: The Development of US Nuclear Weapons
2549:. New York, New York: Oxford University Press.
1352:
1340:
1325:
1301:
1262:
1157:Formerly Utilized Sites Remedial Action Program
2393:"How the First Chain Reaction Changed Science"
2206:. Mallincrkodt Chemical (1962). Archived from
441:produced by fission could create a controlled
385:discovered that plutonium, like radium, was a
3779:
3062:
1114:The 124th Field Artillery Armory site in 2006
598:Office of Scientific Research and Development
2814:. New York, New York: Simon & Schuster.
1211:"Einstein's Letter to Franklin D. Roosevelt"
965:An important area of research concerned the
325:Chicago Pile-1 was soon moved by the lab to
972:
544:about how plutonium might be produced in a
524:produced 28 μg of plutonium in the 60-inch
437:soon after, opened up the possibility that
3786:
3772:
3069:
3055:
2958:
2073:. Biographical Memoirs. Washington, D.C.:
2063:
1955:
27:
3793:
2941:
2244:
1066:or rem. After the war, this replaced the
1010:used to separate plutonium from uranium.
270:laureate. In turn, it became part of the
4071:Francis and Rose Yuen (Hong Kong) campus
3853:Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering
2978:
2836:
2521:
2027:
1710:
1650:
1379:
1289:
1277:
1109:
976:
883:
819:
763:
703:
579:
3899:Chicago Project on Security and Threats
3858:School of Social Service Administration
2931:
2901:
2800:. Washington, D.C.: Manhattan District.
2786:. Washington, D.C.: Manhattan District.
2743:Manhattan: The Army and the Atomic Bomb
2541:
2283:
2271:
2231:
2225:
2197:"The Mallinckrodt Chemical Works Story"
2183:
2039:
2015:
1900:
1808:
1686:
1574:"Leo Szilard: His Version of the Facts"
1500:
1434:
1403:
1391:
1313:
736:Forest Preserve District of Cook County
500:theorized that heavy isotopes with odd
298:. Scientists who worked there included
4438:
3894:Center for Research in Security Prices
3838:Harris School of Public Policy Studies
3037:Manhattan Project Signature Facilities
2804:
2622:
2591:
2561:
2461:
2437:
2386:
2384:
2319:
2307:
2295:
2171:
2121:
1929:
1782:
1750:. Department of Energy. Archived from
1698:
1662:
1367:
1184:
868:of materials, and to train operators.
795:Construction of the reactor, known as
754:
591:, the director of Clinton Laboratories
3767:
3076:
3050:
2907:The Recollections of Eugene P. Wigner
2869:
2739:
2425:
2109:
1923:
1871:
1865:
1816:"Atoms Forge a Scientific Revolution"
1626:
1449:
1196:
652:United States Army Corps of Engineers
223:) was a scientific laboratory at the
4035:Housing at the University of Chicago
2723:Argonne National Laboratory, 1946–96
2464:"The Way Things Work: Nuclear waste"
2064:Hinman, George; Rose, David (2010).
1932:"The Way Things Work: Nuclear waste"
1013:
936:was added to the water to give it a
492:, to report on the uranium program.
2381:
2057:
1085:
871:
482:National Defense Research Committee
13:
3534:Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
2496:United States Department of Energy
2390:
1043:, making it especially hazardous.
1004:Washington University in St. Louis
1002:were produced in the cyclotron at
469:, warning of the possibility of a
14:
4472:
4199:Kenwood Astrophysical Observatory
3884:Center for Middle Eastern Studies
3030:
2840:Enrico Fermi: His Work and Legacy
1579:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
815:
802:
788:in a controlled, self-sustaining
759:
4446:History of the Manhattan Project
4423:
4411:
4399:
3979:Sonia Shankman Orthogenic School
3964:National Opinion Research Center
3750:
3749:
1236:The Atomic Heritage Foundation.
1209:The Atomic Heritage Foundation.
1148:, at the University of Chicago.
940:of 6.5. Other additives such as
329:, a more remote location in the
4456:1943 establishments in Illinois
4265:University Athletic Association
4169:Cannon v. University of Chicago
4056:George Herbert Jones Laboratory
3889:Center for Population Economics
2934:An Early History of Heavy Water
2932:Waltham, Chris (20 June 2002).
2481:
2462:McNear, Claire (5 March 2009).
2455:
2414:Holl, Hewlett & Harris 1997
2376:Holl, Hewlett & Harris 1997
2364:Holl, Hewlett & Harris 1997
2337:Holl, Hewlett & Harris 1997
2260:Holl, Hewlett & Harris 1997
2189:
2115:
2067:Edward Chester Creutz 1913–2009
1930:McNear, Claire (5 March 2009).
1918:Holl, Hewlett & Harris 1997
1860:Holl, Hewlett & Harris 1997
1777:Holl, Hewlett & Harris 1997
1735:Holl, Hewlett & Harris 1997
1723:Holl, Hewlett & Harris 1997
1675:Holl, Hewlett & Harris 1997
1566:
1531:Holl, Hewlett & Harris 1997
1489:Holl, Hewlett & Harris 1997
1474:Holl, Hewlett & Harris 1997
915:, Leo Ohlinger, Gale Young and
691:George Herbert Jones Laboratory
561:Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor
559:On 20 December, soon after the
4061:Gerald Ratner Athletics Center
3989:Toyota Technological Institute
2909:. New York, New York: Plenum.
2569:. New York, New York: Harper.
1229:
1202:
784:pile that could be brought to
463:President of the United States
1:
4194:University of Chicago sit-ins
4091:Joe and Rika Mansueto Library
2811:The Making of the Atomic Bomb
2656:; Anderson, Oscar E. (1962).
2514:
471:German nuclear weapon project
4305:Contemporary Chamber Players
3954:Marine Biological Laboratory
3694:Oppenheimer security hearing
2791:Manhattan District (1947b).
