1360:
1717:
22:
175:
430:
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819:(ICI), was chosen as its head. Anderson and Akers came up with the name Tube Alloys. It was deliberately chosen to be meaningless, "with a specious air of probability about it". An advisory committee known as the Tube Alloys Consultative Council was created to oversee its work, chaired by Anderson, with its other members being Lord Hankey, Lord Cherwell, Sir Edward Appleton and Sir Henry Dale. This handled policy matters. To deal with technical issues, a Technical Committee was created with Akers as chairman, and Chadwick, Simon, Halban, Peierls, and a senior ICI official, Roland Edgar Slade, as its original members, with
782:. At this point, it was feared that German scientists were attempting to provide their country with an atomic bomb, and thus Britain needed to finish theirs first. The report ultimately stated that if there were even a sliver of a chance that the bomb effort could produce a weapon with such power, then every effort should be made to make sure Britain did not fall behind. It recommended that while a pilot separation plant be built in Britain, the production facility should be built in Canada. The Defence Services Panel submitted its report on 24 September 1941, but by this time the final decision had already been taken.
1341:, the physical or chemical properties of plutonium, the details of bomb design, or the facts about fast neutron reactions. This was a major disappointment that hindered the British and the Canadians, who were collaborating on heavy water production and several other aspects of the research programme. By 1943 Britain had stopped sending its scientists to the United States, which slowed down the pace of work there, which had relied on efforts led by British scientists. In March 1943 Conant approached the Military Policy Committee, which decided that Britain's help would benefit some areas of the project. Chadwick,
1224:, which would later serve as a model for the Los Alamos Laboratory. The mission did not spend much time on nuclear fission, with only two meetings of the subject, mainly about uranium enrichment. In particular, Cockcroft did not report Peierls' and Frisch's findings. Nonetheless, there were important repercussions. A barrier had been broken and a pathway to exchange technical information between the two countries was developed. Moreover, the notion of civilian scientists playing an important role in the development of military technologies was strengthened on both sides of the Atlantic.
1504:
1538:, its main contractor for reactor construction. Despite doing much good work, by June 1943 the Montreal Laboratory had come to a complete standstill. Morale was low and the Canadian Government proposed cancelling the project. In April 1944, a Combined Policy Committee meeting in Washington agreed Canada would build a heavy water reactor. The Americans agreed to support the project with information and visits, and to supply materials, including vital uranium and heavy water. The Montreal Laboratory would be given access to data from the
4724:
4712:
574:
1431:. The British handed over their material to the Americans and in return received the copies of the American progress reports to the President. Tube Alloys was subsumed into the Manhattan Project. In a section of the Quebec Agreement formally entitled "Articles of Agreement governing collaboration between the authorities of the US and UK in the matter of Tube Alloys", Britain and the US agreed to share resources "to bring the Tube Alloys project to fruition at the earliest moment". The leaders further agreed that:
1310:
United States early in 1942 and were given full access to all of the information available. They were astounded at the momentum the
American atomic bomb project had then assumed. The British and American exchange of information and efforts continued but the nations did not combine their efforts, leading their programmes separately. Furthermore, in 1941 the British Government rebuffed and vetoed attempts and proposals by Bush and Conant to strengthen cooperation between Great Britain and America.
4760:
1568:, one of the Tube Alloys scientists, was an expert in shock waves. In June 1944, he went to America to work at the Los Alamos Laboratory as part of the British delegation. He worked on the means to assess the effects of a nuclear explosion, and wrote a paper on what height the bombs should be detonated at for maximum effect in attacks on Germany and Japan. He served as a member of the target committee established by Groves to select Japanese cities for atomic bombing, and on
1233:
1171:
to be essential concerning international nuclear weapon control. He urged that
Britain and the United States should inform the Soviet Union about the Manhattan Project in order to decrease the likelihood of its feeling threatened on the premise that the other nations were building a bomb behind its back. His beliefs stemmed from his conviction that the Russians already knew about the Manhattan Project, leading him to believe there was no point in hiding it from them.
4736:
1133:
683:
655:. The committee was initially named after its chairman, Thomson, but quickly exchanged this for a more unassuming name, the MAUD Committee. The name MAUD came to be in an unusual way. Shortly after Germany invaded Denmark, Bohr had sent a telegram to Frisch. The telegram ended with a strange line: "Tell Cockcroft and Maud Ray Kent". At first it was thought to be code regarding radium or other vital atomic-weapons-related information, hidden in an
4748:
659:. One suggestion was to replace the y with an i, producing "radium taken". When Bohr returned to England in 1943, it was discovered that the message was addressed to Bohr's housekeeper Maud Ray and Cockcroft. Maud Ray was from Kent. Thus the committee was named The MAUD Committee, the capitalisation representing a codename and not an acronym. Meetings were normally held in the offices of the
857:
1500:
scientist who was "accepted and sound of judgement" was appointed instead. British officials dug in over
Britain's right to make its own appointments to its own government agencies. A compromise was reached, with Chadwick put in charge as Britain's technical advisor for the Combined Policy Committee, and as the head of the British Mission to the Manhattan Project.
739:
Source of Power" discussed the idea of using uranium as a source of power, not just a bomb. The MAUD Committee and report helped bring about the
British nuclear programme, the Tube Alloys Project. Not only did it help start a nuclear project in Britain, it helped jump-start the American project. Without the help of the MAUD Committee the American programme, the
1144:
Bohr in
Denmark that the Nazis considered his family to be Jewish, and that they were in danger of being arrested. The Danish resistance helped Bohr and his wife escape by sea to Sweden on 29 September 1943. When the news of Bohr's escape reached Britain, Lord Cherwell sent a telegram asking Bohr to come to Britain. Bohr arrived in Scotland on 6 October in a
1330:... is a dwindling asset and that, unless we capitalise it quickly, we shall be outstripped. We now have a real contribution to make to a 'merger'. Soon we shall have little or none." By the time Britain realised it, the position had worsened; Bush decided outside help for the Manhattan Project was no longer needed. The
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plant that separated 1 kilogram (2.2 lb) of uranium-235 from natural uranium per day would cost about £5,000,000 to build, and £1,500,000 per year to run, in which time it would consume £2,000,000 of uranium and other raw materials. The MAUD Committee realised an atomic bomb was not just feasible, but inevitable.
1527:
to post-war
Britain. He eventually convinced Groves of Rotblat's integrity to the cause, and this led to Rotblat being accepted to the Manhattan Project without renouncing his nationality. Rotblat had been left in charge of the Tube Alloys research, and brought with him the results obtained since Chadwick had left.
621:, which was the initial step in the development of the nuclear arms programme in Britain. This marked the beginning of an aggressive approach towards uranium enrichment and the development of an atomic bomb. They now began to investigate processes by which they could successfully separate the uranium isotope.
1099:, immediately welcomed and supported the proposal. The costs and salaries would be divided between the British and Canadian governments, but the British share would come from a billion dollar war gift from Canada. The first eight staff arrived in Montreal at the end of 1942, and occupied a house belonging to
1162:, Bohr visited the Manhattan Project sites in November 1943. Groves offered Bohr substantial pay, but Bohr initially refused the offer because he wanted to make sure the relationship between the United States and Great Britain remained a real co-operative partnership. In December 1943, after a meeting with
1079:
British
Government wanted the Cambridge team to be relocated to North America, in proximity to the raw materials it required, and where the American research was being done. But Sir John Anderson wanted the British team to retain its own identity, and was concerned that since the Americans were working on
1317:
took over the
Manhattan Project from OSRD, and Groves became the project's director. He tightened security, which dried up the flow of information to Britain. American officials were particularly concerned that Akers and other people from ICI involved in the Tube Alloys project were trying to exploit
1309:
The
American effort increased rapidly and soon outstripped the British as the American authorities were reluctant to share details with their British counterparts. However, separate research continued in each country with some exchange of information. Several of the key British scientists visited the
1174:
Bohr's evidence came from an interpretation of a letter he received from a Soviet friend and scientist in Russia, which he showed to the
British security services. He reasoned that the longer the United States and Britain hid their nuclear advances, the more threatened the Russians would feel and the
1078:
Halban's heavy water team from France continued its slow neutron research at Cambridge University; but the project was given a low priority since it was not considered relevant to bomb making. It suddenly acquired military significance when it was realised that it provided the route to plutonium. The
893:
In 1941, Frisch moved to London to work with Chadwick and his cyclotron. Frisch built a Clusius tube there to study the properties of uranium hexafluoride. Frisch and Chadwick discovered it is one of the gases for which the Clusius method will not work. This was only a minor setback because Simon was
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When Moon examined the suggestion that gaseous thermal diffusion be the method of choice to the MAUD committee, there was no agreement to move forward with it. The committee consulted with Peierls and Simon over the separation method and concluded that "ordinary" gaseous diffusion was the best method
605:
Peierls knew the importance of the size of the critical mass that would allow a chain reaction to take place and its practical significance. In the interior of a critical mass sphere, neutrons are spontaneously produced by the fissionable material. A very small portion of these neutrons are colliding
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With Chadwick involved the main goal was to show that the Quebec Agreement was a success. It was Britain's duty to co-operate to the fullest and speed along the process. Chadwick used this opportunity to give as many young British scientists experience as possible so they might carry that experience
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to relay the details which Oliphant had directed to Lawrence. Oliphant was not only able to get in touch with Lawrence, he met with Conant and Bush to inform them of the significant data the MAUD had discovered. Oliphant's ability to inform the Americans led to Oliphant convincing Lawrence, Lawrence
1215:
and with members including Cockcroft, was sent to America to create relations and help advance the research towards war technology with the Americans. Several military technologies were shared, including advances in radar, anti-submarine warfare, aeronautical engineering and explosives. The American
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Four universities provided the locations where the experiments were taking place. The laboratory at the University of Birmingham was responsible for all the theoretical work, such as what size of critical mass was needed for an explosion. It was run by Peierls, with the help of fellow German refugee
624:
Oliphant took their findings to Tizard in his capacity as the chairman of the Committee for the Scientific Survey of Air Warfare (CSSAW). He in turn passed them to Thomson, to whom the CSSAW had delegated responsibility for uranium research. After discussions between Cockcroft, Oliphant and Thomson,
118:
with the United States. Under the agreement, the two nations would share nuclear weapons technology, and refrain from using it against each other, or against other countries without mutual consent. However, the United States did not provide complete details of the results of the Manhattan Project to
1767:
Act) in August 1946 made it clear that the UK would no longer be allowed access to the United States' atomic research. This partly resulted from the arrest for espionage of Alan Nunn May in February 1946. On 8 January 1947, Attlee formed a secret Gen 163 Cabinet committee, consisting of six cabinet
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in September 1944, Roosevelt sided with Churchill, deciding it would be in the nation's best interest to keep the atomic bomb project a secret. Moreover, they decided Bohr was potentially dangerous and that security measures must be taken in order to prevent him from leaking information to the rest
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committed to working on the Manhattan Project. Bohr made a substantial contribution to the atomic bomb development effort. He also attempted to prevent a post-war atomic arms race with the Soviet Union, which he believed to be a serious threat. In 1944, Bohr presented several key points he believed
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Akers summoned Chadwick, Oliphant, Simon and Peierls to the United States. They arrived the day the Quebec Agreement was signed, ready to assist the Manhattan Project in any way possible. Akers was generally disliked and the Americans refused to move forward with collaboration unless a top British
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Sir John Anderson was eager to invite Niels Bohr to the Tube Alloys project because he was a world-famous scientist who would not only contribute his expertise to the project, but also help the British government gain leverage in dealings with the Manhattan Project. In September 1943, word reached
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instead of heavy water as a neutron moderator, that team might not receive a fair share of resources. The Americans had their own concerns, particularly about security, since only one of the six senior scientists in the group was British. They also had concerns about patent rights; that the French
738:
The research from the MAUD committee was compiled in two reports, commonly known as the MAUD reports in July 1941. The first report, "Use of Uranium for a Bomb", discussed the feasibility of creating a super-bomb from uranium, which they now thought to be possible. The second, "Use of Uranium as a
357:
of uranium to be the smallest amount that could sustain a chain reaction. The neutrons used to cause fission in uranium are considered slow neutrons, but when neutrons are released during a fission reaction they are released as fast neutrons which have much more speed and energy. Thus, in order to
384:
in Norway. The French discovered that Germany had already offered to purchase the entire stock of Norwegian heavy water, indicating that Germany might also be researching an atomic bomb. The French told the Norwegian government of the possible military significance of heavy water. Norway gave the
1032:
in 1943, he learned of a proposed bomb design which they were calling an implosion. The sub-critical mass of plutonium was supposed to be surrounded by explosives arranged to detonate simultaneously. This would cause the plutonium core to be compressed and become supercritical. The core would be
889:
by diffusing a sample thousands of times through a pipe clay. Thick materials like pipe clay proved too slow to be efficient on an industry scale. Simon proposed using a metal foil punctured with millions of microscopic holes would allow the separation process to move faster. He estimated that a
601:
were placed around it, this might be reduced to 12 tonnes (12 long tons; 13 short tons). Peierls attempted to simplify the problem by using the fast neutrons produced by fission, thus omitting consideration of moderator. He too calculated the critical mass of a sphere of uranium in a theoretical
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of the experimental physics division. Von Halban was the director of the laboratory, but he proved to be an unfortunate choice as he was a poor administrator, and did not work well with the National Research Council of Canada. The Americans saw him as a security risk, and objected to the French
1518:
With this dispute settled collaboration could once again take place. Chadwick wanted to involve as many British scientists as possible so long as Groves accepted them. Chadwick's first choice, Joseph Rotblat refused to give up his Polish citizenship. Chadwick then turned to Otto Frisch, who to
913:
from ICI, where he had experience working with fluorine compounds, made the first small batch of gaseous uranium hexafluoride for Chadwick in 1940. ICI received a formal £5,000 contract in December 1940 to make 3 kilograms (6.6 lb) of this vital material for the future work. The prototype
1732:
between Britain and the United States "became very much less special". Roosevelt died on 12 April 1945, and the Hyde Park Agreement was not binding on subsequent administrations. In fact, it was physically lost: when Wilson raised the matter in a Combined Policy Committee meeting in June, the
1554:; nor was it to be given any information about the chemistry of plutonium, or methods for separating it from other elements. This arrangement was formally approved by the Combined Policy Committee meeting on 19 September 1944. John Cockcroft became the director of the Montreal Laboratory. The
616:
isotope, which makes up only about 0.7% of natural uranium, was primarily responsible for fission with fast neutrons, although this was not yet universally accepted. Frisch and Peierls were thus able to revise their initial estimate of critical mass needed for nuclear fission in uranium to be
1318:
American nuclear scientific knowledge to create a profitable post-war industry. In October 1942, Bush and Conant convinced Roosevelt the United States should independently develop the atomic bomb project, despite an agreement of unrestricted scientific interchange between the US and Britain.
