278:, a courier for the Soviet Union, was the man who actually transported the information to Soviet agents.. He also provided specifications for the payload, calculations and relationships for setting of the fission reaction, and schematics for labs producing weapons-grade isotopes. He reported on the existence of America's plutonium bomb plans including its plutonium production plant at Oak Ridge, Tennessee. Fuchs revealed that a plutonium bomb needed an implosion method of detonation rather than the gun method utilized in a uranium bomb. Ultimately, he provided the design of the plutonium bomb that was used for the Trinity test, a description of its initiator, that it had solid not hollow plutonium core, and other details about its design specification, the size of the explosion it would generate, and when and where it would be tested. This information helped the smaller under-manned and under-supplied Soviet group move toward the successful detonation of a nuclear weapon. Fuchs also had a significant role in advancing Soviet production of the fusion hydrogen bomb. He had attended Los Alamos’ meetings in 1946 on “Super” and worked on its dual implosion/ignition reaction, information about which he shared with Moscow through 1948. His contributions are reflected in the fact that within a year of the first U.S. hydrogen bomb test in 1952, the USSR successfully tested its hydrogen bomb in 1953.
225: — recognized the potential significance of an atomic bomb. They embarked in 1942 upon work to achieve a usable device. Estimates suggest that during the quest to create the atomic bomb, an investment of $ 2 billion, temporary use of 13,000 tons of silver, and 24,000 skilled workers drove the research and development phase of the project. Those skilled workers included the people to maintain and operate the machinery necessary for research. The largest Western facility had five hundred scientists working on the project, as well as a team of fifty to derive the equations for the cascade of neutrons required to drive the reaction. The fledgling equivalent Soviet program was quite different: The program consisted of fifty scientists, and two mathematicians trying to work out the equations for the particle cascade. The research and development of techniques to produce sufficiently enriched uranium and plutonium were beyond the scope and efforts of the Soviet group. The knowledge of techniques and strategies that the Allied programs employed, and which Soviet espionage obtained, may have played a role in the rapid development of the Soviet bomb after the war.
752:
457:. His motivation stemmed from his socialist views and his wish to keep the US from possessing all atomic weapons. Hall's espionage efforts were noteworthy because they gave the Soviets important information about how the Manhattan Project was coming along. Afterward he moved to England, Hall followed a profession in physics after the war and rose to prominence as a researcher. He held positions at a number of universities, including Cambridge and the University of Chicago. Hall passed away in Cambridge, England, on November 1, 1999; his identity as a spy was not revealed until very late in the 20th century. Hall's espionage activities remained unknown to U.S. authorities until the 1990s when declassified Soviet intelligence documents and statements from former KGB agents revealed his role. He was never tried for his espionage work, though he admitted to it in later years to reporters and to his family.
329:
identify which methods worked and prevented their wasting valuable resources on techniques which the development of the
American bomb had proven ineffective. The speed at which the Soviet nuclear program achieved a working bomb, with so few resources, depended on the amount of information acquired through espionage. During the Cold War trials, the United States emphasized the significance of that espionage. The activities of atomic spies underscored the intense competition between the United States and The Soviet Union for nuclear supremacy during the Cold War. Their actions had profound implications for international security and contributed to the escalation of tensions between the two superpowers. The revelations of atomic espionage also led to increased efforts to enhance counterintelligence measures and prevents further breaches of national security.
740:
427:, a German-born physicist working on the Manhattan Project, to the Soviets. He facilitated the transfer of highly classified information, including details about the atomic bomb, to Soviet intelligence agents. In 1950, Gold was arrested by the FBI and confessed to his espionage activities. He cooperated with authorities, providing valuable information about Soviet espionage networks in the United States. In 1951, Gold was sentenced to thirty years in prison, but he was released in 1966 after serving just over fifteen years. He lived out the remainder of his life quietly, working as a technician and later as a chemist in a hospital.
664:
652:
274:
established himself as a leading expert in theoretical physics. He eventually became one of the lead nuclear physicists in the
British program. In 1943 he moved to the United States to collaborate on the Manhattan Project. Due to Fuchs's position in the atomic program, he had access to most, if not all, of the material Moscow desired. Fuchs was also able to interpret and understand the information he was stealing, which made him an invaluable resource. Fuchs provided the Soviets with detailed information on the gas-phase separation process.
700:
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728:
338:
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Soviet
Academy of Sciences, with Igor V. Kurchatov as its head. Kurchatov recruited Khariton to work with him. A lack of materials made it very difficult for them to conduct novel research or to map out a clear pathway to achieving the fuel they needed. The Soviet scientists became frustrated with the difficulties of producing uranium fuel cheaply, and they found their industrial techniques for refinement lacking. The use of information stolen from the
20:
233:
method. The Allied program decided to use gas-phase extraction to obtain the pure uranium necessary for an atomic detonation. Using this method took large quantities of uranium ore and other rare materials, such as graphite, to successfully purify the U-235 isotope. The quantities required for the development were beyond the scope and purview of the Soviet program.