2777:Manhattan District (1947a).
2075:National Academy of Sciences
898:neutron-absorbing impurities
680:
575:
415:discovery of nuclear fission
7:
3994:University of Chicago Press
3919:Comprehensive Cancer Center
3914:Committee on Social Thought
3904:Chicago school of economics
3874:Argonne National Laboratory
3848:Pritzker School of Medicine
2489:"FUSRAP Stakeholder Report"
2395:. The University of Chicago
1820:Argonne National Laboratory
1794:Argonne National Laboratory
1353:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
1341:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
1326:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
1302:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
1263:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
1238:"Pa, this requires action!"
1130:Argonne National Laboratory
828:A second reactor, known as
395:Argonne National Laboratory
67:$ 30.69 million (1943–1946)
10:
4477:
4108:Lorado Taft Midway Studios
2721:; Harris, Ruth R. (1997).
2658:"The New World, 1939–1946"
2592:Hacker, Barton C. (1987).
2127:Journal of Applied Physics
408:
80:chemistry and metallurgy,
4343:
4273:
4222:
4209:Old University of Chicago
4156:
4043:
4013:
3969:Obama Presidential Center
3909:Comer Children's Hospital
3879:Becker Friedman Institute
3866:
3810:
3803:
3747:
3637:Bismuth phosphate process
3632:Atomic Energy Act of 1946
3619:
3588:
3521:
3310:
3179:
3093:
3084:
1008:bismuth phosphate process
382:bismuth phosphate process
181:
169:
120:
110:
88:
71:
61:
53:
38:
26:
4204:Metallurgical Laboratory
3823:Booth School of Business
2450:Manhattan District 1947b
2352:Manhattan District 1947b
2160:Manhattan District 1947b
2098:Manhattan District 1947b
2052:Manhattan District 1947b
2004:Manhattan District 1947b
1992:Manhattan District 1947b
1980:Manhattan District 1947b
1968:Manhattan District 1947b
1848:Manhattan District 1947b
1765:Manhattan District 1947b
1639:Manhattan District 1947b
1612:Manhattan District 1947b
1561:Manhattan District 1947b
1546:Manhattan District 1947b
1516:Manhattan District 1947b
1462:Manhattan District 1947a
1416:Manhattan District 1947b
1171:
1138:Atomic Energy Commission
973:Chemistry and metallurgy
522:University of California
331:Argonne Forest preserves
217:Metallurgical Laboratory
22:Metallurgical Laboratory
4250:Lascivious Costume Ball
4189:Graduate Library School
3714:S-1 Executive Committee
3662:Einstein–Szilard letter
2740:Jones, Vincent (1985).
1132:, the first designated
1064:roentgen equivalent man
1050:were procured, as were
1048:quartz fiber dosimeters
1037:University of Rochester
708:Argonne Laboratory at "
643:, which was located in
4255:Latke–Hamantash Debate
4066:Henry Crown Fieldhouse
3934:James Franck Institute
3924:Enrico Fermi Institute
3156:Salt Wells Pilot Plant
1464:, pp. S2–S5, 1.1.
1146:James Franck Institute
1142:Enrico Fermi Institute
1115:
1076:Clinton Engineer Works
982:
889:
825:
769:
713:
665:, instead of the OSRD
645:Los Alamos, New Mexico
592:
554:University of Illinois
443:nuclear chain reaction
403:James Franck Institute
399:Enrico Fermi Institute
367:Hanford Engineer Works
355:Clinton Engineer Works
278:effort to develop the
241:nuclear chain reaction
73:Field of research
4274:Student organizations
4223:Sports and traditions
3944:Institute of Politics
3796:University of Chicago
3734:X-10 Graphite Reactor
3689:Nobel Prize laureates
3559:509th Composite Group
2006:, pp. 3.14–3.15.
1850:, pp. 3.13–3.14.
1113:
1092:X-10 Graphite Reactor
1052:film badge dosimeters
980:
887:
823:
767:
707:
663:Leslie R. Groves, Jr.
583:
490:University of Chicago
467:Franklin D. Roosevelt
391:national laboratories
351:X-10 Graphite Reactor
225:University of Chicago
176:University of Chicago
154:41.79028°N 87.59889°W
4025:Burton–Judson Courts
3642:British contribution
3544:Operation Peppermint
3539:Operation Crossroads
3398:Maria Goeppert Mayer
2523:Anderson, Herbert L.
1994:, pp. 3.9–3.11.
1754:on 22 November 2010.
1748:"CP-1 Goes Critical"
1166:Department of Energy
1020:radium dial painters
542:Princeton University
359:Oak Ridge, Tennessee
116:2,008 on 1 July 1944
4330:Voices in Your Head
4143:Smart Museum of Art
4123:Renaissance Society
4096:John Crerar Library
3403:George Kistiakowsky
3358:Charles Critchfield
2996:1995PhT....48j..63W
2952:2002physics...6076W
2871:Smyth, Henry DeWolf
2719:Hewlett, Richard G.
2677:1962PhT....15l..62H
2654:Hewlett, Richard G.
2452:, pp. 2.2–2.3.
2440:, pp. 394–398.
2286:, pp. 180–181.
2174:, pp. 213–215.
2162:, pp. 5.1–5.2.
2139:1946JAP....17..857W
2112:, pp. 146–147.
2100:, pp. 4.5–4.7.
2018:, pp. 217–218.
1982:, pp. 3.4–3.5.
1970:, pp. 2.6–2.7.
1689:, pp. 136–137.
1614:, pp. 2.7–2.8.
1563:, pp. 2.3–2.5.
1503:, pp. 127–131.
1370:, pp. 399–400.
1355:, pp. 180–181.
1292:, pp. 192–193.
1187:, pp. 256–263.
1134:national laboratory
1031:. Groves appointed
774:Herbert L. Anderson
755:Reactor development
480:In April 1941, the
459:confidential letter
447:Columbia University
421:by German chemists
405:at the university.
