Military history of China before 1912

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the Qin general Meng Tian ousted the Xiong-nu from the Ordos region, they regained power under the rule of Maodun. Maodun conquered the Eastern Hu and drove the Yuezhi tribes west. He reclaimed the Ordos from the now crumbling Qin empire and defeated the first Han emperor Gao in battle. This led to a policy of appeasement until the reign of Wudi of Han, who decided to take a tougher stance. However, protecting the borders required a significant investment. Manning the stations of the Great Wall took about ten thousand men. To support them, fifty to sixty thousand soldier-farmers were moved to the frontiers in order to reduce the cost of transporting supplies. These drafted farmers were not good cavalry troops, so a professional army emerged on the frontiers. These consisted of northern Han mercenaries, convicts working for their freedom, and subjected "Southern" Xiong-nu living within Han territory. By 31 BC, the Han dynasty abolished universal military conscription that was passed down from the Warring States. In the South, China's territory was roughly doubled as the Chinese conquered much of what is now Southern China, and extended the frontier from the Yangtze to Vietnam.

1298: 2205: 2615:, which produced German Mauser rifles and mountain guns. The Nanjing arsenal was making Hotchkiss, Maxim, and Nordenfeld guns in 1892. A Frenchman reported that China had the ability to reverse engineer any western weapon they needed. A British also noted that Chinese were efficient at reverse engineering foreign weapons and building their own versions. In the first Opium War the Chinese copied the British weapons and upgraded their military hardware while the fighting was going on. Tianjin arsenal made Dahlgren guns, 10,000 Remington rifles monthly, as of 1872. Li Hongzhang in 1890 added equipment, allowing it to make Maxim Machine guns, Nordenfelt cannons, Krupp guns, and ammunition for all of these. China was extremely familiar with R&D on German military hardware. 1508:

households" were given land to farm, but their children could only marry into the families of other "military households". In effect, the military career was inherited; when a soldier or commander died or became unable to fight, a male relative would inherit his position. These hereditary soldiers provided the bulk of the infantry. For the purpose of cavalry, the Wei was similar to the previous Han dynasty in recruiting large numbers of Xiongnu that were settled in southern Shanxi. In addition, provincial armies, which were very weak under the Han, became the bulk of the army under the Wei, for whom the central army was held mainly as a reserve. This military system was also adopted by the Jin dynasty, who succeeded the Wei and unified China.

1312: 226: 1553:. Seizing this opportunity, Xiong-nu chieftain Liu Yuan and his forces revolted against their Han Chinese overlords. He was followed by many other barbarian leaders, and these rebels were called the "Wu Hu" or literally "Five barbarian tribes". By 316 AD, the Jin had lost all territory north of the Huai river. From this point on, much of North China was ruled by Sinicized barbarian tribes such as the Xianbei, while southern China remained under Han Chinese rule, a period known as the Era of Division. During this era, the military forces of both Northern and southern regimes diverged and developed very differently. 2507: 1799: 1211:, these armies were relatively ill-equipped. While organized military forces existed along with the state, few records remain of these early armies. These armies were centered around the chariot-riding nobility, who played a role akin to the European knight as they were the main fighting force of the army. Bronze weapons such as spears and swords were the main equipment of both the infantry and charioteers. These armies were ill-trained and haphazardly supplied, meaning that they could not campaign for more than a few months and often had to give up their gains due to lack of supplies. The 8711: 1581: 1939:. Interethnic marriage between Han and Jurchen became common at this time. His father was Shi Bingzhi (史秉直, Shih Ping-chih). Shi Bingzhi was married to a Jurchen woman (surname Na-ho) and a Han Chinese woman (surname Chang), it is unknown which of them was Shi Tianze's mother. Shi Tianze was married to two Jurchen women, a Han Chinese woman, and a Korean woman, and his son Shi Gang was born to one of his Jurchen wives. His Jurchen wives' surnames were Mo-nien and Na-ho, his Korean wife's surname was Li, and his Han Chinese wife's surname was Shi. Shi Tianze defected to the 2527: 1735: 3310: 1625: 2646: 2720:

humiliations were strongly related to her weakness and failure at sea. At the start of the Opium War, China had no unified navy and no sense of how vulnerable she was to attack from the sea; British forces sailed and steamed wherever they wanted to go......In the Arrow War (1856–60), the Chinese had no way to prevent the Anglo-French expedition of 1860 from sailing into the Gulf of Zhili and landing as near as possible to Beijing. Meanwhile, new but not exactly modern Chinese armies suppressed the midcentury rebellions,

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used by defenders in sieges on attacking enemies and also by trebuchets, which hurled huge numbers of them onto the enemy. A new improved version of these bombs, called the "thunder-crash" bomb, was introduced in the 13th century; it was covered in cast iron, was highly explosive, and hurled shrapnel at the enemy. These weapons were not only used by Song China, but also its Jur'chen and Mongol enemies. In the history of the Jur'chen Jin dynasty, the use of cast-iron gunpowder bombs against the Mongols is described.

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military, patronizing Tibetan Buddhism, with the early Ming Emperors seeking to project themselves as "universal rulers" to various peoples such as Central Asian Muslims, Tibetans, and Mongols, modeled after the Mongol Khagan, however, this history of Ming universalism has been obscured and denied by historians who covered it up and presented the Ming as xenophobes seeking to expunge Mongol influence and presenting while they presented the Qing and Yuan as "universal" rulers in contrast to the Ming.

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all of North China by 468 AD The Xianbei state of Northern Wei created the earliest forms of the equal field (均田) land system and the Fubing system (府兵) military system, both of which became major institutions under Sui and Tang. Under the fubing system each headquarters (府) commanded about one thousand farmer-soldiers who could be mobilized for war. In peacetime they were self-sustaining on their land allotments, and were obliged to do tours of active duty in the capital.

1407: 5662: 1262:'s bronze workshops probably gave it a decisive edge over competing groups. Armies were probably relatively ineffective given the prevalence of extensive fortifications, although the Erlitou culture probably succeeded in breaching these occasionally since they were able to expand the area of their control. Starting from the 3rd Millennium BC and throughout the 2nd Millennium BC, there is a correlation between elite status and military status in tomb artefacts. 8294: 3253: 2590: 8304: 2335: 2515: 3094: 2330:

assault of the Peiho Forts in 1860 they carried the French ladders to the ditch, and, standing in the water up to their necks, supported them with their hands to enable the storming party to cross. It was not usual to take them into action; they, however, bore the dangers of a distant fire with the greatest composure, evincing a strong desire to close with their compatriots, and engage them in mortal combat with their bamboos.—(Fisher.)"

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like muskets and artillery were specifically wielded by the Chinese Banners. Bannermen made up the majority of governors in the early Qing and were the ones who governed and administered China after the conquest, stabilizing Qing rule. Han Bannermen dominated the post of governor-general in the time of the Shunzhi and Kangxi Emperors, and also the post of governors, largely excluding ordinary Han civilians from the posts.

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crossbows put the chariot-riding nobility out of business and favored large, professional standing armies, who were well-supplied and could fight a sustained campaign. The size of armies increased; whereas before 500 BC Chinese field armies numbered in the tens of thousands, by 300 BC armies regularly included up to a couple of hundred thousand drafted soldiers, accompanied by cavalry. For example, during the

2193: 3136:, and could only be reproduced by very competent mechanics which only Chinese engineers could understand. This gave an additional advantage, as this made the crossbow "capture-proof" as even if China's barbarian enemies captured them they would not be able to reproduce the weapon. Crossbow ammunition could also only be used in crossbows, and was useless in the conventional bows employed by China's nomadic enemies. 3082: 2172:, the son of Nurhaci, recognized that Han Chinese were needed in the conquest of the Ming, as he explained why he treated the Ming defector General Hong Chengchou leniently. Ming artillery was responsible for many victories. The Ming would not be easily defeated unless musket and cannon wielding Han Chinese troops were added to the existing banners. Han Chinese Generals who defected to the Manchu were often 2108:. This claim of a Dutch defector only appears in Coyett's account and Chinese records make no such mention of any defector. While the mainstay of the Chinese forces were archers, the Chinese used cannons too during the siege, which however the European eyewitnesses did not judge as effective as the Dutch batteries. The Dutch lost five ships and 130 men in an attempt to relieve the siege of the fortress. 3413: 2735:, in what was widely seen by the west as a diplomatic victory for the Qing. Russia acknowledged that Qing China potentially posed a serious military threat. Mass media in the west during this era portrayed China as a rising military power due to its modernization programs and as a major threat to the western world, invoking fears that China would successfully conquer western colonies like Australia. 2554:, reported that the British-built Chinese ships he inspected had "every modern appliance," including "guns with large calibre and high velocity, moved by hydraulic power, machine guns, electric lights, torpedoes and torpedo boats, engines with twin screws, steel rams, etc. etc." Yet, Shufeldt concludes, in order to be really effective, it needs an intelligent personnel and a thorough organization." 3210:, was introduced in 905 AD. This consisted of a bamboo or metal tube attached to a spear filled with gunpowder that could be ignited at will, with a range of five metres. It was capable of killing or maiming several soldiers at a time and was mass-produced and used especially in the defense of cities. Later versions of the fire lance dropped the spear point and had more gunpowder content. 3124:, when armies were composed of up to 30 to 50 percent crossbowmen. Han soldiers were required to arm an "entry level" crossbow with a draw-weight of 76 kg/168 lb to qualify as an entry level crossbowman, while it was claimed that a few elite troops were capable of arming crossbows by the hands-and-feet method, with a draw-weight in excess of 340 kg/750 lb. 2241:, nearly establishing a divided China. Wu then hesitated to go further north, not being able to coordinate strategy with his allies, and the Kangxi Emperor was able to unify his forces for a counterattack led by a new generation of Manchu generals. By 1681, the Qing government had established control over a ravaged southern China from which it took several decades to recover. 7643: 7624: 1758:), Jin (Jurchens), and Mongol Empire, as well as an expanded army of over 1 million men. The Song was greatly disadvantaged by the fact their neighbors had taken advantage of the era of chaos following the collapse of the Tang to advance into Northern China unimpeded. The Song also lost the horse-producing regions which made their cavalry extremely inferior. 2054:

troops stationed there farming as well as training. This system also forced soldiers to serve hereditarily in the army; although effective in initially taking control of the empire, this military system proved unviable in the long run and collapsed in the 1430s, with Ming reverted to a professional volunteer army similar to Tang, Song and Later Han.

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foreign languages, Chinese Classics and history were taught at the school. Exams were administered to students. The instruction for Tianjin Military Academy was copied at the Weihaiwei and Shanhaiguan military schools. The 'maritime defense fund' supplied the budget for the Tianjin Military Academy, which was shared with the Tianjin Naval Academy.

1577:, occurred, these were relatively short-lived. During this era, the Northern armies, were mainly based around nomadic cavalry, but also employed Chinese as foot soldiers and siege personnel. This military system was rather improvising and ineffective, and the states established by the Wu Hu were mostly destroyed by the Jin dynasty or the Xianbei. 1345:

most soldiers were conscripts, it was also common to select soldiers based on specific qualifications. The Confucian adviser Xun Zi claimed that foot soldiers from the Wei state were required to wear armor and helmets, shoulder a crossbow with fifty arrows, strap a spear and sword, carry three days' supply of rations, and all the while march 100

1643:

powerful heavy cavalry. A key component of the success of Sui and Tang armies, just like the earlier Qin and Han armies, was the adoption of large elements of cavalry. These powerful horsemen, combined with the superior firepower of the Chinese infantry (powerful missile weapons such as recurve crossbows), made Chinese armies powerful.

4485: 3170:. Even though it could rapidly fire up to 7–10 bolts in 15–20 seconds, its firing power was weaker compared to a standard crossbow, and could not penetrate heavy armor as effectively. It was generally regarded as a non-military weapon suited for civilians, mostly used for defending against robbers or in times of self-defense. 1431:

lengths of carts. To reduce the chance of rebellion, he made the private possession of weapons illegal. In order to increase the rapid deployment of troops, thousands of miles of roads were built, along with canals that allowed boats to travel long distances. For the rest of Chinese history, a centralized empire was the norm.