69:. Exactly what was given, and whether everyone on the list gave it, are still matters of some scholarly dispute. In some cases, some of the arrested suspects or government witnesses had given strong testimonies or confessions which they recanted later or said were fabricated. Their work constitutes the most publicly well-known and well-documented case of
149:
for both fission bombs. Hall provided a report on Los Alamos principle bomb designs and manufacturing, the plutonium implosion model, and identified other scientists working on the bomb. Greenglass supplied information on the preparation of the uranium bomb, calculations pertaining to structural issues with it, and material on producing
1593:“ ‘It has even been alleged that I “changed the course of history.” Maybe the “course of history,” if unchanged, could have led to atomic war in the past 50 years – for example the bomb might have been dropped on China in 1949 or the early ’50s. Well, if I helped to prevent that, I accept the charge. ...’ ”
153:. Fuchs’ information corroborated Hall and Greenglass. Koval had access to critical information on dealing with the reactor-produced plutonium's fizzle problem, and how using manufactured polonium corrected the problem. With all the stolen information, Soviet nuclear ability was advanced by several years at least.
232:
and separating the highly reactive isotopes needed to create the payload for a nuclear warhead took years and consumed a vast quantity of resources. The United States and Great
Britain dedicated their best scientists to this cause and constructed three plants, each with a different isotope-extraction
193:
In recorded comments, physicists lamented their inability to achieve any kind of practical application from the discoveries. They thought that creation of an atomic weapon was unattainable. According to a United States
Congressional joint committee, although the scientists could conceivably have been
1706:
Alan Nunn May, a
British atomic scientist who spied for the Soviet Union, died on Jan. 12 in Cambridge. He was 91. ... One of the first Soviet spies uncovered during the cold war, Dr. Nunn May worked on the Manhattan Project and was betrayed by a Soviet defector in Canada. His arrest in 1946 led the
1517:
David
Greenglass, serving fifteen years as a confessed atom spy, denied to members of his family recently that he had been coached by the Federal Bureau of Investigation in the drawing of segments of the atom bomb, or that he had given perjured testimony against his sister, Mrs. Ethel Rosenberg, and
273:
in 1932 while still a student in
Germany. With the rise of the Nazi regime in 1933, Fuchs, a staunch anti-fascist, fled Germany and sought refuge in Great Britain. There, he continued his academic pursuits and eventually earned a Ph.D. in physics from the University of Bristol in 1937. Fuchs quickly
1360:
Morris Cohen, an
American who spied for the Soviet Union and was instrumental in relaying atomic bomb secrets to the Kremlin in the 1940s, has died, Russian newspapers reported today. Mr. Cohen, best known in the West as Peter Kroger, died of heart failure in a Moscow hospital on June 23 at age 84,
249:
succeeded in obtaining from the
Manhattan Project. Once the Soviets had learned of the American plans to develop an atomic bomb during the 1940s, Moscow began recruiting agents to get information. Moscow sought very specific information from its intelligence cells in America and demanded updates on
189:
conducted by the US during the war, the significance of the Soviet contributions has been rarely understood or credited outside the field of physics. According to several sources, it was understood on a theoretical level that the atom provided for extremely powerful and novel releases of energy and
132:
who also worked at Los Alamos. Some of this information was available to the government during the 1950s trials, but it was not usable in court as it was highly classified. Additionally, historians have found that records from Soviet archives, which were briefly opened to researchers after the fall
568:
by leading European intellectuals (including Pope Pius XII), the Rosenbergs were both executed in 1953. President Eisenhower wrote to his son, serving in Korea at that time, that if he spared Ethel (presumably for the sake of her two young children), then the Soviets would recruit their spies from
328:
The Soviet nuclear program would have eventually been able to develop a nuclear weapon without the aid of espionage. It did not develop a basic understanding of the usefulness of an atomic weapon, the sheer resources required, and the talent until much later. Espionage helped the Soviet scientists
148:
and Los Alamos, was revealed. According to Vassiliev's notebooks, Fuchs provided the Soviet Union the first information on electromagnetic separation of uranium and the primary explosion needed to start the chain reaction, as well as a complete and detailed technical report with the specifications
92:
may also have been appealing to some. Another large motivational factor was to be engrained into the history of the world, and to be remembered as someone who did something larger than themselves. Regardless of their specific motivations, each individual played a major role in the way the Cold War
236:
The Soviet Union did not have natural uranium-ore mines at the start of the nuclear arms race but in early 1943 it began to acquire uranium metal, uranium oxide, and uranium nitrate through the Lend-Lease Agreement with the U.S. By February 1943, Laboratory No. 2 was established by decree of the
253:
The Soviet Union needed spies who had security clearance high enough to have access to classified information at the Manhattan Project and who could understand and interpret what they were stealing. Moscow also needed reliable spies who believed in the communist cause and would provide accurate
367:
said. Morris and his wife, Lona, served eight years in prison, less than half of their sentences, before being released in a prisoner swap with the Soviet Union. He died without revealing the name of the American scientist who helped pass vital information about the United States atomic bomb
305:, passing along information and money between the Soviet agents in the United States and their handlers in Moscow. He also helped to recruit new spies and served as a translator for some of the intelligence materials that were passed along. Without atomic spies such as
607:, but was released in 1969 on appeal and for good behavior after serving 17 years and 9 months. In 2008, Sobell admitted to passing information to the Soviets, although he said it was all for defensive systems. He implicated Julius Rosenberg, in an interview with the
433: — an American machinist at Los Alamos during the Manhattan Project. Greenglass confessed that he gave crude schematics of lab experiments to the Russians during World War II. He recanted some aspects of his testimony against his sister Ethel and brother-in-law
1621:
751:
629:", the secret British nuclear research project. She was later considered "the most important female agent ever recruited by the USSR". She was first suspected as a security risk in 1965 but never prosecuted. Her spying career was revealed by
1488:
Harry Gold, who served 15 years in Federal prison as a confessed atomic spy courier, for Klaus Fuchs, a Soviet agent, and who was a key Government witness in the Julius and Ethel Rosenberg espionage case in 1951, died 18 months ago in
541:
in 1946. He was convicted that year, which led the United States to restrict the sharing of atomic secrets with the UK. On May 1, 1946, he was convicted and sentenced to ten years hard labour. He was released in 1952, after serving 6½
250:
the progress of the Allied project. Moscow was also greatly concerned with the procedures being used for U-235 separation, what method of detonation was being used, and what industrial equipment was being used for these techniques.