371:state of Washington
314:. Compton assigned
159:41.79028; -87.59889
150: /
23:
4430:Nuclear technology
4418:History of Science
4377:School of Business
4360:School of Business
4325:Student Government
4287:The Chicago Maroon
4245:Women's basketball
4214:Yerkes Observatory
4133:Rockefeller Chapel
4101:Regenstein Library
4076:Hutchinson Commons
3949:Laboratory Schools
3468:Henry DeWolf Smyth
3247:Robert Oppenheimer
3202:Priscilla Duffield
2960:Wattenberg, Albert
2468:The Chicago Maroon
1936:The Chicago Maroon
1244:on 29 October 2012
1217:on 27 October 2012
1116:
1105:Farrington Daniels
1033:Stafford L. Warren
983:
890:
826:
770:
714:
675:Arthur V. Peterson
656:Manhattan District
637:Robert Oppenheimer
621:Martin D. Whitaker
593:
589:Martin D. Whitaker
316:Robert Oppenheimer
296:Farrington Daniels
105:Farrington Daniels
54:Research type
42:February 1942
21:
4387:
4386:
4009:
4008:
3984:Stieglitz Lecture
3974:Paulson Institute
3761:
3760:
3683:Los Alamos Primer
3672:Interim Committee
3627:African Americans
3579:The Great Artiste
3438:Isidor Isaac Rabi
3433:Norman Ramsey Jr.
3232:Franklin Matthias
3171:Heavy water sites
3078:Manhattan Project
3013:978-1-56396-358-2
3004:10.1063/1.2808209
2916:978-0-306-44326-8
2886:978-0-8047-1722-9
2854:978-88-7438-015-2
2821:978-0-671-44133-3
2764:on 7 October 2014
2732:978-0-252-02341-5
2694:978-0-520-07186-5
2685:10.1063/1.3057919
2637:978-0-9791915-1-0
2607:978-0-520-05852-1
2576:978-0-306-70738-4
2339:, pp. 29–30.
2322:, pp. 53–55.
2310:, pp. 40–42.
2298:, pp. 34–37.
2147:10.1063/1.1707653
2030:, pp. 22–24.
1737:, pp. 16–17.
1713:, pp. 91–92.
1629:, pp. 46–47.
1533:, pp. 21–22.
1476:, pp. 24–25.
1343:, pp. 54–55.
1328:, pp. 50–51.
1316:, pp. 72–73.
1304:, pp. 46–49.
1265:, pp. 36–38.
1144:, as well as the
1060:Herbert M. Parker
1014:Health and safety
946:sodium dichromate
866:thermal stability
846:neutron reflector
838:neutron moderator
719:Stone and Webster
695:Billings Hospital
660:Brigadier General
635:. Compton placed
613:Samuel K. Allison
585:Arthur H. Compton
343:neutron moderator
288:Samuel K. Allison
272:Manhattan Project
264:Arthur H. Compton
243:, in the reactor
213:
212:
97:Samuel K. Allison
4468:
4428:
4427:
4426:
4416:
4415:
4414:
4404:
4403:
4402:
4395:
4347:
4240:Men's basketball
4160:
4113:Midway Plaisance
4017:
3808:
3807:
3797:
3788:
3781:
3774:
3765:
3764:
3753:
3752:
3704:Quebec Agreement
3488:John von Neumann
3428:George B. Pegram
3237:Dorothy McKibbin
3071:
3064:
3057:
3048:
3047:
3025:
2975:
2955:
2945:
2928:
2898:
2866:
2833:
2801:
2799:
2787:
2785:
2773:
2771:
2769:
2763:
2757:. Archived from
2748:
2736:
2713:
2711:
2709:
2662:
2649:
2619:
2599:
2588:
2558:
2538:
2508:
2507:
2505:
2503:
2493:
2485:
2479:
2478:
2476:
2474:
2459:
2453:
2447:
2441:
2435:
2429:
2423:
2417:
2411:
2405:
2404:
2402:
2400:
2388:
2379:
2373:
2367:
2361:
2355:
2349:
2340:
2334:
2323:
2317:
2311:
2305:
2299:
2293:
2287:
2281:
2275:
2269:
2263:
2257:
2251:
2250:
2248:
2229:
2223:
2222:
2220:
2218:
2212:
2201:
2193:
2187:
2181:
2175:
2169:
2163:
2157:
2151:
2150:
2119:
2113:
2107:
2101:
2095:
2086:
2085:
2083:
2081:
2072:
2061:
2055:
2049:
2043:
2037:
2031:
2025:
2019:
2013:
2007:
2001:
1995:
1989:
1983:
1977:
1971:
1965:
1959:
1953:
1947:
1946:
1944:
1942:
1927:
1921:
1915:
1904:
1898:
1892:
1891:
1869:
1863:
1857:
1851:
1845:
1832:
1831:
1829:
1827:
1812:
1806:
1805:
1803:
1801:
1786:
1780:
1774:
1768:
1762:
1756:
1755:
1744:
1738:
1732:
1726:
1720:
1714:
1708:
1702:
1696:
1690:
1684:
1678:
1672:
1666:
1660:
1654:
1648:
1642:
1636:
1630:
1624:
1615:
1609:
1603:
1602:
1600:
1598:
1570:
1564:
1558:
1549:
1543:
1534:
1528:
1519:
1513:
1504:
1498:
1492:
1486:
1477:
1471:
1465:
1459:
1453:
1447:
1438:
1432:
1419:
1413:
1407:
1401:
1395:
1389:
1383:
1377:
1371:
1365:
1356:
1350:
1344:
1338:
1329:
1323:
1317:
1311:
1305:
1299:
1293:
1287:
1281:
1275:
1266:
1260:
1254:
1253:
1251:
1249:
1240:. Archived from
1233:
1227:
1226:
1224:
1222:
1213:. Archived from
1206:
1200:
1199:, pp. 8–10.
