482:(NRL), along with Sachs, Pegram, Fermi, Szilard, and Wigner. Once again, Einstein, although invited, declined to attend. The meeting highlighted differences between the optimistic Szilard and Sachs, and the more cautious Fermi. The committee agreed to proceed with the work at Columbia, which it hoped would demonstrate whether or not a chain reaction was possible. Bowen and Gunn suggested the creation of a scientific subcommittee to advise the Advisory Committee on Uranium. Tuve and Vannevar Bush at the Carnegie Institution, expressed interest in this, and Briggs created it. Chaired by Briggs, its membership consisted of Urey, Pegram, Tuve, Beams, Gunn, and
513:(NDRC) to coordinate defense-related research. The NDRC was formally created on June 27, 1940, with Bush as its chairman. It immediately absorbed the Advisory Committee on Uranium, which was indeed one of its purposes. Bush immediately reorganised the Advisory Committee on Uranium as the NDRC Committee on Uranium, reporting directly to him. Briggs remained chairman, but Hoover and Adamson were dropped from its membership, while Tuve, Pegram, Beams, Gunn, and Urey were added. For security reasons, no foreign-born scientists were appointed to the Uranium Committee. Publication of research into uranium, fission and isotope separation was now banned.
850:. This meeting resolved most of the outstanding issues confronting the project, but Bush and Conant felt that the time had now come for the Army to take over the project, something that had already been approved by the president on June 17, 1942. After some discussion, it was decided that Groves, who would be promoted to the rank of brigadier general, would become the director of the Manhattan Project on September 23, 1942. He would be answerable to the Military Policy Committee (MPC), which would consist of Styer, Bush (with Conant as his alternate) and Rear Admiral
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740:, on October 9, 1941, and briefed them on the S-1 Section's progress. He personally delivered a third report from Arthur Compton, dated November 1, to Roosevelt on November 19, 1941. On December 6, 1941, Bush held a meeting to organize an accelerated research project managed by Compton, with Urey researching gaseous diffusion for uranium enrichment and Lawrence researching electromagnetic enrichment techniques.
810:
while the Army handled engineering, construction and site selection. Procurement was an OSRD responsibility, but it could turn to the Army for help in case of difficulties. Bush obtained the president's approval for this, and on June 19, 1942, he abolished the S-1 Section and replaced it with the S-1 Executive
Committee. Conant was appointed as its chairman, and Briggs, Compton, Lawrence,
623:, that Heisenberg himself tries to delay the work as much as possible, fearing catastrophic results of a success. But he cannot help fulfilling the orders given to him, and if the problem can be solved, it will be solved probably in the near future. So he gave the advice to us to hurry up if U.S.A. will not come too late.
729:
Briggs had locked them in a safe. Oliphant then met with
Allison, Coolidge, Conant and Fermi to explain the urgency. In these meetings Oliphant spoke of an atomic bomb with forcefulness and certainty, and explained that Britain did not have the resources to undertake the project alone, so it was up to the United States.
554:
resources required might be beyond those available to
Britain. The MAUD Committee completed the MAUD report on July 15, 1941, and disbanded. The report had two parts; the first concluded that a uranium-235 bomb could be feasible in as little as two years using 25 pounds (11 kg) of uranium-235 with a
343:
The
Advisory Committee on Uranium reported to the President on November 1, 1939. While acknowledging that the science was unproven and that nuclear chain reaction was no more than a theoretical possibility, it foresaw that nuclear energy might be used as propulsion for submarines, and that an atomic
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during the 1930s, but had encountered technical difficulties. The process required high rotational speeds, but at certain speeds harmonic vibrations developed that threatened to tear the machinery apart. It was therefore necessary to accelerate quickly through these speeds. In 1941 he began working
809:
By May 1942, Conant felt that the S-1 Section had become too unwieldy. It had not met since the March meeting. When he needed expert advice in May, he had called upon a smaller group, and he recommended that this supervise the OSRD work, mainly the technical and contractual aspects of the project,
541:
in March 1940. The memorandum contradicted the common thinking of the time that many tons of uranium would be needed to make a bomb, requiring delivery by ship. The calculation in the memorandum showed that a bomb might be possible using as little as 1 to 10 kilograms (2.2 to 22.0 lb) of pure
166:
in June 1942, and took over responsibility for the development of nuclear weapons from the S-1 Executive
Committee in September 1942. The OSRD's research and development contracts were terminated as they lapsed, and production contracts were terminated and transferred to the Army. Although the S-1
728:
Oliphant flew to the United States from
England in August 1941 to find out why Briggs and his committee were apparently ignoring the MAUD Report. Oliphant discovered to his dismay that the reports and other documents sent directly to Briggs had not been shared with all members of the committee;
817:
S-1 Executive
Committee meetings were held on June 25, July 9, July 30, August 26, September 13–14, September 26, October 23–24, November 14, December 9, and December 19, 1942, and January 14, February 10–11, March 18, April 29, and September 10–11, 1943. Its first meeting on June 25, 1942 was
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led to the United States entry into the war. With the United States at war, funding was now available in amounts undreamt of the year before. When, at the S-1 Section meeting on
December 18, 1941, Lawrence asked for $ 400,000 for electromagnetic separation, the section immediately recommended
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was established to investigate further. It concluded that an atomic bomb was not only technically feasible, but could be produced in as little as two years. The
Committee unanimously recommended pursuing the development of an atomic bomb as a matter of urgency, although it recognised that the
857:
The Army took full control over the OSRD's research and development contracts as they lapsed. Production contracts were terminated and transferred to the Army, mostly on March 31, 1943. While the S-1 Executive
Committee remained as an advisory body, it became inactive, although not formally
830:
as the project's principal contractor. The meeting on July 30, 1942, was devoted to reviewing progress on isotope separation by the centrifugal and gaseous diffusion methods. The August 26, 1942, meeting considered Lawrence's electromagnetic separation project, and expansion of the
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equivalent to 1,800 tonnes of TNT (7,500 GJ); the second concluded that the controlled fission be a source of energy for powering machines and a source of radio-isotopes. As a result of the MAUD Committee report, the British started an atomic bomb program under the
324:. Most are short-lived, terminating after a couple of years, with their membership changing when a new president takes office. The committee consisted of Briggs, Adamson and Hoover. Its first meeting was held on October 21, 1939, at the National Bureau of Standards in
618:
a few days ago, brought the following message: a reliable colleague who is working at a technical research laboratory asked him to let us know that a large number of German physicists are working intensively on the problem of the uranium bomb under direction of
776:. OSRD contracts were due to expire at the end of June, and with the country at war, there was intense competition for raw materials. It was agreed that in 1942–43, the Army would fund $ 53 million of the $ 85 million program. On June 18, 1942, Colonel
486:. The scientific subcommittee met for the first time on June 13, 1940, at the National Bureau of Standards. It reviewed the work thus far and recommended increased support for research into both nuclear chain reactions and isotope separation.
