Miocene - Knowledge

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similar to the later Messinian salinity crisis in the Mediterranean ensued in the Central Paratethys, cut off from sources of freshwater input by its separation from the Eastern Paratethys. From 13.36 to 12.65 Ma, the Central Paratethys was characterised by open marine conditions, before the reopening of the Bârlad Strait resulted in a shift to brackish-marine conditions in the Central Paratethys, causing the Badenian-Sarmatian Extinction Event. As a result of the Bârlad Strait's reopening, the lake levels of the Eastern Paratethys dropped as it once again became a sea.

1223: 10573: 3106: 2747: 1578: 1574:(SST) drop of approximately 6 °C in the North Atlantic. The drop in benthic foraminiferal δO values was most noticeable in the waters around Antarctica, suggesting cooling was most intense there. Around this time the Mi3b glacial event (a massive expansion of Antarctic glaciers) occurred. The East Antarctic Ice Sheet (EAIS) markedly stabilised following the MMCT. The intensification of glaciation caused a decoherence of sediment deposition from the 405 kyr eccentricity cycle. 2763: 10562: 1512: 1673: 1231: 1537:

associated with a significant drop in atmospheric carbon dioxide levels. Both continental and oceanic thermal gradients in mid-latitudes during the Early Miocene were very similar to those in the present. Global cooling caused the East Asian Summer Monsoon (EASM) to begin to take on its modern form during the Early Miocene. From 22.1 to 19.7 Ma, the Xining Basin experienced relative warmth and humidity amidst a broader aridification trend.

3386: 974: 114: 1618:, there was a gradual and progressive trend of increasing aridification, though it was not unidirectional, and wet humid episodes continued to occur. Between 7 and 5.3 Ma, temperatures dropped sharply again in the Late Miocene Cooling (LMC), most likely as a result of a decline in atmospheric carbon dioxide and a drop in the amplitude of Earth's obliquity, and the 3448:

water in the western Pacific that then spread eastward and reduced upwelling in the eastern Pacific, may also have been responsible. A Middle Miocene δO increase, that is, a relative increase in the heavier isotope of oxygen, has been noted in the Pacific, the Southern Ocean and the South Atlantic. Barium and uranium became enriched in seafloor sediments.

1605:. Central Australia became progressively drier, although southwestern Australia experienced significant wettening from around 12 to 8 Ma. The South Asian Winter Monsoon (SAWM) underwent strengthening ~9.2–8.5 Ma. From 7.9 to 5.8 Ma, the East Asian Winter Monsoon (EAWM) became stronger synchronously with a southward shift of the subarctic front. 3870:

Steinthorsdottir, M.; Coxall, H. K.; Boer, A. M. de; Huber, M.; Barbolini, N.; Bradshaw, C. D.; Burls, N. J.; Feakins, S. J.; Gasson, E.; Henderiks, J.; Holbourn, A. E.; Kiel, S.; Kohn, M. J.; Knorr, G.; Kürschner, W. M.; Lear, C. H.; Liebrand, D.; Lunt, D. J.; Mörs, T.; Pearson, P. N.; Pound, M. J.;

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underwent a significant transgression during the early Middle Miocene. Around 13.8 Ma, during a global sea level drop, the Eastern Paratethys was cut off from the global ocean by the closure of the Bârlad Strait, effectively turning it into a saltwater lake. From 13.8 to 13.36 Ma, an evaporite period

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appear during the Miocene. By the epoch's end, all or almost all modern bird groups are believed to have been present; the few post-Miocene bird fossils which cannot be placed in the evolutionary tree with full confidence are simply too badly preserved, rather than too equivocal in character. Marine

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The Miocene began with the Early Miocene Cool Event (Mi-1) around 23 million years ago, which marked the start of the Early Miocene Cool Interval (EMCI). This cool event occurred immediately after the Oligocene-Miocene Transition (OMT) during a major expansion of Antarctica's ice sheets, but was not

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dropped substantially by approximately 7-9 °C. 41 kyr obliquity cycles became the dominant orbital climatic control 7.7 Ma and this dominance strengthened 6.4 Ma. Benthic δO values show significant glaciation occurred from 6.26 to 5.50 Ma, during which glacial-interglacial cycles were governed

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Far northern Australia was monsoonal during the Miocene. Although northern Australia is often believed to have been much wetter during the Miocene, this interpretation may be an artefact of preservation bias of riparian and lacustrine plants; this finding has itself been challenged by other papers.

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Stage of the mid-Miocene. A major and permanent cooling step occurred between 14.8 and 14.1 Ma, associated with increased production of cold Antarctic deep waters and a major expansion of the East Antarctic ice sheet. The closure of the Indonesian Throughflow, which caused an accumulation of warm

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suggests additional, currently unknown, factors also worked to create the warm conditions of the MMCO. The MMCO saw the expansion of the tropical climatic zone to much larger than its current size. The July ITCZ, the zone of maximal monsoonal rainfall, moved to the north, increasing precipitation

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region. The first step of this closure occurred 20 Ma, reducing water mass exchange by 90%, while the second step occurred around 13.8 Ma, coincident with a major expansion of Antarctic glaciers. This severed the connection between the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea and formed the present

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Folguera, Andrés; Encinas, Alfonso; Echaurren, Andrés; Gianni, Guido; Orts, Darío; Valencia, Víctor; Carrasco, Gabriel (2018). "Constraints on the Neogene growth of the central Patagonian Andes at thelatitude of the Chile triple junction (45–47°S) using U/Pb geochronology insynorogenic strata".

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The EMCI ended 18 million years ago, giving way to the Middle Miocene Warm Interval (MMWI), the warmest part of which was the MMCO that began 16 million years ago. As the world transitioned into the MMCO, carbon dioxide concentrations varied between 300 and 500 ppm. Global annual mean surface

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drop but to the increasing seasonality and aridity, coupled with a monsoon climate, which made wildfires highly prevalent compared to before. The Late Miocene expansion of grasslands had cascading effects on the global carbon cycle, evidenced by the imprint it left in carbon isotope records.

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The expansion of grasslands in North America also led to an explosive radiation among snakes. Previously, snakes were a minor component of the North American fauna, but during the Miocene, the number of species and their prevalence increased dramatically with the first appearances of

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The MMWI ended about 11 Ma, when the Late Miocene Cool Interval (LMCI) started. A major but transient warming occurred around 10.8-10.7 Ma. During the Late Miocene, the Earth's climate began to display a high degree of similarity to that of the present day. The 173 kyr

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Ao, Hong; Rohling, Eelco J.; Zhang, Ran; Roberts, Andrew P.; Holbourn, Ann E.; Ladant, Jean-Baptiste; Dupont-Nivet, Guillaume; Kuhnt, Wolfgang; Zhang, Peng; Wu, Feng; Dekkers, Mark J.; Liu, Qingsong; Liu, Zhonghui; Xu, Yong; Poulsen, Christopher J. (26 November 2021).