1194:
1188:
1182:
1101:Joyce C. Stearns
1086:Later activities
992:General Electric
959:fission products
881:or heavy water.
872:Production piles
810:radiation shield
790:nuclear reaction
615:, and appointed
427:Fritz Strassmann
292:Joyce C. Stearns
236:nuclear reactors
229:chemical element
186:
171:Operating agency
165:
164:
162:
161:
160:
155:
151:
148:
147:
146:
143:
101:Joyce C. Stearns
49:
47:
31:
24:
20:
4476:
4475:
4471:
4470:
4469:
4467:
4466:
4465:
4436:
4435:
4434:
4424:
4422:
4412:
4410:
4400:
4398:
4390:
4388:
4383:
4345:
4339:
4300:CMAC (UChicago)
4269:
4218:
4158:
4152:
4118:Quadrangle Club
4039:
4030:Snell–Hitchcock
4016:Residence halls
4015:
4005:
3862:
3828:Divinity School
3799:
3795:
3792:
3762:
3757:
3743:
3709:RaLa Experiment
3615:
3584:
3549:Project Alberta
3517:
3513:Chien-Shiung Wu
3443:James Rainwater
3378:Richard Feynman
3368:John R. Dunning
3343:Norris Bradbury
3306:
3292:Stafford Warren
3262:William Purnell
3242:Kenneth Nichols
3222:Ernest Lawrence
3197:James B. Conant
3175:
3089:
3080:
3075:
3033:
3028:
3014:
2980:Weinberg, Alvin
2943:physics/0206076
2917:
2903:Szanton, Andrew
2887:
2855:
2822:
2806:Rhodes, Richard
2797:
2783:
2767:
2765:
2761:
2746:
2733:
2717:Holl, Jack M.;
2707:
2705:
2695:
2660:
2638:
2608:
2577:
2543:Compton, Arthur
2517:
2512:
2511:
2501:
2499:
2491:
2487:
2486:
2482:
2472:
2470:
2460:
2456:
2448:
2444:
2436:
2432:
2424:
2420:
2412:
2408:
2398:
2396:
2391:Koppes, Steve.
2389:
2382:
2374:
2370:
2362:
2358:
2350:
2343:
2335:
2326:
2318:
2314:
2306:
2302:
2294:
2290:
2282:
2278:
2270:
2266:
2258:
2254:
2246:10.2172/7110621
2230:
2226:
2216:
2214:
2213:on 15 June 2021
2210:
2204:atomic heritage
2199:
2195:
2194:
2190:
2182:
2178:
2170:
2166:
2158:
2154:
2133:(11): 857–863.
2120:
2116:
2108:
2104:
2096:
2089:
2079:
2077:
2070:
2062:
2058:
2054:, p. 3.16.
2050:
2046:
2038:
2034:
2026:
2022:
2014:
2010:
2002:
1998:
1990:
1986:
1978:
1974:
1966:
1962:
1956:Wattenberg 1975
1954:
1950:
1940:
1938:
1928:
1924:
1916:
1907:
1903:, pp. 8–9.
1899:
1895:
1870:
1866:
1858:
1854:
1846:
1835:
1825:
1823:
1814:
1813:
1809:
1799:
1797:
1788:
1787:
1783:
1775:
1771:
1763:
1759:
1746:
1745:
1741:
1733:
1729:
1721:
1717:
1709:
1705:
1697:
1693:
1685:
1681:
1673:
1669:
1661:
1657:
1649:
1645:
1637:
1633:
1625:
1618:
1610:
1606:
1596:
1594:
1572:
1571:
1567:
1559:
1552:
1544:
1537:
1529:
1522:
1514:
1507:
1499:
1495:
1487:
1480:
1472:
1468:
1460:
1456:
1448:
1441:
1433:
1422:
1414:
1410:
1402:
1398:
1390:
1386:
1378:
1374:
1366:
1359:
1351:
1347:
1339:
1332:
1324:
1320:
1312:
1308:
1300:
1296:
1288:
1284:
1276:
1269:
1261:
1257:
1247:
1245:
1234:
1230:
1220:
1218:
1207:
1203:
1195:
1191:
1183:
1179:
1174:
1161:55-gallon drums
1125:Robert Hutchins
1088:
1056:Geiger counters
1024:Ernest Lawrence
1016:
975:
942:sodium silicate
874:
818:
805:
762:
757:
683:
608:Norman Hilberry
578:
546:nuclear reactor
530:thermal neutron
475:Albert Einstein
411:
380:to develop the
206:
202:
198:
194:
188:
185:Nobel laureates
184:
172:
158:
156:
152:
149:
144:
141:
139:
137:
136:
135:
103:
99:
95:
94:Richard L. Doan
82:nuclear reactor
74:
45:
43:
34:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4474:
4464:
4463:
4458:
4453:
4448:
4433:
4432:
4420:
4408:
4385:
4384:
4382:
4381:
4380:
4379:
4369:
4368:
4367:
4362:
4351:
4349:
4341:
4340:
4338:
4337:
4332:
4327:
4322:
4317:
4315:Off-Off Campus
4312:
4307:
4302:
4297:
4294:Chicago Review
4290:
4283:
4277:
4275:
4271:
4270:
4268:
4267:
4262:
4260:Scavenger Hunt
4257:
4252:
4247:
4242:
4237:
4232:
4226:
4224:
4220:
4219:
4217:
4216:
4211:
4206:
4201:
4196:
4191:
4186:
4185:
4184:
4181:Nuclear Energy
4175:Chicago Pile-1
4172:
4164:
4162:
4154:
4153:
4151:
4150:
4145:
4140:
4138:Seminary Co-op
4135:
4130:
4125:
4120:
4115:
4110:
4105:
4104:
4103:
4098:
4093:
4083:
4081:Ida Noyes Hall
4078:
4073:
4068:
4063:
4058:
4053:
4047:
4045:
4041:
4040:
4038:
4037:
4032:
4027:
4021:
4019:
4011:
4010:
4007:
4006:
4004:
4003:
4002:
4001:
3991:
3986:
3981:
3976:
3971:
3966:
3961:
3959:Medical Center
3956:
3951:
3946:
3941:
3936:
3931:
3926:
3921:
3916:
3911:
3906:
3901:
3896:
3891:
3886:
3881:
3876:
3870:
3868:
3864:
3863:
3861:
3860:
3855:
3850:
3845:
3840:
3835:
3830:
3825:
3820:
3814:
3812:
3805:
3801:
3800:
3791:
3790:
3783:
3776:
3768:
3759:
3758:
3748:
3745:
3744:
3742:
3741:
3736:
3731:
3726:
3721:
3716:
3711:
3706:
3701:
3696:
3691:
3686:
3679:
3674:
3669:
3664:
3659:
3654:
3652:Chicago Pile-1
3649:
3647:Calutron Girls
3644:
3639:
3634:
3629:
3623:
3621:
3620:Related topics
3617:
3616:
3614:
3613:
3608:
3603:
3598:
3592:
3590:
3586:
3585:
3583:
3582:
3575:
3568:
3561:
3556:
3551:
3546:
3541:
3536:
3531:
3525:
3523:
3519:
3518:
3516:
3515:
3510:
3505:
3500:
3495:
3490:
3485:
3483:Stanisław Ulam
3480:
3475:
3470:
3465:
3460:
3455:
3450:
3445:
3440:
3435:
3430:
3425:
3420:
3418:Edwin McMillan
3415:
3410:
3405:
3400:
3395:
3390:
3385:
3380:
3375:
3370:
3365:
3363:Harry Daghlian
3360:
3355:
3353:John Cockcroft
3350:
3348:James Chadwick
3345:
3340:
3335:
3330:
3325:
3320:
3314:
3312:
3308:
3307:
3305:
3304:
3299:
3294:
3289:
3284:
3279:
3274:
3272:Charles Thomas
3269:
3267:Frank Spedding
3264:
3259:
3254:
3249:
3244:
3239:
3234:
3229:
3227:James Marshall
3224:
3219:
3214:
3209:
3207:Thomas Farrell
3204:
3199:
3194:
3192:Arthur Compton
3189:
3183:
3181:
3180:Administrators
3177:
3176:
3174:
3173:
3168:
3163:
3158:
3153:
3148:
3143:
3138:
3133:
3128:
3123:
3118:
3108:
3103:
3097:
3095:
3091:
3090:
3085:
3082:
3081:
3074:
3073:
3066:
3059:
3051:
3045:
3044:
3039:
3032:
3031:External links
3029:
3027:
3026:
3012:
2976:
2956:
2929:
2915:
2899:
2885:
2867:
2853:
2834:
2820:
2802:
2788:
2774:
2737:
2731:
2714:
2693:
2650:
2636:
2620:
2606:
2589:
2575:
2563:Groves, Leslie
2559:
2539:
2518:
2516:
2513:
2510:
2509:
2480:
2454:
2442:
2430:
2428:, p. 600.
2418:
2406:
2380:
2368:
2356:
2354:, p. 7.1.
2341:
2324:
2312:
2300:
2288:
2276:
2274:, p. 176.
2264:
2252:
2224:
2188:
2186:, p. 175.
2176:
2164:
2152:
2114:
2102:
2087:
2056:
2044:
2042:, p. 167.
2032:
2020:
2008:
1996:
1984:
1972:
1960:
1958:, p. 173.
1948:
1922:
1905:
1893:
1864:
1862:, p. 428.
1852:
1833:
1822:. 10 July 2012
1807:
1781:
1769:
1767:, p. 3.9.
1757:
1739:
1727:
1715:
1703:
1701:, p. 433.
1691:
1679:
1667:
1665:, p. 429.
1655:
1643:
1641:, p. 2.6.
1631:
1616:
1604:
1565:
1550:
1548:, p. 7.2.
1535:
1520:
1518:, p. 2.1.
1505:
1493:
1478:
1466:
1454:
1452:, p. 636.