1755:
about future cooperation in nuclear weapons and nuclear power. The three leaders agreed there would be full and effective cooperation on atomic energy, but British hopes for a full resumption of cooperation on nuclear weapons were disappointed. The Americans soon made it clear that this was
1007:
for the new element 93 and plutonium for 94 by analogy with the outer planets Neptune and Pluto beyond Uranus (uranium being element 92). The Americans fortuitously suggested the same names. The production and identification of the first sample of plutonium in 1941 is generally credited to
1669:
Fuchs began disclosing information to the Soviet Union about the possible production of a British atomic bomb when he joined the Tube Alloys project, although his contribution towards Soviet espionage was more severe during the Manhattan Project. Fuchs was able to contact a London-based
1519:
Chadwick's surprise accepted becoming a British citizen right away and began the screening process so he could travel to America. Chadwick spent the first few weeks of November 1943 acquiring a clear picture of the extensive Manhattan Project. He realised the scale of such sites as
21:
1252:(NDRC), was in London during this time and was invited to sit in on a MAUD meeting. The committee pushed for rapid development of nuclear weapons using gaseous-diffusion as their isotope separation device. Once he returned to the United States, he was able to brief
1268:. Coolidge was shocked when Oliphant told him the British had predicted that only ten kilograms of uranium-235 would be sufficient to supply a chain reaction effected by fast moving neutrons. While in America, Oliphant discovered that the chairman of the OSRD
617:
substantially less than previously assumed. They estimated a metallic sphere of uranium-235 with a radius of 2.1 centimetres (0.83 in) could suffice. This amount represented approximately 1 kilogram (2.2 lb) of uranium-235. These results led to the
852:
tubes because it seemed the simplest method. Frisch's calculations showed there would need to be 100,000 Clusius tubes to extract the desired separation amount. Peierls turned to Franz Simon, who preferred to find a method more suitable for mass production.
1115:. Placzek proved to be a very capable group leader, and was generally regarded as the only member of the staff with the stature of the highest scientific rank and with close personal contacts with many key physicists involved in the Manhattan project.
1321:
This disastrously affected British efforts as they lacked manpower, facilities, equipment and materials. Tube Alloys, therefore, fell behind in the race with the Manhattan Project. On 30 July 1942, Anderson advised Churchill: "We must face the fact
934:. The building used was known as P6 and test equipment was installed. These units were tested by a team of about seventy under the guidance of Peierls and Fuchs. The results of the experiments led to the building of the gaseous diffusion factory at
113:
The Tube Alloys programme in Britain and Canada was the first nuclear weapons project. Due to the high costs for Britain while fighting a war within bombing range of its enemies, Tube Alloys was ultimately subsumed into the Manhattan Project by the
1534:, which was under American contract, and for technical information about plutonium. The Americans said they would supply heavy water to the Montreal group only if it agreed to direct its research along the limited lines suggested by
722:
of isotopes. This method works on the principle that at differing pressures uranium 235 would diffuse through a barrier faster than uranium 238. Eventually, the most promising method of separation was found to be gaseous diffusion.
1023:
Chadwick voiced concerns about the need for such pure plutonium to make a feasible bomb. He also suspected the gun method of detonation for a plutonium bomb would lead to premature detonations due to impurities. After Chadwick met
606:
with other nuclei, while a larger portion of the neutrons are escaping through the surface of the sphere. Peierls calculated the equilibrium of the system, where the number of neutrons being produced equalled the number escaping.
1411:
million). The project would need overwhelming priority, as it was estimated to require twenty thousand workers – many of them highly skilled – half a million tons of steel, and an unprecedented half
1602:
was issued by the US War Department on 12 August 1945, giving the story of the atomic bomb and including the technical details that could now be made public. It made few references to the British contribution to the bomb, and a
1263:
In August 1941, Mark Oliphant, the director of the physics department at the University of Birmingham and an original member of the MAUD Committee, was sent to the US to assist the NDRC on radar. During his visit he met with
1037:
tamper which would reflect the neutrons back into the reaction, and contribute to the explosion by fissioning itself. This design solved Chadwick's worries about purity because it did not require the level needed for the
835:
The biggest problem faced by the MAUD Committee was to find a way to separate the 0.7% of uranium-235 from the 99.3% of uranium-238. This is difficult because the two types of uranium are chemically identical. Separation
979:
of 93. This element's nucleus also emits an electron and becomes a new element with an atomic number 94 and a much greater half-life. Bretscher and Feather showed theoretically feasible grounds that element 94 would be
294:
in 1939. The phenomenon was a new type of nuclear disintegration, and was more powerful than any seen before. Frisch and Meitner calculated that the energy released by each disintegration was approximately 200,000,000
1382:
Churchill sought information about building Britain's own gaseous diffusion plant, a heavy water plant and an atomic reactor in Britain, despite the immense cost. A gaseous diffusion plant to produce a kilogram of
1279:
Oliphant took the initiative himself to enlighten the scientific community in the U.S. of the recent groundbreaking discoveries the MAUD Committee had just exposed. Oliphant also travelled to Berkeley to meet with
954:
The breakthrough with plutonium was by Bretscher and Norman Feather at the Cavendish Laboratory. They realised that a slow neutron reactor fuelled with uranium would theoretically produce substantial amounts of
1733:
American copy could not be found. The British sent Stimson a photocopy on 18 July 1945. Even then, Groves questioned the document's authenticity until the American copy was located years later in the papers of
1523:, which was the new headquarters of the project, and could safely conclude that without similar industrial site being found in Germany the chances of the Nazi atomic bomb project being successful was very low.
570:, were each tasked with carrying out a series of experiments on uranium. By February 1940, Thomson's team had failed to create a chain reaction in natural uranium, and he had decided it was not worth pursuing.
353:. It was immediately apparent to many scientists that, in theory at least, an extremely powerful explosive could be created, although most still considered an atomic bomb was an impossibility. Perrin defined a
1813:
research and development. Penney led the bomb design effort as Chief Superintendent Armament Research (CSAR, pronounced "Caesar"), in charge of the Ministry Of Supply's Armaments Research Department (ARD) at
1359:
735:, could be used as an explosive compound. Because of the French scientists, Oxford also obtained the world's only supply of heavy water, which helped them theorise how uranium could be used for power.
1780:... I don't mind for myself, but I don't want any other Foreign Secretary of this country to be talked to or at by a Secretary of State in the United States as I have just had in my discussions with
1334:(MPC) supported Bush's arguments and restricted access to the classified information which Britain could utilise to develop its atomic weapons programme, even if it slowed down the American efforts.
1345:, Peierls, Oliphant and other British scientists were important enough that the bomb design team at the Los Alamos Laboratory needed them, despite the risk of revealing weapon design secrets.
597:
and therefore lacked the necessary security clearance. Francis Perrin had calculated the critical mass of uranium to be about 40 tonnes (39 long tons; 44 short tons). He reckoned that if a
4810:
869:
808:
107:
1716:
1395:
million to build in wartime Britain. A nuclear reactor to produce that much plutonium per day would have to be built in Canada. It would take up to five years to build and cost £5
1724:(foreground, left) greets Prime Minister Clement Attlee (foreground, right) at Washington National Airport, upon Attlee's arrival for talks on the Korean crisis in December 1950.
1445:
It was also agreed that "any post-war advantages of an industrial or commercial nature" would be decided at the discretion of the President. The Quebec Agreement established the
335:. In February 1939, the Paris Group showed that when fission occurs in uranium, two or three extra neutrons are given off. That important observation suggested a self-sustaining
138:. Production facilities were established and British scientists continued their work under the auspices of an independent British programme. In 1952, Britain performed a
1694:'s foreign military intelligence directorate. After three meetings, Fuchs was teamed up with a courier so he would not have to find excuses to travel to London. She was
1187:, who was initially sympathetic to his ideas about controlling nuclear weapons. But Churchill was adamantly opposed to informing the Soviet Union of such work. At the
1593:. He also formed part of the Manhattan Project's post-war scientific mission to Hiroshima and Nagasaki that assessed the extent of the damage caused by the bombs.
1276:, had locked away the MAUD reports transferred from Britain entailing the initial discoveries and had not informed the S-1 Committee members of all its findings.
517:
for an opinion. Like many scientists, Tizard was sceptical of the likelihood of an atomic bomb being developed, reckoning the odds of success at 100,000 to 1.
4523:
Atomic Energy for Military Purposes; the Official Report on the Development of the Atomic Bomb under the Auspices of the United States Government, 1940–1945
3598:
4805:
1698:, the sister of Jurgen Kuczynski. She was also a German communist, a major in Soviet Military Intelligence and an experienced agent who had worked with
4795:
648:
1841:. He broke down the development tasks required to replicate it, identifying outstanding questions that required further research on nuclear weapons.