3424:(虎符), made of bronze with gold inlay, found in the tomb of the King of Nanyue at Guangzhou, from the Western Han dynasty, dated 2nd century BC. Tiger Tallies were separated into two pieces, one held by the emperor, the other given to a military commander as a symbol of imperial authority and the ability to command troops. 3108:, invented by the Chinese in the 7th century BC, was considered to be the most important weapon of the Chinese armies in ancient times. Crossbows could be given to a conscript with little training, and yet massed to devastating effect due to the ease of aiming the crossbow with greater precision compared to a traditional 4348: 1914:) defected and commanded the 3 Tumens in the Mongol army. Liu Heima and Shi Tianze served Ogödei Khan. Liu Heima and Shi Tianxiang led armies against Western Xia for the Mongols. There were 4 Han Tumens and 3 Khitan Tumens, with each Tumen consisting of 10,000 troops. The three Khitan Generals Shimobeidier ( 5962:

China : Being a Military Report on the North-eastern Portions of the Provinces of Chih-li and Shan-tung, Nanking and Its Approaches, Canton and Its Approaches: Together with an Account of the Chinese Civil, Naval and Military Administrations, and a Narrative of the Wars Between Great Britain and

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Nevertheless, Chinese armies were sometimes commanded by individuals other than generals. For example, during the Tang dynasty, the emperor instituted "Army supervisors" who spied on the generals and interfered in their commands, although most of these practices were short-lived as they disrupted the

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The cavalry was equipped with heavy armor in order to crush a line of infantry, though light cavalry was used for reconnaissance. However, Chinese armies lacked horses and their cavalry were often inferior to their horse archer opponents. Therefore, in most of these campaigns, the cavalry had to rely

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naval forces, but the wind blew the other way, causing the Southern Tang fleet to be immolated, and allowing the Song to conquer South China. During Song times, the flamethrower was used not only in naval combat but also in defense of cities, where they were placed on the city walls to incinerate any

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The Ming focused on building up a powerful standing army that could drive off attacks by foreign barbarians. Beginning in the 14th century, the Ming armies drove out the Mongols and expanded China's territories to include Yunnan, Mongolia, Tibet, much of Xinjiang and Vietnam. The Ming also engaged in

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The Imperial exam included archery. Archery on horseback was practiced by Chinese living near the frontier. Wang Ju's writings on archery were followed during the Ming and Yuan and the Ming developed new methods of archery. Jinling Tuyong showed archery in Nanjing during the Ming. Contests in archery

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This is not to say that the Southern armies did not work well. Southern armies won great victories in the late 4th century, such as the battle of Fei at which an 80,000-man Jin army crushed the 300,000-man army of Former Qin, an empire founded by one of the Wu Hu tribes that had briefly unified North

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A new military system did not come until the invasions of the Xianbei in the 5th century, by which time most of the Wu Hu had been destroyed and much of North China had been reconquered by the Chinese dynasties in the South. Nevertheless, the Xianbei won many successes against the Chinese, conquering

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in the North. These nomads were fast horse archers who had a significant mobility advantage over the settled nations to the South. In order to counter this threat, the Chinese built the Great Wall as a barrier to these nomadic incursions, and also used diplomacy and bribes to preserve peace. Although

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during the Spring and Autumn period (771 BC–476 BC), command was delegated to the ruler, the crown prince, and the second son. By the time of the Warring States period, generals were appointed based on merit rather than birth, the majority of whom were talented individuals who gradually rose through

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The Chinese armies also benefited from a logistics system that could supply hundreds of thousands of men at a time. An important innovation by the Chinese was the introduction of an efficient horse harness in the 4th century BC, strapped to the chest instead of the neck, an innovation later expanded

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High explosive bombs were another innovation developed by the Chinese in the 10th century. These consisted largely of round objects covered with paper or bamboo filled with gunpowder that would explode upon contact and set fire to anything flammable. These weapons, known as "thunderclap bombs", were

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noted, " ... whatever else the enterprise may have accomplished it disposed once for all of the favourite proposition so often advanced that it would be possible for a small but well organized and thoroughly equipped foreign force to march through China from end to end without effective opposition."

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from sending ships to attack. This was reported by American military intelligence in the United States. War Dept. by the United States. Adjutant-General's Office. Military Information Division. Different Chinese armies were modernized to different degrees by the Qing dynasty. For example, during the

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officers. Various practical military, mathematics and science subjects were taught at the academy. The instructors were German officers. Another program was started at the academy for five years in 1887 to train teenagers as new army officers. Mathematics, practical and technical subjects, sciences,

1822:

The Mongol invasion started in earnest only when they acquired their first navy, mainly from Chinese Song defectors. Liu Cheng, a Chinese Song commander who defected to the Mongols, suggested a switch in tactics, and assisted the Mongols in building their own fleet. Many Chinese served in the Mongol

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The Qing differentiated between Han Bannermen and ordinary Han civilians. Han Chinese who defected up to 1644 and joined the Eight Banners were made bannermen, giving them social and legal privileges in addition to being acculturated to Manchu culture. Han defected to the Qing and swelled the ranks

2003:

The early Ming Emperors from Hongwu to Zhengde continued Yuan practices such as hereditary military institutions, demanding Korean concubines and eunuchs, having Muslim eunuchs, wearing Mongol style clothing and Mongol hats, engaging in archery and horseback riding, having Mongols serve in the Ming

1344:

the state of Qin drafted all males over 15 years of age. Although these conscripts with one to two years of training would be no match individually against aristocratic warriors with years of experience, they made up for it with superior standardization, discipline, organization, and size. Although

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repeater magazine rifles from Germany, in addition to mines and torpedoes. It used these with sniper, pincer, and ambush tactics, and China also began to reorganize its military, adding engineer companies and artillery brigades. Mining, engineering, flooding, and simultaneous multiple attacks were

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The Chinese coolies entertained in 1857 from the inhabitants of South China, renegades though they were, served the British faithfully and cheerfully before Canton, and throughout the operations in North China in 1860 they likewise proved invaluable. Their coolness under fire was admirable. At the

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The main Manchu tactics were using infantry with bows and arrows, swords, and pikes while cavalry was kept in the rear. Unlike the Song and Ming, however, the Qing armies neglected firearms, and did not develop them in any significant way. The Qing armies also contained a much higher proportion of

1601:

Southern Chinese dynasties, being descended from the Han and Jin, prided themselves on being the successors of the Chinese civilization and disdained the Northern dynasties, who they viewed as barbarian usurpers. Southern armies continued the military system of Buqu or hereditary soldiers from the

1430:

In 221 BC, the Qin unified China and ushered in the Imperial Era of Chinese history. Although it only lasted 15 years, Qin established institutions that would last for millennia. Qin Shi Huan, titling himself as the "First Emperor", standardized writing systems, weights, coinage, and even the axle

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from cast iron. New steel weapons were manufactured that gave Chinese infantry an edge in close-range fighting, though swords and blades were also used. The Chinese infantry were given extremely heavy armor in order to withstand cavalry charges, some 29.8 kg of armor during the Song dynasty.

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As inventors of gunpowder, the Chinese were the first to deploy gunpowder weapons. A large variety of gunpowder weapons were produced, including guns, cannons, mines, the flamethrower, bombs, and rockets. After the rise of the Ming dynasty, China began to lose its lead in gunpowder weapons to the

2244:

Manchu Generals and Bannermen were initially put to shame by the better performance of the Han Chinese Green Standard Army, who fought better than them against the rebels and this was noted by the Kangxi Emperor, leading him to task Generals Sun Sike, Wang Jinbao, and Zhao Liangdong to lead Green

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In 1644, the invading army was multi-ethnic, with Han, Mongols, and Manchu banners. The political divide was between Han Chinese non bannermen and the "conquest elite", made up of Han Chinese bannermen, nobles, Mongols and Manchu; ethnicity was not the factor. Among the Banners, gunpowder weapons

1745:

During the Song dynasty, the emperors were focused on curbing the power of the Fanzhen, local generals who they viewed as responsible for the collapse of the Tang dynasty. Local power was curbed and most power was centralized in the government, along with the army. In addition, the Song adopted a

1507:

Under the Wei dynasty, the military system changed from the centralized military system of the Han. Unlike the Han, whose forces were concentrated into a central army of volunteer soldiers, Wei's forces depended on the Buqu, a group for whom soldiering was a hereditary profession. These "military

3300:

During the Ming dynasty, the design of rockets were further refined and multi-stage rockets and large batteries of rockets were produced. Multi-stage rockets were introduced for naval combat. Like other technology, knowledge of rockets were transmitted to the Middle East and the West through the

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The Qing relied on the Green Standard soldiers, made up of Han Chinese who had defected, to help rule northern China. Green Standard Han Chinese troops governed locally while Han Chinese Bannermen, Mongol Bannermen, and Manchu Bannermen were brought only into emergency situations where there was

1642:

The Sui's unification of China sparked a new golden age. During the Sui and Tang, Chinese armies, based on the Fubing system invented during the era of division, won military successes that restored the empire of the Han dynasty and reasserted Chinese power. The Tang created large contingents of

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Ming military institutions were largely responsible for the success of Ming's armies. The early Ming's military was organized by the Wei-suo system, which split the army up into numerous "Wei" or commands throughout the Ming frontiers. Each wei was to be self-sufficient in agriculture, with the

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In the Spring and Autumn period, archery switched from targeted shooting to massed volleys. By the end of the Spring and Autumn period, cavalry had appeared on the battlefield, and the chariot would gradually revert to being a command platform in the course of the ensuing Warring States period.

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noted that "10,000 European troops were held in check by 15,000 Chinese braves". Chinese artillery fire caused a steady stream of casualties upon the western soldiers. During one engagement, heavy casualties were inflicted on the French and Japanese, and the British and Russians lost some men.

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Throughout most of the Ming's history, the Ming armies were successful in defeating foreign powers such as the Mongols and Japanese and expanding China's influence. However, with the little Ice Age in the 17th century, the Ming dynasty was faced with a disastrous famine and its military forces

2719:

Historians have judged the Qing dynasty's vulnerability and weakness to foreign imperialism in the 19th century to be based mainly on its maritime naval weakness while it achieved military success against westerners on land, the historian Edward L. Dreyer said that "China’s nineteenth-century

1487:

The end of the Han dynasty saw a massive agrarian uprising that had to be quelled by local governors, who seized the opportunity to form their own armies. The central army disintegrated and was replaced by a series of local warlords, who fought for power until most of the North was unified by

1339:

By the time of the Warring States, reforms began that abolished feudalism and created powerful, centralized states. The power of the aristocracy was curbed and for the first time, professional generals were appointed on merit, rather than birth. Technological advances such as iron weapons and

1284:

While chariots had been used in battle previously, only in the Western Zhou era were they used in large numbers. The Zhou conquest of the Shang may have been linked to their use of the chariot. Under the Shang, chariots were extremely ornate, used by high ranking elite as command and archery

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The Treatises on Military Affairs of the Ming Dynastic History (1368–1644): An Annotated Translation of the Treatises on Military Affairs, Chapter 89 and Chapter 90: Supplemented by the Treatises on Military Affairs of the Draft of the Ming Dynastic History: A Documentation of Ming-Qing

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Although the system worked when it came to quelling rebellions, it was a failure in defending China and asserting its power. The Song had to rely on new gunpowder weapons introduced during the late Tang and bribes to fend off attacks by its enemies, such as the Liao (Khitans), West Xia

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and other gunpowder weapons, but the Chinese also made many advances on conventional iron weapons such as swords and spears as well as crossbows, that were considered far superior to other contemporary weapons. However, the most notorious and iconic armament of Chinese armies, was the

2007:

A cavalry-based army modeled on the Yuan military was implemented by the Hongwu and Yongle Emperors. Hongwu's army and officialdom incorporated Mongols. Mongols were retained by the Ming within its territory. in Guangxi Mongol archers participated in a war against Miao minorities.

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The Chinese are robust muscular fellows, and no cowards; the Tartars desperate; but neither are well commanded nor acquainted with European warfare. Having had, however, experience of three of them, I am inclined to supposed that a Tartar bullet is not a whit softer than a French

2104:'s account written after the siege to absolve himself of the Dutch defeat, the alleged final blow to the company's defense came when a Dutch defector, who would warn Koxinga of a life-threatening bombardment, had pointed the inactive besieging army to the weak points of the Dutch 2707:

Chinese artillerymen during the battle also learned how to use their German bought Krupp artillery accurately, outperforming European gunners. The Chinese artillery shells slammed right on target into the western armies military areas. After the skirmishes that ended the 55-day

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platforms, but under the Zhou chariots were simpler and more common. The ratio of chariots to foot soldiers under the Shang is estimated to be 1 to 30, while under the Zhou it is estimated to be 1 to 10. However this was still limited as compared to the 1 to 5 in Ancient Egypt.

1932:) commanded the three Khitan Tumens and the four Han Generals Zhang Rou, Yan Shi, Shi Tianze, and Liu Heima commanded the four Han tumens under Ogödei Khan. The Mongols received defections from Han Chinese and Khitans while the Jin were abandoned by their own Jurchen officers. 1375:

In the field of military planning, the niceties of chivalrous warfare were abandoned in favor of a general who would ideally be a master of maneuver, illusion, and deception. He had to be ruthless in searching for the advantage, and an organizer in integrating units under him.

1458:, defeating them and conquering much of what is now Northern China, Western China, Mongolia, Central Asia, and Korea. After these victories, Chinese armies were tasked with the goal of holding the new territories against incursions and revolts by peoples such as the 1222:

Under the Shang and Zhou, these armies were able to expand China's territory and influence from a narrow part of the Yellow River valley to all of the North China plain. Equipped with bronze weapons, bows, and armor, these armies won victories against the sedentary

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Rev. WM. Campbell: "Formosa under the Dutch. Described from contemporary Records with Explanatory Notes and a Bibliography of the Island", originally published by Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd. London 1903, republished by SMC Publishing Inc. 1992,

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Chinese armies were also backed by a vast complex of arms-producing factories. State-owned factories turned out weapons by the thousands, though some dynasties (such as the Later Han) privatized their arms industry and acquired weapons from private merchants.

2586:, with German Dreyse Needle Guns and Krupp artillery. The Lanzhou arsenal in China in 1875 was able to produce modern European munitions and artillery by itself, with no foreign help. A Russian even saw the arsenal make "steel rifle-barrelled breechloaders". 3158:, huge artillery crossbows were used that could shoot several bolts at once, killing many men at a time. Even cavalrymen were sometimes issued with crossbows. It was recorded that the crossbow could "penetrate a large elm from a distance of 140 paces". The 3378:

During the Han dynasty, state manufacturers were producing stink bombs and tear gas bombs that were used effectively to suppress a revolt in 178 AD. Poisonous materials were also employed in rockets and crossbow ammunition to increase their effectiveness.