1439:
1420:
1408:
1396:
1384:
1372:
1357:
1345:
1330:
1318:
1306:
1294:
1282:
1267:
1255:
1228:
1201:
1189:
1176:
1175:
1173:
1170:
1087:
1084:
1015:
1012:
974:
971:
922:purer graphite
909:Alvin Weinberg
873:
870:
854:heat exchanger
830:Chicago Pile-3
824:Chicago Pile-3
817:
816:Chicago Pile-3
814:
804:
803:Chicago Pile-2
801:
797:Chicago Pile-1
761:
760:Chicago Pile-1
758:
756:
753:
744:War Department
734:, part of the
732:Argonne Forest
682:
679:
631:, and then by
625:Frank Spedding
617:Henry D. Smyth
577:
574:
502:atomic numbers
486:Arthur Compton
484:(NDRC), asked
410:
407:
335:Chicago Pile-3
245:Chicago Pile-1
211:
210:
192:Arthur Compton
189:
182:
179:
178:
173:
170:
167:
166:
122:
118:
117:
114:
108:
107:
92:
86:
85:
75:
72:
69:
68:
65:
59:
58:
55:
51:
50:
40:
36:
35:
32:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4473:
4462:
4459:
4457:
4454:
4452:
4449:
4447:
4444:
4443:
4441:
4431:
4421:
4419:
4409:
4407:
4397:
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4393:
4378:
4375:
4374:
4373:
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4366:
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4356:
4353:
4352:
4350:
4348:
4342:
4336:
4333:
4331:
4328:
4326:
4323:
4321:
4318:
4316:
4313:
4311:
4308:
4306:
4303:
4301:
4298:
4296:
4295:
4291:
4289:
4288:
4284:
4282:
4279:
4278:
4276:
4272:
4266:
4263:
4261:
4258:
4256:
4253:
4251:
4248:
4246:
4243:
4241:
4238:
4236:
4233:
4231:
4228:
4227:
4225:
4221:
4215:
4212:
4210:
4207:
4205:
4202:
4200:
4197:
4195:
4192:
4190:
4187:
4183:
4182:
4178:
4177:
4176:
4173:
4171:
4170:
4166:
4165:
4163:
4161:
4155:
4149:
4146:
4144:
4141:
4139:
4136:
4134:
4131:
4129:
4126:
4124:
4121:
4119:
4116:
4114:
4111:
4109:
4106:
4102:
4099:
4097:
4094:
4092:
4089:
4088:
4087:
4084:
4082:
4079:
4077:
4074:
4072:
4069:
4067:
4064:
4062:
4059:
4057:
4054:
4052:
4051:Bartlett Hall
4049:
4048:
4046:
4042:
4036:
4033:
4031:
4028:
4026:
4023:
4022:
4020:
4018:
4012:
4000:
3997:
3996:
3995:
3992:
3990:
3987:
3985:
3982:
3980:
3977:
3975:
3972:
3970:
3967:
3965:
3962:
3960:
3957:
3955:
3952:
3950:
3947:
3945:
3942:
3940:
3937:
3935:
3932:
3930:
3927:
3925:
3922:
3920:
3917:
3915:
3912:
3910:
3907:
3905:
3902:
3900:
3897:
3895:
3892:
3890:
3887:
3885:
3882:
3880:
3877:
3875:
3872:
3871:
3869:
3865:
3859:
3856:
3854:
3851:
3849:
3846:
3844:
3841:
3839:
3836:
3834:
3831:
3829:
3826:
3824:
3821:
3819:
3816:
3815:
3813:
3809:
3806:
3802:
3798:
3789:
3784:
3782:
3777:
3775:
3770:
3769:
3766:
3756:
3746:
3740:
3737:
3735:
3732:
3730:
3727:
3725:
3722:
3720:
3717:
3715:
3712:
3710:
3707:
3705:
3702:
3700:
3697:
3695:
3692:
3690:
3687:
3685:
3684:
3680:
3678:
3675:
3673:
3670:
3668:
3667:Franck Report
3665:
3663:
3660:
3658:
3655:
3653:
3650:
3648:
3645:
3643:
3640:
3638:
3635:
3633:
3630:
3628:
3625:
3624:
3622:
3618:
3612:
3609:
3607:
3604:
3602:
3599:
3597:
3594:
3593:
3591:
3587:
3581:
3580:
3576:
3574:
3573:
3569:
3567:
3566:
3562:
3560:
3557:
3555:
3552:
3550:
3547:
3545:
3542:
3540:
3537:
3535:
3532:
3530:
3529:Alsos Mission
3527:
3526:
3524:
3520:
3514:
3511:
3509:
3506:
3504:
3503:Robert Wilson
3501:
3499:
3498:Eugene Wigner
3496:
3494:
3491:
3489:
3486:
3484:
3481:
3479:
3478:Edward Teller
3476:
3474:
3471:
3469:
3466:
3464:
3461:
3459:
3456:
3454:
3453:Glenn Seaborg
3451:
3449:
3446:
3444:
3441:
3439:
3436:
3434:
3431:
3429:
3426:
3424:
3423:Mark Oliphant
3421:
3419:
3416:
3414:
3413:Willard Libby
3411:
3409:
3406:
3404:
3401:
3399:
3396:
3394:
3391:
3389:
3386:
3384:
3381:
3379:
3376:
3374:
3371:
3369:
3366:
3364:
3361:
3359:
3356:
3354:
3351:
3349:
3346:
3344:
3341:
3339:
3336:
3334:
3331:
3329:
3326:
3324:
3323:Robert Bacher
3321:
3319:
3316:
3315:
3313:
3309:
3303:
3302:Roscoe Wilson
3300:
3298:
3295:
3293:
3290:
3288:
3285:
3283:
3280:
3278:
3275:
3273:
3270:
3268:
3265:
3263:
3260:
3258:
3255:
3253:
3250:
3248:
3245:
3243:
3240:
3238:
3235:
3233:
3230:
3228:
3225:
3223:
3220:
3218:
3217:John Lansdale
3215:
3213:
3212:Leslie Groves
3210:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3190:
3188:
3187:Vannevar Bush
3185:
3184:
3182:
3178:
3172:
3169:
3167:
3164:
3162:
3159:
3157:
3154:
3152:
3149:
3147:
3144:
3142:
3139:
3137:
3134:
3132:
3129:
3127:
3124:
3122:
3119:
3116:
3112:
3109:
3107:
3104:
3102:
3099:
3098:
3096:
3092:
3088:
3083:
3079:
3072:
3067:
3065:
3060:
3058:
3053:
3052:
3049:
3043:
3040:
3038:
3035:
3034:
3023:
3019:
3015:
3009:
3005:
3001:
2997:
2993:
2990:(10): 63–64.
2989:
2985:
2984:Physics Today
2981:
2977:
2973:
2969:
2965:
2961:
2957:
2953:
2949:
2944:
2939:
2935:
2930:
2926:
2922:
2918:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2888:
2882:
2878:
2877:
2872:
2868:
2864:
2860:
2856:
2850:
2846:
2842:
2841:
2835:
2831:
2827:
2823:
2817:
2813:
2812:
2807:
2803:
2796:
2795:
2789:
2782:
2781:
2775:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2745:
2744:
2738:
2734:
2728:
2724:
2720:
2715:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2665:Physics Today
2659:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2643:
2639:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2624:Hansen, Chuck
2621:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2603:
2598:
2597:
2590:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2572:
2568:
2564:
2560:
2556:
2552:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2524:
2520:
2519:
2497:
2490:
2484:
2469:
2465:
2458:
2451:
2446:
2439:
2434:
2427:
2422:
2416:, p. 46.