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Groeneveld, Jeroen; Henderiks, Jorijntje; Renema, Willem; McHugh, Cecilia M.; De Vleeschouwer, David; Christensen, Beth A.; Fulthorpe, Craig S.; Reuning, Lars; Gallager, Stephen J.; Bogus, Kara; Auer, Gerald; Ishiwa, Takeshige; Expedition 356 Scientists (10 May 2017).

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is thought to have occurred at this time. The evolution of bipedalism in apes at the end of the Miocene instigated an increased rate of faunal turnover in Africa. In contrast, European apes met their end at the end of the Miocene due to increased habitat uniformity.

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Encinas, Alfonso; Pérez, Felipe; Nielsen, Sven; Finger, Kenneth L.; Valencia, Victor; Duhart, Paul (2014). "Geochronologic and paleontologic evidence for a Pacific–Atlantic connection during the late Oligocene–early Miocene in the Patagonian Andes (43–44°S)".

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Wang, Menglin; Hellemans, Simon; Buček, Aleš; Kanao, Taisuke; Arora, Jigyasa; Clitheroe, Crystal; Rafanomezantsoa, Jean‐Jacques; Fisher, Brian L.; Scheffrahn, Rudolf; Sillam‐Dussès, David; Roisin, Yves; Šobotník, Jan; Bourguignon, Thomas (21 April 2023).

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occurred approximately 6 Ma, causing continental carbon reservoirs to no longer expand during cold spells, as they had done during cold periods in the Oligocene and most of the Miocene. At the end of the Miocene, global temperatures rose again as the

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over southern China whilst simultaneously decreasing it over Indochina during the EASM. Western Australia was at this time characterised by exceptional aridity. In Antarctica, average summer temperatures on land reached 10 °C. In the oceans, the

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Steininger, Fritz F.; M. P. Aubry; W. A. Berggren; M. Biolzi; A. M. Borsetti; Julie E. Cartlidge; F. Cati; R. Corfield; R. Gelati; S. Iaccarino; C. Napoleone; F. Ottner; F. Rögl; R. Roetzel; S. Spezzaferri; F. Tateo; G. Villa; D. Zevenboom (1997).

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opened during the Miocene and acted as the only throughflow for Atlantic Water into the Arctic Ocean until the Quaternary period. Due to regional uplift of the continental shelf, this water could not move through the Barents Seaway in the Miocene.

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Attorre, F.; Francesconi, F.; Taleb, N.; Scholte, P.; Saed, A.; Alfo, M.; Bruno, F. (2007). "Will dragonblood survive the next period of climate change? Current and future potential distribution of Dracaena cinnabari (Socotra, Yemen)".

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It is thought that the Oligocene–Miocene transgression in Patagonia could have temporarily linked the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, as inferred from the findings of marine invertebrate fossils of both Atlantic and Pacific affinity in

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Guillaume, Benjamin; Gautheron, Cécile; Simon-Labric, Thibaud; Martinod, Joseph; Roddaz, Martin; Douville, Eric (2013). "Dynamic topography control on Patagonian relief evolution as inferred from low temperature thermochronology".

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may have begun to have large glaciers as early as 8 to 7 Ma, although the climate for the most part remained warm enough to support forests there well into the Pliocene. Zhejiang, China was noticeably more humid than today. In the

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During the Early Miocene, Afro-Arabia collided with Eurasia, severing the connection between the Mediterranean and Indian Oceans, and allowing a faunal interchange to occur between Eurasia and Africa, including the dispersal of

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Carolin, Nora; Bajpai, Sunil; Maurya, Abhayanand Singh; Schwarzhans, Werner (2022). "New perspectives on late Tethyan Neogene biodiversity development of fishes based on Miocene (~ 17 Ma) otoliths from southwestern India".

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at 15 Ma probably reflect increased ice growth in Antarctica. It can therefore be assumed that East Antarctica had some glaciers during the early to mid Miocene (23–15 Ma). Oceans cooled partly due to the formation of the

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Olivier Lambert; Giovanni Bianucci; Klaas Post; Christian de Muizon; Rodolfo Salas-Gismondi; Mario Urbina; Jelle Reumer (2010). "The giant bite of a new raptorial sperm whale from the Miocene epoch of Peru".

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From p. 54: "The next antecedent tertiary epoch we shall name Miocene, from μειων, minor, and χαινος, recens, a minority only of fossil shells imbedded in the formations of this period, being of recent

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Krijgsman, W.; Garcés, M.; Langereis, C. G.; Daams, R.; Van Dam, J.; Van Der Meulen, A. J.; Agustí, J.; Cabrera, L. (1996). "A new chronology for the middle to late Miocene continental record in Spain".

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lived during this time, ranging throughout Africa, Asia and Europe and varying widely in size, diet, and anatomy. Due to scanty fossil evidence it is unclear which ape or apes contributed to the modern

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Nielsen, S.N. (2005). "Cenozoic Strombidae, Aporrhaidae, and Struthiolariidae (Gastropoda, Stromboidea) from Chile: their significance to biogeography of faunas and climate of the south-east Pacific".

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Guillame, Benjamin; Martinod, Joseph; Husson, Laurent; Roddaz, Martin; Riquelme, Rodrigo (2009). "Neogene uplift of central eastern Patagonia: Dynamic response to active spreading ridge subduction?".

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The global trend was towards increasing aridity caused primarily by global cooling reducing the ability of the atmosphere to absorb moisture, particularly after 7 to 8 million years ago. Uplift of

3374:. The change resulted from fracture reactivation during the Pyrenean-Alpine orogeny, enabling sulphate-reducing microbes to permeate into the Fennoscandian Shield via descending surficial waters. 5460: 9690:

Bouley S, Baratoux D, Baratoux L, Colas F, Dauvergne J, Losiak A, Vaubaillon J, Bourdeille C, Jullien A, Ibadinov K (2011). "Karakul: a young complex impact crater in the Pamir, Tajikistan".

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Zhisheng, An; Kutzbach, John E.; Prell, Warren L.; Porter, Stephen C. (3 May 2001). "Evolution of Asian monsoons and phased uplift of the Himalaya–Tibetan plateau since Late Miocene times".

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into Eurasia. During the late Miocene, the connections between the Atlantic and Mediterranean closed, causing the Mediterranean Sea to nearly completely evaporate, in an event called the

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became consumed by subduction the more northerly regions of the Antarctic Plate begun to subduct beneath Patagonia so that the Chile Triple Junction advanced to the north over time. The

884:. The Miocene boundaries are not marked by a single distinct global event but consist rather of regionally defined boundaries between the warmer Oligocene and the cooler Pliocene Epoch. 1782:

between 11.5 and 5 million years ago began to rediversify after previous declines in variety due to climatic changes, and thus modern cycads are not a good model for a "living fossil".

1281:. Both continental and marine Miocene deposits are common worldwide with marine outcrops common near modern shorelines. Well studied continental exposures occur in the North American 1664:. Ninety-five percent of modern plants existed by the end of this epoch. Modern bony fish genera were established. A modern-style latitudinal biodiversity gradient appeared ~15 Ma. 8566: 7592:

Drury, Anna Joy; Westerhold, Thomas; Frederichs, Thomas; Tian, Jun; Wilkens, Roy; Channell, James E.T.; Evans, Helen; John, Cédric M.; Lyle, Mitch; Röhl, Ursula (1 October 2017).