1794:
1423:
In July 1943, in London, American officials cleared up some major misunderstandings about British motives, and after many months of negotiations the
559:
1301:
convincing Conant to move forward with nuclear weapons. These actions from Oliphant resulted in Bush taking this report directly to the president.
373:
would be an ideal moderator. They asked the French Minister of Armaments to obtain as much heavy water as possible from the only source, the large
3822:
1860:
led to the Atomic Energy Act being amended in 1958, and to a resumption of the nuclear Special Relationship between America and Britain under the
4256:
1768:
ministers, which decided that Britain required the atomic bomb to maintain its position in world politics. In the words of the Foreign Secretary
4200:
1743:
The British government had trusted that America would share nuclear technology, which the British saw as a joint discovery. On 9 November 1945,
743:, would have started months behind. Instead they were able to begin thinking about how to create a bomb, not whether it was possible. Historian
4780:
1834:(AWRE). Penney assembled a team to initiate the work, firstly preparing a report describing the features, science and idea behind the American
1416:
of electricity. Disruption to other wartime projects would be inevitable, and it was unlikely to be ready in time to affect the outcome of the
1740:, Roosevelt's naval aide, apparently misfiled by someone unaware of what Tube Alloys was—who thought it had something to do with naval guns.
1494:
1257:
1088:
team would attempt to patent nuclear technology based on the pre-war work. As a compromise, Thomson suggested relocating the team to Canada.
429:
897:
The chemical problems of producing gaseous compounds of uranium and pure uranium metal were studied at the University of Birmingham and by
64:
1462:
942:(51 kg) of pure uranium metal and 50 to 100 kilograms (110 to 220 lb) of uranium hexafluoride per day commenced operation in
783:
25:
2662:
1683:
585:
At Birmingham, Oliphant's team had reached a different conclusion. Oliphant had delegated the task to two German refugee scientists,
984: – readily split by both slow and fast neutrons with the added advantage of being chemically different from uranium.
4697:. 11 July 2015. Retrieved 1 September 2023. Radio programme describing how "Britain invented the bomb and the Americans made it".
1861:
1244:
The MAUD Committee reports urged the co-operation with the United States should be continued in the research of nuclear fission.
362:
to contain and slow the fast neutrons until they reached a usable energy level. The Collège de France found that both water and
3889:"Experiments with High Velocity Positive Ions. (I) Further Developments in the Method of Obtaining High Velocity Positive Ions"
1469:
was the Canadian member. Llewellin returned to the United Kingdom at the end of 1943 and was replaced on the committee by Sir
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4531:
4451:
4424:
4405:
4381:
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4245:
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had replaced Churchill as Prime Minister, and was the only official statement on the British contribution for fifteen years.
1314:
558:
management were friendly towards Britain, it was not considered worthwhile to acquire the uranium immediately, but Tizard's
1802:
1441:
Thirdly, we will not either of us communicate any information about Tube Alloys to third parties except by mutual consent."
1149:
779:
525:
521:
400:
417:. The Paris Group moved to Cambridge, with the exception of Joliot-Curie, who remained in France and became active in the
248:
and his team in Rome conducted experiments involving the bombardment of elements by slow neutrons, which produced heavier
1249:
1096:
4670:
3185:
1284:, inventor of the cyclotron. After Oliphant informed Lawrence of his report on uranium, Lawrence met with NDRC chairman
1017:
750:
The MAUD reports were reviewed by the Defence Services Panel of the Scientific Advisory Committee. This was chaired by
159:
4790:
4499:
4475:
4354:
4174:
4139:
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1046:. Chadwick took this information with him and described the method to Oliphant who then took it with him to England.
562:
was directed to continue the research into the feasibility of atomic bombs. Thomson, at Imperial College London, and
495:
710:, which worked based on the principle that different isotopes of uranium diffuse at different speeds because of the
1474:
1417:
486:, and they were worried that it could fall into German hands. Unsure as to how to go about this, they spoke to Sir
542:
4800:
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902:
652:
510:
1216:
radar programme in particular was reinvigorated with an added impetus to the development of microwave radar and
174:
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1478:
1454:
1103:. Three months later they moved into a 200 square metres (2,200 sq ft) area in a new building at the
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503:
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4466:
1838:
996:
894:
already in progress of establishing the alternative method of separation through ordinary gaseous diffusion.
775:
618:
453:
441:
83:
3939:"Experiments with High Velocity Positive Ions. (II) The Disintegration of Elements by High Velocity Protons"
1485:. The subsequent Hyde Park Agreement on 19 September 1944 extended this cooperation to the post-war period.
1734:
1565:
1342:
918:(MetroVick) at Trafford Park, Manchester, at a cost of £150,000 for four units. They were installed at the
898:
816:
207:
1060:
881:, the fact that the gases diffuse through porous materials at rates determined by their molecular weight.
1744:
1543:
1245:
763:
2789:
to Bohr, 28 October 1943, CAB 126/39, NA. "Correspondence between Kapitza and B." 2 May 1945, CAB 126/39
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1671:
1530:
The Montreal team in Canada depended on the Americans for heavy water from the US heavy water plant in
1477:, in early 1945. Dill died in Washington, D.C., in November 1944 and was replaced both as Chief of the
1420:. The unanimous response was that first another effort should be made to secure American co-operation.
1338:
332:
320:
3567:
4752:
4728:
4217:
1760:
1678:, who put him in contact with Simon Davidovitch Kremer, the secretary to the military attaché at the
1446:
1399:
million. The project would also require facilities for producing the required heavy water (between £5
1331:
791:
790:, who became the first national leader to approve a nuclear weapons programme on 30 August 1941. The
707:
410:
131:
3151:
2631:
1555:
1539:
1221:
1188:
1072:
747:
noted that "events that change a time scale by only a few months can nevertheless change history."
578:
567:
433:
71:
48:
706:
experimented with different types of isotope separation. Chadwick's group at Liverpool dealt with
4161:
1798:
1711:
1531:
1428:
1375:
1039:
459:
225:
194:
135:
4238:
Elemental Germans: Klaus Fuchs, Rudolf Peierls and the making of British nuclear culture 1939–59
1175:
more inclined to speed up their effort to produce an atomic bomb of their own. With the help of
392:
1737:
1363:
1104:
909:
Works in Aston in Birmingham, carried out early experiments with uranium production processes.
861:
755:
672:
663:
in London. In addition to Thomson, its original members were Chadwick, Cockcroft, Oliphant and
475:
467:
336:
4764:
3943:
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences
3893:
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences
3215:
1547:
1482:
1367:
1184:
1145:
1029:
919:
882:
824:
711:
377:
4310:
3950:
3900:
3771:
3674:
1806:
1729:
1520:
1511:
1159:
915:
703:
686:
471:
458:
In Britain, a number of scientists considered whether an atomic bomb was practical. At the
221:
163:
147:
90:
could be used to produce a chain reaction in a bomb with the power of thousands of tons of
67:, and as such had to be referred to by code even within the highest circles of government.
4098:
Independence and Deterrence: Britain and Atomic Energy, 1945–1952, Volume 1, Policy Making
1666:
of March 1942 included the MAUD reports and other British documents passed by Cairncross.
1558:
opened in 1944, and in 1946 the Montreal Laboratory was closed. The project developed the
316:
8:
4785:
3211:
1849:
1845:
1584:
1470:
1298:
1285:
1265:
1120:
1055:
865:
143:
4314:
3954:
3904:
3775:
3678:
1675:
1107:. The laboratory grew quickly to over 300 staff; about half were Canadians recruited by
4585:
4517:
4395:
4326:
4298:
4157:
4060:
4007:
3987:
Churchill's Bomb: How the United States Overtook Britain in the First Nuclear Arms Race
3985:
3853:
3789:
3646:
1337:
The Americans stopped sharing any information on heavy water production, the method of
1176:
1025:
931:
837:
759:
664:
349:
285:
155:
79:
51:
programme authorised by the United Kingdom, with participation from Canada, to develop
4568:
Zimmerman, David (1995). "The Tizard Mission and the Development of the Atomic Bomb".
387:
4614:
4589:
4556:
4546:
4527:
4505:
4495:
4489:
4471:
4447:
4430:
4420:
4401:
4377:
4360:
4350:
4275:
4265:
4241:
4209:
4180:
4170:
4145:
4135:
4111:
4101:
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4052:
4023:
4013:
3992:
3968:
3918:
3845:
3809:
3738:
3728:
3709:
3692:
3629:(1976). "The Uneasy Alliance: Roosevelt, Churchill, and the Atomic Bomb, 1940–1945".
1371:
1240:
played a key role in starting both the British and the American atomic bomb projects.
1180:
1100:
988:
787:
740:
719:
598:
499:
418:
359:
300:
60:
37:
4343:
4128:
1438:
Secondly, we will not use it against third parties without each other's consent, and
1111:. A subgroup of theoreticians was recruited and headed by a Czechoslovak physicist,
4686:
Minutes and memoranda of Tube Alloys Consultative Council, January 1942- April 1945
4577:
4345:
The Road to Trinity: A Personal Account of How America's Nuclear Policies Were Made
4330:
4318:
4044:
3958:
3908:
3837:
3793:
3779:
3762:
3682:
3658:
3638:
3626:
3147:
2658:
1695:
1589:
1580:
1424:
1354:
1289:
1116:
1084:
1034:
774:. The panel held seven meetings in September 1941, and submitted its report to the
668:
491:
396:
290:
261:
249:
115:
56:
4035:
Gott, Richard (April 1963). "The Evolution of the Independent British Deterrent".
3754:
502:, the local Member of Parliament, who took their concerns to the Secretary of the
4740:
4521:
4338:
4301:(1939). "Disintegration of Uranium by Neutrons: A New Type of Nuclear Reaction".
4072:
3801:
1827:
1781:
1721:
1647:
1639:
1573:
1281:
1163:
1108:
1080:
1000:
878:
771:
744:
547:
520:
Even at such long odds, the danger was sufficiently great to be taken seriously.
324:
304:
52:
1809:, was created by Cockcroft in 1946 as the main centre for military and civilian
4581:
4485:
4461:
3980:
3930:
3880:
3750:
1853:
1748:
1659:
1651:
1643:
1612:
1507:
1293:
1217:
1212:
1206:
1112:
1092:
1043:
992:
845:
820:
767:
728:
724:
690:
676:
644:
638:
626:
586:
533:
463:
414:
277:
229:
217:
190:
186:
178:
151:
95:
75:
29:
1611:, was hurriedly drafted by Michael Perrin. This account was issued just after
573:
4774:
4716:
4671:"Interview with Myfanwy Pritchard-Roberts, Tube Alloys program lab assistant"
4618:
4279:
4184:
4123:
4115:
4056:
4027:
3972:
3934:
3922:
3884:
3849:
3696:
3189:
2786:
1819:
1815:
1810:
1764:
1699:
1655:
1577:
1503:
1450:
1384:
1253:
1237:
1009:
976:
956:
939:
910:
849:
812:
660:
563:
551:
537:
487:
483:
466:
tackled the problem, but their calculations were inconclusive. At Cambridge,
354:
296:
265:
233:
99:
70:
The possibility of nuclear weapons was acknowledged early in the war. At the
4690:
4560:
4509:
4434:
4364:
4213:
3742:
385:
entire stock of 187 litres (41 imp gal; 49 US gal) to a
4694:
4634:
4391:
4294:
4093:
4084:
4009:
Red Cloud at Dawn : Truman, Stalin, and the End of the Atomic Monopoly
3963:
3938:
3913:
3888:
3017:
2516:
1769:
1752:
1679:
1635:
1629:
1598:
1551:
1510:, head of the British Mission to the Manhattan Project, with Major General
1473:, who in turn was replaced by the British Ambassador to the United States,
1273:
960:
514:
404:
328:
281:
245:
139:
124:
120:
33:
4149:
3813:
3806:
The Birth of the Bomb: Britain's part in the weapon that changed the World
4606:
3606:. Proceedings of the 2nd ICESHS. Cracow. pp. 706–709. Archived from
3188:. The Manhattan Project Heritage Preservation Association. Archived from
1604:
1269:
972:
964:
841:
751:
715:
699:
613:
594:
529:
479:
437:
374:
370:
344:
340:
182:
130:
The United States terminated co-operation after the war ended, under the
87:
4735:
3857:
4064:
1466:
1136:
968:
935:
731:'s group at Cambridge investigated whether another element, now called
682:
609:
3687:
3662:
3650:
3358:
3356:
1848:", the first British nuclear device was successfully detonated in the
1481:
and as a member of the Combined Policy Committee by Field Marshal Sir
1183:, Bohr met on 26 August 1944 with the President of the United States,
4611:
The Atomic Bomb: An Account of British Policy in the Second World War
4322:
3841:
3784:
1830:
in Berkshire, was selected as the permanent home for what became the
1458:
1167:
1124:
atomic patents claimed by the Paris Group (in association with ICI).