1389:
Klaus Fuchs, the German-born physicist who was imprisoned in the 1950s in Britain after being convicted of passing nuclear secrets to the Soviet Union, died yesterday, the East German press agency A.D.N. reported. He was 76 years
289:. Yakovlev was stationed at the Soviet consulate in New York City and tasked with recruiting American citizens to spy on behalf of the Soviet Union. Yakovlev recruited a number of people to work for the Soviet Union, including
393:. Fuchs escaped the charge of espionage due to a lack of independent evidence and because, at the time of his activities, the Soviet Union was an ally, not an enemy, of Great Britain. In December 1950 he was stripped of his
198:, and ultimately, the capability to do so. The undertaking would be of an unimaginable scale, and the resources required to engineer for such use as a nuclear bomb, and nuclear power were deemed too great to pursue.
285:. He acted as a soviet spy during the 1940s and early 1950s, aiding the exchange of American nuclear program information to the Soviets. Gold's primary contact in the Soviet intelligence agency was a man named
262:. Hall provided the specifications of the bomb dropped on Nagasaki. This information allowed the Soviet scientists a first-hand look at the setup of a successful atomic weapon built by the Manhattan Project.
241:
eventually rectified the problem. Without such information, the problems of the Soviet atomic team would have taken many years to correct, affecting the production of a Soviet atomic weapon significantly.
1864:
Morton Sobell, sentenced to 30 years for a wartime espionage conspiracy to deliver vital national secrets to the Soviet Union, was released from prison yesterday after serving 17 years and 9 months.
1571:
and Ms. Kunstel say Mr. Hall and a former Harvard roommate, Saville Sax, approached a Soviet trade company in New York in late 1944 and began supplying critical information about the atomic project.
1422:
His name was Klaus Emil Fuchs, and he was, as it has been shown by history, the most important atom spy in history. Not any of the notorious names in the saga of the theft of the atom bomb secrets
325:. He was eventually convicted of espionage and sentenced to 30 years in prison. However, he was released after serving only 15 years as part of a prisoner exchange program with the Soviet Union.
556:
charges were not applicable, since the United States and the Soviet Union were allies at the time. The Rosenbergs denied all charges but were convicted in a trial in which the prosecutor
77:. At the same time, numerous nuclear scientists wanted to share the information with the world scientific community, but this proposal was firmly quashed by the United States government.
1374:
437:, which he said he gave in an effort to protect his own wife, Ruth, from prosecution. Greenglass was sentenced to 15 years in prison, served 10 years, and later reunited with his wife.
26:, arguably the most important of the identified "atomic spies" for his extensive access to high-level scientific data and his ability to make sense of it through his technical training
1563:
Theodore Alvin Hall, who was the youngest physicist to work on the atomic bomb project at Los Alamos during World War II and was later identified as a Soviet spy, died on Nov. 1 in
361: — an American, "Thanks to Cohen, designers of the Soviet atomic bomb got piles of technical documentation straight from the secret laboratory in Los Alamos," the newspaper
108:. In 1995, the U.S. declassified its Venona Files which consisted of deciphered 1949 Soviet intelligence communications. These provided clues to the identity of several spies at
269:. Fuchs, a German-born British physicist, went to the United States to work on the atomic project and became one of its lead scientists. Fuchs had become a member of the
1888:
In an interview on Thursday, Mr. Sobell, who served nearly 19 years in Alcatraz and other federal prisons, admitted for the first time that he had been a Soviet spy.