5264:"Climate-model evaluation of the contribution of sea-surface temperature and carbon dioxide to the Middle Miocene Climate Optimum as a possible analogue of future climate change" 9246: 3377:

Diatom diversity was inversely correlated with carbon dioxide levels and global temperatures during the Miocene. Most modern lineages of diatoms appeared by the Late Miocene.

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Li, Qijia; Deng, Weiyudong; Wappler, Torsten; Utescher, Torsten; Maslova, Natalia; Liu, Yusheng (Christopher); Jia, Hui; Song, Chengyu; Su, Tao; Quan, Cheng (February 2022).

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Goedert, Jean; Amiot, Romain; Arnaut-Godet, Florent; Cuny, Gilles; Fourel, François; Hernandez, Jean-Alexis; Pedreira-Segade, Ulysse; Lécuyer, Christophe (1 September 2017).

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Wichura, Henry; Bousquet, Romain; Oberhänsli, Roland; Strecker, Manfred R.; Trauth, Martin H. (June 2010). "Evidence for middle Miocene uplift of the East African Plateau".

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Lasabuda, Amando P. E.; Hanssen, Alfred; Laberg, Jan Sverre; Faleide, Jan Inge; Patton, Henry; Abdelmalak, Mansour M.; Rydningen, Tom Arne; Kjølhamar, Bent (29 June 2023).

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Drake, Henrik; Roberts, Nick M. W.; Reinhardt, Manuel; Whitehouse, Martin; Ivarsson, Magnus; Karlsson, Andreas; Kooijman, Ellen; Kielmann-Schmitt, Melanie (3 June 2021).

5512:"Changes in atmospheric CO2 concentrations and climate from the Late Eocene to Early Miocene: palaeobotanical reconstruction based on fossil floras from Saxony, Germany" 4029:"Bayesian Divergence-Time Estimation with Genome-Wide Single-Nucleotide Polymorphism Data of Sea Catfishes (Ariidae) Supports Miocene Closure of the Panamanian Isthmus" 9423:

Lawrence G. Barnes & Kiyoharu Hirota (1994). "Miocene pinnipeds of the otariid subfamily Allodesminae in the North Pacific Ocean: systematics and relationships".

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Warny, Sophie; Askin, Rosemary A.; Hannah, Michael J.; Mohr, Barbara A.R.; Raine, J. Ian; Harwood, David M.; Florindo, Fabio; the SMS Science Team (1 October 2009).

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continued. Although a long-term cooling trend was well underway, there is evidence of a warm period during the Miocene when the global climate rivalled that of the

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Kochhann, Karlos G. D.; Holbourn, Ann; Kuhnt, Wolfgang; Channell, James E. T.; Lyle, Mitch; Shackford, Julia K.; Wilkens, Roy H.; Andersen, Nils (22 August 2016).

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of the Andes represents an exception. While there are numerous registers of Oligocene–Miocene transgressions around the world it is doubtful that these correlate.

8846: 6969:"Weakened pacific overturning circulation, winter monsoon dominance and tectonism re-organized Japan Sea paleoceanography during the Late Miocene global cooling" 9461: 7549:

Mejía, Luz María; Méndez-Vicente, Ana; Abrevaya, Lorena; Lawrence, Kira T.; Ladlow, Caroline; Bolton, Clara; Cacho, Isabel; Stoll, Heather (1 December 2017).

6705:"Middle to late Miocene stepwise climate cooling: Evidence from a high-resolution deep water isotope curve spanning 8 million years: MIOCENE BENTHIC ISOTOPES" 3818:"Reconstructing Terrestrial Paleoclimates: A Comparison of the Co-Existence Approach, Bayesian and Probability Reconstruction Techniques Using the UK Neogene" 9942: 3171:

in comparison to only six living genera. This diversification correlates with emergence of gigantic macro-predators such as megatoothed sharks and raptorial

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Herbert, Timothy D.; Lawrence, Kira T.; Tzanova, Alexandrina; Peterson, Laura Cleaveland; Caballero-Gill, Rocio; Kelly, Christopher S. (26 September 2016).

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of terrestrial and aquatic life forms that occurred following the Miocene Climatic Optimum (18 to 16 Ma), around 14.8 to 14.5 million years ago, during the

7958: 6913:"Monsoon-influenced variation of clay mineral compositions and detrital Nd-Sr isotopes in the western Andaman Sea (IODP Site U1447) since the late Miocene" 6276:"Eccentricity pacing of eastern equatorial Pacific carbonate dissolution cycles during the Miocene Climatic Optimum: ECCENTRICITY-PACED DISSOLUTION CYCLES" 3421:, and about 15 million years ago the ice cap in the southern hemisphere started to grow to its present form. The Greenland ice cap developed later, in the 1085:

Regionally, other systems are used, based on characteristic land mammals; some of them overlap with the preceding Oligocene and following Pliocene Epochs:

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Qin, Jie; Zhang, Rui; Kravchinsky, Vadim A.; Valet, Jean-Pierre; Sagnotti, Leonardo; Li, Jianxing; Xu, Yong; Anwar, Taslima; Yue, Leping (2 April 2022).

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Kenneth G. Miller & Richard G. Fairbanks (1983). "Evidence for Oligocene−Middle Miocene abyssal circulation changes in the western North Atlantic".

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William Whewell, D. D., Master of Trinity College, Cambridge: An account of his writings with selections from his literary and scientific correspondence

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Wen, Yixiong; Zhang, Laiming; Holbourn, Ann E.; Zhu, Chenguang; Huntington, Katharine W.; Jin, Tianjie; Li, Yalin; Wang, Chengshan (23 January 2013).

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Hohenegger, Johann; Roegl, Fred; Coric, Stjepan; Pervesler, Peter; Lirer, Fabrizio; Roetzel, Reinhard; Scholger, Robert; Stingl, Karl (January 2009).

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At the beginning of the Miocene, the northern margin of the Arabian plate, then part of the African landmass, collided with Eurasia; as a result, the

8806:"Late Pleistocene European and Late Miocene African accelerations of faunal change in relation to the climate and as a background to human evolution" 8403: 7502: 6917: 6861: 6813: 6621: 6168: 6112: 5564: 5516: 4234: 4145: 1636:

of Earth's obliquity increased, which caused increased aridity in Central Asia. Around 5.5 Ma, the EAWM underwent a period of rapid intensification.

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grasses, expanded to become ecologically significant near the end of the Miocene between 6 and 7 million years ago. The expansion of grasslands and

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distantly related to modern crocodilians, from which they likely diverged over 180 million years ago, are known from the Miocene of South America.

9644:"Climate-driven compositional modifications of arc volcanoes along the East Equatorial Pacific Margin — The magmatic response to a cooling planet" 5887: 5189: 3161:

Corals suffered a significant local decline along the northeastern coast of Australia during the Tortonian, most likely due to warming seawater.