1013:
1004:
923:
732:
647:
was founded in June 1940. The committee was originally a part of the
343:" was already familiar to the British public through the writings of
257:
103:
4048:
1232:
3642:
3353:
1823:
1691:
1427:
was signed by Churchill and Roosevelt on 19 August 1943 during the
1413:
807:
A directorate of Tube Alloys was established as part of Appleton's
369:
Early in 1940, the Paris Group decided on theoretical grounds that
363:
4655:"Interview with Eileen Doxford, Tube Alloys program lab assistant"
4543:
British Scientists and the Manhattan Project: the Los Alamos Years
4444:
Sir Rudolf Peierls: Selected Private and Scientific Correspondence
1922:
1910:
1132:
28:, scientific advisor to the Prime Minister, Air Chief Marshal Sir
4208:. Washington, DC: United States Army Center of Military History.
1835:
981:
656:
269:
253:
237:
213:
98:, which called for an all-out effort to develop nuclear weapons.
3440:
3428:
2908:
2871:
2869:
2867:
1488:
288:, developed a theoretical justification which they published in
134:. That prompted the United Kingdom to relaunch its own project,
2973:
2971:
2406:
1973:
1663:
1634:
The Soviet Union received details of British research from its
1569:
1535:
987:
This new development was also confirmed in independent work by
943:
906:
381:
273:
241:
4374:
Danger UXB – The Heroic Story of the WW II Bomb Disposal Teams
3488:
3464:
3392:
967:. The new isotope's nucleus rapidly emits an electron through
885:
applied this method in 1913 when he separated two isotopes of
358:
create a sustained chain reaction, there existed a need for a
127:, who had infiltrated both the British and American projects.
3536:
3314:
3018:"The Quebec Conference – Agreement Relating to Atomic Energy"
2896:
2864:
1260:(OSRD), concerning the details discussed during the meeting.
927:
590:
102:, who oversaw the project, chose the deliberately misleading
2968:
2920:
2840:
2614:
2612:
2450:
2448:
2269:
2221:
2209:
1155:
At the invitation of the director of the Manhattan Project,
1020:. In 1941, neither team knew of the existence of the other.
840:) would have to be achieved at a large scale. At Cambridge,
409:. The heavy water, valued at £22,000, was initially kept at
3404:
3326:
1788:... We've got to have the bloody Union Jack on top of it."
1559:
1391:
million in research and development, and anything up to £50
1068:
886:
856:
106:"Tube Alloys". His Tube Alloys Directorate was part of the
4811:
Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II
4417:
Nuclear Rivals: Anglo-American Atomic Relations, 1941–1952
3524:
3512:
3500:
3380:
3290:
3254:
2816:
2804:
2729:
2717:
2663:"70 years ago: Vannevar Bush worries about French Patents"
2563:
2561:
2233:
2163:
2161:
2146:
1784:. We've got to have this thing over here whatever it costs
1623:
1550:
at Oak Ridge, but not from the production reactors at the
848:. Frisch chose to perform gaseous thermal diffusion using
702:. The laboratories at the University of Liverpool and the
228:
in February 1932. In April 1932, his Cavendish colleagues
3343:
3341:
3116:
3068:
3056:
2995:
2983:
2852:
2770:
2768:
2705:
2681:
2669:
2609:
2546:
2534:
2520:
2445:
2045:
1435:"First, we will never use this agency against each other,
1064:
905:, who at the time was working on print technology at the
91:
4169:. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press.
3548:
3278:
3104:
3080:
2956:
2828:
2585:
2423:
2421:
2394:
2257:
2009:
1985:
1826:. In April 1950 an abandoned Second World War airfield,
1227:
1042:. The biggest problem with this method was creating the
550:, arranged a meeting with the president of the company,
3725:
Test of Greatness: Britain's Struggle for the Atom Bomb
3476:
3452:
3368:
3242:
2741:
2597:
2573:
2558:
2472:
2370:
2358:
2324:
2322:
2320:
2281:
2173:
2158:
2134:
2100:
2098:
2096:
1961:
914:
gaseous diffusion equipment itself was manufactured by
478:
wanted the government to take urgent action to acquire
4130:
Now it Can be Told: The Story of the Manhattan Project
3416:
3338:
3186:"Project Alberta/Destination Team roster of personnel"
2944:
2932:
2792:
2765:
2753:
2693:
2245:
2069:
2057:
2021:
1997:
1898:
1886:
162:, which resulted in a resumption of Britain's nuclear
158:, the United Kingdom and the United States signed the
4700:
4397:
Niels Bohr's Times, In Physics, Philosophy and Polity
3302:
3266:
3166:
3128:
3044:
2886:
2884:
2496:
2484:
2460:
2418:
2197:
1939:
1937:
1751:, went to Washington, D.C., to confer with President
959:
as a by-product. This is because uranium-238 absorbs
391:
agent, who secretly brought it to France just before
315:
That was followed up by a group of scientists at the
3230:
3092:
3032:
2433:
2382:
2346:
2317:
2305:
2293:
2185:
2122:
2093:
602:
paper written in 1939 to be "of the order of tons".
403:
and Major Ardale Vautier Golding aboard the steamer
63:
in the United States, the British efforts were kept
4258:
The Suffolk Golding Mission, A Considerable Service
3012:
3010:
2033:
1583:, sent as a British representative, he watched the
1195:
4342:
4127:
3984:
2881:
2632:"Early Years of Nuclear Energy Research in Canada"
2334:
2110:
2081:
1934:
649:Committee for the Scientific Survey of Air Defence
589:and Otto Frisch, who could not work on Oliphant's
413:, and was later secretly stored in the library at
276:had been produced, and therefore that the uranium
3216:"Eyewitness Account of Atomic Bomb Over Nagasaki"
1949:
1874:
560:Committee on the Scientific Survey of Air Defence
4772:
3929:
3879:
3007:
1928:
1916:
1562:reactor, which went critical in September 1945.
1449:to control the Manhattan Project, consisting of
870:Department of Scientific and Industrial Research
809:Department of Scientific and Industrial Research
108:Department of Scientific and Industrial Research
4419:. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University Press.
4156:
3362:
2914:
2902:
2875:
1797:, was appointed to lead the effort, code-named
154:, and the British demonstration of a two-stage
2653:
2651:
2649:
1387:uranium per day was estimated to cost up to £3
395:in April 1940. On 19 June 1940, following the
4293:
3823:"The "Smyth Report": A Descriptive Checklist"
1979:
1495:British contribution to the Manhattan Project
1489:British contribution to the Manhattan Project
1304:
1258:Office of Scientific Research and Development
938:, Cheshire. ICI pilot plants for producing 1
4091:
3573:. US Government Printing Office. 2 July 1958
3494:
3470:
3446:
3434:
3410:
3398:
3332:
1220:. This prompted the Americans to create the
1127:
1091:The Canadian government was approached, and
786:had taken the matter to the Prime Minister,
462:, Chadwick and the Polish refugee scientist
424:
280:had been split. Hahn wrote to his colleague
3204:
3146:
2657:
2646:
1119:became head of the chemistry division, and
16:British nuclear weapons research during WW2
4806:Science and technology during World War II
3830:The Princeton University Library Chronicle
3597:Aaserud, Finn (2006). Kokowski, M. (ed.).
1453:, Bush and Conant from the United States;
272:with slowed neutrons, and discovered that
4796:1942 establishments in the United Kingdom
4567:
4526:. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
4491:Dark Sun: the Making of the Hydrogen Bomb
3962:
3912:
3836:(3). Princeton University Press: 204–18.
3783:
3686:
3657:
3625:
2977:
2962:
2926:
2846:
2834:
2263:
2227:
2215:
1991:
1967:
1756:restricted to basic scientific research.
1003:of the Cambridge team proposed the names
823:as its secretary. It was later joined by
651:, but later gained independence with the
4349:. New York: William Morrow and Company.
3749:
3722:
3600:Niels Bohr's Mission for an 'Open World'
3542:
3530:
3518:
3506:
3482:
3458:
1892:
1858:development of the British hydrogen bomb
1844:On 3 October 1952, under the code-name "
1715:
1502:
1358:
1231:
1131:
1059:
855:
797:
681:
572:
428:
366:could be used as acceptable moderators.
173:
123:gained valuable information through its
20:
4441:
4337:
4202:Manhattan: The Army and the Atomic Bomb
4012:. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
3979:
3820:
3596:
3374:
3248:
3178:
2950:
2938:
2822:
2810:
2798:
2774:
2759:
2735:
2723:
2699:
2514:
2412:
2251:
2239:
2152:
2015:
1682:'s embassy, who in turn worked for the
1624:Soviet spies in the Tube Alloys project
546:company, whose British vice president,
201:
4773:
4484:
4460:
4254:
4235:
4122:
4071:
4005:
3386:
3320:
3308:
3296:
3284:
3272:
3260:
3134:
3122:
3074:
3062:
3050:
3001:
2989:
2858:
2711:
2687:
2675:
2618:
2603:
2579:
2567:
2552:
2540:
2502:
2490:
2478:
2466:
2454:
2427:
2400:
2388:
2376:
2364:
2328:
2311:
2299:
2287:
2275:
2203:
2179:
2167:
2128:
2104:
2087:
2051:
1904:
1609:Statements Relating to the Atomic Bomb
1049:
830:
4781:Nuclear history of the United Kingdom
4540:
4516:
4198:
3800:
3703:
3663:"A Memorandum that Changed the World"
3236:
3172:
3110:
3098:
3086:
3038:
2591:
2439:
2352:
2340:
2191:
2140:
2075:
2063:
2039:
2027:
2003:
1955:
1943:
1880:
1852:off the west coast of Australia. The
1832:Atomic Weapons Research Establishment
1315:United States Army Corps of Engineers
1248:, a Caltech physicist working at the
1228:Oliphant's visit to the United States
963:and forms a short-lived new isotope,
86:explaining that a small mass of pure
4414:
4390:
4371:
4264:. Great Britain: Brook House Books.
4034:
3554:
3422:
3347:
3210:
2890:
2747:
2116:
1803:Atomic Energy Research Establishment
1576:as a special consultant. Along with
1192:of the world, Russia in particular.
1150:British Overseas Airways Corporation
718:'s group at Oxford investigated the
526:Minister for Coordination of Defence
4637:Agreement Relating to Atomic Energy
4240:. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
4077:Britain and Atomic Energy 1939–1945
3708:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
2515:Gregory, David (17 February 2000).
1862:1958 US–UK Mutual Defence Agreement
1688:Главное Разведывательное Управление
1348:
1250:National Defense Research Committee
1097:National Research Council of Canada
827:, Cockcroft, Oliphant and Feather.
754:, with its other members being Sir
577:Poynting (physics) Building at the
498:. In April 1939, he approached Sir
399:, it was shipped to England by the
94:. This led to the formation of the
13:
4598:
4494:. New York: Simon & Schuster.
3218:. National Science Digital Library
3020:. Avalon Project – Yale Law School
872:, of which Tube Alloys was a part.