167:
Executive Committee remained as an advisory body, it became inactive. The OSRD and NDRC continued to influence the Manhattan Project through the participation of Bush and Conant in the Military Policy Committee that controlled what became the
336:. Einstein was invited but declined to attend. Adamson was skeptical about the prospect of building an atomic bomb, but was willing to authorize $ 6,000 (equivalent to $ 130,000 in 2023 current dollars) for the purchase of uranium and
375:
was also doing similar research at the Carnegie Institution. At Columbia, while Fermi and Szilard investigated the possibility of creating a nuclear chain reaction, Dunning considered the possibility, advanced by Niels Bohr and
756:. Another $ 500,000 was earmarked for raw materials. His proposed schedule was no less breathtaking: to produce a nuclear chain reaction by July 1942, and an atomic bomb by January 1945. In January 1942, he created the
651:
as its other members. It issued a favorable report on May 17, 1941, recommending an intensified effort, but Bush was troubled by the emphasis on nuclear power instead of nuclear weapons, and had two engineers,
587:
investigate the process, and he produced a body of mathematical theory making it possible to design a centrifugal separation unit, which Westinghouse undertook to construct. Another possibility was
795:, following the usual practice of naming engineer districts after the city in which their headquarters was located. The name of the project soon followed suit. It was formally established by the
344:
bomb "would provide a possible source of bombs with a destructiveness vastly greater than anything now known." The committee recommended that the government purchase 50 short tons (45 t) of
602:
shared the British results with the Americans, but this only made them aware that they were behind the British, and possibly the Germans too. On April 15, 1941, Briggs received a note from
2667:
791:, the head of the Construction Branch in the Office of the Chief of Engineers thought it would attract undue attention. Instead, the new district was given the innocuous name of the
418:
then carried out a series of experiments. They demonstrated that uranium-235 was indeed primarily responsible for fission with slow neutrons, but were unable to determine precise
2729:
696:; Gunn was dropped in line with an NDRC policy not to have Army or Navy personnel in the sections. Briggs remained the chairman, with Pegram as the vice chairman.
661:
434:
s March 15 and April 15, 1940 issues. Briggs reported to Watson on April 9 that it was doubtful that a chain reaction could be initiated in uranium without
2015:
Atomic Energy for Military Purposes: The Official Report on the Development of the Atomic Bomb under the Auspices of the United States Government, 1940–1945
680:. The Uranium Committee became the Uranium Section of the OSRD, which was soon renamed the S-1 Section for security reasons. To the S-1 Section, Bush added
725:, gave Bush assurances that should OSRD resources prove insufficient, additional funding would be made available from monies controlled by the president.
328:
In addition to the committee members, it was attended by physicists Fred L. Mohler from the National Bureau of Standards and Richard B. Roberts from the
300:. Roosevelt summed up the conversation as: "Alex, what you are after is to see that the Nazis don't blow us up." He told Watson: "This requires action."
574:
Urey began considering isotope separation methods. The centrifuge process was regarded as the most promising. Beams had developed such a process at the
425:
because their samples were not sufficiently enriched. Pegram forwarded the results to Briggs on March 11, 1940; they were subsequently published to the
689:
238:
was particularly alarming to refugee scientists from Germany and other fascist countries, many of whom had left Europe in the 1930s. Two of them,
1880:
356:, and Sachs be added to the committee. When he read the report, Sachs felt that it was too academic and failed to make its points forcefully.
2682:
1889:
673:
128:
266:, and urged that the United States secure sources of uranium and conduct research into nuclear weapon technology. The letter was signed by
143:
for security reasons. By May 1942, it was felt that the S-1 Section had become too unwieldy, and in June 1942, was replaced by the smaller
316:, to organize an Advisory Committee on Uranium. Federal advisory committees had been a feature of the federal government since 1794, when
2247:
2109:
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reported that conferees argued "the probability of some scientist blowing up a sizable portion of the earth with a tiny bit of uranium."
628:
158:. The S-1 Section coordinated research into nuclear weapons in United States, in cooperation with the British Tube Alloys project. The
211:, generated intense interest among physicists. Even before publication, the news was brought to the United States by Danish physicist
2848:
2574:
1354:
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676:(OSRD), with Bush as its director personally responsible to the president. The new organisation subsumed the NDRC, now chaired by
822:. It discussed the acquisition of land for the project's production facilities, which the Army recommended be in the vicinity of
664:
from Westinghouse added to produce a second report with an emphasis on estimating how soon practical benefits could be expected.