6551:"The emergence of Miocene reefs in South China Sea and its resilient adaptability under varying eustatic, climatic and oceanographic conditions" 4766:"Oligo-Miocene transgression along the Pacifie margin of South America: new paleontological and geological evidence from the Pisco basin (Peru)" 2779:

were fairly modern, although marine mammals were less numerous. Only in isolated South America and Australia did widely divergent fauna exist.

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Funder, Svend; Abrahamsen, Niels; Bennike, Ole; Feyling-Hanssen, Rolf W. (1 August 1985). "Forested Arctic: Evidence from North Greenland".

4279:"Late Miocene (10.0~6.0 Ma) Rapid Exhumation of the Chinese South Tianshan: Implications for the Timing of Aridification in the Tarim Basin" 2794:

were still diverse, only to disappear in the earliest Pliocene. During the later Miocene mammals were more modern, with easily recognizable

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Zhang, Rui; Li, Xiaojuan; Xu, Yong; Li, Jianxian; Sun, Lu; Yue, Leping; Pan, Feng; Xian, Feng; Wei, Xiaohao; Cao, Yuge (10 January 2022).

8358: 8772: 8585: 5560:"Miocene (Burdigalian) seawater and air temperatures estimated from the geochemistry of fossil remains from the Aquitaine Basin, France" 4494: 1459:. At first the Antarctic Plate subducted only in the southernmost tip of Patagonia, meaning that the Chile Triple Junction lay near the 2577: 7680:

De Vleeschouwer, David; Drury, Anna Joy; Vahlenkamp, Maximilian; Rochholz, Fiona; Liebrand, Diederik; Pälike, Heiko (6 October 2020).

6164:"Paleoclimatic evolution of the SW and NE South China Sea and its relationship with spectral reflectance data over various age scales" 2873: 1746: 9935: 9291: 3051: 2447: 1622:

was approaching its present-day size and thickness. Ocean temperatures plummeted to near-modern values during the LMC; extratropical

5664:"Evidence of late early Miocene aridification intensification in the Xining Basin caused by the northeastern Tibetan Plateau uplift" 1424:. The transgressions in the west coast of South America are thought to be caused by a regional phenomenon while the steadily rising 9826: 8498:"The Miocene mammal Necrolestes demonstrates the survival of a Mesozoic nontherian lineage into the late Cenozoic of South America" 7809:"An astronomically tuned 8.1 Ma eolian record from the Chinese Loess Plateau and its implication on the evolution of Asian monsoon" 4796: 4597:

Liu, Chang; Clift, Peter D.; Murray, Richard W.; Blusztajn, Jerzy; Ireland, Thomas; Wan, Shiming; Ding, Weiwei (20 February 2017).

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to follow their own evolutionary path during the final Messinian Stage (7.5–5.3 Ma) of the Miocene. As in the Oligocene before it,

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Greenop, Rosanna; Sodian, Sindia M.; Henehan, Michael J.; Wilson, Paul A.; Lear, Caroline H.; Foster, Gavin L. (18 January 2019).

3238:. This species developed a specialized filter-feeding mechanism, and it likely preyed upon small fauna despite its gigantic size. 2968:, which dominated South America during the Late Cretaceous, are known from the Miocene of Patagonia, represented by the mole-like 6503:"Mid-Miocene isotope stratigraphy in the deep sea: High-resolution correlations, paleoclimatic cycles, and sediment preservation" 6000:"Effects of CO2, continental distribution, topography and vegetation changes on the climate at the Middle Miocene: a model study" 6617:"The middle Miocene climatic transition: East Antarctic ice sheet development, deep ocean circulation and global carbon cycling" 3460:

occurred either during the Miocene (23 Ma – 5.3 Ma) or the Pliocene (5.3 Ma – 2.6 Ma). The event formed the

8936:"High frequency of arthropod herbivore damage in the Miocene Huaitoutala flora from the Qaidam Basin, northern Tibetan Plateau" 2427: 1570:

deposition indicate this cooling was driven by enhanced drawdown of carbon dioxide via silicate weathering. The MMCT caused a

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was a major source of sediment flux into the sea during the Early Miocene and was a major fluvial system as in the present.

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Mathew, Manoj; Makhankova, Adelya; Menier, David; Sautter, Benjamin; Betzler, Christian; Pierson, Bernard (28 April 2020).

5268: 4655:"Geochemistry and provenance of Oligocene to middle Miocene sandstones in the Qiongdongnan Basin, northern South China Sea" 3132: 8611:"The southernmost Miocene occurrence of the last European herpetotheriid Amphiperatherium frequens (Metatheria, Mammalia)" 880:

As Earth went from the Oligocene through the Miocene and into the Pliocene, the climate slowly cooled towards a series of

9258: 8247: 7598: 7555: 6753:"The 173-kyr Obliquity Cycle Pacing the Asian Monsoon in the Eastern Chinese Loess Plateau From Late Miocene to Pliocene" 5844: 4942: 9617:

Jiang, Shijun; Wise Jr., Sherwood W.; Wang, Yang (2007). Teagle, D.A.H.; Wilson, D.S.; Acton, G.D.; Vanko, D.A. (eds.).

4543:"Paleobathymetric reconstructions of the SW Barents Seaway and their implications for Atlantic–Arctic ocean circulation" 9798: 9137: 7205:"Estimation of low-latitude paleoclimates using fossil angiosperm leaves: examples from the Miocene Tugen Hills, Kenya" 3098:

Arthropods were abundant, including in areas such as Tibet where they have traditionally been thought to be undiverse.

8134:"The impact of Miocene atmospheric carbon dioxide fluctuations on climate and the evolution of terrestrial ecosystems" 7447:"1.2 Myr Band of Earth-Mars Obliquity Modulation on the Evolution of Cold Late Miocene to Warm Early Pliocene Climate" 2919:

were widespread in Europe, being less diverse in Southern Europe than farther north due to the aridity of the former.

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is considered a remnant of the Mio-Pliocene Laurasian subtropical forests that are now almost extinct in North Africa.

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region and a global fall in sea levels combined to cause a temporary drying up of the Mediterranean Sea (known as the

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Super, James R.; Thomas, Ellen; Pagani, Mark; Huber, Matthew; O'Brien, Charlotte; Hull, Pincelli M. (26 April 2018).

4765: 810: 853: 2407: 9762: 5608:"Global Cooling Contributed to the Establishment of a Modern-Like East Asian Monsoon Climate by the Early Miocene" 8609:

Furió, Marc; Ruiz-Sánchez, Francisco J.; Crespo, Vicente D.; Freudenthal, Matthijs; Montoya, Plinio (July 2012).

8399:"Predictable structure of Miocene insectivore (Lipotyphla) faunas in Western Europe along a latitudinal gradient" 7813: 6911:

Lee, Jongmin; Kim, Sunghan; Lee, Jae Il; Cho, Hyen Goo; Phillips, Stephen C.; Khim, Bo-Kyeun (15 December 2020).