88:. Others were motivated by financial gain, while some may have been coerced or blackmailed into spying. The prospect of playing a role in shaping the outcome of the
739:
321:
the rate at which the Soviet Union achieved nuclear weaponry would have been impossible. Gold's work as a spy came to an end in 1950 when he was arrested by the
140:
provides additional details about Soviet espionage from 1930 to 1950, including the greater extent of Fuchs, Hall, and Greenglass's contributions. In 2007, spy
454:
699:
128:, as his control. The Venona Files corroborated their espionage activities and also revealed others in the network of Soviet spies, including physicist
2026:
548: — an American couple tasked with recruiting potential Soviet spies. Among those recruited was Ethel's brother, David Greenglass, a machinist at
2031:
1846:
1501:
1446:
972:
835:
245:
Some historians believe that the Soviet Union achieved its great leaps in its atomic program by the espionage information and technical data that
618:
1801:
Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were executed early this morning at Sing Sing Prison for conspiring to pass atomic secrets to Russia in World War II.
603: — an American engineer, he was tried and convicted of conspiracy, along with the Rosenbergs. He was sentenced to 30 years imprisonment in
173:
were later recognized for their contributions to the understanding of a nuclear reality and won several Nobel Prizes. Soviet scientists such as
1344:
675:
1751:
1402:
537: — a British citizen, he was one of the first Soviet spies to be discovered. He worked on the Manhattan Project and was betrayed by a
1690:
1976:
259:
1771:
Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were charged with the crime of conspiracy to commit espionage, and tried under the Espionage Act of 1917.
617: — a British Communist, was an active Russian spy since at least 1938 and was never detected. Employed as a secretary in the
1548:
1212:
1062:
281:
Another extremely important individual that played a significant role in the Soviet Union's acquisition of atomic secrets was
1985:
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948:
908:
873:
811:
776:
1664:
1224:
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417:
asserts that "it was primarily Fuchs who enabled the Soviets to catch up with Americans" in the race for the nuclear bomb.
112:
and elsewhere, some of whom have never been identified. These decrypts prompted the arrest of naturalized British citizen
711:
472:
1530:
524:
651:
1968:
1950:
1935:
1647:
1472:
1157:
1034:
989:
1877:
1943:
Brotherhood of the Bomb: The Tangled Lives and Loyalties of Robert Oppenheimer, Ernest Lawrence, and Edward Teller
1586:
758:
575: — an American, acted as the courier for Klaus Fuchs and Theodore Hall. Sax and Hall had been roommates at
1814:
1674:
687:
506:
375:
109:
210:
727:
490:
379:
145:
593:
nuclear test. Codenamed "Godsend" by the Soviets, he defected to the Soviet Union in 1951, and received the
1582:
1568:
194:
first to generate a man-made fission reaction, they lacked the ambition, funding, engineering capability,
505:
plutonium bomb. His work was not known to the West until 2007, when he was posthumously recognized as a "
498:
480:
1567:, where he had become a leading, if diffident, pioneer in biological research. He was 74. ... Mr.
1427:
1085:
545:
350:
310:
290:
270:
125:
74:
2036:
597:. He lived under the alias "Smith" and died in 2015. His identity was only revealed publicly in 2019.
443: — an American, was the youngest physicist at Los Alamos. He gave a detailed description of the
2021:
1783:
1719:
1759:
1410:
2001:
718:
549:
394:
585: — an American, worked at Los Alamos from 1944 to 1946 as part of a unit that studied the
397:. He was released on June 23, 1959, after serving nine years and four months of his sentence at
374: — the German-born British theoretical physicist who worked with the British delegation at
2006:
590:
423: — an American, Gold's most infamous act was his involvement in passing information from
2016:
1114:
Allen Weinstein and Alexander Vassiliev, "Atomic Espionage: from Fuchs to the Rosenburgs" in
594:
342:
1213:
http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/Spies-Who-Spilled-Atomic-Bomb-Secrets.html
185:
helped establish the idea of, and prove the existence of, a splittable atom. Dwarfed by the
771:
565:
390:
363:
8:
398:
137:
80:
Atomic spies were motivated by a range of factors. Some, such as ideology or a belief in
169:
resulted in intense discussion among leading physicists world-wide. Scientists from the
2011:
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1851:
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966:
829:
636:
576:
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358:
485:
1981:
1964:
1946:
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1900:
1822:
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1627:
1603:
1277:
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1163:
1153:
1056:
The Russian-A(merican) Bomb: The Role of Espionage in the Soviet Atomic Bomb Project.
1030:
954:
944:
904:
869:
817:
807:
238:
186:
70:
1059:
104:, which intercepted and decrypted Soviet intelligence reports sent during and after
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1022:
896:
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434:
430:
346:
314:
294:
182:
121:
1311:
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286:
202:
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1956:
1619:
614:
564:. Despite international demands for clemency and multiple appeals to President
561:
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494:
382:
218:
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101:
94:
54:
42:
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1167:
890:
1995:
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622:
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582:
538:
534:
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440:
255:
214:
129:
124:, a Los Alamos Army-machinist. Greenglass identified his brother-in-law, spy
38:
552:. Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were tried for conspiracy to commit espionage.