471:
The Advisory Committee on Uranium met again at the National Bureau of Standards on April 27, 1940. This time they were joined by
359:
Experiments with the fission of uranium were already proceeding at universities and research institutes in the United States.
2070:
1991:
733:
510:
120:
1463:
Goldberg, Stanley (September 1992). "Inventing a Climate of Opinion: Vannevar Bush and the Decision to Build the Bomb".
2034:
Organizing Scientific Research for War: The Administrative History of the Office of Scientific Research and Development
329:
290:
2127:
1964:
1932:
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283:
717:. To implement this, the S-1 Section was placed outside NDRC, directly under Bush, who could authorize purchases.
2102:
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in New York City. He chose the name Development of Substitute Materials (DSM), but this would not stick. Colonel
722:
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In line with the president's wishes, matters of policy were restricted to the president, Wallace, Bush, Conant,
251:
96:
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on January 26, 1939. The results were quickly corroborated by experimental physicists, most notably Fermi and
92:
1955:
800:
538:
368:
348:
and 4 short tons (3.6 t) of graphite for chain reaction experiments. It also recommended that Einstein,
259:
2061:
The Nuclear Oracles: A History of the General Advisory Committee of the Atomic Energy Commission, n1947–1977
1521:"Franklin D. Roosevelt: Executive Order 8807 Establishing the Office of Scientific Research and Development"
123:(NDRC) was created to coordinate defense-related research, and the Advisory Committee on Uranium became the
2734:
472:
313:
180:
108:
72:
1790:
Tuxedo Park: A Wall Street Tycoon and the Secret Palace of Science That Changed the Course of World War II
858:
dissolved. Bush and Conant continued to influence the Manhattan Project through participation in the MPC.
583:, the only known gaseous compound of uranium, and was able to separate uranium-235. At Columbia, Urey had
2702:
792:
657:
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because, as enemy aliens in Britain, they were ineligible to participate in secret war work, issued the
2806:
2795:
2095:
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created alarm in the administration over the direction the war was taking. On June 12, 1940, Bush and
64:
by initiating and coordinating the early research efforts in the United States, and liaising with the
2832:
2820:
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2672:
1901:
479:
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294:
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for Szilárd and Fermi's experiments into producing a nuclear chain reaction at Columbia University.
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100:
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1200:
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139:. The Uranium Committee became the Uranium Section of the OSRD, which was soon renamed the
278:
in September 1939. The letter was eventually hand-delivered to Roosevelt by the economist
8:
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on October 11, 1939. On that date he met with the President, the President's secretary,
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2009:
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34:
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The Road to Trinity: A Personal Account of How America's Nuclear Policies Were Made
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1189:(April 13, 1940). "Further Experiments on Fission of Separated Uranium Isotopes".
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The March 9, 1942, meeting of the S-1 Section was attended by Brigadier General
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in England, who ironically had been assigned to investigate nuclear weapons by
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235:
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80:
50:
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30:
26:
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technology. Nier, Booth, Dunning and von Grosse's results were discussed by
372:
345:
333:
262:, warned that it was likely the Germans were working on an atomic bomb using
243:
132:
88:
2080:
2001:
1974:
1942:
1897:
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846:. Nichols and Major Thomas T. Crenshaw, Jr., attended, along with physicist
154:, and its results were shared with the Advisory Committee on Uranium by the
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2014:
1984:
History of Operations Research in the United States Army, Volume I: 1942–62
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on August 2, 1939, but its delivery was delayed because of the outbreak of
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It may interest you that a colleague of mine who arrived from Berlin via
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455:
443:
400:
396:
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239:
215:, who opened the Fifth Washington Conference on Theoretical Physics with
84:
65:
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On June 28, 1941, Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8807, creating the
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447:
190:
2087:
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Marshall established his district headquarters on the 18th floor of
21:
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1660:
1658:
1478:
1248:
1246:
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Bush therefore commissioned a review of the uranium project by the
560:
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uranium-235, which would be quite practical for aircraft to carry.
337:
150:
The feasibility of nuclear weapons was demonstrated by the British
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944:
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1655:
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1619:
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1559:
1501:
1432:
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1243:
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1095:
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2155:
1129:(March 1940). "Nuclear Fission of Separated Uranium Isotopes".
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was ordered to organize the Army component of the project.
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in December 1938, reported in the January 6, 1939 issue of
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research at Columbia and Princeton, and $ 278,000 at the
1849:. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press.
1278:
1276:
1408:
1300:
1080:
1078:
438:, and therefore urged that research be undertaken into
1760:
1731:
1719:
1702:
1687:
1670:
760:, centralizing the work at the University of Chicago.
2804:
2018:. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
1273:
1231:
1219:
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in Washington, D.C., in the last week of April 1940.
1075:
308:
As a result of the letter Roosevelt asked scientist
387:that was primarily responsible for fission. He had
2058:
1787:
818:attended by Bush, Styer and Colonels Marshall and
509:went to the president with a proposal to create a
1005:Federal Advisory Committees: An Overview (R40520)
748:granting it. Compton was allocated $ 340,000 for
127:of the NDRC. In June 1941, Roosevelt created the
2840:
410:These were ready in February 1940, and Dunning,
303:
16:Group that helped initiate the Manhattan Project
1836:
1664:
1649:
1625:
1601:
1577:
1565:
1541:
1507:
1450:
1438:
1426:
1402:
1294:
1252:
1101:
1057:
1045:
1033:
989:
977:
962:
950:
862:Expenditure by NDRC and OSRD on atomic energy
569:
493:in May 1940 generated concern over the fate of
258:. It advised Roosevelt of the existence of the
135:(OSRD), at it incorporated the NDRC, now under
380:but discounted by Fermi, that it was the rare
2103:
1890:United States Army Center of Military History
1346:
1318:
674:Office of Scientific Research and Development
501:, the world's largest source; the subsequent
129:Office of Scientific Research and Development
2065:. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press.