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were key for the Song army to fend off invaders who could not be bribed with "tribute payments," such as the Khitans and Jur'chens. Song forces held off Central Asian Mongol armies longer than did other settled peoples, until the fall of the Song in 1279.

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Founded by the Mongols who conquered Song China, the Yuan had the same military system as most nomadic peoples to China's north, focused mainly on nomadic cavalry, who were organized based on households and who were led by leaders appointed by the khan.

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evidently agreed, and sent Chinese students and officers to the United States and Germany for training. The Tientsin Arsenal developed the capacity to manufacture "electric torpedoes," that is, what would now be called "mines," US consul general,

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Little is known about their armament, but Chinese ships did carry bronze cannon at this time, as evidenced by the wreck of a small two-masted patrol vessel discovered in Shandong together with its anchor (inscribed 1372) and cannon (inscribed

5342:: "Formosa under the Dutch. Described from contemporary Records with Explanatory Notes and a Bibliography of the Island", originally published by Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd. London 1903, republished by SMC Publishing Inc. 1992, 2245:

Standard Soldiers to crush the rebels. The Qing thought that Han Chinese were superior at battling other Han people and so used the Green Standard Army as the dominant and majority army in crushing the rebels instead of Bannermen.

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Since it was not possible for only Manchus to conquer southern China, Ming Han Chinese armies conquered the territory for them. Three Liaodong Han Bannermen officers who played a great role in the conquest of southern China were

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Jin dynasty. However, the growing power of aristocratic landowners, who also provided many of the buqu, meant that the Southern dynasties were very unstable; after the fall of the Jin, four dynasties ruled in just two centuries.

8794: 8259: 3228:. Ming dynasty era ships had bronze cannon. One shipwreck in Shandong had a cannon dated to 1377 and an anchor dated to 1372. From the 13th to 15th centuries cannon armed Chinese ships also traveled throughout south east Asia. 1839:, whose capture by the Mongols precipitated the beginning of the end for the Song dynasty. The Mongol military system began to collapse after the 14th century and by 1368 the Mongols was driven out by the Chinese Ming dynasty. 1540: 1826:

However, in the conquest of China, the Mongols also adopted gunpowder weapons such as the thundercrash bomb and thousands of Chinese infantry and naval forces into the Mongol army. Another weapon adopted by the Mongols were

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Sun Tzu's work became the cornerstone of military thought, which grew rapidly. By the Han dynasty, no less than 11 schools of military thought were recognized. During the Song dynasty, a military academy was established.

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to the East and South, which were the main direction of expansion, as well as defending the western border against the nomadic incursions of the Xirong. However, after the collapse of the Zhou dynasty in 771 BC when the

2184:

in Liaoning in 1618 and a mass marriage of Han Chinese officers and officials to Manchu women numbering 1,000 couples was arranged by Prince Yoto and Hongtaiji in 1632 to promote harmony between the two ethnic groups.

2276:

which expelled the Dzungars from Tibet and placed it under Qing rule. At multiple places such as Lhasa, Batang, Dartsendo, Lhari, Chamdo, and Litang, Green Standard troops were garrisoned throughout the Dzungar war.

1236:, China collapsed into a plethora of small states, who warred frequently with each other. The competition between these states would eventually produce the professional armies that marked the Imperial Era of China. 3127:

The mechanical design of the ancient Chinese crossbow was very complex, due to the nature of the firing mechanism. The mechanical design of the Chinese crossbow was so unique, that many experts including historian

1674:

were so powerful they collected taxes, raised armies, and made their positions hereditary. Because of this, the central army of the Tang was greatly weakened. Eventually, the Tang dynasty collapsed and the various

8269: 3347:. From early Indian invention, which allowed cavalrymen to be much more effective in combat; this innovation later spread to East, north and west via the nomadic populations of central Asia and to the west by the 3179:

west. This became partially evident when the Manchus' began to rely on the Jesuits to run their cannon foundry, at a time when European powers had assumed the global lead in gunpowder warfare through their

8228: 4240: 3055:

In their various campaigns, the Chinese armies through the ages, employed a variety of equipment in the different arms of the army. The most notable weaponry used by the Chinese consisted of crossbows,

1473:, the army was made up largely of volunteers and conscription could be avoided by paying a fee. Those who presented the government with supplies, horses, or slaves were also exempted from conscription. 1656:

system, the prosperity of the Tang dynasty meant that the state's lands were being bought up in ever increasing quantities. Consequently, the state could no longer provide land to the farmers, and the

1450:

largely inherited their institutions from the earlier Warring States period, with the major exception that cavalry forces were becoming more and more important, due to the threat of the Xiongnu. Under

1746:

system in which commands by generals were ad hoc and temporary; this was to prevent the troops from becoming attached to their generals, who could potentially rebel. Successful generals such as

8743: 8264: 2252:, the Qing dynasty engaged and pushed back about 2,000 Russian Cossacks in a series of intermittent skirmishes. The frontier in the south-west was extended slowly, in 1701 the Qing defeated 2034:. Archery and equestrianism were added to the exam by Hongwu in 1370 like how archery and equestrianism were required for non-military officials at the 武舉 College of War in 1162 by the Song 2362:

were well organized and tactically innovative. After the rebel armies defeated Manchu generals in a series of battles, the Qing government allowed armies made up of foreigners, such as the

1297: 3798:

Pre-modern East Asia: To 1800: A Cultural, Social, and Political History, ed. Patricia Ebrey, Anne Walthall, and James Palais (Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2006), p. 72

3744:

Pre-modern East Asia: To 1800: A Cultural, Social, and Political History, ed. Patricia Ebrey, Anne Walthall, and James Palais (Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2006), p. 63

3735:

Pre-modern East Asia: To 1800: A Cultural, Social, and Political History, ed. Patricia Ebrey, Anne Walthall, and James Palais (Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2006), p. 51

3726:

Pre-modern East Asia: To 1800: A Cultural, Social, and Political History, ed. Patricia Ebrey, Anne Walthall, and James Palais (Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2006), p. 45

1857:

During the Mongol invasion of Iraq, 1,000 Chinese crossbowmen who utilized fire arrows participated in the invasion, along with the Mongol tribesmen. In 1258 the commander of the Mongol

1660:

system broke down. By the 8th century, the Tang had reverted to the centralized military system of the Han. However, this also did not last, and it broke down during the disorder of the

8233: 3388:

to a collar harness. This innovation, along with the wheelbarrow, allowed large-scale transportation to occur, allowing huge armies numbering hundreds of thousands of men in the field.

8178: 8098: 6360: 6196:

Mapping Meanings: The Field of New Learning in Late Qing China; [International Conference "Translating Western Knowledge Into Late Imperial China", 1999, Göttingen University]

4759:

Chan, Hok-Lam. 1997. “A Recipe to Qubilai Qa'an on Governance: The Case of Chang Te-hui and Li Chih”. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 7 (2). Cambridge University Press: 257–283.

7558:(Basic Books; 2011) 554 pages; uses archaeological data, oracular inscriptions, and other sources in a study of Chinese warfare, with a focus on the Shang dynasty (c. 1766–1122 BC). 1189:. These armies were tasked with the twofold goal of defending China and her subject peoples from foreign intruders, and with expanding China's territory and influence across Asia. 8078: 8058: 8008: 5281: 4773: 1639:

In 581 AD, the Chinese Yang Jian forced the Xianbei ruler to abdicate, founding the Sui dynasty and restoring Chinese rule in the North. By 589 AD, he had unified much of China.

8153: 8218: 8103: 5257: 2466:

In 1885 Li Hongzhang founded the Tianjin Military Academy (天津武備學堂) for Chinese army officers, with German advisers, as part of his military reforms. The move was supported by

7973: 8073: 7988: 1219:. During the Shang and Western Zhou eras, warfare was seen as an aristocratic affair, complete with protocols that may be compared to the chivalry of the European knight. 6610: 8736: 8279: 8198: 8133: 2150:. The Manchus were a sedentary agricultural people who lived in fixed villages, farmed crops, practiced hunting and mounted archery., In the late sixteenth century, 3358:, claim the use of the stirrup in Europe stimulated development of the medieval knights which characterized feudal Europe. However, this thesis was disputed in the 6140: 5136:

China as a Sea Power, 1127–1368: A Preliminary Survey of the Maritime Expansion and Naval Exploits of the Chinese People During the Southern Song and Yuan Periods

2550:

employed by Chinese troops along with modern artillery. By 1882, the Qing navy had some fifty steam warships, half of them built in China. The American Commodore

8814: 8799: 1947:. His son Shi Gang married a Kerait woman, the Kerait were Mongolified Turkic people and considered as part of the "Mongol nation". Shi Tianze (Shih T'ien-tse), 1544: 8729: 2976: 2189:

of the Eight Banners so much that ethnic Manchus became a minority, constituting only 16% in 1648, Han Bannermen 75%, and Mongol Bannermen making up the rest.

1981:) and other high ranking Chinese who served in the Jin dynasty and defected to the Mongols helped build the structure for the administration of the new state. 1353:

labor obligations. He would also be given special tax benefits on land and housing. However, this policy made soldiers in the Wei state difficult to replace.

1865:. The Chinese General Guo Kan was then made Governor of Baghdad by Hulagu, who also brought Chinese technicians specializing in hydraulics to engineer the 17: 9087: 2176:

while the ordinary soldiers who defected were often given non-royal Manchu women as wives. Nurhaci married one of his granddaughters to the Ming General

1686:

During the Tang, professional military writing and schools began to be set up to train officers, an institution that would be expanded during the Song.

1163:, advanced metallurgical standardization for arms and armor, early gunpowder weapons, and other advanced weapons, but also adopted nomadic cavalry and 5978: 3213:

Traditionally interpreted as a wind god, a sculpture in Sichuan was found holding a bombard, and the date must be as early as AD 1128 These cast-iron

2759: 2551: 4820:"THE RELATIONS BETWEEN THE CHINESE MING DYNASTY AND THE TIBETAN RULING HOUSE OF PHAG-MO-GRU IN THE YEARS 1368–1434: POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS ASPECTS" 3023: 6642: 6437: 4507: 2815: 4273: 4198: 2995: 2233:, in the early 1660s began to feel threatened by the increasing control from the north, and decided they had no choice but to revolt. The ensuing 6393: 1185:

The military history of China stretches from roughly 1900 BC to the present day. Chinese armies were advanced and powerful, especially after the

2728:. But the defeat of the fleet, and the resulting threat to steamship traffic to Taiwan, forced China to conclude peace on unfavorable terms." 3002: 5492: 4643: 4425: 3116:, which allowed Chinese armies to deploy huge amounts of firepower. In China, the crossbow was one of the primary military weapons from the 8688: 8183: 6611:

Stephan L'H. Slocum, Carl Reichmann, Adna Romanza Chaffee, United States. Adjutant-General's Office. Military Information Division (1901).

6086: 1898: 1492:, who laid the foundation for the Wei dynasty, which ruled most of China. However, much of Southern China was ruled by two rival Kingdoms, 1167:

military technology. China's armies also benefited from an advanced logistics system as well as a rich strategic tradition, beginning with

6690: 2050:. Ming armies incorporated gunpowder weapons into their military force, speeding up a development that had been prevalent since the Song. 8829: 1948: 1881: 1725: 2611:

Chinese military officials were interested in western guns, and eagerly purchased them. Modern arsenals were established at places like

8470: 7241:

Considering that Chinese ships armed with gunpowder weapons, including cannon, visited the region regularly from the 1200s to the 1400s

6470: 5476: 5108: 4804: 4780: 4668: 3009: 1142: 1082: 6059: 5699: 5630: 5618: 8365: 8340: 5711: 1982: 7330:

Buried Treasures of Chinese Turkestan: An Account of the Activities and Adventures of the Second and Third German Turfan Expeditions

6240: 3884: 1793: 1349:(41.6 km, based on the Eastern Zhou li) in a day. When a man meets this requirement, his household would be exempted from all 6302: 2991: 2204: 1549:

In 304 AD, a major event shook China. The Jin dynasty, who had unified China 24 years earlier, was tottering in collapse due to a

8977: 8208: 3949: 2390:. The Qing also absorbed bandit armies and Generals who defected to the Qing side during rebellions, such as the Muslim Generals 1438:

and its successor, the Han, the Chinese armies were faced with a new military threat, that of nomadic confederations such as the

8789: 6268: 5383:"How Taiwan Became Chinese Dutch, Spanish, and Han Colonization in the Seventeenth Century Chapter 11 The Fall of Dutch Taiwan" 3916: 1482: 772: 9022: 8668: 8587: 8551: 8018: 7696: 7576: 7468: 7391: 7227: 7217: 7189: 7162: 7080: 6992: 6965: 6938: 6833: 6806: 6177: 6150: 6123: 6096: 6069: 6042: 6015: 5988: 5930: 5920: 5894: 5867: 5816: 5789: 5762: 5735: 5672: 5591: 5564: 5537: 5502: 5213: 5185: 5144: 5074: 5020: 4990: 4963: 4936: 4909: 4882: 4855: 4747: 4693: 4175: 4142: 4109: 3500: 2162:", military-social units that included Jurchen, Han Chinese, Korean and Mongol elements under direct command of the Emperor. 2069:

Chinese ships knocked out two Portuguese ships, who were armed with gunpowder weapons, and forced the Portuguese to retreat.