844:and his team investigated using a
482:. The main source of this was the
14:
4822:
4673:. Voices of the Manhattan Project
4657:. Voices of the Manhattan Project
4627:
3821:Coleman, Earle E. (Spring 1976).
3755:"Possible Existence of a Neutron"
1200:
632:
566:, an Australian physicist at the
496:Corpus Christi College, Cambridge
440:commemorating the authors of the
4758:
4746:
4734:
4722:
4710:
4545:. New York: St. Martin's Press.
4470:. New York: Simon and Schuster.
3560:
1407:million) and uranium metal (£1.5
1196:Tube Alloys in the United States
971:producing a new element with an
4446:. Singapore: World Scientific.
3631:The Western Political Quarterly
3140:
2780:
2624:
2508:
1658:was recruited later in Canada.
802:
653:Ministry of Aircraft Production
4134:. New York: Harper & Row.
1792:Marshal of the Royal Air Force
1465:were the British members, and
1213:British mission, led by Tizard
693:, which initiated Tube Alloys.
504:Committee for Imperial Defence
310:
160:US–UK Mutual Defence Agreement
150:. In 1958, in the wake of the
1:
4541:Szasz, Ferenc Morton (1992).
4467:The Making of the Atomic Bomb
4160:; Anderson, Oscar E. (1962).
3589:
1839:implosion-type nuclear weapon
1702:'s spy ring in the Far East.
1297:convincing Compton, and then
1016:rather than a reactor at the
997:Berkeley Radiation Laboratory
776:Lord President of the Council
543:Union Minière du Haut Katanga
339:might be possible. The term "
169:
1929:Cockcroft & Walton 1932b
1917:Cockcroft & Walton 1932a
1728:With the end of the war the
1650:, a member of the notorious
1618:
949:
817:Imperial Chemical Industries
612:had theorised that the rare
301:division of biological cells
208:Discovery of nuclear fission
7:
4400:. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
4006:Gordin, Michael D. (2009).
3667:American Journal of Physics
3363:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
2915:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
2903:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
2876:Hewlett & Anderson 1962
1705:
1587:from the observation plane
1479:British Joint Staff Mission
815:, the research director of
32:, Admiral of the Fleet Sir
10:
4827:
4613:. London: Cabinet Office.
4582:10.1177/096834459500200302
4415:Paul, Septimus H. (2000).
4236:Laucht, Christoph (2012).
2634:. Canadian Nuclear Society
1776:... we've got to have this
1709:
1627:
1492:
1352:
1339:electromagnetic separation
1305:Information sharing ceases
1204:
1053:
877:to pursue. This relies on
636:
593:project because they were
513:. Ismay in turn asked Sir
451:
303:, they named the process "
256:. Then, in December 1938,
205:
4376:. London: Little, Brown.
3991:. New York: Basic Books.
3808:. London: Phoenix House.
1980:Meitner & Frisch 1939
1761:Atomic Energy Act of 1946
1514:, the project's director.
1447:Combined Policy Committee
1332:Military Policy Committee
1128:Niels Bohr's contribution
922:located in a valley near
792:Chiefs of Staff Committee
619:Frisch–Peierls memorandum
540:uranium was owned by the
454:Frisch–Peierls memorandum
446:Poynting Physics Building
442:Frisch–Peierls memorandum
425:Frisch–Peierls memorandum
411:HM Prison Wormwood Scrubs
397:German invasion of France
132:Atomic Energy Act of 1946
4791:Secret military programs
4635:"The Quebec Conference:
4442:Peierls, Rudolf (2007).
4163:The New World, 1939–1946
3723:Cathcart, Brian (1995).
3706:The Neutron and the Bomb
3495:Gowing & Arnold 1974
3471:Gowing & Arnold 1974
3447:Gowing & Arnold 1974
3435:Gowing & Arnold 1974
3411:Gowing & Arnold 1974
3399:Gowing & Arnold 1974
3333:Gowing & Arnold 1974
3152:"The Height of the Bomb"
2415:, pp. 188–191, 504.
1867:
1747:and the Prime Minister,
1556:Chalk River Laboratories
1542:'s research reactors at
1540:Metallurgical Laboratory
1222:MIT Radiation Laboratory
1189:Second Quebec Conference
1073:Chalk River Laboratories
1018:University of California
794:supported the decision.
629:to investigate further.
579:University of Birmingham
568:University of Birmingham
434:University of Birmingham
264:at Hahn's laboratory in
166:with the United States.
119:the United Kingdom. The
72:University of Birmingham
49:research and development
4199:Jones, Vincent (1985).
3727:. London: John Murray.
1799:High Explosive Research
1772:, "That won't do at all
1712:High Explosive Research
1532:Trail, British Columbia
1095:, the president of the
1040:gun-type fission weapon
460:University of Liverpool
284:, who, with her nephew
240:atoms with accelerated
226:University of Cambridge
146:" and became the third
136:High Explosive Research
4801:1952 disestablishments
4339:Nichols, Kenneth David
3964:10.1098/rspa.1932.0133
3914:10.1098/rspa.1932.0107
3704:Brown, Andrew (1997).
3323:, pp. 51, 57, 63.
2278:, pp. 39–43, 407.
1725:
1515:
1379:
1364:William Mackenzie King
1256:, the director of the
1241:
1140:
1105:University of Montreal
1075:
930:; M. S. stood for the
873:
694:
582:
476:William Lawrence Bragg
468:Nobel Prize in Physics
449:
393:Germany invaded Norway
337:nuclear chain reaction
299:. By analogy with the
198:
59:. Starting before the
41:
4691:"Destroyer of Worlds"
4100:. London: Macmillan.
4079:. London: Macmillan.
4037:International Affairs
1719:
1548:X-10 Graphite Reactor
1506:
1483:Henry Maitland Wilson
1368:Franklin D. Roosevelt
1362:
1236:Australian physicist
1235:
1185:Franklin D. Roosevelt
1146:de Havilland Mosquito
1135:
1063:
1030:Los Alamos Laboratory
883:Francis William Aston
859:
825:Charles Galton Darwin
798:Tube Alloys programme
712:equipartition theorem
685:
576:
536:, and found that the
432:
378:hydroelectric station
321:Frédéric Joliot-Curie
177:
24:
4372:Owen, James (2010).
4255:Martin, Roy (2014).
3627:Bernstein, Barton J.
3545:, pp. 159, 253.
1807:Harwell, Oxfordshire
1730:Special Relationship
1521:Oak Ridge, Tennessee
1512:Leslie R. Groves Jr.
1326:... pioneering work
1246:Charles C. Lauritsen
1160:Leslie R. Groves Jr.
916:Metropolitan-Vickers
704:University of Oxford
687:George Paget Thomson
472:George Paget Thomson
347:, in his 1913 novel
222:Cavendish Laboratory
202:Discovery of fission
164:Special Relationship
148:nuclear-weapon state
142:under the codename "
4518:Smyth, Henry DeWolf
4315:1939Natur.143..239M
4158:Hewlett, Richard G.
3955:1932RSPSA.137..229C
3905:1932RSPSA.136..619C
3776:1932Natur.129Q.312C
3679:2011AmJPh..79..440B
3613:on 2 September 2011
3568:"Public Law 85-479"
3557:, pp. 245–247.
3449:, pp. 181–184.
3437:, pp. 105–108.
3389:, pp. 401–402.
3365:, pp. 457–458.
3299:, pp. 117–119.
3263:, pp. 111–115.
3212:Laurence, William L
3125:, pp. 271–280.
3113:, pp. 254–255.
3089:, pp. 250–253.
3077:, pp. 169–173.
3065:, pp. 340–342.
3004:, pp. 174–177.
2992:, pp. 162–165.
2980:, pp. 209–213.
2929:, pp. 206–207.
2861:, pp. 85, 116.
2849:, pp. 266–270.
2825:, pp. 268–272.
2813:, pp. 706–709.
2750:, pp. 496–497.
2738:, pp. 251–253.
2726:, pp. 245–247.
2714:, pp. 483–485.
2690:, pp. 191–199.
2678:, pp. 188–189.
2621:, pp. 187–188.
2594:, pp. 253–254.
2555:, pp. 228–229.
2543:, pp. 217–221.
2517:"Brum and the Bomb"
2457:, pp. 339–340.
2242:, pp. 102–103.
2230:, pp. 440–442.
2218:, pp. 441–444.
2155:, pp. 123–125.
2054:, pp. 264–263.
1982:, pp. 239–240.
1931:, pp. 229–242.
1919:, pp. 619–630.
1850:Monte Bello Islands
1846:Operation Hurricane
1759:The passage of the
1585:bombing of Nagasaki
1471:Ronald Ian Campbell
1299:George Kistiakowsky
1286:James Bryant Conant
1266:William D. Coolidge
1166:, Bohr and his son
1056:Montreal Laboratory
1050:Montreal Laboratory
866:permanent secretary
831:Isotopic separation
528:, checked with the
144:Operation Hurricane
4753:Nuclear technology
4729:History of Science
4092:Gowing, Margaret;
3192:on 17 October 2013
2665:. Restricted Data.
2403:, pp. 97–104.
2143:, pp. 95–103.
1726:
1516:
1380:
1313:In June 1942, the
1242:
1211:In August 1940, a
1177:U.S. Supreme Court
1141:
1076:
1026:Robert Oppenheimer
940:long hundredweight
932:Ministry of Supply
874:
838:uranium enrichment
695:
689:, chairman of the
625:CSSAW created the
583:
450:
350:The World Set Free
286:Otto Robert Frisch
216:was discovered by
199:
193:each received the
156:thermonuclear bomb
80:Otto Robert Frisch
42:
4641:. Yale University
4552:978-0-312-06167-8
4533:978-0-8047-1722-9
4453:978-981-256-503-7
4426:978-0-8142-0852-6
4407:978-0-19-852049-8
4383:978-0-349-12237-3
4309:(3615): 239–240.
4271:978-0-9557441-7-4
4247:978-1-137-02833-4
4223:on 7 October 2014
4019:978-0-374-25682-1
3998:978-0-465-02195-6
3688:10.1119/1.3533426
3659:Bernstein, Jeremy
3533:, pp. 48–57.
3521:, pp. 96–97.
3509:, pp. 38–43.
3497:, pp. 38–43.
3473:, pp. 40–41.
3425:, pp. 80–83.
3401:, pp. 73–77.
3350:, pp. 72–73.
3287:, pp. 57–58.
3154:. Restricted Data
3150:(8 August 2012).
3148:Wellerstein, Alex
2917:, pp. 45–46.
2659:Wellerstein, Alex
2606:, pp. 72–75.
2582:, pp. 70–71.
2570:, pp. 59–60.
2481:, pp. 87–89.
2379:, pp. 77–80.
2367:, pp. 42–45.
2290:, pp. 43–45.
2182:, pp. 37–39.
2170:, pp. 34–36.
2078:, pp. 68–73.
2066:, pp. 21–22.
2030:, pp. 25–29.
2018:, pp. 15–24.
2006:, pp. 18–21.
1907:, pp. 17–18.
1429:Quebec Conference
1376:Quebec Conference
1372:Winston Churchill
1181:Felix Frankfurter
1157:Brigadier General
1101:McGill University
1071:buildings at the
989:Edwin M. McMillan
788:Winston Churchill
741:Manhattan Project
720:gaseous diffusion
708:thermal diffusion
599:neutron reflector
500:Kenneth Pickthorn
419:French Resistance
360:neutron moderator
317:Collège de France
61:Manhattan Project
38:Winston Churchill
4818:
4763:
4762:
4761:
4751:
4750:
4749:
4739:
4738:
4727:
4726:
4725:
4715:
4714:
4713:
4706:
4682:
4680:
4678:
4666:
4664:
4662:
4650:
4648:
4646:
4622:
4593:
4564:
4537:
4513:
4481:
4457:
4438:
4411:
4387:
4368:
4348:
4334:
4323:10.1038/143239a0
4290:
4288:
4286:
4263:
4251:
4232:
4230:
4228:
4222:
4216:. Archived from
4207:
4195:
4193:
4191:
4168:
4153:
4133:
4119:
4088:
4073:Gowing, Margaret
4068:
4031:
4002:
3990:
3976:
3966:
3949:(831): 229–242.