2415:
2410:
2394:
2387:
2385:
2378:, p. 40.
2377:
2372:
2366:, p. 35.
2365:
2360:
2353:
2348:
2346:
2338:
2333:
2331:
2329:
2321:
2316:
2309:
2304:
2297:
2292:
2285:
2280:
2273:
2268:
2262:, p. 14.
2261:
2256:
2247:
2242:
2238:
2234:
2233:Seaborg, G.T.
2228:
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2123:Wigner, E. P.
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2068:
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2029:
2028:Weinberg 1994
2024:
2017:
2012:
2005:
2000:
1993:
1988:
1981:
1976:
1969:
1964:
1957:
1952:
1937:
1933:
1926:
1920:, p. 26.
1919:
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1842:
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1838:
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1817:
1811:
1796:. 21 May 2013
1795:
1791:
1785:
1779:, p. 23.
1778:
1773:
1766:
1761:
1753:
1749:
1743:
1736:
1731:
1725:, p. 16.
1724:
1719:
1712:
1711:Anderson 1975
1707:
1700:
1695:
1688:
1683:
1677:, p. 15.
1676:
1671:
1664:
1659:
1653:, p. 91.
1652:
1651:Anderson 1975
1647:
1640:
1635:
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1608:
1593:
1589:
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1510:
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1497:
1491:, p. 25.
1490:
1485:
1483:
1475:
1470:
1463:
1458:
1451:
1446:
1444:
1437:, p. 83.
1436:
1431:
1429:
1427:
1425:
1418:, p. S2.
1417:
1412:
1406:, p. 82.
1405:
1400:
1394:, p. 80.
1393:
1388:
1382:, p. 88.
1381:
1380:Anderson 1975
1376:
1369:
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1349:
1342:
1337:
1335:
1327:
1322:
1315:
1310:
1303:
1298:
1291:
1290:Salvetti 2001
1286:
1280:, p. 82.
1279:
1278:Anderson 1975
1274:
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979:
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968:
967:Wigner effect
963:
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947:
943:
939:
935:
934:sulfuric acid
929:
925:
923:
918:
917:Edward Creutz
914:
913:Katharine Way
910:
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903:
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629:Herbert McCoy
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571:
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550:Robert Serber
547:
543:
539:
538:Eugene Wigner
535:
534:cross section
531:
527:
523:
519:
518:Glenn Seaborg
515:
511:
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506:plutonium-239
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308:Eugene Wigner
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260:S-1 Committee
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208:Eugene Wigner
205:
204:Glenn Seaborg
201:
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133:United States
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56:
52:
41:
37:
30:
25:
19:
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4285:
4203:
4179:
4167:
3739:Y-12 Project
3724:Smyth Report
3719:S-50 Project
3681:
3677:K-25 Project
3606:Pumpkin bomb
3577:
3570:
3563:
3493:John Wheeler
3463:Louis Slotin
3458:Emilio Segrè
3408:George Koval
3388:James Franck
3373:Enrico Fermi
3318:Luis Alvarez
3277:Paul Tibbets
3252:Deak Parsons
3110:
2987:
2983:
2963:
2933:
2906:
2875:
2839:
2810:
2793:
2779:
2766:. Retrieved
2759:the original
2742:
2722:
2706:. Retrieved
2668:
2664:
2627:
2595:
2566:
2547:Atomic Quest
2546:
2526:
2500:. Retrieved
2483:
2471:. Retrieved
2467:
2457:
2445:
2433:
2421:
2409:
2397:. Retrieved
2371:
2359:
2315:
2303:
2291:
2284:Compton 1956
2279:
2272:Compton 1956
2267:
2255:
2227:
2215:. Retrieved
2208:the original
2203:
2191:
2184:Compton 1956
2179:
2167:
2155:
2130:
2126:
2117:
2105:
2078:. Retrieved
2066:
2059:
2047:
2040:Compton 1956
2035:
2023:
2016:Szanton 1992
2011:
1999:
1987:
1975:
1963:
1951:
1939:. Retrieved
1935:
1925:
1901:Waltham 2002
1896:
1882:(1): 20–24.
1879:
1873:
1867:
1855:
1824:. Retrieved
1810:
1798:. Retrieved
1784:
1772:
1760:
1752:the original
1742:
1730:
1718:
1706:
1694:
1687:Compton 1956
1682:
1670:
1658:
1646:
1634:
1607:
1595:. Retrieved
1583:
1577:
1568:
1501:Compton 1956
1496:
1469:
1457:
1435:Compton 1956
1411:
1404:Compton 1956
1399:
1392:Compton 1956
1387:
1375:
1348:
1321:
1314:Compton 1956
1309:
1297:
1285:
1258:
1246:. Retrieved
1242:the original
1231:
1219:. Retrieved
1215:the original
1204:
1192:
1180:
1154:
1150:
1121:
1117:
1089:
1045:
1029:Hanford Site
1017:
1000:
996:
984:
964:
930:
926:
906:
891:
875:
858:
827:
806:
794:
771:
729:
715:
699:Eckhart Hall
684:
649:
633:James Franck
606:
602:
594:
566:
558:
514:Emilio Segrè
498:John Wheeler
479:
451:Enrico Fermi
431:Lise Meitner
412:
375:
324:
304:James Franck
300:Enrico Fermi
284:World War II
257:
220:
216:
214:
200:James Franck
196:Enrico Fermi
18:
4320:Poetry Club
4148:Stagg Field
4128:Robie House
3818:The College
3554:Silverplate
3508:Leona Woods
3473:Leo Szilard
3448:Bruno Rossi
3393:Klaus Fuchs
3297:Ed Westcott
3287:Harold Urey
2438:Groves 1962
2399:19 December
2320:Hacker 1987
2308:Hacker 1987
2296:Hacker 1987
2172:Hansen 1995
1941:28 November
1699:Rhodes 1986
1663:Rhodes 1986
1597:18 December
1368:Rhodes 1986
1185:Rhodes 1986
1041:bone seeker
950:oxalic acid
842:P-9 Project
834:heavy water
786:criticality
778:Walter Zinn
748:Cook County
687:Stagg Field
667:S-1 Section
548:, and with
455:Leo Szilard
435:Otto Frisch
387:bone seeker
339:heavy water
280:atomic bomb
268:Nobel Prize
253:Stagg Field
157: /
39:Established
4440:Categories
4365:Law School
3843:Law School
3657:Demon core
3601:Little Boy
3522:Operations
3338:Niels Bohr
3328:Hans Bethe
3311:Scientists
3257:Boris Pash
3136:Los Alamos
2671:(12): 62.