6108:"Climate changes in the Early to Middle Miocene of the Central Paratethys and the origin of its echinoderm fauna" 5203:

Methner, Katharina; Campani, Marion; Fiebig, Jens; Löffler, Niklas; Kempf, Oliver; Mulch, Andreas (14 May 2020).

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Crocodilians also showed signs of diversification during the Miocene. The largest form among them was a gigantic

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Petrick, Benjamin; Reuning, Lars; Auer, Gerald; Zhang, Yige; Pfeiffer, Miriam; Schwark, Lorenz (10 March 2023).

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Holbourn, Ann; Kuhnt, Wolfgang; Kochhann, Karlos G.D.; Andersen, Nils; Sebastian Meier, K.J. (1 February 2015).

4856: 10606: 7165:"Vein density of angiosperms as a paleoclimate proxy: a case study using fossil leaves of Zelkova and Machilus" 3371: 7594:"Late Miocene climate and time scale reconciliation: Accurate orbital calibration from a deep-sea perspective" 7149: 4599:"Geochemical evidence for initiation of the modern Mekong delta in the southwestern South China Sea after 8Ma" 724: 8650:"Deep time diversity of metatherian mammals: implications for evolutionary history and fossil-record quality" 3797: 3749: 3418: 839: 657: 17: 7682:"High-latitude biomes and rock weathering mediate climate–carbon cycle feedbacks on eccentricity timescales" 7333:

Tanner, Thomas; Hernández-Almeida, Iván; Drury, Anna Joy; Guitián, José; Stoll, Heather (10 December 2020).

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took shape after 8 Ma. Geochemistry of the Qiongdongnan Basin in the northern South China Sea indicates the

9819: 9790: 6757: 5780: 5612: 4283: 2057: 1829: 1530: 700:

Base of the Thvera magnetic event (C3n.4n), which is only 96 ka (5 precession cycles) younger than the GSSP

9462:"Biosignatures of ancient microbial life are present across the igneous crust of the Fennoscandian shield" 6912: 6856: 6163: 5839: 5559: 5511: 5392: 5327: 4140: 9951: 5668: 5332: 3775: 2859:. Islands began to form between South and North America in the Late Miocene, allowing ground sloths like 1806: 1542: 1479:

beneath Patagonia inducing an uplift of ca. 1 km that reversed the Oligocene–Miocene transgression.

938:

The plants and animals of the Miocene were recognizably modern. Mammals and birds were well-established.

553: 9718: 7267:

Brown, Rachel M.; Chalk, Thomas B.; Crocker, Anya J.; Wilson, Paul A.; Foster, Gavin L. (25 July 2022).

6220:"Palynomorphs from a sediment core reveal a sudden remarkably warm Antarctica during the middle Miocene" 5455: 5205:"Middle Miocene long-term continental temperature change in and out of pace with marine climate records" 4278: 4139:

Jia, Yunxia; Wu, Haibin; Zhu, Shuya; Li, Qin; Zhang, Chunxia; Yu, Yanyan; Sun, Aizhi (1 November 2020).

3645:

Van Couvering, John; Castradori, Davide; Cita, Maria; Hilgen, Frederik; Rio, Domenico (September 2000).

3102:

diversified and expanded into areas they previously were absent from, such as Madagascar and Australia.

1529:. The climate of the Miocene has been suggested as a good analogue for future warmer climates caused by 10601: 8757: 8459: 8194: 7893:

Fenton, Isabel S.; Aze, Tracy; Farnsworth, Alexander; Valdes, Paul; Saupe, Erin E. (15 February 2023).

4085: 2510: 2244: 2236: 2228: 9785: 8398: 8242: 7634:"Correlation of Late Miocene to Early Pliocene sequences between the Mediterranean and North Atlantic" 6808: 6665:"Astronomically modulated Neogene sediment records from the South China Sea: NEOGENE BENTHIC ISOTOPES" 6107: 5663: 4654: 4598: 4464:"The Styrian Basin: A key to the Middle Miocene (Badenian/Langhian) Central Paratethys transgressions" 3318:

is the only Cenozoic terrestrial fossil record of the landmass, showcasing a wide variety of not only

3121: 3018:

clade, but molecular evidence indicates this ape lived between 18 and 13 million years ago. The first

9726:. Lunar and Planetary Inst., Twenty-Fourth Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. pp. 591–592. 8243:"The Late Miocene Carbon Isotope Shift driven by synergetic terrestrial processes: A box-model study" 6390: 5840:"Estimating the impact of the cryptic degassing of Large Igneous Provinces: A mid-Miocene case-study" 3434: 3405: 2985:

belong) in Europe, Asia and Africa are known from the Miocene, including the European herpetotheriid

2348: 1563: 1373: 893: 476: 6162:

Liu, Chang; Clift, Peter D.; Giosan, Liviu; Miao, Yunfa; Warny, Sophie; Wan, Shiming (1 July 2019).

4325:

Bialik, Or M.; Frank, Martin; Betzler, Christian; Zammit, Ray; Waldmann, Nicolas D. (20 June 2019).

4027:

Stange, Madlen; Sánchez-Villagra, Marcelo R; Salzburger, Walter; Matschiner, Michael (1 July 2018).

953:

The Miocene is of particular interest to geologists and palaeoclimatologists as major phases of the

8810: 8407:. The Neogene of Eurasia: Spatial gradients and temporal trends - The second synthesis of NECLIME. 7808: 7742:"Global warming-induced Asian hydrological climate transition across the Miocene–Pliocene boundary" 7633: 7446: 7334: 6752: 6703:

Holbourn, Ann; Kuhnt, Wolfgang; Clemens, Steven; Prell, Warren; Andersen, Nils (11 November 2013).

5998:

Henrot, A.-J.; François, L.; Favre, E.; Butzin, M.; Ouberdous, M.; Munhoven, G. (21 October 2010).

5719: 4980: 4659: 4495:"The sensitivity of middle Miocene paleoenvironments to changing marine gateways in Central Europe" 3487: 3127: 3114: 9775: 9313:"The crocodylomorph fauna of the Cenozoic of South America and its evolutionary history: a review" 9244: 6391:"Middle Miocene climate cooling linked to intensification of eastern equatorial Pacific upwelling" 5510:

Roth-Nebelsick, A.; Utescher, T.; Mosbrugger, V.; Diester-Haass, L.; Walther, T. (20 March 2004).

5391:

Scotese, Christopher R.; Song, Haijun; Mills, Benjamin J.W.; van der Meer, Douwe G. (April 2021).

4277:

Chang, Jian; Glorie, Stijn; Qiu, Nansheng; Min, Kyoungwon; Xiao, Yao; Xu, Wei (28 December 2020).

1541:

temperature during the MMCO was about 18.4 °C. MMCO warmth was driven by the activity of the

10224: 10219: 9812: 9794: 9643: 9508:

Lazarus, David; Barron, John; Renaudie, Johan; Diver, Patrick; Türke, Andreas (22 January 2014).

9312: 8935: 8805: 8610: 7593: 7164: 7026:

Larsen, H. C.; Saunders, A. D.; Clift, P. D.; Beget, J.; Wei, W.; Spezzaferri, S. (13 May 1994).