3935:Walton, E. T. S.
3931:Cockcroft, J. D.
3926:
3916:
3899:(830): 619–630.
3885:Walton, E. T. S.
3881:Cockcroft, J. D.
3876:
3874:
3872:
3866:
3860:. Archived from
3842:10.2307/26404013
3827:
3817:
3802:Clark, Ronald W.
3797:
3787:
3785:10.1038/129312a0
3759:
3746:
3719:
3700:
3690:
3654:
3622:
3620:
3618:
3612:
3605:
3583:
3582:
3580:
3578:
3572:
3564:
3558:
3552:
3546:
3540:
3534:
3528:
3522:
3516:
3510:
3504:
3498:
3492:
3486:
3480:
3474:
3468:
3462:
3456:
3450:
3444:
3438:
3432:
3426:
3420:
3414:
3408:
3402:
3396:
3390:
3384:
3378:
3372:
3366:
3360:
3351:
3345:
3336:
3330:
3324:
3318:
3312:
3306:
3300:
3294:
3288:
3282:
3276:
3270:
3264:
3258:
3252:
3246:
3240:
3234:
3228:
3227:
3225:
3223:
3208:
3202:
3201:
3199:
3197:
3182:
3176:
3170:
3164:
3163:
3161:
3159:
3144:
3138:
3132:
3126:
3120:
3114:
3108:
3102:
3096:
3090:
3084:
3078:
3072:
3066:
3060:
3054:
3048:
3042:
3036:
3030:
3029:
3027:
3025:
3014:
3005:
2999:
2993:
2987:
2981:
2975:
2966:
2960:
2954:
2948:
2942:
2936:
2930:
2924:
2918:
2912:
2906:
2900:
2894:
2888:
2879:
2873:
2862:
2856:
2850:
2844:
2838:
2832:
2826:
2820:
2814:
2808:
2802:
2796:
2790:
2784:
2778:
2772:
2763:
2757:
2751:
2745:
2739:
2733:
2727:
2721:
2715:
2709:
2703:
2697:
2691:
2685:
2679:
2673:
2667:
2666:
2661:(5 March 2012).
2655:
2644:
2643:
2641:
2639:
2628:
2622:
2616:
2607:
2601:
2595:
2589:
2583:
2577:
2571:
2565:
2556:
2550:
2544:
2538:
2532:
2531:
2529:
2527:
2512:
2506:
2500:
2494:
2488:
2482:
2476:
2470:
2464:
2458:
2452:
2443:
2437:
2431:
2425:
2416:
2410:
2404:
2398:
2392:
2386:
2380:
2374:
2368:
2362:
2356:
2350:
2344:
2338:
2332:
2326:
2315:
2309:
2303:
2297:
2291:
2285:
2279:
2273:
2267:
2261:
2255:
2249:
2243:
2237:
2231:
2225:
2219:
2213:
2207:
2201:
2195:
2189:
2183:
2177:
2171:
2165:
2156:
2150:
2144:
2138:
2132:
2126:
2120:
2114:
2108:
2102:
2091:
2085:
2079:
2073:
2067:
2061:
2055:
2049:
2043:
2037:
2031:
2025:
2019:
2013:
2007:
2001:
1995:
1989:
1983:
1977:
1971:
1965:
1959:
1953:
1947:
1941:
1932:
1926:
1920:
1914:
1908:
1902:
1896:
1890:
1884:
1878:
1818:in Kent and the
1787:
1779:
1775:
1738:Wilson Brown Jr.
1696:Ursula Kuczynski
1676:Jürgen Kuczynski
1581:Leonard Cheshire
1425:Quebec Agreement
1410:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1355:Quebec Agreement
1349:Quebec Agreement
1329:
1325:
1290:George B. Pegram
1148:operated by the
1117:Friedrich Paneth
1085:nuclear graphite
1044:explosive lenses
1035:depleted uranium
1033:surrounded by a
669:Patrick Blackett
262:Fritz Strassmann
195:Medal of Freedom
116:Quebec Agreement
57:Second World War
4826:
4825:
4821:
4820:
4819:
4817:
4816:
4815:
4771:
4770:
4769:
4759:
4757:
4747:
4745:
4733:
4723:
4721:
4711:
4709:
4701:
4676:
4674:
4669:
4660:
4658:
4653:
4644:
4642:
4633:
4630:
4625:
4605:
4601:
4599:Further reading
4596:
4553:
4534:
4502:
4486:Rhodes, Richard
4478:
4462:Rhodes, Richard
4454:
4427:
4408:
4384:
4357:
4284:
4282:
4272:
4261:
4248:
4226:
4224:
4220:
4205:
4189:
4187:
4177:
4166:
4142:
4108:
4049:10.2307/2611300
4020:
3999:
3981:Farmelo, Graham
3937:(1 July 1932).
3887:(1 June 1932).
3870:
3868:
3867:on 4 April 2019
3864:
3825:
3757:
3751:Chadwick, James
3735:
3716:
3616:
3614:
3610:
3603:
3592:
3587:
3586:
3576:
3574:
3570:
3566:
3565:
3561:
3553:
3549:
3541:
3537:
3529:
3525:
3517:
3513:
3505:
3501:
3493:
3489:
3481:
3477:
3469:
3465:
3457:
3453:
3445:
3441:
3433:
3429:
3421:
3417:
3409:
3405:
3397:
3393:
3385:
3381:
3373:
3369:
3361:
3354:
3346:
3339:
3331:
3327:
3319:
3315:
3307:
3303:
3295:
3291:
3283:
3279:
3271:
3267:
3259:
3255:
3247:
3243:
3235:
3231:
3221:
3219:
3209:
3205:
3195:
3193:
3184:
3183:
3179:
3171:
3167:
3157:
3155:
3145:
3141:
3133:
3129:
3121:
3117:
3109:
3105:
3097:
3093:
3085:
3081:
3073:
3069:
3061:
3057:
3049:
3045:
3037:
3033:
3023:
3021:
3016:
3015:
3008:
3000:
2996:
2988:
2984:
2976:
2969:
2961:
2957:
2949:
2945:
2937:
2933:
2925:
2921:
2913:
2909:
2901:
2897:
2889:
2882:
2874:
2865:
2857:
2853:
2845:
2841:
2833:
2829:
2821:
2817:
2809:
2805:
2801:, pp. 273.
2797:
2793:
2785:
2781:
2773:
2766:
2758:
2754:
2746:
2742:
2734:
2730:
2722:
2718:
2710:
2706:
2698:
2694:
2686:
2682:
2674:
2670:
2656:
2647:
2637:
2635:
2630:
2629:
2625:
2617:
2610:
2602:
2598:
2590:
2586:
2578:
2574:
2566:
2559:
2551:
2547:
2539:
2535:
2525:
2523:
2513:
2509:
2501:
2497:
2489:
2485:
2477:
2473:
2465:
2461:
2453:
2446:
2438:
2434:
2426:
2419:
2411:
2407:
2399:
2395:
2387:
2383:
2375:
2371:
2363:
2359:
2351:
2347:
2339:
2335:
2327:
2318:
2310:
2306:
2298:
2294:
2286:
2282:
2274:
2270:
2262:
2258:
2250:
2246:
2238:
2234:
2226:
2222:
2214:
2210:
2202:
2198:
2194:, pp. 3–5.
2190:
2186:
2178:
2174:
2166:
2159:
2151:
2147:
2139:
2135:
2127:
2123:
2115:
2111:
2103:
2094:
2086:
2082:
2074:
2070:
2062:
2058:
2050:
2046:
2038:
2034:
2026:
2022:
2014:
2010:
2002:
1998:
1990:
1986:
1978:
1974:
1966:
1962:
1954:
1950:
1942:
1935:
1927:
1923:
1915:
1911:
1903:
1899:
1891:
1887:
1879:
1875:
1870:
1828:RAF Aldermaston
1785:
1777:
1773:
1722:Harry S. Truman
1714:
1708:
1648:John Cairncross
1640:Engelbert Broda
1632:
1626:
1621:
1574:Project Alberta
1497:
1491:
1463:J. J. Llewellin
1408:
1404:
1403:million and £10
1400:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1378:in August 1943.
1357:
1351:
1327:
1323:
1307:
1282:Ernest Lawrence
1230:
1218:proximity fuzes
1209:
1203:
1198:
1164:Albert Einstein
1130:
1109:George Laurence
1081:nuclear reactor
1058:
1052:
1001:Nicholas Kemmer
952:
903:Michael Clapham
862:Edward Appleton
833:
805:
800:
772:Edward Mellanby
756:Edward Appleton
745:Margaret Gowing
641:
635:
548:Lord Stonehaven
522:Lord Chartfield
456:
427:
401:Earl of Suffolk
388:Deuxième Bureau
325:Hans von Halban
313:
210:
204:
172:
53:nuclear weapons
17:
12:
11:
5:
4824:
4814:
4813:
4808:
4803:
4798:
4793:
4788:
4783:
4768:
4767:
4765:United Kingdom
4755:
4743:
4731:
4719:
4699:
4698:
4688:
4683:
4667:
4651:
4629:
4628:External links
4626:
4624:
4623:
4602:
4600:
4597:
4595:
4594:
4576:(3): 259–273.
4570:War in History
4565:
4551:
4538:
4532:
4514:
4500:
4482:
4476:
4458:
4452:
4439:
4425:
4412:
4406:
4388:
4382:
4369:
4355:
4335:
4291:
4270:
4252:
4246:
4233:
4196:
4175:
4154:
4140:
4124:Groves, Leslie
4120:
4106:
4089:
4069:
4043:(2): 238–252.
4032:
4018:
4003:
3997:
3977:
3927:
3877:
3818:
3798:
3747:
3733:
3720:
3714:
3701:
3673:(5): 441–446.
3661:(1 May 2011).
3655:
3643:10.2307/448105
3637:(2): 202–230.
3623:
3593:
3591:
3588:
3585:
3584:
3559:
3547:
3535:
3523:
3511:
3499:
3487:
3475:
3463:
3451:
3439:
3427:
3415:
3403:
3391:
3379:
3377:, p. 177.
3367:
3352:
3337:
3325:
3313:
3301:
3289:
3277:
3265:
3253:
3251:, p. 208.
3241:
3229:
3203:
3177:
3175:, p. 528.
3165:
3139:
3137:, p. 263.
3127:
3115:
3103:
3101:, p. 254.
3091:
3079:
3067:
3055:
3053:, p. 234.
3043:
3041:, p. 296.
3031:
3006:
2994:
2982:
2978:Bernstein 1976
2967:
2965:, p. 208.
2963:Bernstein 1976
2955:
2953:, p. 224.
2943:
2941:, p. 218.
2931:
2927:Bernstein 1976
2919:
2907:
2895:
2880:
2863:
2851:
2847:Zimmerman 1995
2839:
2837:, p. 259.
2835:Zimmerman 1995
2827:
2815:
2803:
2791:
2779:
2777:, p. 261.
2764:
2762:, p. 258.
2752:
2740:
2728:
2716:
2704:
2702:, p. 245.
2692:
2680:
2668:
2645:
2623:
2608:
2596:
2584:
2572:
2557:
2545:
2533:
2507:
2505:, p. 343.
2495:
2493:, p. 345.
2483:
2471:
2469:, p. 414.
2459:
2444:
2442:, p. 278.
2432:
2430:, p. 109.
2417:
2405:
2393:
2381:
2369:
2357:
2355:, p. 293.
2345:
2333:
2316:
2304:
2292:
2280:
2268:
2266:, p. 446.