1873:

basin irrigation systems. This resulted in the Middle East being permeated by major Chinese influence during Hulagu's reign.

164: 6194: 2920:

The proper relationship between the ruler and the general. Sun Tzu holds the ruler should not interfere in military affairs.

2642:. In some cases, primitive weapons like Chinese spears were more effective than British bayonets in close quarter fighting. 1356:

In addition, cavalry was introduced. The first recorded use of cavalry took place in the Battle of Maling, in which general

8824: 8809: 8592: 7935: 7179: 6740: 6253: 4573: 2708: 1721: 1619: 645: 635: 6327: 5404: 5308: 3112:. The crossbow also had greater firing velocity, and allowed a much deeper penetration into armor compared to traditional 8804: 8223: 8128: 6528: 5090: 4723: 1615: 1114: 276: 6113: 1712:. During the Tang dynasty, 3,000 Chinese soldiers, and 3,000 Muslim soldiers were traded to each other in an agreement. 9092: 8683: 8647: 7870: 7783: 7492: 6588: 6005: 4358: 3665: 3619: 3595: 3570: 3446: 3154:

In combat, crossbows were often fitted with grid sights to help aim, and several different sizes were used. During the

2638:

guns firing massive shells were used accurately, and inflicted severe wounds and death on the Allied troops during the

2273: 1944: 266: 174: 6776: 5010: 3683:, ed. Patricia Ebrey, Anne Walthall, and James Palais (Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2006), pp. 29–30 2366:, and eventually responded by forming armies mainly composed of Han Chinese, and under Han Chinese commanders such as 8597: 8556: 7810: 7677: 7609: 7548: 7513: 7337: 7089: 7028: 6716: 6667: 6447: 6403: 6370: 6337: 6278: 6204: 5441: 5414: 5365: 5347: 5318: 5064: 5047: 5037: 4953: 4391: 4322: 4283: 4250: 4208: 4099: 3959: 3926: 3894: 3042: 2732: 2721: 943: 5882: 5855: 4132: 8642: 8627: 8607: 8508: 8143: 6657: 5134: 4872: 4845: 4520: 4165: 3244:, Chinese technology had progressed to making large land mines, many of them were deployed on the northern border. 3016: 2725: 2304:. After the demise of the Dzunghar Khanate, the Manchu authority in Tibet faced only weak opposition. In 1841, the 197: 8622: 8617: 8435: 8385: 8349: 8068: 8063: 7958: 7366: 6630:

June 15, it was learned that the mouth of the river was protected by electric mines, that the forts at Taku were.

5581: 5175: 2943: 2234: 697: 4508:

http://121.199.12.114:99/main/wz_xs.tom?c_name=%CF%F4%D7%D3%CF%D4&d_id=wzadd20120314102439zw&searh_text=

1606:

China. In addition, under the brilliant general Liu Yu, Chinese armies briefly reconquered much of North China.

1565:

uprisings. After the initial uprising, the various tribes fought among themselves in a chaotic era known as the

8778: 8673: 8498: 8188: 8163: 7978: 7968: 7840: 7459:

Dreyer, Edward L. (1988). "Military origins of Ming China", in Twitchett, Denis and Mote, Frederick W. (eds.),

7415: 7298: 7278: 6659:

The boxer rebellion: the dramatic story of China's war on foreigners that shook the world in the summer of 1900

2980: 1306: 1135: 1087: 4006: 3404:

for military rations during campaigns such as drying meat into jerky and cooking, roasting, and drying grain.

8769: 8333: 8274: 8148: 8028: 5339: 4030: 2583: 2480: 2445:) which was praised for its performance, consisted of Chinese collaborators serving in the British military. 2265: 2249: 2237:

lasted for eight years. At the peak of the rebels' fortunes, they extended their control as far north as the

2066: 1253: 1109: 1035: 970: 5039:

Zhu Yuanzhang and Early Ming Legislation: The Reordering of Chinese Society Following the Era of Mongol Rule

4980: 4926: 4899: 8844: 8839: 8834: 8774: 8572: 8488: 8375: 8168: 8123: 8093: 7993: 6825:

China and the International System, 1840–1949: Power, Presence, and Perceptions in a Century of Humiliation

6798:

China and the International System, 1840–1949: Power, Presence, and Perceptions in a Century of Humiliation

2682:

Boxer Rebellion, in contrast to the Manchu and other Chinese soldiers who used arrows and bows, the Muslim

2117: 2062: 1998: 1787: 1271: 1045: 6362:

Manchus & Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928

1311: 9062: 8784: 8678: 8637: 8632: 8577: 8483: 8460: 8193: 8108: 8088: 7963: 7567: 7059: 7039: 4560: 2674: 2541:

China began to extensively modernize its military in the late 19th century. It purchased the most modern

2454: 2038:. The area around the Meridian Gate of Nanjing was used for archery by guards and generals under Hongwu. 1936: 1774: 1385: 1198: 1097: 854: 235: 3982: 8917: 8701: 8612: 8602: 8478: 8445: 8440: 8390: 8238: 8173: 8138: 8053: 8043: 8003: 7983: 6778:

Conceptualizing the Blue Frontier: The Great Qing and the Maritime World in the Long Eighteenth Century

1876:

Many Han Chinese and Khitan defected to the Mongols to fight against the Jin. Two Han Chinese leaders,

1469:

The structure of the army also changed in this period. While the Qin had utilized a conscript army, by

1102: 6578: 5279: 5202: 3132:

claim that the Chinese crossbow firing mechanism was almost as complex as the modern-invention of the

8897: 8582: 8546: 8541: 8430: 8158: 8113: 8048: 8023: 8013: 7998: 7908: 3428:

In early Chinese armies, command of armies was based on birth rather than merit. For example, in the

3359: 3332: 2229:, who then governed southern China autonomously as viceroys for the Qing. Wu, Geng, and Shang's son, 1128: 1065: 1030: 603: 299: 209: 124: 7154: 6984:

Chinese siege warfare: mechanical artillery & siege weapons of antiquity, an illustrated history

809: 8415: 8326: 8118: 8083: 8038: 8033: 7950: 7928: 4819: 4497: 2500: 2403: 2089: 2073: 1550: 799: 448: 7102:

Gwei-Djen, Lu; Needham, Joseph; Chi-Hsing, Phan (1988). "The Oldest Representation of a Bombard".

6982: 6618: 4412: 8965: 8503: 8455: 8425: 8380: 5946: 5886:

The Diary of a Manchu Soldier in Seventeenth-Century China: "My Service in the Army", by Dzengseo

5859:

The Diary of a Manchu Soldier in Seventeenth-Century China: "My Service in the Army", by Dzengseo

4647: 4429: 3451: 2969: 2594: 2560: 2506: 2097: 1025: 8721: 6505: 5255: 1372:

ordered the adoption of nomadic clothing in order to train his own division of cavalry archers.

8854: 8518: 8420: 7586: 6694: 5883:

Henry Luce Foundation Professor of East Asian Studies Nicola Di Cosmo; Nicola Di Cosmo (2007).

5856:

Henry Luce Foundation Professor of East Asian Studies Nicola Di Cosmo; Nicola Di Cosmo (2007).

5779: 4381: 2712: 2084:

in 1633. In 1662, Chinese and European arms clashed when a Ming-loyalist army of 25,000 led by

1770: 1077: 1055: 1040: 526: 245: 7081:

The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers. Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000

6823: 6796: 6329:

Han-Mongol encounters and missionary endeavors: a history of Scheut in Ordos (Hetao) 1874–1911

5806: 5781:

The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China

5754:

The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China

5752: 5727:

The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China

5725: 5554: 4616: 4598: 4314: 4134:

Fighting techniques of the Oriental world, AD 1200–1860: equipment, combat skills, and tactics

3717:, Anne Walthall, and James Palais (Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2006), p. 29 3493:

The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China

2645: 1734: 9097: 8932: 8874: 8867: 8862: 8761: 8450: 8395: 7405: 5960: 5884: 5857: 5687: 5660: 5606: 5527: 4735: 4711: 4683: 3614: 3225: 3167: 3144: 2678: 2654: 2620: 2600: 2155: 2081: 2031: 1798: 1316: 1208: 1186: 1050: 467: 7505:

Some did it for civilisation, some did it for their country: a revised view of the boxer war

7147: 5831: 5112: 4130: 8952: 8922: 8513: 8360: 7892: 5456:"How Taiwan Became Chinese Dutch, Spanish, and Han Colonization in the Seventeenth Century" 2773: 2526: 2363: 2343: 2272:

soldiers and Manchu bannermen were commanded by the Han Chinese General Yue Zhongqi in the

1580: 1527: 1204: 1092: 305: 5455: 5382: 1301:

A horse-rider fighting a tiger, depicted on a gilded mirror discovered in Jincun, Luoyang.

1276: 8: 8410: 8248: 7921: 7361: 5643: 3542:

Sources of East Asian Tradition, Theodore De Bary(Columbia University Press 2008), p. 119

3180: 3159: 3139: 2627: 2566:

The Chinese armies which received the modern equipment and training were the Han Chinese

2471: 2285: 2269: 1836: 1369: 1341: 1323: 257: 7714: 6612: 6424: 5259:

Journal of the China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society for the year ..., Volumes 27–28

2563:

reported that they were deployed in waterways along with other modern military weapons.

8982: 8927: 8533: 7758: 7750: 7127: 7119: 6636: 3636: 3086: 2825: 2695: 2442: 2257: 1903: 1886: 1633: 1624: 1060: 240: 129: 2327:

Southern Chinese coolies served with the French and British forces against the Qing: "

1986: 8400: 8370: 8303: 7866: 7836: 7806: 7779: 7772: 7762: 7692: 7673: 7605: 7572: 7544: 7509: 7488: 7464: 7411: 7387: 7333: 7325: 7294: 7274: 7223: 7185: 7158: 7131: 7085: 7024: 6988: 6961: 6934: 6829: 6802: 6663: 6584: 6443: 6399: 6366: 6333: 6274: 6200: 6173: 6146: 6119: 6092: 6065: 6038: 6011: 5984: 5926: 5890: 5863: 5812: 5785: 5758: 5731: 5668: 5587: 5560: 5533: 5498: 5437: 5410: 5361: 5343: 5314: 5209: 5181: 5140: 5070: 5043: 5016: 4986: 4959: 4932: 4905: 4878: 4851: 4798: 4689: 4662: 4387: 4354: 4318: 4307: 4279: 4246: 4204: 4171: 4138: 4105: 3955: 3922: 3890: 3661: 3591: 3566: 3496: 3401: 2749: 2435: 2430:. Local officials could also take command of military affairs, such as the father of 2355: 1729: 1451: 988: 556: 536: 311: 8819: 7886: 6532: 5922:

China's Last Imperial Frontier: Late Qing Expansion in Sichuan's Tibetan Borderlands

4450: 8493: 7889:: Mechanical Artillery and Siege Weapons of Antiquity – An Illustrated History 7798: 7742: 7111: 7015:

Tittmann, Wilfried (1996), "China, Europa und die Entwicklung der Feuerwaffen", in

6955: 6425: 4245:(reprint, reissue, illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 417. 3628: 3363: 3348: 3257: 2626:

In addition to modern equipment, Chinese weapons, like fire arrows, light mortars,

2619:

and other artillery were purchased by the Chinese military from western countries.

2293: 2281: 2147: 2131: 2101: 2035: 1698: 1566: 1455: 1258:

Early Bronze Age Chinese cities were characterized by massive defensive walls. The

1244: 667: 225: 217: 40: 8318: 7715:

Edward L. Dreyer; Frank Algerton Kierman; John King Fairbank; et al. (1974).

5661:

James A. Millward; Ruth W. Dunnell; Mark C. Elliott; Philippe Forêt, eds. (2004).

1985:(Tsagaan) and Zhang Rou jointly launched an attack on the Song dynasty ordered by 1850:

also brought Chinese artillery specialists within their armies who specialized in

8912: 7860: 7830: 7562: 7503: 7482: 6998: 6928: 6433: 6429: 6270:

Late Ch'ing, 1800–1911 Volume 11, Part 2 of The Cambridge History of China Series

6167: 6032: 4955:

Intellectuals at a Crossroads: The Changing Politics of China's Knowledge Workers

3617:(1988), "Historical Perspectives on The Introduction of The Chariot Into China", 2785: 2768: 2754: 2744: 2691: 2662: 2639: 2612: 2578:

Divisions. The three Manchu divisions were destroyed in the Boxer Rebellion. The

2316: 2289: 2261: 2105: 2011:

Math, calligraphy, literature, equestrianism, archery, music, and rites were the

1661: 1562: 1395: 1259: 169: 7774:

The Pursuit of Power : Technology, Armed Force, and Society since A.D. 1000

5579: 4847:

Fighting Techniques of the Oriental World: Equipment, Combat Skills, and Tactics

4468: 3309: 2905:

How to conduct diplomacy so that you gain more allies and the enemy lose allies.

1650:(府兵) system began to break down. Based on state ownership of the land under the 1541:

Military history of the Jin dynasty (266–420) and the Sixteen Kingdoms (304–439)

1518: 9041: 9016: 8902: 8405: 7379: 7312: 5909:

Peers C. Late Imperial Chinese Armies 1520–1840. Osprey Publishing. 1997. p. 33

5280:

Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. North-China Branch (1894).