29:on September 13, 1942. From left to right:
2110:
2096:
772:, the chief of staff of the newly created
763:
1352:
1927:. New York: William Morrow and Company.
1462:
1001:
20:
2030:
1981:
1919:
1882:Manhattan: The Army and the Atomic Bomb
1754:
1713:
1282:
842:The September 1942 meeting was held at
395:prepare samples of uranium enriched in
75:in December 1938, the possibility that
2841:
2056:
1949:
1816:
1782:
1637:
1613:
1589:
1553:
1414:
1306:
1267:
1237:
1225:
1069:
1021:
631:. The review committee was chaired by
595:suggested at a lunch on May 21, 1940.
2117:
2091:
2037:. Boston: Little, Brown and Company.
2008:
1878:
1766:
1742:
1725:
1696:
1681:
1355:"A memorandum that changed the world"
1328:Frisch-Peierls Memorandum, March 1940
1084:
774:United States Army Services of Supply
320:had appointed one to investigate the
1822:Britain and Atomic Energy, 1939–1945
1002:Ginsberg, Wendy R. (16 April 2009).
197:, and its correct identification as
545:Oliphant took the memorandum on to
511:National Defense Research Committee
121:National Defense Research Committee
103:, in August 1939. In response, the
25:The S-1 Executive Committee at the
13:
2575:Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
1959:. New York: Simon & Schuster.
1794:. New York: Simon & Schuster.
330:Carnegie Institution of Washington
205:in the February 11, 1939 issue of
14:
2860:
1523:. The American Presidency Project
1011:. Congressional Research Service.
814:, and Urey as its other members.
516:
289:, and two ordnance experts, Army
2849:History of the Manhattan Project
2826:
2814:
2791:
2790:
732:Bush met with Roosevelt and his
115:to determine the feasibility of
1986:. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Army.
1513:
1456:
1312:
1167:
1107:
995:
667:
252:President of the United States
97:President of the United States
1:
1956:The Making of the Atomic Bomb
1840:; Anderson, Oscar E. (1962).
1776:
892:June 28, 1941 – December 1941
881:June 27, 1940 – June 28, 1941
458:at the spring meeting of the
369:Berkeley Radiation Laboratory
304:Advisory Committee on Uranium
260:German nuclear weapon project
105:Advisory Committee on Uranium
2735:Oppenheimer security hearing
1982:Shrader, Charles R. (2006).
629:National Academy of Sciences
570:Further British developments
314:National Bureau of Standards
181:discovery of nuclear fission
109:National Bureau of Standards
73:discovery of nuclear fission
60:laid the groundwork for the
7:
2057:Sylves, Richard T. (1987).
1665:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
1650:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
1626:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
1602:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
1578:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
1566:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
1542:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
1508:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
1451:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
1439:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
1427:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
1403:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
1362:American Journal of Physics
1295:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
1253:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
1102:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
1058:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
1046:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
1034:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
990:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
978:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
963:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
951:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
927:
916:
905:
894:
883:
793:Manhattan Engineer District
743:The next day, the Japanese
658:Bell Telephone Laboratories
10:
2865:
1353:Bernstein, Jeremy (2011).
925:June 1942 – September 1943
826:, with the Boston firm of
708:Chief of Staff of the Army
491:German invasion of Belgium
332:, and Szilárd, Wigner and
293:Keith F. Adamson and Navy
274:in Europe with the German
174:
111:under the chairmanship of
2788:
2678:Bismuth phosphate process
2673:Atomic Energy Act of 1946
2660:
2629:
2562:
2351:
2220:
2134:
2125:
539:Frisch–Peierls memorandum
529:, two researchers at the
480:Naval Research Laboratory
460:American Physical Society
1843:The New World, 1939–1946
934:
758:Metallurgical Laboratory
531:University of Birmingham
131:under the leadership of
2755:S-1 Executive Committee
2703:Einstein–Szilard letter
2031:Stewart, Irvin (1948).
1879:Jones, Vincent (1985).
922:S-1 Executive Committee
764:S-1 Executive Committee
393:University of Minnesota
248:Einstein–Szilárd letter
186:Die Naturwissenschaften
145:S-1 Executive Committee
93:Einstein–Szilárd letter
58:S-1 Executive Committee
2197:Salt Wells Pilot Plant
1213:10.1103/PhysRev.57.748
1153:10.1103/PhysRev.57.546
911:Planning Board of OSRD
745:attack on Pearl Harbor
721:, the director of the
625:
593:George B. Kistiakowsky
576:University of Virginia
478:, the director of the
312:, the director of the
53:
2775:X-10 Graphite Reactor
2730:Nobel Prize laureates
2600:509th Composite Group
1824:. London: MacMillan.
789:Leslie R. Groves, Jr.
754:University of Chicago
612:
256:Franklin D. Roosevelt
230:The possibility that
101:Franklin D. Roosevelt
24:
2683:British contribution
2585:Operation Peppermint
2580:Operation Crossroads
2439:Maria Goeppert Mayer
1888:. Washington, D.C.:
824:Knoxville, Tennessee
806:on August 16, 1942.
723:Bureau of the Budget
608:Princeton University
581:uranium hexafluoride
476:Harold G. Bowen, Sr.
119:. In June 1940, the
68:Project in Britain.
2444:George Kistiakowsky
2399:Charles Critchfield
2010:Smyth, Henry DeWolf
1921:Nichols, Kenneth D.
1838:Hewlett, Richard G.
1757:, pp. 64, 115.
1640:, pp. 389–393.