378:
during the Manhattan Project. Fuchs was arrested in the UK and tried there.
1788:
855:
528:
467:
emigrant family who returned to the Soviet Union. He was inducted into the
460:
406:
386:
170:
162:
141:
105:
85:
62:
58:
865:
337:
1084:
Chapters 2–3 United States Government Printing Office, Washington, 1951.
626:
572:
424:
414:
371:
318:
298:
266:
258:
was a spy who had worked on the development of the plutonium bomb the US
206:
150:
113:
23:
1447:"Trinity by Frank Close review – in pursuit of 'the spy of the century'"
639: — a Soviet spy who passed information about the Manhattan Project.
781:
586:
420:
411:
Trinity: The Treachery and Pursuit of the Most Dangerous Spy in History
306:
282:
275:
195:
178:
117:
1261:
1147:
1928:
Stalin's Great Science: The Times and Adventures of Soviet Physicists
1707:
United States to restrict the sharing of atomic secrets with Britain.
938:
801:
520:
450:
136:
Transcription of declassified Soviet KGB documents by ex-KGB officer
81:
50:
1878:"For First Time, Figure in Rosenberg Case Admits Spying for Soviets"
1375:"Klaus Fuchs, Physicist Who Gave Atom Secrets to Soviet, Dies at 76"
1086:
https://archive.org/stream/sovietatomicespi1951unit#page/n3/mode/2up
1502:"Greenglass, in Prison, Vows to Kin He Told Truth About Rosenbergs"
604:
557:
519: — an American film director, he was caught photographing the
468:
89:
66:
705:
Theodore Hall's ID badge photo from Los Alamos National Laboratory
1301:(Yale University Press, 2010) kindle edition. locations 4030–4037
553:
502:
464:
445:
402:
302:
133:
of the Soviet Union, included more information about some spies.
1739:
for conspiring to pass atomic secrets to Russia in World War II.
19:
1735:
Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were executed early this morning at
246:
229:
222:
46:
1752:"The Rosenbergs: A Case of Love, Espionage, Deceit and Betray"
681:
Klaus Fuchs ID badge photo from Los Alamos National Laboratory
1755:
1406:
1662:
1620:
John Earl Haynes; Harvey Klehr; Alexander Vassiliev (2010).
1345:"Morris Cohen, 84, Soviet Spy Who Passed Atom Plans in 40's"
190:
could possibly be used in the future for military purposes.
1434:
had been as important to the Russian effort as Klaus Fuchs.
1180:
Weinstein and Vassiliev (1999), "Atomic Espionage," 180–85
560:
later said he was in daily secret contact with the judge,
1691:"Alan Nunn May, 91, Pioneer In Atomic Spying for Soviets"
1207:
Holmes, Marian. "Spies Who Spilled Atomic Bomb Secrets".
322:
1189:
Weinstein and Vassiliev, "Atomic Espionage," pp. 190–200
1021:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 1–22,
1198:
Weinstein and Vassiliev (1999), "Atomic Espionage," 180
449:
plutonium bomb, and of several processes for purifying
116:
in 1950. Fuchs’ confession led to the discovery of spy
745:
Police photograph of Julius Rosenberg after his arrest
120:
who served as his Soviet courier. Gold identified spy
228:
The research and development of methods suitable for
1250:
Weinstein and Vassiliev, "Atomic Espionage", 200–210
940:
Spies : the rise and fall of the KGB in America
803:
Spies : the rise and fall of the KGB in America
1549:"Theodore Hall, Prodigy and Atomic Spy, Dies at 74"
633:
in 1999, when she was still alive but long retired.
349:as state's evidence, illustrating what he gave the
84:, were committed to advancing the interests of the
1815:"Fourth Spy Unearthed in U.S. Atomic Bomb Project"
625:spy ring of 1938. In wartime she was seconded to "
1132:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ Press. p. 131.
1060:http://www.hcs.harvard.edu/~jus/0302/schwartz.pdf
1993:
100:Confirmation about espionage work came from the
1971:(general overview of Fuchs and Rosenberg cases)
1604:"A Spy's Path: Iowa to A-Bomb to Kremlin Honor"
619:British Non-Ferrous Metals Research Association
1623:Spies: The Rise and Fall of the KGB in America
301:. Gold's role in this network was to act as a
16:WWII Soviet nuclear research spies in the West
1076:
1074:
479:and became a radiation health officer in the
265:The most influential of the atomic spies was
1666:Venona: Decoding Soviet Espionage in America
1118:(New York: Random House Inc, 1999), 172–222.
1058:J. Undergrad. Sci. 3: 103–108 (Summer 1996)
971:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
834:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
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1977:Atomic Spy: The Dark Lives of Klaus Fuchs
1961:Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb
1013:Haynes, John Earl; Klehr, Harvey (2006),
895:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
889:Haynes, John Earl; Klehr, Harvey (2006).
1145:
1136:
1105:Schwartz, Michael. Russian Bomb 103–108f
1015:"Introduction: Early Cold War Spy Cases"
853:
336:
18:
1875:
1663:John Earl Haynes; Harvey Klehr (2000).