3714: 3265: 3117: 2722:

bluffed Russia into a peaceful settlement of disputed frontiers in Central Asia

2347: 2222: 2127: 2047: 2027: 1501: 1229: 1173: 569: 486: 179: 91: 68: 7746: 5302: 5300: 5094: 3713:

Pre-modern East Asia: To 1800: A Cultural, Social, and Political History, ed.

3351:. However, some believe northern nomads were responsible for this innovation. 9081: 9047: 9035: 8907: 8297: 7653: 7634: 7410:(illustrated, reprint, revised ed.). Yale University Press. p. 52. 5583:

Empire at the Margins: Culture, Ethnicity, and Frontier in Early Modern China

5378: 5283:

Journal of the North-China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Volumes 26–27

3417: 3284: 3280: 3276: 3129: 3113: 2860: 2850: 2604: 2575: 2391: 2305: 2238: 2159: 2042:

were held in the capital for Garrison of Guard soldiers who were handpicked.

2023: 1970: 1953: 1940: 1399: 1164: 359: 326: 139: 104: 7002: 3343:

were introduced in combat. An important innovation was the invention of the

1418: 1159:

extends from about 2200 BC to the present day. Chinese pioneered the use of

8970: 8715: 7913: 7075: 7016: 5664:

New Qing Imperial History: The Making of Inner Asian Empire at Qing Chengde

5297: 4131:

Michael E. Haskew; Christer Joregensen; Eric Niderost; Chris McNab (2008).

3336: 3288: 3270: 3260: 3241: 3221: 3214: 3199: 3155: 2855: 2840: 2810: 2687: 2683: 2571: 2555: 2485: 2478:

The Tianjin Military Academy in 1886 adopted as part of its curriculum the

2460: 2431: 2427: 2411: 2375: 2371: 2230: 2139: 1843: 1811: 1750:

and Liu Zen were persecuted by the Song Court who feared they would rebel.

1739: 1689:

Tibetan tradition says that the Tang dynasty seized the Tibetan capital at

1680: 1629: 1459: 934: 910: 897: 884: 828: 787: 725: 439: 429: 406: 73: 7802: 7273:, Author Russel H. Beatie, Publisher: University of Oklahoma Press, 1981, 7021:

Europäische Technik im Mittelalter. 800 bis 1400. Tradition und Innovation

6192: 5160: 2173: 8994: 8663: 8307: 6691:"The Boxer Rebellion, 1900: A Selection of Books, Prints and Photographs" 6266: 5256:

Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. China Branch (1895).

3367: 3340: 3217:

and erupters were mostly fitted to ships and fortifications for defense.

3148: 3121: 3109: 3097: 2899:

The importance of manoeuvring so your enemy is hit in his weakened spots.

2865: 2835: 2690:

used the weaponry to inflict numerous defeats upon western armies in the

2670: 2650: 2616: 2395: 2379: 2367: 2339: 2309: 2177: 1762: 1694: 1585: 1470: 1447: 1435: 1411: 1406: 1361: 1332: 1207:, usually serfs dependent upon the king or the feudal lord of their home 841: 712: 546: 514: 501: 335: 7754: 7689:

A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD)

4760: 4528: 3681:

Pre-modern East Asia: To 1800: A Cultural, Social, and Political History

3588:

Violence, Kinship and the Early Chinese State: The Shang and their World

1679:

were made into separate kingdoms, a situation that would last until the

9009: 8987: 8960: 7822:

China's Use of Military Force: Beyond the Great Wall and the Long March

7348:

Liu Han: "Northern Dynasties Tomb Figures of Armored Horse and Rider",

7310:

Albert Dien: "The stirrup and its effect on Chinese military history",

7123: 4621: 3640: 3429: 3355: 3283:, and large-scale use of the flamethrower is recorded in 975, when the 3252: 3207: 2884: 2877: 2830: 2820: 2795: 2666: 2589: 2579: 2567: 2489: 2419: 2415: 2407: 2383: 2226: 2218: 2169: 1877: 1761:

The military technology of the Song included gunpowder weapons such as

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Yoshihiro, Hatano (1968). "The New Armies". In Mary C., Wright (ed.).

2892:

laid out several important cornerstones of military thought, such as:

2731:

The Qing dynasty forced Russia to hand over disputed territory in the

2130:; ink and color on silk; 1760 AD; inscribed, and with one seal of the 9054: 8942: 5947:"The life and campaigns of Hugh, first Viscount Gough, Field-Marshal" 4982:

The Cambridge History of China: Volume 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644

4928:

The Cambridge History of China: Volume 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644

4901:

The Cambridge History of China: Volume 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644

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The earliest modernised units of the Qing military were part of the

1390: 1350: 9000: 3191: 3105: 3070: 2845: 2800: 2763: 2726:

defeated the French forces on land in the Sino-French War (1884–85)

2631: 2535: 2519: 2493: 2470:

commander Zhou Shengchuan. The academy was to serve Anhui Army and

2253: 2058:

disintegrated as a result of the famines spurring from this event.

2012: 1851: 1331:

mechanism with a butt plate, from the late Warring States to early

1328: 1216: 1160: 154: 149: 144: 6987:(1st ed.). Singapore, Republic of Singapore: Leong Kit Meng. 9028: 8937: 8751: 7597: 7222:(illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 138. 3344: 3301:

Mongols, where they were described by Arabs as "Chinese arrows".

2889: 2699: 2192: 2151: 2143: 2122: 2085: 1965: 1862: 1828: 1807: 1803: 1769:

were employed in large numbers. The Song government also created

1766: 1755: 1747: 1708:. They remained in China, and some of them were ancestors of the 1666: 1652: 1512: 1493: 1489: 1463: 1439: 1233: 1168: 736: 587: 581: 159: 119: 114: 7184:(illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 50. 5529:

The Cambridge History of China: Pt. 1; The Ch'ing Empire to 1800

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The religious traditions of Asia: religion, history, and culture

3370:

riders may have been the most expert cavalry of all at its use.

3081: 1203:

Early Chinese armies were relatively small affairs. Composed of

5306: 3908: 3707: 3536: 3196: 3061: 2635: 2546: 2297: 2181: 2093: 2077: 1866: 1858: 1847: 1704:

In 756, over 4,000 Arab mercenaries joined the Chinese against

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Waging War: Conflict, Culture, and Innovation in World History

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Harmony and War: Confucian Culture and Chinese Power Politics

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Pamela Kyle Crossley; Helen F. Siu; Donald S. Sutton (2006).

5310:

Asia in the Making of Europe: A Century of Advance: East Asia

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continued to be used alongside the western weaponry. Chinese

2542: 1690: 1526:

figurine of a cataphract horse and rider, created during the

7461:

The Ming Dynasty, Part 1, The Cambridge History of China, 7.

6784:(Thesis). Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg. p. 11. 2174:

given women from the Imperial Aisin Gioro family in marriage

2158:(1616–1636) and originally a Ming vassal, began organizing " 1265: 7901: 5177:

Negotiating Urban Space: Urbanization and Late Ming Nanjing

4101:

Khubilai Khan's lost fleet: in search of a legendary armada

3771:

de Crespigny (2007), 564–565 & 1234; Hucker (1975), 166

3089:(non-recurve version - ones used for war would be recurved) 3057: 2358:(1850–1864), the rebel forces led by able generals such as 2030:

in addition to Confucian classics and also required in the

1835:

1823:

navy and army and assisted them in their conquest of Song.

6267:

John King Fairbank; Denis Crispin Twitchett, eds. (1980).

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Voices from the Ming-Qing cataclysm: China in tigers' jaws

4350:

The invention of printing in China and its spread westward

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Portrait of Wu Fu, Brigadier General of the Gansu Region.

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H. G. Creel: "The Role of the Horse in Chinese History",

2882:

Chinese military thought's most famous tome is Sun Tzu's

1693:

in 650. In 763 the Tibetans captured the Tang capital at

1670:

or local generals become extraordinarily powerful. These

1456:

series of massive cavalry expeditions against the Xiongnu

7604:

Translated by Sam B. Griffith (2006), Blue Heron Books,

7463:

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 58–107,

7384:

Medieval Weapons. An Illustrated History of Their Impact

6614:

Reports on military operations in South Africa and China

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Military history of the Northern and Southern dynasties

7795:

The Philosophy of Chinese Military Culture Shih vs. Li

7149:

Battle: a visual journey through 5,000 years of combat

6914:

Ebrey, The Cambridge Illustrated History of China, 41.

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K.C. Liu, Richard Smith, "The Military Challenge," in

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Khan's forces besieging Baghdad was a Chinese General

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Michael Lackner, Ph.D.; Natascha Vittinghoff (2004).

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During the Han dynasty, Chinese developed methods of

7862:

Imperial Chinese Military History: 8000 BC – 1912 AD

7215: 7177: 5777: 5478:

East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History

4837: 4379: 4271: 2665:, Imperial Chinese forces deployed a weapon called " 2630:

swords, matchlocks, bows and arrows, crossbows, and

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employed the new weaponry to achieve victory in the

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Empire's Twilight: Northeast Asia Under the Mongols

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Difference between Strategic and Tactical strategy.