1616:, pp. 386–389.
1592:, pp. 372–374.
1556:, pp. 121–122.
1374:2011AmJPh..79..440B
1270:, pp. 337–338.
1205:1940PhRv...57..748N
1145:1940PhRv...57..546N
1072:, pp. 160–165.
863:
828:Stone & Webster
662:L. Warrington Chubb
649:William D. Coolidge
598:The September 1940
225:Columbia University
107:was created at the
71:In the wake of the
2833:Nuclear technology
2821:History of Science
2509:Henry DeWolf Smyth
2288:Robert Oppenheimer
2243:Priscilla Duffield
1907:on October 7, 2014
861:
852:William R. Purnell
848:Robert Oppenheimer
797:Chief of Engineers
715:George C. Marshall
637:Ernest O. Lawrence
635:, with physicists
465:The New York Times
440:isotope separation
436:uranium enrichment
416:Aristid von Grosse
399:, uranium-235 and
385:isotope of uranium
291:Lieutenant Colonel
276:invasion of Poland
164:Manhattan District
160:United States Army
54:
35:Ernest O. Lawrence
2802:
2801:
2724:Los Alamos Primer
2713:Interim Committee
2668:African Americans
2620:The Great Artiste
2479:Isidor Isaac Rabi
2474:Norman Ramsey Jr.
2273:Franklin Matthias
2212:Heavy water sites
2119:Manhattan Project
2072:978-0-8138-0062-2
1993:978-0-16-072961-4
1769:, pp. 89–90.
1745:, pp. 70–71.
1728:, pp. 46–51.
1699:, pp. 53–54.
1684:, pp. 41–44.
1667:, pp. 72–75.
1652:, pp. 52–54.
1628:, pp. 50–51.
1604:, pp. 45–46.
1568:, pp. 44–45.
1510:, pp. 38–39.
1441:, pp. 30–31.
1429:, pp. 22–23.
1417:, pp. 76–80.
1405:, pp. 39–40.
1382:10.1119/1.3533426
1332:atomicarchive.com
1309:, pp. 39–41.
1297:, pp. 25–26.
1255:, pp. 23–24.
1060:, pp. 20–21.
1036:, pp. 17–20.
992:, pp. 19–20.
965:, pp. 15–17.
953:, pp. 10–13.
932:
931:
914:January–June 1942
903:January–June 1942
778:James C. Marshall
682:Samuel K. Allison
654:Oliver E. Buckley
645:John H. Van Vleck
606:, a physicist at
589:gaseous diffusion
405:mass spectrometer
389:Alfred O. C. Nier
361:Alfred Lee Loomis
322:Whiskey Rebellion
318:George Washington
298:Gilbert C. Hoover
287:Edwin "Pa" Watson
284:Brigadier General
169:Manhattan Project
125:Uranium Committee
62:Manhattan Project
2856:
2831:
2830:
2829:
2819:
2818:
2817:
2810:
2794:
2793:
2745:Quebec Agreement
2529:John von Neumann
2469:George B. Pegram
2278:Dorothy McKibbin
2112:
2105:
2098:
2089:
2088:
2084:
2064:
2053:
2051:
2049:
2027:
2005:
1978:
1946:
1916:
1914:
1912:
1906:
1900:. Archived from
1887:
1875:
1873:
1871:
1848:
1833:
1818:Gowing, Margaret
1813:
1793:
1770:
1764:
1758:
1752:
1746:
1740:
1729:
1723:
1717:
1711:
1700:
1694:
1685:
1679:
1668:
1662:
1653:
1647:
1641:
1635:
1629:
1623:
1617:
1611:
1605:
1599:
1593:
1587:
1581:
1575:
1569:
1563:
1557:
1551:
1545:
1539:
1533:
1532:
1530:
1528:
1517:
1511:
1505:
1499:
1498:
1460:
1454:
1448:
1442:
1436:
1430:
1424:
1418:
1412:
1406:
1400:
1394:
1393:
1359:
1350:
1344:
1343:
1341:
1339:
1316:
1310:
1304:
1298:
1292:
1286:
1280:
1271:
1265:
1256:
1250:
1241:
1235:
1229:
1223:
1217:
1216:
1171:
1165:
1164:
1111:
1105:
1099:
1088:
1082:
1073:
1067:
1061:
1055:
1049:
1043:
1037:
1031:
1025:
1024:, pp. 7–11.
1019:
1013:
1012:
1010:
999:
993:
987:
981:
975:
966:
960:
954:
948:
928:$ 13,041,037.57
864:
860:
770:Wilhelm D. Styer
701:Secretary of War
686:Edward U. Condon
604:Rudolf Ladenburg
503:Battle of France
433:
354:George B. Pegram
326:Washington, D.C.
195:Fritz Strassmann
2864:
2863:
2859:
2858:
2857:
2855:
2854:
2853:
2839:
2838:
2837:
2827:
2825:
2815:
2813:
2805:
2803:
2798:
2784:
2750:RaLa Experiment
2656:
2625:
2590:Project Alberta
2558:
2554:Chien-Shiung Wu
2484:James Rainwater
2419:Richard Feynman
2409:John R. Dunning
2384:Norris Bradbury
2347:
2333:Stafford Warren
2303:William Purnell
2283:Kenneth Nichols
2263:Ernest Lawrence
2238:James B. Conant
2216:
2130:
2121:
2116:
2073:
2047:
2045:
1994:
1967:
1951:Rhodes, Richard
1935:
1910:
1908:
1904:
1885:
1869:
1867:
1857:
1846:
1802:
1779:
1774:
1773:
1765:
1761:
1753:
1749:
1741:
1732:
1724:
1720:
1712:
1703:
1695:
1688:
1680:
1671:
1663:
1656:
1648:
1644:
1636:
1632:
1624:
1620:
1612:
1608:
1600:
1596:
1588:
1584:
1576:
1572:
1564:
1560:
1552:
1548:
1540:
1536:
1526:
1524:
1519:
1518:
1514:
1506:
1502:
1461:
1457:
1449:
1445:
1437:
1433:
1425:
1421:
1413:
1409:
1401:
1397:
1357:
1351:
1347:
1337:
1335:
1320:Peierls, Rudolf
1317:
1313:
1305:
1301:
1293:
1289:
1281:
1274:
1266:
1259:
1251:
1244:
1236:
1232:
1224:
1220:
1192:Physical Review
1175:Nier, Alfred O.