2515:References
2502:13 January
2498:. May 2013
2473:13 January
2426:Jones 1985
2110:Smyth 1945
1627:Jones 1985
1450:Jones 1985
1197:Jones 1985
1080:micrograms
650:After the
504:, such as
494:Niels Bohr
361:, and the
345:. It went
145:87°35′56″W
142:41°47′25″N
57:classified
4310:Doc Films
3804:Academics
3699:Plutonium
3565:Enola Gay
3383:Val Fitch
3333:Aage Bohr
3282:Bud Uanna
3151:Oak Ridge
3022:925205784
2925:612245667
2895:265919046
2830:883475036
2768:25 August
2703:637004643
2646:231585284
1592:0096-3402
1096:B Reactor
1072:semiworks
1035:from the
955:corrosion
879:beryllium
724:ice house
681:Buildings
641:Project Y
576:Personnel
552:from the
526:cyclotron
423:Otto Hahn
363:B Reactor
320:Project Y
251:stadium,
232:plutonium
78:Plutonium
4235:Football
3999:Journals
3929:Fermilab
3755:Category
3611:Thin Man
3572:Bockscar
3166:Wendover
3146:New York
3141:Montreal
3131:Inyokern
3106:Berkeley
3087:Timeline
2905:(1992).
2873:(1945).
2863:56686431
2808:(1986).
2755:10913875
2708:26 March
2626:(1995).
2616:13794117
2565:(1962).
2545:(1956).
2235:(1977).
1068:roentgen
850:masonite
782:graphite
600:(OSRD).
532:capture
439:neutrons
401:and the
347:critical
249:football
129:Illinois
121:Location
90:Director
4406:Chicago
4392:Portals
4372:Faculty
4230:Maroons
4159:History
4086:Library
3811:Schools
3729:Uranium
3596:Fat Man
3589:Weapons
3161:Trinity
3126:Hanford
3111:Chicago
2992:Bibcode
2972:1982052
2948:Bibcode
2845:177–203
2673:Bibcode
2535:1982052
2217:8 March
2135:Bibcode
2080:6 March
1888:3301034
1826:26 July
1800:26 July
1074:at the
861:tritium
742:'. The
671:Captain
570:Midwest
520:at the
510:fissile
508:, were
461:to the
419:uranium
409:Origins
369:in the
365:at the
353:at the
282:during
221:Met Lab
125:Chicago
46:1942-02
44: (
4355:Alumni
4346:People
4044:Campus
3121:Dayton
3115:Site A
3020:
3010:
2970:
2923:
2913:
2893:
2883:
2861:
2851:
2828:
2818:
2753:
2729:
2701:
2691:
2644:
2634:
2614:
2604:
2585:537684
2583:
2573:
2555:173307
2553:
2533:
1886:
1590:
1248:26 May
1221:26 May
902:DuPont
894:helium
740:Site A
710:Site A
393:, the
378:DuPont
327:Site A
276:Allied
274:– the
84:design
63:Budget
3867:Other
3094:Sites
2938:arXiv
2798:(PDF)
2784:(PDF)
2762:(PDF)
2747:(PDF)
2661:(PDF)
2492:(PDF)
2211:(PDF)
2200:(PDF)
2071:(PDF)
1884:JSTOR
1172:Notes
988:Alcoa
836:as a
611:with
540:from
445:. At
341:as a
112:Staff
4335:WHPK
4281:Band
3101:Ames
3018:OCLC
3008:ISBN
2968:OCLC
2921:OCLC
2911:ISBN
2891:OCLC
2881:ISBN
2859:OCLC
2849:ISBN
2826:OCLC
2816:ISBN
2770:2013
2751:OCLC
2727:ISBN
2710:2013
2699:OCLC
2689:ISBN
2642:OCLC
2632:ISBN
2612:OCLC
2602:ISBN
2581:OCLC
2571:ISBN
2551:OCLC
2531:OCLC
2504:2016
2475:2016
2401:2015
2219:2020
2082:2016
1943:2015
1828:2013
1802:2013
1599:2015
1588:ISSN
1250:2007
1223:2007
990:and
948:and
776:and
516:and
496:and
453:and
433:and
425:and
413:The
310:and
294:and
266:, a
219:(or
215:The
3000:doi
2681:doi
2241:doi
2143:doi
417:in
357:in
4442::
3016:.
3006:.
2998:.
2988:48
2986:.
2946:.
2919:.
2889:.
2857:.
2847:.
2824:.
2697:.
2687:.
2679:.
2669:15
2667:.
2663:.
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2610:.
2579:.
2494:.
2466:.
2383:^
2344:^
2327:^
2202:.
2141:.
2131:17
2129:.
2090:^
1934:.
1908:^
1880:90
1878:.
1836:^
1818:.
1792:.
1619:^
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1582:.
1576:.
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1481:^
1442:^
1423:^
1360:^
1333:^
1270:^
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938:pH
911:,
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2243::
2221:.
2149:.
2145::
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1890:.
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1804:.
1601:.
1252:.
1225:.
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48:)
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