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Simon and Schuster. pp. 83–. 4167:Chinese Walled Cities 221 BC–AD 1644 3287:navy employed flamethrowers against 3173: 2981:adding citations to reliable sources 2952: 2709:Siege of the International Legations 2382:. Examples of these armies were the 1722:Military history of the Song dynasty 1620:Military history of the Tang dynasty 18:Military history of China (pre-1911) 7903:Journal of Chinese military History 7316:, Vol. 16 (1986), pp. 33–56 (38-42) 5453: 5377: 4005:Charles Patrick Fitzgerald (1961). 3655: 3646: 3373: 3186: 2208:A cavalryman with a gun in his hand 1616:Military history of the Sui dynasty 24: 8684:Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 7732: 7708:Military Culture in Imperial China 7661: 7571:(3rd ed.), New York: Norton, 7219:Firearms: a global history to 1700 7181:Firearms: a global history to 1700 7044:The Military Revolution, 1560-1660 6774: 6510:. 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Among its staff was 2455:Self-Strengthening Movement 1771:China's first standing navy 1609: 1596: 1556: 1386:Military of the Han dynasty 10: 9114: 8795:Jin & Sixteen Kingdoms 7898:(University of Washington) 7832:Warfare in Chinese History 7668:Bielenstein, Hans (1986). 7453: 5644:"Summing up Naquin/Rawski" 4818:SLOBODNÍK, Martin (2004). 4682:David M. Robinson (2009). 3921:. Routledge. p. 283. 3407: 3395: 3325: 3295: 3166:) was invented during the 2941: 2938:Military exams and degrees 2875: 2711:by the Boxers, missionary 2530:New Army soldiers in 1911. 2452: 2115: 2022:, law, math, calligraphy, 1996: 1897:, Liu Ni), and the Khitan 1791: 1785: 1719: 1716:Liao, Song and Jurchen Jin 1613: 1538: 1480: 1446:Armies during the Qin and 1426:armor from the Han dynasty 1383: 1379: 1304: 1269: 1251: 1196: 9093:Military history of China 8951: 8890: 8883: 8853: 8760: 8656: 8565: 8532: 8469: 8356: 8288: 8247: 8207: 7949: 7747:10.3200/AAFS.32.4.256-278 7706:Di Cosmo, Nicola (2009). 7502:Elliott, Jane E. (2002). 7352:, No. 2, 1959, pp. 97–100 7048:Essays in Swedish History 6933:. Bloomsbury Publishing. 6577:Monro MacCloskey (1969). 6392:Bruce A. Elleman (2001). 6326:Patrick Taveirne (2004). 5517:Li and Zheng (2001), 1018 5491:Frederic Wakeman (1977). 5063:Sarah Schneewind (2006). 5036:Edward L. Farmer (1995). 4827:Asian and African Studies 4197:Stephen Turnbull (2003). 4098:James P. Delgado (2008). 3360:Great Stirrup Controversy 3232:Bombs, grenades and mines 2902:The importance of morale. 2677:, to prevent the western 2653:officers with the French 2248:In 1652–1689, during the 1454:, the Chinese launched a 1193:Pre-Warring States Period 1157:military history of China 957: 879: 759: 692: 622: 496: 193: 97: 87: 56: 46: 36: 31: 8754:Chinese military history 8009:East Timor (Timor-Leste) 7944:Military history of Asia 7820:Scobell, Andrew (2003). 7404:Anderson, E. N. (1988). 7261:Li and Zheng (2001), 531 7252:Li and Zheng (2001), 288 6199:. Brill. pp. 269–. 5977:Ralph L. Powell (2015). 5286:. The Branch. p. 44 5262:. The Branch. p. 44 5246:Li and Zheng (2001), 950 4871:Dorothy Perkins (2013). 4625:(in Traditional Chinese) 4617:"新元史/卷146 – 維基文庫，自由的圖書館" 4088:Li and Zheng (2001), 877 4070:Li and Zheng (2001), 868 4061:Li and Zheng (2001), 859 4052:Li and Zheng (2001), 822 3846:Li and Zheng (2001), 554 3780:Bielenstein (1980), 114. 3563:Ancient China: A History 3524:Li and Zheng (2001), 212 3437:efficiency of the army. 2949:Equipment and technology 2501:Baoding Military Academy 2484:. Among its alumni were 2296:; the Manchus drove the 2280:During the reign of the 2090:Dutch East India Company 8800:Northern & Southern 8657:Institutes and programs 8366:Artificial intelligence 8270:Cocos (Keeling) Islands 7850:Yuan-Kang Wang (2011). 7717:Chinese Ways in Warfare 7587:Smith, Arthur Henderson 7556:Ancient Chinese Warfare 7481:Elleman, Bruce (2001). 6981:Liang, Jieming (2006). 6954:Selby, Stephen (2000). 6472:Timely topics, Volume 5 6434:Denis Crispin Twitchett 5403:Lynn A. Struve (1998). 5201:Foon Ming Liew (1998). 5042:. Brill. pp. 59–. 4561:eds. Seaman, Marks 1991 4305:Jacques Gernet (1996). 4035:. Hachette. p. 121 3984:China: a history in art 3452:List of Chinese battles 3269:manuscript of 1044 AD, 2146:, was, like the Yuan a 2111: 1992: 1937:Jin dynasty (1115–1234) 1781: 9023:Ming gunpowder weapons 8978:Song gunpowder weapons 7484:Modern Chinese Warfare 7104:Technology and Culture 6656:Diana Preston (2000). 6439:Late Ch'ing, 1800–1911 5631:Fairbank, Goldman 2006 5494:Fall of Imperial China 5009:Stephen Selby (2000). 4712:ed. de Rachewiltz 1993 4578:www.wanfangdata.com.cn 4011:. Praeger. p. 332 3948:Oscar Chapuis (1995). 3886:Tibet Past and Present 3656:Lee, Watne E. (2016). 3615:Shaughnessy, Edward L. 3551:Griffith (2006), 49–61 3533:Griffith (2006), 23–24 3425: 3362:by historians such as 3354:Some authors, such as 3314: 3273: 3203: 3151: 3101: 3090: 2713:Arthur Henderson Smith 2658: 2608: 2531: 2523: 2511: 2351: 2209: 2197: 2135: 2076:in 1622–1624 over the 1815: 1742: 1636: 1589: 1531: 1427: 1415: 1414:(202 BC – 220 AD) 1403: 1336: 1335:(202 BC – 220 AD) 1320: 1302: 1281: 1249: 52:c. 1900 BC – 1911 8863:Ming treasure voyages 8752:Ancient and dynastic 8499:History of metallurgy 7893:"Military Technology" 7887:Chinese Siege Warfare 7803:10.1057/9781403983138 7656:in the United States. 7637:in the United States. 5133:Lo Jung-pang (2012). 3883:Charles Bell (1992), 3491:Frederic E. Wakeman: 3415: 3312: 3255: 3226:Battle of Lake Poyang 3195:Hand cannon from the 3194: 3168:Warring States period 3145:Warring States period 3142: 3096: 3084: 2679:Eight-Nation Alliance 2655:Montigny mitrailleuse 2648: 2621:Montigny mitrailleuse 2601:Imperial Chinese Navy 2592: 2529: 2517: 2509: 2337: 2207: 2195: 2125: 2092:garrison of 2,000 on 2082:Battle of Liaoluo Bay 2032:imperial examinations 1801: 1737: 1627: 1583: 1521: 1511:Advances such as the 1421: 1409: 1393: 1326: 1317:Warring States period 1314: 1300: 1279: 1247: 1232:captured its capital 1187:Warring States period 948:(mainland, 1912–1949) 9042:Breechloading musket 8588:Computer programmers 8184:United Arab Emirates 7487:. Psychology Press. 7446:Griffith (2006), 122 7301:, 9780195002669 P.14 7281:, 9780806115849 P.28 7145:R. G. Grant (2005). 6905:Griffith (2006), 106 6822:David Scott (2008). 6795:David Scott (2008). 6507:The Overland monthly 4952:Zhidong Hao (2012). 4521:"【doc】-兼论金元之际的汉地七万户" 4032:Panorama de la Chine 3807:Ebrey (1999), 62–63. 3292:attacking soldiers. 3220:Cannon were used by 2977:improve this article 2774:Great Hsi-Ku Arsenal 2364:Ever Victorious Army 2344:Empress Dowager Cixi 2074:Sino–Dutch conflicts 1814:painting by Shang Xi 1528:Northern Wei dynasty 8669:Research institutes 8593:Computer scientists 8552:Research institutes 8376:Automotive industry 8211:limited recognition 7591:China in Convulsion 7563:Spence, Jonathan D. 7437:Griffith (2006), 24 7362:Bernard S. Bachrach 7046:(1956), reprint in 6896:Griffith (2006), 64 6887:Griffith (2006), 62 6873:Griffith (2006), 63 6857:Griffith (2006), 65 6848:Griffith (2006), 67 5919:Xiuyu Wang (2011). 5174:Si-yen Fei (2009). 3240:By the time of the 3181:Military Revolution 3098:Western Han dynasty 2872:Military philosophy 2574:, and three Manchu 2472:Green Standard Army 2286:Ten Great Campaigns 2270:Green Standard Army 2080:islands and at the 1588:(550–557 AD) period 1370:King Wuling of Zhao 1368:forces. In 307 BC, 1342:Battle of Changping 57:Active regions 8983:Thunder crash bomb 8928:Repeating crossbow 8461:Telecommunications 6426:John King Fairbank 5237:Dreyer (1988), 105 5228:Dreyer (1988), 104 4451:"白话元史-刘伯林传(附刘黑马传)" 3512:Griffith (2006), 1 3426: 3315: 3274: 3204: 3160:Repeating crossbow 3152: 3102: 3091: 3087:repeating crossbow 2826:Peking Field Force 2696:Battle of Langfang 2659: 2609: 2532: 2524: 2512: 2443:Weihaiwei Regiment 2426:who commanded the 2352: 2258:Battle of Dartsedo 2210: 2198: 2136: 1842:The Mongols under 1837:Siege of Xiangyang 1816: 1775:prosperous economy 1743: 1637: 1634:Qianling Mausoleum 1590: 1532: 1477:Three Kingdoms–Jin 1428: 1416: 1404: 1337: 1321: 1303: 1282: 1250: 963: 773:Five Dynasties and 765: 700:Southern dynasties 628: 527:Chu–Han Contention 48:Dates of operation 9075: 9074: 9071: 9070: 8697: 8696: 8648:Social scientists 8316: 8315: 8253:other territories 7698:978-90-04-15605-0 7578:978-0-393-93451-9 7554:Sawyer, Ralph D. 7469:978-0-521-24332-2 7407:The Food of China 7392:978-1-85109-531-5 7326:Albert von Le Coq 7229:978-0-521-82274-9 7191:978-0-521-82274-9 7164:978-0-7566-1360-0 7084:, Vintage Books, 6994:978-981-05-5380-7 6967:978-988-220-066-1 6940:978-1-4728-2461-5 6835:978-0-7914-7742-7 6808:978-0-7914-7742-7 6617:. G.P.O. p. 6179:978-0-521-22029-3 6152:978-0-521-22029-3 6125:978-0-521-22029-3 6098:978-0-521-22029-3 6071:978-0-521-22029-3 6044:978-0-521-22029-3 6017:978-0-521-22029-3 5990:978-1-4008-7884-0 5932:978-0-7391-6810-3 5896:978-1-135-78955-8 5869:978-1-135-78955-8 5846:, pp. 48–51. 