1172:
1168:
1132:Physical Review
1115:Nier, Alfred O.
1112:
1108:
1100:
1091:
1083:
1076:
1068:
1064:
1056:
1052:
1044:
1040:
1032:
1028:
1020:
1016:
1008:
1000:
996:
988:
984:
976:
969:
961:
957:
949:
942:
937:
917:$ 2,224,392.77
906:$ 1,952,168.00
820:Kenneth Nichols
766:
750:nuclear reactor
719:Harold D. Smith
678:James B. Conant
670:
572:
519:
450:, Fermi, Nier,
431:
428:Physical Review
420:neutron capture
412:Eugene T. Booth
378:John A. Wheeler
365:Ernest Lawrence
363:was supporting
310:Lyman J. Briggs
306:
280:Alexander Sachs
268:Albert Einstein
236:nuclear weapons
221:John R. Dunning
199:nuclear fission
177:
137:James B. Conant
117:nuclear weapons
113:Lyman J. Briggs
81:nuclear weapons
43:Lyman J. Briggs
39:James B. Conant
17:
12:
11:
5:
2862:
2852:
2851:
2836:
2835:
2823:
2800:
2799:
2789:
2786:
2785:
2783:
2782:
2777:
2772:
2767:
2762:
2757:
2752:
2747:
2742:
2737:
2732:
2727:
2720:
2715:
2710:
2705:
2700:
2695:
2693:Chicago Pile-1
2690:
2688:Calutron Girls
2685:
2680:
2675:
2670:
2664:
2662:
2661:Related topics
2658:
2657:
2655:
2654:
2649:
2644:
2639:
2633:
2631:
2627:
2626:
2624:
2623:
2616:
2609:
2602:
2597:
2592:
2587:
2582:
2577:
2572:
2566:
2564:
2560:
2559:
2557:
2556:
2551:
2546:
2541:
2536:
2531:
2526:
2524:Stanisław Ulam
2521:
2516:
2511:
2506:
2501:
2496:
2491:
2486:
2481:
2476:
2471:
2466:
2461:
2459:Edwin McMillan
2456:
2451:
2446:
2441:
2436:
2431:
2426:
2421:
2416:
2411:
2406:
2404:Harry Daghlian
2401:
2396:
2394:John Cockcroft
2391:
2389:James Chadwick
2386:
2381:
2376:
2371:
2366:
2361:
2355:
2353:
2349:
2348:
2346:
2345:
2340:
2335:
2330:
2325:
2320:
2315:
2313:Charles Thomas
2310:
2308:Frank Spedding
2305:
2300:
2295:
2290:
2285:
2280:
2275:
2270:
2268:James Marshall
2265:
2260:
2255:
2250:
2248:Thomas Farrell
2245:
2240:
2235:
2233:Arthur Compton
2230:
2224:
2222:
2221:Administrators
2218:
2217:
2215:
2214:
2209:
2204:
2199:
2194:
2189:
2184:
2179:
2174:
2169:
2164:
2159:
2149:
2144:
2138:
2136:
2132:
2131:
2126:
2123:
2122:
2115:
2114:
2107:
2100:
2092:
2086:
2085:
2071:
2054:
2028:
2006:
1992:
1979:
1965:
1947:
1933:
1917:
1876:
1855:
1834:
1814:
1800:
1784:Conant, Jennet
1778:
1775:
1772:
1771:
1759:
1747:
1730:
1718:
1716:, p. 123.
1701:
1686:
1669:
1654:
1642:
1630:
1618:
1606:
1594:
1582:
1570:
1558:
1546:
1534:
1512:
1500:
1479:10.1086/356203
1473:(3): 429–452.
1455:
1443:
1431:
1419:
1407:
1395:
1368:(5): 440–446.
1345:
1326:(March 1940).
1311:
1299:
1287:
1272:
1257:
1242:
1240:, p. 297.
1230:
1228:, p. 157.
1218:
1187:von Grosse, A.
1183:Dunning, J. R.
1166:
1127:von Grosse, A.
1123:Dunning, J. R.
1106:
1089:
1087:, p. 172.