4843: 3816:

Gibson, M. E.; McCoy, J.; O'Keefe, J. M. K.; Otaño, N. B. Nuñez; Warny, S.; Pound, M. J. (2022).

2318: 1822: 1623: 1571: 954: 8841: 6616: 4653:

Ma, Ming; Chen, Guojun; Zhang, Gongcheng; Rahman, M. Julleh Jalalur; Ma, Xiaofeng (1 May 2022).

3999: 3587: 2533: 9642:

Errázuriz-Henao, Carlos; Gómez-Tuena, Arturo; Parolari, Mattia; Weber, Marion (November 2022).

8654: 8027: 7209: 5393:"Phanerozoic paleotemperatures: The earth's changing climate during the last 540 million years" 5263: 2277: 1764: 1518:

Climates remained moderately warm, although the slow global cooling that eventually led to the

900:

opened and the Mediterranean refilled at the Miocene–Pliocene boundary, in an event called the

625: 8564: 8496:

Rougier, Guillermo W.; Wible, John R.; Beck, Robin M. D.; Apesteguía, Sebastian (2012-12-04).

5942:

Goto, Kosuke T.; Tejada, Maria Luisa G.; Tajika, Eiichi; Suzuki, Katsuhiko (26 January 2023).

5838:

Armstrong McKay, David I.; Tyrrell, Toby; Wilson, Paul A.; Foster, Gavin L. (1 October 2014).

3734: 2961:

which had been the only known surviving genus of the group since the beginning of the Eocene.

1593:

governed by Earth's interactions with Saturn became detectable in the Late Miocene. By 12 Ma,

1242:

toward their present positions. Of the modern geologic features, only the land bridge between

9648: 9190: 8779: 7952: 7746: 7686: 7451: 6389:

Holbourn, A.; Kuhnt, W.; Lyle, M.; Schneider, L.; Romero, O.; Andersen, N. (1 January 2014).

5400: 5183: 4726: 4232:

Mao, Xuegang; Retallack, Gregory (January 2019). "Late Miocene drying of central Australia".

2049: 1582: 1456: 1336:

experienced significant uplift in the Late Miocene, blocking westerlies from coming into the

598: 8840:

Merceron, Gildas; Kaiser, Thomas M.; Kostopoulos, Dimitris S.; Schulz, Ellen (2 June 2010).

8260: 7568: 7163:

Wang, Xue-Lian; Wang, Zi-Xi; Li, Rui-Yun; Deng, Peng; Ma, Li; Sun, Bai-Nian (January 2016).

5857: 4955: 4386:"The Oligo–Miocene closure of the Tethys Ocean and evolution of the proto-Mediterranean Sea" 3922: 3520: 1581:

Restoration of the volcanic eruption in Harney Basin, of the western US, represented by the

9727: 9699: 9657: 9583: 9523: 9434: 9371: 9324: 9267: 9203: 9146: 9038: 8663: 8622: 8511: 8468: 8412: 8316: 8256: 8208: 8147: 8036: 7984: 7908: 7822: 7755: 7695: 7564: 7516: 7460: 7348: 7282: 7218: 7137: 7041: 6982: 6926: 6870: 6809:"Late Miocene climate and life on land in Oregon within a context of Neogene global change" 6766: 6630: 6564: 6516: 6460: 6404: 6332: 6233: 6177: 6121: 6063: 6013: 5957: 5901: 5853: 5789: 5733: 5677: 5621: 5573: 5525: 5469: 5409: 5341: 5277: 5218: 5145: 5096: 5048: 4989: 4951: 4913: 4805: 4735: 4668: 4612: 4556: 4340: 4243: 4206: 4154: 3957: 3886: 3831: 3740: 3516: 3482: 3461: 3363: 3351: 3314:, illustrating the evolution of both groups into modern representatives. The early Miocene 3263:, which appeared near the end of the Oligocene, became more aquatic. A prominent genus was 3046: 2686: 2487: 2334: 2203: 2188: 1734: 1559: 1437: 1433: 1421: 1297: 8131: 7632:

Hodell, David A.; Curtis, Jason H.; Sierro, Francisco J.; Raymo, Maureen E. (April 2004).

7269:"Late Miocene cooling coupled to carbon dioxide with Pleistocene-like climate sensitivity" 4902:

Cande, S.C.; Leslie, R.B. (1986). "Late Cenozoic Tectonics of the Southern Chile Trench".

4722:"Late Oligocene–Miocene transgressions along the equatorial and eastern margins of Brazil" 3666: 3630: 8: 10555: 9618: 9025:"Warm, not cold temperatures contributed to a Late Miocene reef decline in the Coral Sea" 8976: 6314: 6054: 6004: 5718:

Greenop, Rosanna; Foster, Gavin L.; Wilson, Paul A.; Lear, Caroline H. (11 August 2014).

4883: 3477: 3315: 1619: 1590: 1562:

maxima. The MMCO ended around 14 million years ago, when global temperatures fell in the

897: 866: 9731: 9703: 9661: 9587: 9527: 9438: 9375: 9328: 9271: 9207: 9150: 9067: 9042: 9024: 8667: 8626: 8515: 8472: 8416: 8320: 8212: 8151: 8040: 7988: 7912: 7826: 7759: 7699: 7520: 7464: 7352: 7286: 7222: 7141: 7045: 6986: 6930: 6874: 6770: 6634: 6568: 6520: 6464: 6408: 6336: 6237: 6181: 6125: 6067: 6017: 5961: 5905: 5793: 5737: 5681: 5625: 5577: 5529: 5473: 5413: 5345: 5281: 5222: 5149: 5100: 5052: 4993: 4917: 4809: 4739: 4672: 4616: 4560: 4344: 4247: 4210: 4158: 3961: 3890: 3835: 3167:

attained their greatest diversity during the Miocene, with over 20 recognized genera of

3026:

apes of the human lineage) appeared in Africa at the very end of the Miocene, including

9863: 9599: 9546: 9509: 9483: 9446: 9400: 9359: 9340: 9283: 9227: 9170: 9029: 8977:"Neoisoptera repeatedly colonised Madagascar after the Middle Miocene climatic optimum" 8876: 8738: 8689: 8542: 8497: 8340: 8280: 8170: 8133: 8109: 8082: 8052: 7932: 7875: 7784: 7741: 7716: 7681: 7476: 7419: 7390: 7364: 7308: 7242: 7234: 7108: 7103: 7084: 7065: 7003: 6973: 6968: 6942: 6886: 6782: 6726: 6663:

Tian, Jun; Zhao, Quanhong; Wang, Pinxian; Li, Qianyu; Cheng, Xinrong (September 2008).

6585: 6555: 6364: 6193: 5813: 5749: 5662:

Zhang, Chunxia; Xiao, Guoqiao; Guo, Zhengtang; Wu, Haibin; Hao, Qingzhen (1 May 2015).