2264:Bernstein 2011
2256:
2254:, p. 690.
2244:
2232:
2228:Bernstein 2011
2220:
2216:Bernstein 2011
2208:
2206:, p. 321.
2196:
2184:
2172:
2157:
2145:
2133:
2121:
2109:
2092:
2080:
2068:
2056:
2044:
2032:
2020:
2008:
1996:
1994:, p. 262.
1992:Zimmerman 1995
1984:
1972:
1970:, p. 240.
1968:Bernstein 2011
1960:
1948:
1933:
1921:
1909:
1897:
1895:, p. 312.
1885:
1872:
1871:
1869:
1866:
1854:Sputnik crisis
1749:Clement Attlee
1745:Mackenzie King
1710:Main article:
1707:
1704:
1660:Lavrenty Beria
1652:Cambridge Five
1644:Melita Norwood
1628:Main article:
1625:
1622:
1620:
1617:
1613:Clement Attlee
1566:William Penney
1508:James Chadwick
1493:Main article:
1490:
1487:
1443:
1442:
1439:
1436:
1353:Main article:
1350:
1347:
1343:William Penney
1306:
1303:
1294:Arthur Compton
1229:
1226:
1207:Tizard Mission
1205:Main article:
1202:
1201:Tizard mission
1199:
1197:
1194:
1129:
1126:
1113:George Placzek
1093:Jack Mackenzie
1083:designs using
1054:Main article:
1051:
1048:
999:also in 1940.
993:Philip Abelson
975:of 239 and an
951:
948:
846:gas centrifuge
832:
829:
821:Michael Perrin
804:
801:
799:
796:
768:Archibald Hill
764:Alfred Egerton
729:Norman Feather
725:Egon Bretscher
691:MAUD Committee
677:Norman Haworth
645:MAUD Committee
639:MAUD Committee
637:Main article:
634:
633:MAUD Committee
631:
627:MAUD Committee
587:Rudolf Peierls
534:Foreign Office
511:Hastings Ismay
464:Joseph Rotblat
452:Main article:
426:
423:
415:Windsor Castle
333:Francis Perrin
312:
309:
297:electron volts
278:atomic nucleus
230:John Cockcroft
218:James Chadwick
206:Main article:
203:
200:
191:John Cockcroft
187:Rudolf Peierls
179:William Penney
171:
168:
152:Sputnik crisis
96:MAUD Committee
76:Rudolf Peierls
30:Charles Portal
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4823:
4812:
4809:
4807:
4804:
4802:
4799:
4797:
4794:
4792:
4789:
4787:
4784:
4782:
4779:
4778:
4776:
4766:
4756:
4754:
4744:
4742:
4737:
4732:
4730:
4720:
4718:
4708:
4707:
4704:
4696:
4692:
4689:
4687:
4684:
4672:
4668:
4656:
4652:
4640:
4638:
4632:
4631:
4620:
4616:
4612:
4608:
4604:
4603:
4591:
4587:
4583:
4579:
4575:
4571:
4566:
4562:
4558:
4554:
4548:
4544:
4539:
4535:
4529:
4525:
4524:
4519:
4515:
4511:
4507:
4503:
4501:0-684-80400-X
4497:
4493:
4492:
4487:
4483:
4479:
4477:0-671-65719-4
4473:
4469:
4468:
4463:
4459:
4455:
4449:
4445:
4440:
4436:
4432:
4428:
4422:
4418:
4413:
4409:
4403:
4399:
4398:
4393:
4392:Pais, Abraham
4389:
4385:
4379:
4375:
4370:
4366:
4362:
4358:
4356:0-688-06910-X
4352:
4347:
4346:
4340:
4336:
4332:
4328:
4324:
4320:
4316:
4312:
4308:
4304:
4300:
4299:Frisch, O. R.
4296:
4292:
4281:
4277:
4273:
4267:
4260:
4259:
4253:
4249:
4243:
4239:
4234:
4219:
4215:
4211:
4204:
4203:
4197:
4186:
4182:
4178:
4176:0-520-07186-7
4172:
4165:
4164:
4159:
4155:
4151:
4147:
4143:
4141:0-306-70738-1
4137:
4132:
4131:
4125:
4121:
4117:
4113:
4109:
4107:0-333-15781-8
4103:
4099:
4095:
4094:Arnold, Lorna
4090:
4086:
4082:
4078:
4074:
4070:
4066:
4062:
4058:
4054:
4050:
4046:
4042:
4038:
4033:
4029:
4025:
4021:
4015:
4011:
4010:
4004:
4000:
3994:
3989:
3988:
3982:
3978:
3974:
3970:
3965:
3960:
3956:
3952:
3948:
3944:
3940:
3936:
3932:
3928:
3924:
3920:
3915:
3910:
3906:
3902:
3898:
3894:
3890:
3886:
3882:
3878:
3863:
3859:
3855:
3851:
3847:
3843:
3839:
3835:
3831:
3824:
3819:
3815:
3811:
3807:
3803:
3799:
3795:
3791:
3786:
3781:
3777:
3773:
3770:(3252): 312.
3769:
3765:
3764:
3756:
3752:
3748:
3744:
3740:
3736:
3734:0-7195-5225-7
3730:
3726:
3721:
3717:
3715:0-19-853992-4
3711:
3707:
3702:
3698:
3694:
3689:
3684:
3680:
3676:
3672:
3668:
3664:
3660:
3656:
3652:
3648:
3644:
3640:
3636:
3632:
3628:
3624:
3609:
3602:
3601:
3595:
3594:
3569:
3563:
3556:
3551:
3544:
3543:Cathcart 1995
3539:
3532:
3531:Cathcart 1995
3527:
3520:
3519:Cathcart 1995
3515:
3508:
3507:Cathcart 1995
3503:
3496:
3491:
3485:, p. 57.
3484:
3483:Cathcart 1995
3479:
3472:
3467:
3461:, p. 21.
3460:
3459:Cathcart 1995
3455:
3448:
3443:
3436:
3431:
3424:
3419:
3413:, p. 92.
3412:
3407:
3400:
3395:
3388:
3383:
3376:
3371:
3364:
3359:
3357:
3349:
3344:
3342:
3335:, p. 93.
3334:
3329:
3322:
3317:
3311:, p. 86.
3310:
3305:
3298:
3293:
3286:
3281:
3275:, p. 58.
3274:
3269:
3262:
3257:
3250:
3245:
3239:, p. 64.
3238:
3233:
3217:
3213:
3207:
3191:
3187:
3181:
3174:
3169:
3153:
3149:
3143:
3136:
3131:
3124:
3119:
3112:
3107:
3100:
3095:
3088:
3083:
3076:
3071:
3064:
3059:
3052:
3047:
3040:
3035:
3019:
3013:
3011:
3003:
2998:
2991:
2986:
2979:
2974:
2972:
2964:
2959:
2952:
2947:
2940:
2935:
2928:
2923:
2916:
2911:
2905:, p. 43.
2904:
2899:
2893:, p. 22.
2892:
2887:
2885:
2878:, p. 42.
2877:
2872:
2870:
2868:
2860:
2855:
2848:
2843:
2836:
2831:
2824:
2819:
2812:
2807:
2800:
2795:
2788:
2783:
2776:
2771:
2769:
2761:
2756:
2749:
2744:
2737:
2732:
2725:
2720:
2713:
2708:
2701:
2696:
2689:
2684:
2677:
2672:
2664:
2660:
2654:
2652:
2650:
2633:
2627:
2620:
2615:
2613:
2605:
2600:
2593:
2588:
2581:
2576:
2569:
2564:
2562:
2554:
2549:
2542:
2537:
2522:
2518:
2511:
2504:
2499:
2492:
2487:
2480:
2475:
2468:
2463:
2456:
2451:
2449:
2441:
2436:
2429:
2424:
2422:
2414:
2409:
2402:
2397:
2391:, p. 85.
2390:
2385:
2378:
2373:
2366:
2361:
2354:
2349:
2342:
2337:
2331:, p. 45.
2330:
2325:
2323:
2321:
2314:, p. 41.
2313:
2308:
2302:, p. 41.
2301:
2296:
2289:
2284:
2277:
2272:
2265:
2260:
2253:
2248:
2241:
2236:
2229:
2224:
2217:
2212:
2205:
2200:
2193:
2188:
2181:
2176:
2169:
2164:
2162:
2154:
2149:
2142:
2137:
2131:, p. 50.
2130:
2125:
2119:, p. 69.
2118:
2113:
2107:, p. 52.
2106:
2101:
2099:
2097:
2089:
2084:
2077:
2072:
2065:
2060:
2053:
2048:
2042:, p. 42.
2041:
2036:
2029:
2024:
2017:
2012:
2005:
2000:
1993:
1988:
1981:
1976:
1969:
1964:
1957:
1952:
1946:, p. 11.
1945:
1940:
1938:
1930:
1925:
1918:
1913:
1906:
1901:
1894:
1893:Chadwick 1932
1889:
1882:
1877:
1873:
1865:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1842:
1840:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1820:Royal Arsenal
1817:
1816:Fort Halstead
1812:
1811:atomic energy
1808:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1793:
1789:
1783:
1771:
1766:
1762:
1757:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1741:
1739:
1736:
1731:
1723:
1718:
1713:
1703:
1701:
1700:Richard Sorge
1697:
1693:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1667:
1665:
1662:'s report to
1661:
1657:
1656:Alan Nunn May
1653:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1638:Klaus Fuchs,
1637:
1631:
1616:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1601:
1600:
1594:
1592:
1591:
1586:
1582:
1579:
1578:Group Captain
1575:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1528:
1524:
1522:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1501:
1496:
1486:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1455:Field Marshal
1452:
1451:Henry Stimson
1448:
1440:
1437:
1434:
1433:
1432:
1430:
1426:
1421:
1419:
1418:war in Europe
1415:
1386:
1385:weapons-grade
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1356:
1346:
1344:
1340:
1335:
1333:
1319:
1316:
1311:
1302:
1300:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1277:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1261:
1259:
1255:
1254:Vannevar Bush
1251:
1247:
1239:
1238:Mark Oliphant
1234:
1225:
1223:
1219:
1214:
1208:
1193:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1172:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1158:
1153:
1151:
1147:
1138:
1134:
1125:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1089:
1086:
1082:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1057:
1047:
1045:
1041:
1036:
1031:
1027:
1021:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1010:Glenn Seaborg
1006:
1002:
998:
994:
990:
985:
983:
978:
977:atomic number
974:
970:
966:
962:
961:slow neutrons
958:
957:plutonium-239
947:
946:in mid-1943.
945:
941:
937:
933:
929:
925:
921:
920:M. S. Factory
917:
912:
911:Philip Baxter
908:
904:
900:
895:
891:
888:
884:
880:
871:
867:
863:
858:
854:
851:
847:
843:
839:
828:
826:
822:
818:
814:
813:Wallace Akers
810:
795:
793:
789:
785:
784:Lord Cherwell
781:
780:John Anderson
777:
773:
769:
765:
761:
757:
753:
748:
746:
742:
736:
734:
730:
726:
721:
717:
713:
709:
705:
701:
692:
688:
684:
680:
678:
674:
673:Charles Ellis
670:
666:
662:
661:Royal Society
658:
654:
650:
646:
640:
630:
628:
622:
620:
615:
611:
607:
603:
600:
596:
592:
588:
580:
575:
571:
569:
565:
564:Mark Oliphant
561:
557:
556:Union Minière
553:
552:Edgar Sengier
549:
545:
544:
539:
538:Belgian Congo
535:
531:
527:
523:
518:
516:
512:
509:
508:Major General
505:
501:
497:
493:
489:
488:William Spens
485:
484:Belgian Congo
481:
477:
473:
469:
465:
461:
455:
447:
443:
439:
435:
431:
422:
420:
416:
412:
408:
407:
402:
398:
394:
390:
389:
383:
379:
376:
372:
367:
365:
361:
356:
355:critical mass
352:
351:
346:
342:
338:
334:
330:
326:
322:
318:
308:
306:
302:
298:
293:
292:
287:
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
266:Berlin-Dahlem
263:
259:
255:
251:
247:
243:
239:
235:
234:Ernest Walton
231:
227:
223:
219:
215:
209:
196:
192:
188:
184:
180:
176:
167:
165:
161:
157:
153:
149:
145:
141:
137:
133:
128:
126:
122:
117:
111:
109:
105:
101:
100:Wallace Akers
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
68:
66:
62:
58:
54:
50:
46:
40:in June 1941.