1074:
1062:
1050:
1038:
1026:
1014:
994:
982:
967:
955:
939:
938:
936:
933:
930:
929:
926:
923:
919:
918:
915:
912:
908:
907:
904:
901:
897:
896:
893:
890:
889:NDRC (of OSRD)
886:
885:
882:
879:
875:
874:
871:
868:
844:Bohemian Grove
804:Eugene Reybold
765:
762:
734:vice president
694:Henry D. Smyth
690:Lloyd P. Smith
669:
666:
641:John C. Slater
633:Arthur Compton
600:Tizard Mission
571:
568:
551:MAUD Committee
527:Rudolf Peierls
518:
517:MAUD committee
515:
423:cross sections
305:
302:
234:might develop
176:
173:
156:Tizard Mission
152:MAUD Committee
79:might develop
51:Arthur Compton
47:E. V. Murphree
31:Harold C. Urey
27:Bohemian Grove
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2861:
2850:
2847:
2846:
2844:
2834:
2824:
2822:
2812:
2811:
2808:
2797:
2787:
2781:
2778:
2776:
2773:
2771:
2768:
2766:
2763:
2761:
2758:
2756:
2753:
2751:
2748:
2746:
2743:
2741:
2738:
2736:
2733:
2731:
2728:
2726:
2725:
2721:
2719:
2716:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2708:Franck Report
2706:
2704:
2701:
2699:
2696:
2694:
2691:
2689:
2686:
2684:
2681:
2679:
2676:
2674:
2671:
2669:
2666:
2665:
2663:
2659:
2653:
2650:
2648:
2645:
2643:
2640:
2638:
2635:
2634:
2632:
2628:
2622:
2621:
2617:
2615:
2614:
2610:
2608:
2607:
2603:
2601:
2598:
2596:
2593:
2591:
2588:
2586:
2583:
2581:
2578:
2576:
2573:
2571:
2570:Alsos Mission
2568:
2567:
2565:
2561:
2555:
2552:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2544:Robert Wilson
2542:
2540:
2539:Eugene Wigner
2537:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2522:
2520:
2519:Edward Teller
2517:
2515:
2512:
2510:
2507:
2505:
2502:
2500:
2497:
2495:
2494:Glenn Seaborg
2492:
2490:
2487:
2485:
2482:
2480:
2477:
2475:
2472:
2470:
2467:
2465:
2464:Mark Oliphant
2462:
2460:
2457:
2455:
2454:Willard Libby
2452:
2450:
2447:
2445:
2442:
2440:
2437:
2435:
2432:
2430:
2427:
2425:
2422:
2420:
2417:
2415:
2412:
2410:
2407:
2405:
2402:
2400:
2397:
2395:
2392:
2390:
2387:
2385:
2382:
2380:
2377:
2375:
2372:
2370:
2367:
2365:
2364:Robert Bacher
2362:
2360:
2357:
2356:
2354:
2350:
2344:
2343:Roscoe Wilson
2341:
2339:
2336:
2334:
2331:
2329:
2326:
2324:
2321:
2319:
2316:
2314:
2311:
2309:
2306:
2304:
2301:
2299:
2296:
2294:
2291:
2289:
2286:
2284:
2281:
2279:
2276:
2274:
2271:
2269:
2266:
2264:
2261:
2259:
2258:John Lansdale
2256:
2254:
2253:Leslie Groves
2251:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2241:
2239:
2236:
2234:
2231:
2229:
2228:Vannevar Bush
2226:
2225:
2223:
2219:
2213:
2210:
2208:
2205:
2203:
2200:
2198:
2195:
2193:
2190:
2188:
2185:
2183:
2180:
2178:
2175:
2173:
2170:
2168:
2165:
2163:
2160:
2157:
2153:
2150:
2148:
2145:
2143:
2140:
2139:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2124:
2120:
2113:
2108:
2106:
2101:
2099:
2094:
2093:
2090:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2068:
2063:
2062:
2055:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2035:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2016:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1989:
1985:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1966:0-671-44133-7
1962:
1958:
1957:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1934:0-688-06910-X
1930:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1884:
1883:
1877:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1856:0-520-07186-7
1852:
1845:
1844:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1801:0-684-87287-0
1797:
1792:
1791:
1785:
1781:
1780:
1768:
1763:
1756:
1751:
1744:
1739:
1737:
1735:
1727:
1722:
1715:
1710:
1708:
1706:
1698:
1693:
1691:
1683:
1678:
1676:
1674:
1666:
1661:
1659:
1651:
1646:
1639:
1634:
1627:
1622:
1615:
1610:
1603:
1598:
1591:
1586:
1580:, p. 51.
1579:
1574:
1567:
1562:
1555:
1550:
1544:, p. 41.
1543:
1538:
1522:
1516:
1509:
1504:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1467:
1459:
1453:, p. 35.
1452:
1447:
1440:
1435:
1428:
1423:
1416:
1411:
1404:
1399:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1356:
1349:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1315:
1308:
1303:
1296:
1291:
1285:, p. 14.
1284:
1279:
1277:
1269:
1264:
1262:
1254:
1249:
1247:
1239:
1234:
1227:
1222:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1193:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1170:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1133:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1110:
1104:, p. 22.
1103:
1098:
1096:
1094:
1086:
1081:
1079:
1071:
1066:
1059:
1054:
1048:, p. 20.
1047:
1042:
1035:
1030:
1023:
1018:
1007:
1006:
998:
991:
986:
980:, p. 17.
979:
974:
972:
964:
959:
952:
947:
945:
940:
924:
921:
920:
913:
910:
909:
902:
899:
898:
895:$ 452,650.00
891:
888:
887:
884:$ 468,000.00
880:
878:NDRC (of CND)
877:
876:
872:
869:
866:
865:
859:
855:
853:
849:
845:
840:
838:
834:
829:
825:
821:
815:
813:
812:Eger Murphree
807:
805:
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801:Major General
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746:
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738:Henry Wallace
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585:Karl P. Cohen
582:
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543:
540:
536:
535:Mark Oliphant
532:
528:
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508:
507:Harry Hopkins
504:
500:
499:Belgian Congo
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484:Gregory Breit
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373:Vannevar Bush
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346:uranium oxide
341:
339:
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334:Edward Teller
331:
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244:Eugene Wigner
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133:Vannevar Bush
130:
126:
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118:
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110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
91:to draft the
90:
89:Eugene Wigner
86:
82:
78:
74:
69:
67:
63:
59:
52:
48:
44:
40:
36:
32:
28:
23:
19:
2780:Y-12 Project
2765:Smyth Report
2760:S-50 Project
2754:
2722:
2718:K-25 Project
2647:Pumpkin bomb
2618:
2611:
2604:
2534:John Wheeler
2504:Louis Slotin
2499:Emilio Segrè
2449:George Koval
2429:James Franck
2414:Enrico Fermi
2359:Luis Alvarez
2318:Paul Tibbets
2293:Deak Parsons
2060:
2046:. Retrieved
2033:
2013:
1983:
1954:
1924:
1911:November 19,
1909:. Retrieved
1902:the original
1881:
1868:. Retrieved
1842:
1821:
1789:
1762:
1755:Nichols 1987
1750:
1721:
1714:Stewart 1948
1645:
1633:
1621:
1609:
1597:
1585:
1573:
1561:
1549:
1537:
1527:November 18,
1525:. Retrieved
1515:
1503:
1470:
1464:
1458:
1446:
1434:
1422:
1410:
1398:
1365:
1361:
1348:
1336:. Retrieved
1331:
1324:Frisch, Otto
1314:
1302:
1290:
1283:Shrader 2006
1233:
1221:
1196:
1190:
1179:Booth, E. T.