1537:
1127:
1096:Schwartz, Michael. Russian Bomb 103–108
979:
857:Espionage and the Roots of the Cold War
842:
1994:
1963:(New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995).
1945:(New York: Henry Holt and Co., 2002).
1585:& Marcia Kunstel (Sep. 14, 1997),
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932:
930:
928:
926:
924:
922:
920:
2027:Soviet Union–United Kingdom relations
1847:"Morton Sobell Free As Spy Term Ends"
1812:
1293:
1291:
936:
799:
777:Soviet espionage in the United States
2032:Soviet Union–United States relations
1372:
1259:
1876:Roberts, Sam (September 11, 2008).
1648:"George Koval: Atomic Spy Unmasked"
1473:"1972 Death of Harry Gold Revealed"
990:"George Koval: Atomic Spy Unmasked"
917:
757:Harry Gold after his arrest by the
473:Main Intelligence Directorate (GRU)
463: — the American-born son of a
401:. Fuchs was allowed to emigrate to
13:
1938:(use of espionage data by Soviets)
1920:
1602:William J. Broad (Nov. 12, 2007),
1547:Cowell, Alan (November 10, 1999).
1288:
1080:Joint Committee on Atomic Energy.
621:since 1932, she was linked to the
525:University of California, Berkeley
93:unfurled and the current state of
14:
2048:
165:, the theoretical possibility of
1980:(New York: Viking Press, 2020).
1930:(Imperial College Press, 2004).
1813:Broad, William J. (2019-11-23).
1587:"The Boy Who Gave Away The Bomb"
750:
738:
726:
710:
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686:
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662:
650:
389:, the maximum for violating the
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1613:
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1465:
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1395:
1373:Pace, Eric (January 29, 1988).
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1337:
1328:
1304:
1253:
1244:
1231:
1217:
1201:
1192:
1183:
1174:
1121:
1108:
1099:
759:Federal Bureau of Investigation
527:in 1944. After the war, he was
1531:"Manhattan Project: Espionage"
1090:
1048:
1006:
882:
854:McKnight, David (2012-12-06).
793:
507:Hero of the Russian Federation
353:to pass on to the Soviet Union
217: — in collaboration with
1:
1784:"Execution of the Rosenbergs"
1720:"Execution of the Rosenbergs"
787:
669:Morris Cohen on Russian stamp
491:Oak Ridge National Laboratory
489:he obtained information from
483:. Acting under the code name
156:
1988:(general biography of Fuchs)
1591:The New York Times Magazine:
1146:De Groot, Gerard J. (2006).
1027:10.1017/cbo9780511607394.002
937:Earl., Haynes, John (2009).
800:Earl., Haynes, John (2010).
611:published in September 2008.
341:Sketch of an implosion-type
57:production or design to the
7:
1901:"Адамс Артур Александрович"
1260:Williams, Robert Chadwell.
1128:DeGroot, Gerard J. (2004).
765:
693:Mugshot of David Greenglass
657:Lona Cohen on Russian stamp
481:Special Engineer Detachment
51:illicitly given information
10:
2053:
1646:Michael Walsh (May 2009),
1428:Julius and Ethel Rosenberg
1361:according to news reports.
733:Mugshot of Ethel Rosenberg
643:
546:Julius and Ethel Rosenberg
311:Julius and Ethel Rosenberg
291:Julius and Ethel Rosenberg
75:history of nuclear weapons
1679:– via Google Books.
1669:. Yale University Press.
1626:. Yale University Press.
1334:Joint Committee Chapter 2
943:. Yale University Press.
806:. Yale University Press.
539:Soviet defector in Canada
1299:The Invisible Harry Gold
1082:Soviet Atomic Espionage.
901:10.1017/cbo9780511607394
211:letter of August 2, 1939
1792:. London. June 20, 1953
1726:. London. June 20, 1953
1225:"The Manhattan Project"
719:University of Cambridge
550:Los Alamos National Lab
471:and recruited into the
385:him to fourteen years'
1149:The bomb : a life
501:detonator used on the
354:
49:who are known to have
27:
1263:Klaus Fuchs, Atom Spy
1209:Smithsonian Magazine,
866:10.4324/9780203045589
595:Order of the Red Star
475:. He infiltrated the
343:nuclear weapon design
340:
144:, who worked at both
22:
1518:her husband, Julius.
1019:Early Cold War Spies
994:Smithsonian Magazine
892:Early Cold War Spies
772:History of espionage
566:Dwight D. Eisenhower
409:. In his 2019 book,
405:, then in communist
391:Official Secrets Act
364:Komsomolskaya Pravda
1926:Alexei Kojevnikov,
1479:. February 14, 1974
1054:Schwartz, Michael.