5637: 5485: 5433: 5357: 5301: 5239: 5209: 5204: 5166: 5131: 5015: 4860: 4692: 4516: 4420: 4390: 4361: 4331: 4326: 4300: 4259: 4170: 4057: 4033: 4028: 3981: 3904: 3849: 3563: 3189: 2791: 2597: 1757: 1742: 1677: 1460: 935:

made their first appearance and soon became one of Earth's most productive ecosystems.

374: 8648:

Bennett, C. Verity; Upchurch, Paul; Goin, Francisco J.; Goswami, Anjali (2018-02-06).

6318: 5944:"Enhanced magmatism played a dominant role in triggering the Miocene Climatic Optimum" 5888:"Global perturbation of the carbon cycle at the onset of the Miocene Climatic Optimum" 2664: 118:

Map of Earth as it appeared 20 million years ago during the Miocene, Burdigalian epoch

10353: 10317: 9752: 9628: 9551: 9487: 9405: 9387: 9344: 9251:(Crocodyliformes, Alligatoridae) from the Upper Miocene Urumaco Formation, Venezuela" 9219: 9162: 9100: 9072: 9054: 8998: 8914: 8881: 8863: 8742: 8730: 8681: 8547: 8529: 8428: 8377: 8344: 8332: 8307: 8284: 8272: 8220: 8175: 8114: 7936: 7924: 7879: 7789: 7771: 7721: 7655: 7507: 7480: 7424: 7368: 7312: 7273: 7268: 7246: 7128: 7112: 7057: 7032: 7027: 7008: 6946: 6890: 6830: 6786: 6730: 6642: 6590: 6550: 6476: 6451: 6420: 6395: 6356: 6348: 6323: 6249: 6224: 6197: 6137: 6081: 6050:"The challenge of simulating the warmth of the mid-Miocene climatic optimum in CESM1" 5973: 5943: 5917: 5892: 5805: 5753: 5693: 5641: 5489: 5437: 5425: 5361: 5305: 5293: 5244: 5171: 5087: 5039: 5019: 4864: 4696: 4684: 4628: 4572: 4542: 4520: 4499: 4463: 4425: 4407: 4385: 4366: 4304: 4263: 4197: 4174: 4089: 4062: 3973: 3908: 3853: 3701: 3528: 3306:'s Miocene fossil record is particularly rich. Marine deposits showcase a variety of 3199: 3110: 2866: 2755: 1611: 1558:

shoaled by approximately half of a kilometre during warm phases that corresponded to

1491: 1476: 1425: 1360: 1239: 713: 9669: 9287: 9174: 8693: 8481: 8454: 8056: 7069: 6368: 5817: 5689: 5421: 5353: 5132:"Australian shelf sediments reveal shifts in Miocene Southern Hemisphere westerlies" 5033:

Herold, L.; Huber, M.; Greenwood, D. R.; Müller, R. D.; Seton, M. (1 January 2011).

4747: 3646: 1503:

Western Australia, like today, was arid, particularly so during the Middle Miocene.

10596: 10447: 10322: 10291: 10088: 9665: 9624: 9603: 9591: 9574: 9541: 9531: 9475: 9442: 9395: 9379: 9332: 9275: 9231: 9211: 9194: 9154: 9062: 9046: 8990: 8953: 8949: 8871: 8855: 8815: 8720: 8671: 8630: 8537: 8519: 8476: 8420: 8324: 8264: 8216: 8165: 8155: 8104: 8096: 8044: 8000: 7992: 7916: 7899: 7867: 7830: 7779: 7763: 7711: 7703: 7647: 7607: 7572: 7524: 7468: 7414: 7404: 7356: 7298: 7290: 7226: 7178: 7145: 7098: 7089: 7049: 6998: 6990: 6934: 6878: 6822: 6774: 6718: 6678: 6638: 6580: 6572: 6524: 6468: 6412: 6340: 6289: 6241: 6185: 6129: 6071: 6021: 5965: 5909: 5861: 5797: 5741: 5720:"Middle Miocene climate instability associated with high-amplitude CO2 variability" 5685: 5629: 5581: 5533: 5477: 5417: 5349: 5285: 5234: 5226: 5161: 5153: 5136: 5104: 5056: 5005: 4997: 4959: 4921: 4852: 4821: 4813: 4743: 4676: 4620: 4603: 4564: 4508: 4415: 4399: 4356: 4348: 4292: 4251: 4214: 4162: 4052: 4042: 3985: 3965: 3948: 3894: 3839: 3661: 3625: 3555: 3524: 3397: 2987: 2269: 2218: 772: 6116:. Miocene Climate in Europe - patterns and evolution. First synthesis of NECLIME. 6049: 4624: 4141:"Cenozoic aridification in Northwest China evidenced by paleovegetation evolution" 3468:

which is estimated to have an age of less than 23 Ma or less than 5 Ma.

931:

continued to expand and forests to dwindle in extent. In the seas of the Miocene,

10547: 10543: 10539: 10416: 10312: 10250: 10145: 10114: 10083: 9780: 9536: 9336: 8819: 8424: 8397:

Furió, Marc; Casanovas-Vilar, Isaac; van den Hoek Ostende, Lars W. (1 May 2011).

8199: 7996: 7182: 7053: 6938: 6882: 6826: 6189: 6133: 5999: 5774:

You, Y.; Huber, M.; Müller, R. D.; Poulsen, C. J.; Ribbe, J. (19 February 2009).

5585: 5537: 4817: 4680: 4255: 4166: 3724: 3706: 3543: 3422: 3256:

thrived during this period before becoming the only extinct marine mammal order.

3246: 2994: 2951: 2302: 2071: 2027: 1448: 1325: 1251: 1222: 920: 819: 588: 41: 10572: 5001: 4721: 3505: 3105: 2855:

The late Miocene also marks the extinction of the last-surviving members of the

10566: 10385: 10255: 10150: 10119: 9510:"Cenozoic Planktonic Marine Diatom Diversity and Correlation to Climate Change" 9479: 9383: 9133:"The earliest known member of the rorqual—gray whale clade (Mammalia, Cetacea)" 9050: 8913:(First ed.). Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. pp. 284–323. 8634: 8503:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

8268: 8139:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

8078: 7920: 7871: 7767: 7707: 7611: 7577: 7550: 7396:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

7294: 6994: 6576: 5969: 5865: 5230: 4963: 4568: 4403: 4352: 3686: 3413: 3391: 3028: 2965: 2746: 2123: 2110: 2040: 2014: 1753: 1738: 1483: 1441: 1321: 1317: 1074: 1034: 962: 901: 709: 9920: 9360:"Evolutionary structure and timing of major habitat shifts in Crocodylomorpha" 9279: 5456:"Orbital Forcing, Ice Volume, and CO2 Across the Oligocene-Miocene Transition" 5289: 1577: 10590: 10286: 10276: 10245: 10208: 10140: 10109: 9720:

The Karakul depression in Pamirs - the first impact structure in central Asia

9391: 9166: 9058: 9002: 8867: 8734: 8685: 8533: 8432: 8276: 7775: 7659: 6834: 6480: 6424: 6352: 6253: 6141: 6085: 5977: 5921: 5809: 5697: 5509: 5429: 5297: 4688: 4632: 4576: 4411: 3728: 3610: 3287: 3253: 3220: 3216: 2956: 2923: 2861: 2782:

In the Early Miocene, several Oligocene groups were still diverse, including

2642: 2310: 1697: 1598: 1550: 1369: 1270: 1255: 1247: 1243: 1210: 1168: 1149: 1059: 912: 834: 828: 739: 726: 672: 659: 72: 8758:"New genetic data shows humans and great apes diverged earlier than thought" 8524: 8328: 8160: 7807:

Han, Wenxia; Fang, Xiaomin; Berger, André; Yin, Qiuzhen (22 December 2011).