5818:978-0-8131-3584-7 5791:978-0-520-04804-1 5764:978-0-520-04804-1 5737:978-0-520-04804-1 5674:978-1-134-36222-6 5648:pages.uoregon.edu 5593:978-0-520-23015-6 5566:978-0-8131-3584-7 5539:978-0-521-24334-6 5504:978-0-02-933680-9 5481:, 3rd ed., p. 271 5340:Rev. WM. Campbell 5215:978-3-928463-64-5 5187:978-0-674-03561-4 5146:978-9971-69-505-7 5076:978-0-8047-5174-2 5022:978-962-209-501-4 4992:978-0-521-24332-2 4965:978-0-7914-8757-0 4938:978-0-521-24332-2 4911:978-0-521-24332-2 4884:978-1-135-93562-7 4857:978-0-312-38696-2 4695:978-0-674-03608-6 4455:www.wenxue100.com 4229:Ebrey (1999), 140 4177:978-1-84603-381-0 4144:978-0-312-38696-2 4111:978-0-520-25976-8 3501:978-0-520-04804-1 3495:, Vol. 1 (1985), 3402:food preservation 3174:Gunpowder weapons 3053: 3052: 3045: 3027: 2750:Jiangnan Shipyard 2593:Sailors from the 2499:The Qing founded 2436:Panthay Rebellion 2356:Taiping Rebellion 2156:Later Jin dynasty 2154:, founder of the 2142:, founded by the 2098:seven-month siege 1806:Captures General 1664:, which saw many 1452:Emperor Wu of Han 1422:A suit of bronze 1153: 1152: 1110:Transport history 1036:Education history 1008: 1007: 1003: 1002: 989:Republic of China 971:People's Republic 944:Republic of China 923: 922: 872: 871: 867: 866: 752: 751: 685: 684: 680: 679: 616: 615: 519:(206 BC – 220 AD) 449:Spring and Autumn 312:Liao civilization 203: 202: 16:(Redirected from 9105: 8888: 8887: 8746: 8739: 8732: 8723: 8722: 8714: 8713: 8712: 8705: 8598:Earth scientists 8547:Higher education 8542:Academic grading 8524:Military history 8519:Maritime history 8431:Renewable energy 8343: 8336: 8329: 8320: 8319: 8306: 8296: 8295: 8265:Christmas Island 7951:Sovereign states 7938: 7931: 7924: 7915: 7914: 7876: 7855: 7846: 7825: 7816: 7789: 7777: 7766: 7729: 7720: 7711: 7702: 7683: 7645: 7644: 7626: 7625: 7594: 7582: 7542: 7519: 7498: 7447: 7444: 7438: 7435: 7429: 7428: 7426: 7424: 7401: 7395: 7377: 7371: 7359: 7353: 7346: 7340: 7323: 7317: 7308: 7302: 7288: 7282: 7268: 7262: 7259: 7253: 7250: 7244: 7243: 7238: 7236: 7213: 7207: 7206: 7200: 7198: 7175: 7169: 7168: 7152: 7142: 7136: 7135: 7099: 7093: 7073: 7067: 7060:Parker, Geoffrey 7057: 7051: 7037: 7031: 7013: 7007: 7006: 6978: 6972: 6971: 6951: 6945: 6944: 6924: 6915: 6912: 6906: 6903: 6897: 6894: 6888: 6885: 6874: 6871: 6858: 6855: 6849: 6846: 6840: 6839: 6819: 6813: 6812: 6792: 6786: 6785: 6783: 6772: 6766: 6760: 6754: 6753: 6751: 6750: 6736: 6730: 6729: 6727: 6726: 6712: 6706: 6705: 6703: 6702: 6686: 6680: 6679: 6677: 6676: 6653: 6647: 6646: 6640: 6632: 6627: 6625: 6608: 6602: 6601: 6599: 6597: 6574: 6568: 6562: 6556: 6550: 6544: 6543: 6541: 6540: 6525: 6519: 6518: 6516: 6515: 6502: 6496: 6490: 6484: 6483: 6481: 6480: 6466: 6460: 6459: 6457: 6456: 6422: 6416: 6415: 6413: 6412: 6389: 6383: 6382: 6380: 6379: 6356: 6350: 6349: 6347: 6346: 6323: 6317: 6316: 6314: 6312: 6298: 6292: 6291: 6289: 6287: 6263: 6257: 6247: 6238: 6237: 6229: 6223: 6217: 6211: 6210: 6190: 6184: 6183: 6163: 6157: 6156: 6136: 6130: 6129: 6109: 6103: 6102: 6082: 6076: 6075: 6055: 6049: 6048: 6028: 6022: 6021: 6001: 5995: 5994: 5974: 5968: 5967: 5957: 5951: 5950: 5943: 5937: 5936: 5916: 5910: 5907: 5901: 5900: 5880: 5874: 5873: 5853: 5847: 5841: 5835: 5829: 5823: 5822: 5802: 5796: 5795: 5775: 5769: 5768: 5748: 5742: 5741: 5721: 5715: 5709: 5703: 5697: 5691: 5685: 5679: 5678: 5658: 5652: 5651: 5640: 5634: 5628: 5622: 5616: 5610: 5604: 5598: 5597: 5577: 5571: 5570: 5550: 5544: 5543: 5524: 5518: 5515: 5509: 5508: 5488: 5482: 5473: 5467: 5466: 5464: 5463: 5454:Andrade, Tonio. 5451: 5445: 5433: 5427: 5426: 5424: 5423: 5400: 5394: 5393: 5391: 5390: 5375: 5369: 5357: 5351: 5337: 5331: 5330: 5328: 5327: 5304: 5295: 5294: 5292: 5291: 5277: 5271: 5270: 5268: 5267: 5253: 5247: 5244: 5238: 5235: 5229: 5226: 5220: 5219: 5198: 5192: 5191: 5171: 5165: 5164: 5157: 5151: 5150: 5130: 5124: 5123: 5121: 5120: 5111:. 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3757: 3752: 3748: 3743: 3739: 3734: 3730: 3725: 3721: 3712: 3708: 3703: 3699: 3691: 3687: 3679: 3675: 3668: 3654: 3647: 3633:10.2307/2719276 3612: 3605: 3598: 3584: 3580: 3573: 3559: 3555: 3550: 3546: 3541: 3537: 3532: 3528: 3523: 3516: 3511: 3507: 3490: 3483: 3474: 3470: 3465: 3460: 3443: 3410: 3398: 3385: 3376: 3328: 3307: 3298: 3250: 3234: 3189: 3176: 3162:(also known as 3079: 3049: 3038: 3032: 3029: 2986: 2984: 2974: 2962: 2951: 2946: 2940: 2880: 2874: 2786:Jiangnan Daying 2782: 2769:Foochow Arsenal 2760:Lanchow Arsenal 2755:Taiyuan Arsenal 2745:Hanyang Arsenal 2741: 2692:Boxer Rebellion 2663:Boxer Rebellion 2640:Boxer Rebellion 2613:Hanyang Arsenal 2603:, on parade in 2552:Robert Shufeldt 2457: 2451: 2408:Chinese Muslims 2317:First Opium War 2290:Dzungar Khanate 2262:Dzungar Khanate 2120: 2114: 2100:. According to 2001: 1995: 1987:Töregene Khatun 1968: 1951: 1943:'s forces upon 1901: 1884: 1796: 1790: 1784: 1732: 1718: 1622: 1614:Main articles: 1612: 1599: 1559: 1551:major civil war 1547: 1539:Main articles: 1537: 1535:Era of division 1530:(386 to 534 AD) 1485: 1479: 1402:(r. 221–210 BC) 1396:Terracotta Army 1388: 1382: 1309: 1295: 1274: 1268: 1260:Erlitou culture 1256: 1242: 1201: 1195: 1183: 1149: 1120: 1119: 1115:Women's history 1021: 1020: 1011: 1010: 1009: 1004: 999: 994: 992: 981: 976: 972: 952: 947: 938: 937: 926: 925: 924: 919: 914: 906: 901: 893: 888: 874: 873: 868: 863: 858: 850: 845: 837: 832: 824: 818: 813: 803: 791: 783: 778: 774: 754: 753: 748: 739: 729: 721: 716: 708: 703: 699: 687: 686: 681: 676: 671: 663: 660: 654: 649: 639: 617: 612: 607: 599: 573: 565: 560: 550: 541:(202 BC – 9 AD) 540: 530: 518: 510: 505: 490: 489: 478: 477: 470: 460: 456: 451: 443: 433: 419: 415: 410: 402: 395: 391: 386: 372: 368: 363: 355: 348: 344: 339: 330: 329: 318: 317: 289: 285: 280: 272: 261: 260: 189: 83: 47: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 9111: 9101: 9100: 9095: 9090: 9073: 9072: 9069: 9068: 9066: 9065: 9060: 9059: 9058: 9051: 9044: 9039: 9032: 9020: 9017:Huolongchushui 9013: 9006: 9005: 9004: 8992: 8991: 8990: 8985: 8975: 8974: 8973: 8963: 8957: 8955: 8949: 8948: 8946: 8945: 8940: 8935: 8930: 8925: 8920: 8915: 8910: 8905: 8900: 8894: 8892: 8885: 8881: 8880: 8878: 8877: 8875:Late Qing Navy 8872: 8871: 8870: 8868:treasure ships 8859: 8857: 8851: 8850: 8848: 8847: 8842: 8837: 8832: 8827: 8822: 8817: 8812: 8807: 8802: 8797: 8792: 8790:Three Kingdoms 8787: 8782: 8779:Warring States 8772: 8766: 8764: 8758: 8757: 8749: 8748: 8741: 8734: 8726: 8719: 8718: 8695: 8694: 8692: 8691: 8686: 8681: 8676: 8671: 8666: 8660: 8658: 8654: 8653: 8651: 8650: 8645: 8640: 8635: 8630: 8625: 8620: 8618:Mathematicians 8615: 8610: 8605: 8600: 8595: 8590: 8585: 8580: 8575: 8569: 8567: 8563: 8562: 8560: 8559: 8554: 8549: 8544: 8538: 8536: 8530: 8529: 8527: 8526: 8521: 8516: 8511: 8506: 8501: 8496: 8491: 8486: 8481: 8475: 8473: 8467: 8466: 8464: 8463: 8458: 8456:Supercomputing 8453: 8448: 8443: 8438: 8436:Semiconductors 8433: 8428: 8423: 8418: 8413: 8408: 8403: 8398: 8393: 8388: 8383: 8378: 8373: 8368: 8363: 8357: 8354: 8353: 8346: 8345: 8338: 8331: 8323: 8314: 8313: 8311: 8310: 8300: 8289: 8286: 8285: 8283: 8282: 8277: 8272: 8267: 8262: 8256: 8254: 8245: 8244: 8242: 8241: 8236: 8231: 8226: 8221: 8215: 8213: 8205: 8204: 8202: 8201: 8196: 8191: 8186: 8181: 8176: 8171: 8166: 8161: 8156: 8151: 8146: 8141: 8136: 8131: 8126: 8121: 8116: 8111: 8106: 8101: 8096: 8091: 8086: 8081: 8076: 8071: 8066: 8061: 8056: 8051: 8046: 8041: 8036: 8031: 8026: 8021: 8016: 8011: 8006: 8001: 7996: 7991: 7986: 7981: 7976: 7971: 7966: 7961: 7955: 7953: 7947: 7946: 7941: 7940: 7933: 7926: 7918: 7912: 7911: 7906: 7899: 7890: 7882: 7881:External links 7879: 7878: 7877: 7872:978-0595221349 7871: 7856: 7847: 7841: 7826: 7817: 7811: 7790: 7785:978-0226561578 7784: 7767: 7730: 7721: 7712: 7703: 7697: 7684: 7678: 7663: 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5673: 5653: 5635: 5623: 5611: 5599: 5592: 5572: 5565: 5545: 5538: 5519: 5510: 5503: 5483: 5468: 5446: 5428: 5415: 5395: 5379:Andrade, Tonio 5370: 5352: 5332: 5319: 5296: 5272: 5248: 5239: 5230: 5221: 5214: 5193: 5186: 5166: 5152: 5145: 5125: 5100: 5097:on 2005-01-04. 5082: 5075: 5055: 5048: 5028: 5021: 4998: 4991: 4971: 4964: 4944: 4937: 4917: 4910: 4890: 4883: 4863: 4856: 4836: 4810: 4765: 4752: 4748:Kinoshita 2013 4740: 4728: 4724:Kinoshita 2013 4716: 4701: 4694: 4674: 4635: 4608: 4590: 4565: 4553: 4541: 4511: 4500: 4490: 4478: 4473:www.iqh.net.cn 4460: 4442: 4417: 4413:Collectif 2002 4405: 4392: 4372: 4360:978-0608113135 4359: 4339: 4323: 4297: 4284: 4264: 4251: 4231: 4222: 4209: 4189: 4176: 4156: 4143: 4123: 4110: 4090: 4081: 4072: 4063: 4054: 4045: 4021: 3997: 3973: 3960: 3940: 3927: 3907: 3895: 3875: 3866: 3857: 3848: 3839: 3830: 3821: 3809: 3800: 3791: 3782: 3773: 3764: 3755: 3746: 3737: 3728: 3719: 3715:Patricia Ebrey 3706: 3697: 3685: 3673: 3667:978-0199797455 3666: 3645: 3627:(1): 189–237, 3603: 3597:978-1107197619 3596: 3578: 3572:978-1317503668 3571: 3553: 3544: 3535: 3526: 3514: 3505: 3481: 3467: 3466: 3464: 3461: 3459: 3456: 3455: 3454: 3449: 3442: 3439: 3409: 3406: 3397: 3394: 3384: 3381: 3375: 3372: 3327: 3324: 3306: 3303: 3297: 3294: 3266:Wujing Zongyao 3249: 3246: 3233: 3230: 3224:forces at the 3188: 3185: 3175: 3172: 3118:Warring States 3114:composite bows 3078: 3075: 3051: 3050: 3033:September 2017 2965: 2963: 2956: 2950: 2947: 2942:Main article: 2939: 2936: 2931: 2930: 2927: 2924: 2921: 2918: 2915: 2912: 2909: 2906: 2903: 2900: 2897: 2873: 2870: 2869: 2868: 2863: 2858: 2853: 2848: 2843: 2838: 2833: 2828: 2823: 2818: 2816:Tenacious Army 2813: 2808: 2803: 2798: 2793: 2788: 2781: 2778: 2777: 2776: 2771: 2766: 2757: 2752: 2747: 2740: 2737: 2667:electric mines 2545:artillery and 2453:Main article: 2450: 2447: 2348:Forbidden City 2223:Geng Zhongming 2196:A Foot soldier 2128:Hanging scroll 2116:Main article: 2113: 2110: 2028:Hongwu Emperor 1997:Main article: 1994: 1991: 1831:counterweight 1786:Main article: 1783: 1780: 1717: 1714: 1611: 1608: 1598: 1595: 1558: 1555: 1536: 1533: 1502:Three Kingdoms 1481:Main article: 1478: 1475: 1384:Main article: 1381: 1378: 1305:Main article: 1294: 1293:Warring States 1291: 1270:Main article: 1267: 1264: 1252:Main article: 1241: 1238: 1205:peasant levies 1194: 1191: 1182: 1179: 1174:The Art of War 1151: 1150: 1148: 1147: 1140: 1133: 1125: 1122: 1121: 1118: 1117: 1112: 1107: 1106: 1105: 1100: 1095: 1090: 1080: 1075: 1070: 1069: 1068: 1058: 1053: 1048: 1046:Jewish history 1043: 1038: 1033: 1028: 1022: 1018: 1017: 1016: 1013: 1012: 1006: 1005: 1001: 1000: 998: 997: 984: 982: 980: 979: 977:(1949–present) 966: 964: 958: 951: 950: 939: 933: 932: 931: 928: 927: 921: 920: 918: 917: 905: 904: 892: 891: 880: 870: 869: 865: 864: 862: 861: 851: 848: 838: 835: 825: 821: 819: 817: 816: 806: 795: 794: 782: 781: 768: 766: 760: 750: 749: 747: 746: 745: 744: 743: 742: 720: 719: 707: 706: 693: 683: 682: 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9002: 8998: 8997: 8996: 8993: 8989: 8986: 8984: 8981: 8980: 8979: 8976: 8972: 8969: 8968: 8967: 8964: 8962: 8959: 8958: 8956: 8954: 8950: 8944: 8941: 8939: 8936: 8934: 8931: 8929: 8926: 8924: 8921: 8919: 8916: 8914: 8911: 8909: 8906: 8904: 8901: 8899: 8896: 8895: 8893: 8889: 8886: 8882: 8876: 8873: 8869: 8866: 8865: 8864: 8861: 8860: 8858: 8856: 8852: 8846: 8843: 8841: 8838: 8836: 8833: 8831: 8828: 8826: 8823: 8821: 8818: 8816: 8813: 8811: 8808: 8806: 8803: 8801: 8798: 8796: 8793: 8791: 8788: 8786: 8783: 8780: 8776: 8773: 8771: 8768: 8767: 8765: 8763: 8759: 8755: 8747: 8742: 8740: 8735: 8733: 8728: 8727: 8724: 8717: 8707: 8706: 8703: 8690: 8687: 8685: 8682: 8680: 8677: 8675: 8672: 8670: 8667: 8665: 8662: 8661: 8659: 8655: 8649: 8646: 8644: 8641: 8639: 8636: 8634: 8631: 8629: 8626: 8624: 8621: 8619: 8616: 8614: 8611: 8609: 8606: 8604: 8601: 8599: 8596: 8594: 8591: 8589: 8586: 8584: 8581: 8579: 8576: 8574: 8571: 8570: 8568: 