455:Soviet intelligence
395:British citizenship
138:Alexander Vassiliev
37:were people in the
1953:(details on Fuchs)
1883:The New York Times
1855:. January 15, 1969
1852:The New York Times
1819:The New York Times
1695:The New York Times
1608:The New York Times
1565:Cambridge, England
1553:The New York Times
1506:The New York Times
1477:The New York Times
1379:The New York Times
1349:The New York Times
1065:2019-10-29 at the
577:Harvard University
477:United States Army
355:
28:
1986:978-0-593-08339-0
1974:Nancy Greenspan,
1697:. 25 January 2003
1633:978-0-300-15572-3
1273:978-0-674-59389-3
1239:Spies Who Spilled
1116:The Haunted Wood,
950:978-0-300-12390-6
910:978-0-511-60739-4
875:978-1-136-33812-0
813:978-0-300-16438-1
239:Manhattan Project
201:At the urging of
187:Manhattan Project
183:Kirill Sinelnikov
71:nuclear espionage
2044:
2037:Cold War tactics
1915:
1914:
1912:
1911:
1905:www.warheroes.ru
1897:
1891:
1890:
1873:
1867:
1866:
1861:
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1843:
1837:
1836:
1834:
1833:
1810:
1804:
1803:
1798:
1797:
1780:
1774:
1773:
1768:
1767:
1758:. Archived from
1748:
1742:
1741:
1737:Sing Sing Prison
1732:
1731:
1716:
1710:
1709:
1703:
1702:
1687:
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1514:
1513:
1508:. March 19, 1953
1498:
1492:
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1485:
1484:
1469:
1463:
1462:
1460:
1458:
1453:. 17 August 2019
1443:
1437:
1436:
1432:David Greenglass
1419:
1418:
1409:. Archived from
1399:
1393:
1392:
1386:
1385:
1370:
1364:
1363:
1357:
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1341:
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797:
754:
742:
730:
714:
702:
690:
678:
666:
654:
631:Vasili Mitrokhin
623:Woolwich Arsenal
435:Julius Rosenberg
431:David Greenglass
399:Wakefield prison
347:David Greenglass
315:David Greenglass
295:David Greenglass
260:dropped in Japan
126:Julius Rosenberg
122:David Greenglass
2052:
2051:
2047:
2046:
2045:
2043:
2042:
2041:
2022:Nuclear secrecy
1992:
1991:
1923:
1921:Further reading
1918:
1909:
1907:
1899:
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1874:
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1583:Joseph Albright
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1296:
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1218:
1211:20 April 2009.
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1067:Wayback Machine
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717:Alan Nunn May,
715:
706:
703:
694:
691:
682:
679:
670:
667:
658:
655:
646:
589:effects of the
335:
287:Anatoli Yatskov
271:Communist Party
203:Albert Einstein
167:nuclear fission
159:
95:nuclear weapons
55:nuclear weapons
17:
12:
11:
5:
2050:
2040:
2039:
2034:
2029:
2024:
2019:
2014:
2009:
2004:
2002:Venona project
1990:
1989:
1972:
1957:Richard Rhodes
1954:
1941:Gregg Herken,
1939:
1922:
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615:Melita Norwood
612:
609:New York Times
598:
580:
570:
569:amongst women.
562:Irving Kaufman
543:
532:
514:
511:Vladimir Putin
495:Dayton Project
458:
438:
428:
418:
369:
334:
331:
175:Igor Kurchatov
158:
155:
102:Venona project
65:and the early
43:United Kingdom
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2049:
2038:
2035:
2033:
2030:
2028:
2025:
2023:
2020:
2018:
2015:
2013:
2010:
2008:
2007:Spies by role
2005:
2003:
2000:
1999:
1997:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1978:
1973:
1970:
1969:0-684-80400-X
1966:
1962:
1958:
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1951:0-8050-6588-1
1948:
1944:
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1936:1-86094-420-5
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1762:on 2003-02-02
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1489:Philadelphia.
1478:
1474:
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1452:
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1435:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1424:Alan Nunn May
1413:on 2003-02-02
1412:
1408:
1404:
1403:"Klaus Fuchs"
1398:
1391:
1380:
1376:
1369:
1362:
1351:. 5 July 1995
1350:
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1159:0-674-02235-1
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1036:9780521674072
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923:
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898:
894:
893:
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871:
867:
863:
860:. Routledge.
859:
858:
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846:
837:
831:
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815:
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632:
628:
624:
620:
616:
613:
610:
606:
602:
601:Morton Sobell
599:
596:
592:
588:
587:seismological
584:
583:Oscar Seborer
581:
578:
574:
571:
567:
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559:
555:
551:
547:
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535:Alan Nunn May
533:
530:
526:
522:
518:
517:Irving Lerner
515:
512:
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496:
492:
488:
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441:Theodore Hall
439:
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388:
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348:
344:
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333:Notable spies
330:
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308:
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296:
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288:
284:
279:
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256:Theodore Hall
254:information.