1169:
1136:
1130:
1119:Booth, E. T.
1109:
1065:
1053:
1041:
1029:
1017:
1004:
997:
985:
958:
873:Expenditure
867:Organization
856:
841:
816:
808:
785:270 Broadway
782:
767:
742:
731:
727:
698:
671:
647:and chemist
626:
613:
597:
573:
547:Henry Tizard
544:
520:
488:
473:Rear Admiral
470:
463:
426:
409:
358:
350:Karl Compton
342:
307:
272:World War II
246:drafted the
232:Nazi Germany
229:
217:Enrico Fermi
206:
203:Lise Meitner
184:
178:
162:created the
149:
144:
140:
124:
104:
77:Nazi Germany
70:
57:
55:
18:
2595:Silverplate
2549:Leona Woods
2514:Leo Szilard
2489:Bruno Rossi
2434:Klaus Fuchs
2338:Ed Westcott
2328:Harold Urey
1638:Rhodes 1986
1614:Rhodes 1986
1590:Rhodes 1986
1554:Gowing 1964
1415:Gowing 1964
1307:Gowing 1964
1268:Rhodes 1986
1238:Rhodes 1986
1226:Conant 2002
1070:Conant 2002
1022:Sylves 1987
900:S-1 Section
837:heavy water
835:to produce
668:S-1 Section
610:, stating:
564:Tube Alloys
523:Otto Frisch
521:Meanwhile,
495:uranium ore
456:Harold Urey
444:Jesse Beams
401:uranium-238
397:uranium-234
382:uranium-235
240:Leo Szilard
141:S-1 Section
85:Leo Szilard
66:Tube Alloys
2698:Demon core
2642:Little Boy
2563:Operations
2379:Niels Bohr
2369:Hans Bethe
2352:Scientists
2298:Boris Pash
2177:Los Alamos
1777:References
1767:Jones 1985
1743:Jones 1985
1726:Jones 1985
1697:Jones 1985
1682:Jones 1985
1199:(8): 748.
1139:(6): 546.
1085:Smyth 1945
621:Heisenberg
549:, and the
452:Merle Tuve
213:Niels Bohr
2740:Plutonium
2606:Enola Gay
2424:Val Fitch
2374:Aage Bohr
2323:Bud Uanna
2192:Oak Ridge
2043:500138898
1865:637004643
1830:670156897
1495:143454986
1390:0002-9505
1338:2 January
684:, Breit,
656:from the
497:from the
448:Ross Gunn
391:from the
295:Commander
191:Otto Hahn
83:prompted
2843:Category
2796:Category
2652:Thin Man
2613:Bockscar
2207:Wendover
2187:New York
2182:Montreal
2172:Inyokern
2147:Berkeley
2128:Timeline
2081:15630365
2048:April 1,
2012:(1945).
2002:73821793
1975:13793436
1953:(1986).
1943:15223648
1923:(1987).
1898:10913875
1870:26 March
1820:(1964).
1810:48966735
1786:(2002).
1334:(Report)
706:and the
591:, which
561:codename
403:using a
338:graphite
2807:Portals
2770:Uranium
2637:Fat Man
2630:Weapons
2202:Trinity
2167:Hanford
2152:Chicago
1370:Bibcode
1201:Bibcode
1161:4106096
1141:Bibcode
833:program
712:General
367:at the
264:uranium
250:to the
175:Origins
95:to the
2162:Dayton
2156:Site A
2079:
2069:
2041:
2024:770285
2022:
2000:
1990:
1973:
1963:
1941:
1931:
1896:
1863:
1853:
1828:
1808:
1798:
1493:
1487:233904
1485:
1388:
1159:
643:, and
616:Lisbon
208:Nature
193:, and
2135:Sites
1905:(PDF)
1886:(PDF)
1847:(PDF)
1491:S2CID
1483:JSTOR
1358:(PDF)
1157:S2CID
1009:(PDF)
935:Notes
579:with
556:yield
432:'
2142:Ames
2077:OCLC
2067:ISBN
2050:2012
2039:OCLC
2020:OCLC
1998:OCLC
1988:ISBN
1971:OCLC
1961:ISBN
1939:OCLC
1929:ISBN
1913:2016
1894:OCLC
1872:2013
1861:OCLC
1851:ISBN
1826:OCLC
1806:OCLC
1796:ISBN
1529:2016
1466:Isis
1386:ISSN
1340:2015
870:Date
692:and
660:and
525:and
489:The
454:and
414:and
242:and
179:The
87:and
56:The
49:and
1475:doi
1378:doi
1209:doi
1149:doi
223:at
201:by
189:by
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1859:.
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