8564: 8558: 8555: 8553: 8550: 8548: 8545: 8543: 8540: 8539: 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7607: 7603: 7599: 7596: 7592: 7588: 7584: 7580: 7574: 7570: 7569: 7564: 7560: 7557: 7553: 7550: 7549:7-204-04420-7 7546: 7539: 7535: 7532: 7528: 7525: 7521: 7517: 7515:962-996-066-4 7511: 7507: 7506: 7500: 7496: 7490: 7486: 7485: 7479: 7476: 7472: 7470: 7466: 7462: 7458: 7457: 7443: 7434: 7419: 7413: 7409: 7408: 7400: 7393: 7389: 7385: 7381: 7376: 7369: 7368: 7363: 7358: 7351: 7345: 7339: 7338:0-19-583878-5 7335: 7331: 7327: 7322: 7315: 7314: 7307: 7300: 7296: 7292: 7287: 7280: 7276: 7272: 7267: 7258: 7249: 7242: 7231: 7225: 7221: 7220: 7212: 7205: 7193: 7187: 7183: 7182: 7174: 7166: 7160: 7156: 7151: 7150: 7141: 7133: 7129: 7125: 7121: 7117: 7113: 7109: 7105: 7098: 7091: 7090:0-679-72019-7 7087: 7083: 7082: 7077: 7076:Kennedy, Paul 7072: 7065: 7061: 7056: 7049: 7045: 7041: 7036: 7030: 7029:3-7861-1748-9 7026: 7022: 7018: 7017:Lindgren, Uta 7012: 7004: 7000: 6996: 6990: 6986: 6985: 6977: 6969: 6963: 6959: 6958: 6950: 6942: 6936: 6932: 6931: 6923: 6921: 6911: 6902: 6893: 6884: 6882: 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1453: 1449: 1448:Han dynasties 1444: 1441: 1437: 1432: 1425: 1420: 1413: 1408: 1401: 1400:Qin Shi Huang 1397: 1392: 1387: 1377: 1373: 1371: 1367: 1363: 1359: 1354: 1352: 1348: 1343: 1334: 1330: 1325: 1318: 1313: 1308: 1299: 1290: 1286: 1278: 1273: 1263: 1261: 1255: 1246: 1237: 1235: 1231: 1226: 1220: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1206: 1200: 1190: 1188: 1178: 1176: 1175: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1158: 1155:The recorded 1146: 1141: 1139: 1134: 1132: 1127: 1126: 1124: 1123: 1116: 1113: 1111: 1108: 1104: 1101: 1099: 1096: 1094: 1091: 1089: 1086: 1085: 1084: 1081: 1079: 1078:Naval history 1076: 1074: 1071: 1067: 1064: 1063: 1062: 1061:Music history 1059: 1057: 1056:Media history 1054: 1052: 1049: 1047: 1044: 1042: 1041:Legal history 1039: 1037: 1034: 1032: 1029: 1027: 1024: 1023: 1015: 1014: 995:1949–present) 991: 990: 986: 985: 983: 975: 974: 968: 967: 965: 962: 961: 956: 946: 945: 941: 940: 936: 930: 929: 913: 912: 908: 907: 900: 899: 895: 894: 887: 886: 882: 881: 878: 857: 856: 852: 849: 844: 843: 839: 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Retrieved 3917: 3910: 3900:, retrieved 3885: 3878: 3869: 3860: 3851: 3842: 3833: 3824: 3803: 3794: 3785: 3776: 3767: 3758: 3749: 3740: 3731: 3722: 3709: 3700: 3692: 3688: 3680: 3676: 3657: 3624: 3618: 3587: 3581: 3562: 3556: 3547: 3538: 3529: 3508: 3492: 3476: 3471: 3435: 3427: 3421: 3399: 3390: 3386: 3377: 3353: 3337:Tang dynasty 3329: 3316: 3299: 3275: 3271:Song dynasty 3264: 3261:flamethrower 3248:Flamethrower 3242:Ming dynasty 3239: 3235: 3222:Ming dynasty 3219: 3215:hand cannons 3212: 3205: 3200:Yuan dynasty 3177: 3163: 3156:Song dynasty 3153: 3126: 3103: 3054: 3039: 3030: 3020: 3013: 3006: 2999: 2987: 2975:Please help 2970:verification 2967: 2932: 2883: 2881: 2856:Fujian Fleet 2841:Beiyang Army 2811:Kansu Braves 2730: 2718: 2703: 2688:Kansu Braves 2684:Kansu Braves 2660: 2625: 2617:Gatling guns 2610: 2595: 2572:Kansu Braves 2565: 2561:David Bailey 2556:Li Hongzhang 2540: 2533: 2498: 2486:Wang Yingkai 2479: 2477: 2465: 2461:Beiyang Army 2458: 2440: 2432:Yang Zengxin 2428:Kansu Braves 2412:Dong Fuxiang 2376:Li Hongzhang 2372:Zuo Zongtang 2353: 2346:back to the 2328: 2326: 2320: 2314: 2279: 2247: 2243: 2231:Shang Zhixin 2215: 2211: 2199: 2187: 2168: 2164: 2140:Qing dynasty 2137: 2071: 2060: 2056: 2052: 2044: 2040: 2017: 2010: 2006: 2002: 1958:(Chang Jou, 1934: 1920:), Tabuyir ( 1875: 1856: 1844:Genghis Khan 1841: 1825: 1821: 1817: 1812:Ming dynasty 1760: 1752: 1744: 1740:Liao dynasty 1703: 1688: 1685: 1681:Song dynasty 1676: 1671: 1665: 1657: 1651: 1647: 1645: 1641: 1638: 1630:Tang dynasty 1604: 1600: 1591: 1560: 1548: 1510: 1506: 1486: 1468: 1445: 1433: 1429: 1374: 1355: 1338: 1319:(403–221 BC) 1287: 1283: 1257: 1221: 1212: 1202: 1184: 1172: 1156: 1154: 1072: 1051:LGBT history 987: 969: 942: 909: 896: 883: 853: 840: 827: 808: 798: 786: 775:Ten Kingdoms 771: 724: 711: 698:Northern and 696: 666: 644: 634: 602: 592: 586: 580: 574:(220–280 AD) 568: 555: 545: 535: 531:(206–202 BC) 525: 513: 506:(221–207 BC) 500: 471:(475–221 BC) 444:(771–256 BC) 440:Eastern Zhou 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1098:Discoveries 1093:Cartography 1088:Archaeology 1026:Art history 915:(1644–1912) 902:(1368–1644) 889:(1271–1368) 859:(1115–1234) 846:(1038–1227) 842:Western Xia 814:(1127–1279) 646:Eastern Jin 636:Western Jin 561:(25–220 AD) 557:Eastern Han 537:Western Han 416: 1046 396: 1046 392: 1250 369: 1600 345: 2070 286: 8500 267:Paleolithic 258:Prehistoric 9082:Categories 9010:Hu dun pao 8988:Fire lance 8961:Fire arrow 8638:Physicists 8633:Physicians 8578:Biologists 8479:Inventions 8189:Uzbekistan 8164:Tajikistan 8079:Kyrgyzstan 8059:Kazakhstan 7979:Bangladesh 7969:Azerbaijan 7842:9004117741 7417:0300047398 7299:0195002660 7279:080611584X 7110:(3): 594. 6763:Smith 1901 6749:2010-06-28 6725:2010-06-28 6701:2010-06-28 6675:2010-06-28 6539:2010-06-28 6514:2010-06-28 6479:2010-06-28 6455:2010-06-28 6411:2010-06-28 6378:2010-06-28 6345:2010-06-28 6252:, p. 5714:, pp. 4–5. 5633:, p. 2006. 5462:2010-06-28 5422:2010-06-28 5389:2010-06-28 5326:2010-06-28 5290:2010-06-28 5266:2010-06-28 5119:2010-12-17 4790:2016-05-04 4654:2016-05-03 4629:2019-01-31 4622:Wikisource 4584:2019-01-31 4535:2019-06-11 4436:2016-01-28 4399:2010-06-28 4366:2010-06-28 4330:2010-10-28 4291:2010-06-28 4258:2010-06-28 4216:2010-06-28 4183:2010-10-28 4150:2010-10-28 4117:2010-06-28 4039:2011-06-06 4015:2010-06-28 3991:2010-06-28 3967:2010-06-28 3934:2010-06-28 3902:2010-07-17 3458:References 3356:Lynn White 3208:fire lance 3130:Homer Dubs 3066:land mines 3003:newspapers 2885:Art of War 2878:Wen and wu 2876:See also: 2831:Shenjiying 2821:Hushenying 2796:Xiang Army 2580:Xiang Army 2568:Xiang Army 2490:Duan Qirui 2468:Anhui Army 2420:Ma Fuxiang 2416:Ma Anliang 2392:Ma Zhan'ao 2384:Xiang Army 2342:escorting 2227:Kong Youde 2219:Shang Kexi 2170:Hong Taiji 1899:Xiao Zhala 1878:Shi Tianze 1833:trebuchets 1792:See also: 1720:See also: 1710:Hui people 1575:Former Qin 1571:Later Zhao 1524:terracotta 1522:A Chinese 1424:scale mail 1197:See also: 1103:Inventions 833:(916–1125) 804:(960–1127) 792:(960–1279) 459: – c. 457: 770 418: – c. 394: – c. 383:Late Shang 371: – c. 347: – c. 288: – c. 79:North Asia 9055:Hongyipao 8971:Petroleum 8953:Gunpowder 8884:Equipment 8613:Inventors 8603:Engineers 8534:Education 8381:Aviation 8371:Astronomy 8275:Hong Kong 8229:Palestine 8154:Sri Lanka 8149:Singapore 8029:Indonesia 7835:. Brill. 7763:154177471 7132:112733319 7003:22680848M 6637:cite book 5621:, p. 141. 4833:(1): 166. 4736:Watt 2010 4563:, p. 175. 4551:, p. 130. 4525:docin.org 4415:, p. 147. 3463:Citations 3383:Logistics 3263:from the 3164:Chu Ko Nu 2806:Huai Army 2791:Yong Ying 2704:The Times 2694:, in the 2518:The Qing 2424:Ma Fuxing 2404:Ma Julung 2400:Ma Haiyan 2388:Huai Army 2360:Shi Dakai 2302:Kathmandu 2020:Guozijian 1949:Zhang Rou 1882:Liu Heima 1871:Euphrates 1852:mangonels 1738:Guard of 1706:An Lushan 1662:An Lushan 1358:Pang Juan 1327:A bronze 1161:crossbows 779:(907–979) 740:(690–705) 730:(618–907) 717:(581–618) 704:(420–589) 672:(304–439) 650:(317–420) 640:(266–316) 608:(266–420) 551:(9–23 AD) 277:Neolithic 241:Dynasties 98:Opponents 64:East Asia 9001:Huochong 8943:War cart 8923:Crossbow 8918:Elephant 8913:Polearms 8583:Chemists 8509:Printing 8494:Calendar 8446:Software 8441:Shipping 8426:Railways 8401:Internet 8391:Chemical 8298:Category 8219:Abkhazia 8169:Thailand 8124:Pakistan 8104:Mongolia 8099:Maldives 8094:Malaysia 7994:Cambodia 7755:30172885 7589:(1901). 7565:(2012), 7423:24 April 7078:(1987): 7042:(1967): 6436:(1980). 5702:, p. 41. 5690:, p. 23. 5609:, p. 79. 5444:, p. 421 5350:, p. 452 4799:cite web 4750:, p. 47. 4738:, p. 14. 4726:, p. 47. 4714:, p. 41. 4663:cite web 4488:, p. 50. 4486:May 2004 3441:See also 3305:Infantry 3106:crossbow 3085:Chinese 3077:Crossbow 3071:crossbow 2846:New Army 2801:Chu Army 2764:Chu Army 2649:Chinese 2632:halberds 2605:New York 2536:New Army 2520:New Army 2494:Yinchang 2386:and the 2292:and the 2254:Tibetans 2013:Six Arts 1695:Chang'an 1610:Sui–Tang 1597:Southern 1557:Northern 1329:crossbow 1217:chivalry 1066:Timeline 993:(Taiwan, 973:of China 487:Imperial 236:Timeline 210:a series 208:Part of 155:Jurchens 150:Tibetans 145:Gokturks 9029:Huo Che 8938:Stirrup 8898:Chariot 8471:History 8194:Vietnam 8109:Myanmar 8089:Lebanon 8019:Georgia 7974:Bahrain 7964:Armenia 7598:Sun Tzu 7454:Sources 7394:, p. 71 7350:K'ao-ku 7271:Saddles 7124:3105275 7092:, p. 45 5834:, p. 7. 3641:2719276 3503:, p. 77 3408:Command 3396:Rations 3345:stirrup 3326:Cavalry 3296:Rockets 3258:Chinese 3062:rockets 3017:scholar 2890:Sun Tzu 2700:Tianjin 2599:of the 2596:Hai Chi 2522:in 1905 2350:in 1902 2298:Gurkhas 2256:at the 2160:Banners 2152:Nurhaci 2144:Manchus 2088:forced 2086:Koxinga 2018:At the 1983:Chagaan 1966:Yan Shi 1964:), and 1929:蕭札刺之子重喜 1863:Guo Kan 1829:Saracen 1808:Pang De 1804:Guan Yu 1767:rockets 1756:Tanguts 1748:Yue Fei 1677:fanzhen 1672:fanzhen 1667:fanzhen 1658:juntian 1653:juntian 1513:stirrup 1494:Shu Han 1490:Cao Cao 1464:Xianbei 1440:Xiongnu 1380:Qin–Han 1234:Haojing 1169:Sun Tzu 1165:Western 737:Wu Zhou 327:Ancient 306:Yangtze 165:Vietnam 160:Mongols 140:Khitans 120:Xianbei 115:Xiongnu 88:Part of 37:Leaders 8908:Swords 8903:Armour 8762:Armies 8702:Portal 8566:People 8416:Mining 8239:Taiwan 8174:Turkey 8139:Russia 8074:Kuwait 8054:Jordan 8044:Israel 8004:Cyprus 7989:Brunei 7984:Bhutan 7869: 7839: 7809: 7782: 7761: 7753: 7695: 7676: 7646: 7627: 7608: 7575: 7547: 7512: 7491: 7467: 7414: 7390: 7336: 7297: 7277: 7226: 7204:1377). 7188: 7161: 7130: 7122: 7088: 7027: 7001: 6991: 6964: 6937: 6832: 6805: 6666: 6587: 6529:"手動機槍" 6446: 6402: 6369: 6336: 6277: 6203: 6176: 6149: 6122: 6095: 6068: 6041: 6014: 5987: 5929: 5893: 5866: 5815: 5788: 5761: 5734: 5671: 5590: 5563: 5536: 5501: 5440: 5413: 5364: 5346: 5317: 5212: 5184: 5143: 5073: 5046: 5019: 4989: 4962: 4935: 4908: 4881: 4854: 4692: 4390: 4357: 4321: 4282: 4249: 4207: 4174: 4141: 4108: 3958: 3925: 3893: 3664: 3639: 3594: 3569: 3499: 3197:Mongol 3019: 3012: 3005: 2998: 2990: 2724:, and 2636:gingal 2576:Banner 2547:Mauser 2422:, and 2402:, and 2312:army. 2260:. 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