251:
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215:United States
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130:Theodore Hall
127:
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72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
40:
39:United States
36:
32:
25:
21:
2017:Soviet spies
1975:
1960:
1942:
1927:
1908:. Retrieved
1904:
1895:
1887:
1881:
1871:
1863:
1857:. Retrieved
1850:
1841:
1830:. Retrieved
1818:
1808:
1800:
1794:. Retrieved
1789:The Guardian
1787:
1778:
1770:
1764:. Retrieved
1760:the original
1746:
1734:
1728:. Retrieved
1724:The Guardian
1723:
1714:
1705:
1699:. Retrieved
1694:
1685:
1665:
1658:
1651:
1642:
1622:
1615:
1607:
1598:
1590:
1578:
1562:
1556:. Retrieved
1552:
1525:
1516:
1510:. Retrieved
1505:
1496:
1487:
1481:. Retrieved
1476:
1467:
1455:. Retrieved
1451:The Guardian
1450:
1441:
1421:
1415:. Retrieved
1411:the original
1397:
1388:
1382:. Retrieved
1378:
1368:
1359:
1353:. Retrieved
1348:
1339:
1330:
1319:. Retrieved
1315:
1312:"Harry Gold"
1306:
1298:
1262:
1255:
1246:
1238:
1233:
1219:
1208:
1203:
1194:
1185:
1176:
1148:
1129:
1123:
1115:
1110:
1101:
1092:
1081:
1055:
1050:
1040:, retrieved
1018:
1008:
997:. Retrieved
993:
939:
891:
884:
856:
802:
795:
637:Arthur Adams
608:
484:
461:George Koval
444:
410:
407:East Germany
387:imprisonment
380:Lord Goddard
362:
359:Morris Cohen
327:
280:
264:
252:
244:
235:
227:
200:
192:
179:L. D. Landau
171:Soviet Union
163:World War II
160:
142:George Koval
135:
106:World War II
99:
86:Soviet Union
79:
63:World War II
59:Soviet Union
34:
31:Atomic spies
30:
29:
1652:Smithsonian
627:Tube Alloys
573:Saville Sax
529:blacklisted
425:Klaus Fuchs
415:Frank Close
372:Klaus Fuchs
319:Klaus Fuchs
299:Klaus Fuchs
267:Klaus Fuchs
207:Leo Szilard
151:uranium-235
114:Klaus Fuchs
24:Klaus Fuchs
1996:Categories
1910:2020-04-16
1859:2008-07-07
1832:2019-11-28
1796:2008-06-24
1766:2008-07-07
1730:2008-06-24
1701:2008-07-07
1676:0300084625
1558:2008-06-26
1512:2008-07-07
1483:2008-07-07
1417:2008-07-07
1384:2008-07-07
1355:2008-07-07
1321:2023-04-29
1282:1154266475
1168:1030101415
1042:2022-04-16
999:2022-04-16
788:References
782:Wen Ho Lee
497:about the
465:Belarusian
421:Harry Gold
376:Los Alamos
351:Rosenbergs
307:Harry Gold
283:Harry Gold
276:Harry Gold
196:leadership
157:Importance
118:Harry Gold
110:Los Alamos
35:atom spies
2012:Spy rings
1827:0362-4331
1457:2 January
967:cite book
959:778334787
830:cite book
822:449855597
721:physicist
521:cyclotron
451:plutonium
383:sentenced
209:in their
146:Oak Ridge
82:communism
1569:Albright
1237:Holmes,
1130:The Bomb
1063:Archived
766:See also
605:Alcatraz
558:Roy Cohn
493:and the
469:Red Army
368:project.
345:made by
90:Cold War
67:Cold War
644:Gallery
591:Trinity
554:Treason
523:at the
503:Fat Man
446:Fat Man
403:Dresden
303:courier
219:Britain
161:Before
73:in the
61:during
1984:
1967:
1949:
1934:
1825:
1673:
1630:
1430:, and
1280:
1270:
1166:
1156:
1033:
957:
947:
907:
872:
820:
810:
542:years.
499:Urchin
486:Delmar
317:, and
297:, and
247:Moscow
230:doping
223:Canada
213:, the
181:, and
53:about
47:Canada
45:, and
41:, the
1756:TruTV
1610:p. A1
1407:TruTV
1241:, 1–2
509:" by
453:, to
1982:ISBN
1965:ISBN
1947:ISBN
1932:ISBN
1823:ISSN
1671:ISBN
1628:ISBN
1459:2021
1390:old.
1278:OCLC
1268:ISBN
1164:OCLC
1154:ISBN
1031:ISBN
973:link
955:OCLC
945:ISBN
905:ISBN
870:ISBN
836:link
818:OCLC
808:ISBN
221:and
205:and
1316:FBI
1023:doi
897:doi
862:doi
323:FBI
33:or
1998::
1959:,
1903:.
1886:.
1880:.
1862:.
1849:.
1821:.
1817:.
1799:.
1786:.
1769:.
1754:.
1733:.
1722:.
1704:.
1693:.
1650:,
1606:,
1589:,
1561:.
1551:.
1539:^
1515:.
1504:.
1486:.
1475:.
1449:.
1426:,
1420:.
1405:.
1387:.
1377:.
1358:.
1347:.
1314:.
1290:^
1276:.
1266:.
1162:.
1152:.
1138:^
1073:^
1029:,
1017:,
992:.
981:^
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