39:
35:
31:
27:
26:Lord Cherwell
23:
19:
4695:Archive on 4
4675:. Retrieved
4659:. Retrieved
4643:. Retrieved
4636:
4610:
4607:Ehrman, John
4573:
4569:
4542:
4522:
4490:
4465:
4443:
4416:
4396:
4373:
4344:
4306:
4302:
4283:. Retrieved
4257:
4237:
4225:. Retrieved
4218:the original
4201:
4188:. Retrieved
4162:
4129:
4097:
4076:
4040:
4036:
4008:
3986:
3946:
3942:
3896:
3892:
3869:. Retrieved
3862:the original
3833:
3829:
3805:
3767:
3761:
3724:
3705:
3670:
3666:
3634:
3630:
3615:. Retrieved
3608:the original
3599:
3575:. Retrieved
3562:
3550:
3538:
3526:
3514:
3502:
3490:
3478:
3466:
3454:
3442:
3430:
3418:
3406:
3394:
3382:
3375:Nichols 1987
3370:
3328:
3316:
3304:
3292:
3280:
3268:
3256:
3249:Coleman 1976
3244:
3232:
3220:. Retrieved
3206:
3194:. Retrieved
3190:the original
3180:
3168:
3156:. Retrieved
3142:
3130:
3118:
3106:
3094:
3082:
3070:
3058:
3046:
3034:
3022:. Retrieved
2997:
2985:
2958:
2951:Farmelo 2013
2946:
2939:Farmelo 2013
2934:
2922:
2910:
2898:
2854:
2842:
2830:
2823:Farmelo 2013
2818:
2811:Aaserud 2006
2806:
2799:Farmelo 2013
2794:
2782:
2775:Farmelo 2013
2760:Farmelo 2013
2755:
2743:
2736:Farmelo 2013
2731:
2724:Farmelo 2013
2719:
2707:
2700:Farmelo 2013
2695:
2683:
2671:
2636:. Retrieved
2626:
2599:
2587:
2575:
2548:
2536:
2524:. Retrieved
2510:
2498:
2486:
2474:
2462:
2435:
2413:Farmelo 2013
2408:
2396:
2384:
2372:
2360:
2348:
2343:, p. 5.
2336:
2307:
2295:
2283:
2271:
2259:
2252:Peierls 2007
2247:
2240:Farmelo 2013
2235:
2223:
2211:
2199:
2187:
2175:
2153:Farmelo 2013
2148:
2136:
2124:
2112:
2083:
2071:
2059:
2047:
2035:
2023:
2016:Farmelo 2013
2011:
1999:
1987:
1975:
1963:
1958:, p. 5.
1951:
1924:
1912:
1900:
1888:
1883:, p. 9.
1876:
1843:
1805:(AERE) near
1790:
1770:Ernest Bevin
1758:
1753:Harry Truman
1742:
1735:Vice Admiral
1727:
1687:
1680:Soviet Union
1668:
1636:atomic spies
1633:
1630:Atomic spies
1608:
1599:Smyth Report
1597:
1595:
1588:
1564:
1552:Hanford Site
1529:
1525:
1517:
1498:
1475:Lord Halifax
1461:and Colonel
1444:
1422:
1381:
1336:
1320:
1312:
1308:
1278:
1274:Lyman Briggs
1262:
1243:
1210:
1173:
1154:
1142:
1121:Pierre Auger
1090:
1077:
1022:
986:
953:
896:
892:
879:Graham's law
875:
834:
806:
803:Organisation
749:
737:
696:
642:
623:
608:
604:
595:enemy aliens
584:
555:
541:
519:
515:Henry Tizard
457:
445:
405:
386:
368:
348:
329:Lew Kowarski
314:
289:
282:Lise Meitner
246:Enrico Fermi
211:
197:in May 1947.
140:nuclear test
129:
125:atomic spies
121:Soviet Union
112:
84:a memorandum
69:
44:
43:
34:Dudley Pound
18:
4295:Meitner, L.
3577:12 December
3387:Groves 1962
3321:Rhodes 1995
3309:Laucht 2012
3297:Rhodes 1995
3285:Rhodes 1995
3273:Rhodes 1995
3261:Gordin 2009
3135:Gowing 1964
3123:Gowing 1964
3075:Gowing 1964
3063:Gowing 1964
3051:Gowing 1964
3002:Gowing 1964
2990:Gowing 1964
2859:Gowing 1964
2712:Rhodes 1986
2688:Gowing 1964
2676:Gowing 1964
2619:Gowing 1964
2604:Gowing 1964
2580:Gowing 1964
2568:Gowing 1964
2553:Gowing 1964
2541:Gowing 1964
2503:Rhodes 1986
2491:Rhodes 1986
2479:Gowing 1964
2467:Gowing 1964
2455:Rhodes 1986
2428:Gowing 1964
2401:Gowing 1964
2389:Gowing 1964
2377:Gowing 1964
2365:Laucht 2012
2329:Gowing 1964
2312:Laucht 2012
2300:Gowing 1964
2288:Gowing 1964
2276:Gowing 1964
2204:Rhodes 1986
2180:Gowing 1964
2168:Gowing 1964
2129:Gowing 1964
2105:Gowing 1964
2088:Martin 2014
2052:Gowing 1964
1905:Gowing 1964
1795:Lord Portal
1605:White Paper
1270:S-1 Section
973:atomic mass
965:uranium-239
842:Eric Rideal
752:Lord Hankey
716:Franz Simon
700:Klaus Fuchs
665:Philip Moon
614:uranium-235
480:uranium ore
438:blue plaque
375:Norsk Hydro
371:heavy water
345:H. G. Wells
341:atomic bomb
311:Paris Group
183:Otto Frisch
88:uranium-235
55:during the
45:Tube Alloys
4786:Code names
4775:Categories
4677:6 February
4661:6 February
4645:6 February
3590:References
3237:Szasz 1992
3173:Jones 1985
3111:Brown 1997
3099:Brown 1997
3087:Brown 1997
3039:Jones 1985
2592:Brown 1997
2526:6 February
2440:Smyth 1945
2353:Brown 1997
2341:Szasz 1992
2192:Szasz 1992
2141:Clark 1961
2076:Clark 1961
2064:Clark 1961
2040:Clark 1961
2028:Clark 1961
2004:Clark 1961
1956:Clark 1961
1944:Clark 1961
1881:Clark 1961
1720:President
1686:(Russian:
1467:C. D. Howe
1137:Niels Bohr
1012:, using a
969:beta decay
936:Capenhurst
760:Henry Dale
698:scientist
610:Niels Bohr
470:laureates
319:in Paris:
268:bombarded
170:Background
65:classified
4619:488868259
4590:161470713
4280:881370741
4185:637004643
4116:611555258
4057:1468-2346
4028:300718864
3973:1364-5021
3923:1364-5021
3850:0032-8456
3697:0002-9505
3555:Gott 1963
3423:Paul 2000
3348:Paul 2000
3158:2 January
2891:Paul 2000
2748:Pais 1991
2117:Owen 2010
1782:Mr Byrnes
1619:Aftermath
1590:Big Stink
1459:John Dill
1014:cyclotron
1005:neptunium
950:Plutonium
924:Rhydymwyn
733:plutonium
406:Broompark
258:Otto Hahn
104:code name
82:co-wrote
4741:Politics
4609:(1953).
4561:23901666
4520:(1945).
4510:32509950
4488:(1995).
4464:(1986).
4435:43615254
4394:(1991).
4365:15223648
4341:(1987).
4214:10913875
4190:26 March
4126:(1962).
4096:(1974).
4075:(1964).
3983:(2013).
3858:26404013
3804:(1961).
3753:(1932).
3743:31241690
3222:18 March
1856:and the
1824:Woolwich
1706:Post-war
1692:Red Army
1674:leader,
1546:and the
1414:gigawatt
1179:justice
1152:(BOAC).
1139:in 1935.
554:. Since
530:Treasury
364:graphite
254:isotopes
250:elements
47:was the
4703:Portals
4331:4113262
4311:Bibcode
4085:3195209
4065:2611300
3951:Bibcode
3901:Bibcode
3794:4076465
3772:Bibcode
3675:Bibcode
3617:26 June
3196:8 March
2787:Kapitza
1836:Fat Man
1765:McMahon
1690:), the
1544:Argonne
1374:at the
1028:at the
982:fissile
868:of the
850:Clusius
657:anagram
444:at the
305:fission
270:uranium
242:protons
238:lithium
224:at the
220:at the
214:neutron
4717:Canada
4617:
4588:
4559:
4549:
4530:
4508:
4498:
4474:
4450:
4433:
4423:
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4380:
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4353:
4329:
4303:Nature
4278:
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4227:8 June
4212:
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4150:537684
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3856:
3848:
3814:824335
3812:
3792:
3763:Nature
3741:
3731:
3712:
3695:
3651:448105
3649:
1801:. The
1786:
1778:
1774:
1664:Stalin
1570:Tinian
1536:DuPont
1409:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1328:
1324:
1292:, and
944:Widnes
907:Kynoch
811:, and
778:, Sir
758:, Sir
492:master
490:, the
382:Vemork
331:, and
291:Nature
274:barium
236:split
36:, and
4586:S2CID
4327:S2CID
4285:3 May
4262:(PDF)
4221:(PDF)
4206:(PDF)
4167:(PDF)
4061:JSTOR
3871:6 May
3865:(PDF)
3854:JSTOR
3826:(PDF)
3790:S2CID
3758:(PDF)
3647:JSTOR
3611:(PDF)
3604:(PDF)
3571:(PDF)
3024:6 May
2638:6 May
1868:Notes
1572:with
928:Wales
926:, in
591:radar
4679:2017
4663:2017
4647:2017
4615:OCLC
4557:OCLC
4547:ISBN
4528:ISBN
4506:OCLC
4496:ISBN
4472:ISBN
4448:ISBN
4431:OCLC
4421:ISBN
4402:ISBN
4378:ISBN
4361:OCLC
4351:ISBN
4287:2016
4276:OCLC
4266:ISBN
4242:ISBN
4229:2013
4210:OCLC
4192:2013
4181:OCLC
4171:ISBN
4146:OCLC
4136:ISBN
4112:OCLC
4102:ISBN
4081:OCLC
4053:ISSN
4024:OCLC
4014:ISBN
3993:ISBN
3969:ISSN
3919:ISSN
3873:2016
3846:ISSN
3810:OCLC
3739:OCLC
3729:ISBN
3710:ISBN
3693:ISSN
3619:2011
3579:2013
3224:2013
3198:2014
3160:2015
3026:2017
2640:2016
2528:2013
1646:and
1596:The
1560:ZEEP
1457:Sir
1370:and
1322:that
1168:Aage
1069:ZEEP
1067:and
991:and
887:neon
864:was
860:Sir
770:and
727:and
675:and
643:The
532:and
474:and
260:and
252:and
232:and
212:The
189:and
78:and
4578:doi
4319:doi
4307:143
4045:doi
3959:doi
3947:137
3909:doi
3897:136
3838:doi
3780:doi
3768:129
3683:doi
3639:doi
2521:BBC
1822:at
1684:GRU
1672:KPD
1065:NRX
995:at
899:ICI
679:.
494:of
380:at
307:".
92:TNT
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