7409: 7391:"CO2-forced Late Miocene cooling and ecosystem reorganizations in East Asia" 7085:"The late Miocene to Pleistocene ice-rafting history of southeast Greenland" 6704: 6664: 6344: 6275: 5775: 5607: 4925: 4764:

Macharé, José; Devries, Thomas; Barron, John; Fourtanier, Élisabeth (1988).

4047: 3681: 3611:"The Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) for the base of the Neogene" 3607: 1771:. One study, however, has attributed the expansion of grasslands not to a CO 10577: 10508: 10358: 10281: 9878: 9555: 9409: 9245:

Orangel A. Aguilera, Douglas Riff & Jean Bocquentin-Villanueva (2006).

9223: 9076: 8885: 8859: 8551: 8359:"Eucalyptus fossils in New Zealand - the thin end of the wedge - Mike Pole" 8336: 8179: 8118: 8100: 7928: 7793: 7725: 7428: 7061: 7012: 6594: 6360: 6076: 5248: 5175: 5157: 4429: 4370: 4327:"Two-step closure of the Miocene Indian Ocean Gateway to the Mediterranean" 4066: 3977: 3770: 3457: 3335: 3275: 3168: 3155: 3091: 3079: 3040: 2947: 2916: 2831: 2718: 2292: 2259: 2173: 2097: 2084: 1644:

Life during the Miocene Epoch was mostly supported by the two newly formed

1628: 1393: 1344: 1313: 1282: 1204: 1137: 1039: 1006: 982: 629: 401: 9311:

Cidade, Giovanne M.; Fortier, Daniel; Hsiou, Annie Schmaltz (March 2019).

8083:"Nature's green revolution: the remarkable evolutionary rise of C4 plants" 6447:"North Atlantic temperature and pCO2 coupling in the early-middle Miocene" 6319:"Middle Miocene Southern Ocean Cooling and Antarctic Cryosphere Expansion" 6026: 5442: 4720:

Rossetti, Dilce F.; Bezerra, Francisco H.R.; Dominguez, José M.L. (2013).

4493:

Simon, Dirk; Palcu, Dan; Meijer, Paul; Krijgsman, Wout (7 December 2018).

4026: 3811: 3809: 3346:

as well as a rich terrestrial mammal fauna composed of various species of

10503: 10372: 10348: 10193: 9988: 9868: 7895:"Origination of the modern-style diversity gradient 15 million years ago" 7834: 7651: 7472: 7360: 7169: 6778: 6722: 6682: 6502: 6293: 5801: 5745: 5633: 5481: 4296: 3899: 3872: 3844: 3817: 3327: 3303: 3292: 3230: 3211: 3172: 3139: 3099: 2970: 2931: 2907: 2895: 2856: 2835: 2807: 2762: 2621: 2364: 1988: 1787: 1685: 1649: 1519: 1487: 1472: 1464: 1413: 1397: 1385: 1337: 1329: 1293: 1263: 1192: 1174: 1131: 1064: 932: 924: 889: 383: 366: 47: 9358:

Wilberg, Eric W.; Turner, Alan H.; Brochu, Christopher A. (2019-01-24).

9215: 8725: 8708: 8676: 8649: 8396: 8004: 4826: 2943:

birds reached their highest diversity ever in the course of this epoch.

1729:

The higher organic content and water retention of the deeper and richer

1511: 10498: 10458: 10401: 10301: 10198: 10072: 9972: 9904: 9641: 9425: 8994: 8707:

Crespo, Vicente D.; Goin, Francisco J.; Pickford, Martin (2022-06-03).

8565:

Nicolás R. Chimento, Federico L. Agnolin and Fernando E. Novas (2012).

7303: 7238: 5010: 3806: 3567: 3465: 3440: 3367: 3265: 3068: 3023: 2978: 2901: 2844: 2803: 2787: 2783: 1783: 1708: 1657: 1602: 1522: 1468: 1455:

beneath South America 14 million years ago in the Miocene, forming the

1452: 1377: 1155: 1143: 1106: 619: 437: 315: 92: 57: 10561: 8088:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

7679: 7125: 6528: 6245: 5109: 5082: 4938: 3408:

sites that ice began to build up in Antarctica about 36 Ma during the

1672: 1230: 10513: 10463: 10437: 10396: 10343: 10188: 10164: 10045: 10035: 10024: 9888: 9883: 9716: 9595: 9571: 8981: 7528: 6472: 6416: 5913: 5060: 4512: 4443: 4218: 3969: 3339: 3307: 3242: 3177: 3164: 3085: 3060: 2982: 2964:

The last known representatives of the archaic primitive mammal order

2884: 2880: 2870: 2839: 2702: 2379: 1791: 1790:, where the genus is not native today, but have been introduced from 1723: 1719: 1712: 1704: 1689: 1633: 1606: 1555: 1526: 1417: 1409: 1333: 1301: 1286: 1278: 1112: 1100: 1024: 1011: 928: 916: 874: 859: 845: 419: 410: 323: 279: 97: 3559: 2879:

grasses led to worldwide extinctions of herbivorous species without

1304:

got drier as it entered a zone of low rainfall in the Late Miocene.

10473: 10468: 10432: 10332: 10265: 10234: 10129: 10098: 10059: 10009: 9983: 9959: 9899: 9873: 9853: 9763:

Overview of Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSP's)

9514: 9132: 8132:

Wolfram M. Kürschner, Zlatko Kvacek & David L. Dilcher (2008).

8048: 7548: 7332: 3444: 3331: 3311: 3260: 3183: 3064: 3019: 2935: 2887:

diversified into their largest forms as terrestrial predators like

2850: 2553: 2001: 1975: 1730: 1700: 1198: 1186: 1094: 1049: 943: 919:. By the end of this epoch and the start of the following one, the 870: 647: 428: 392: 352: 255: 87: 82: 67: 62: 52: 8842:"Ruminant diets and the Miocene extinction of European great apes" 8608: 6967:

Matsuzaki, Kenji M.; Ikeda, Masayuki; Tada, Ryuji (20 July 2022).

5837: 4107: 4105: 2950:, an extinct order of aquatic reptiles that first appeared in the 10487: 10427: 10177: 9998: 9835: 9804: 9620:

Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, 206 Scientific Results

9422: 9158: 4194: 3644: 3385: 3297: 3073: 3034: 3015: 2823: 2811: 2795: 2768: 2158: 2150: 2136: 1715: 1693: 1475:

associated to the triple junction disturbed previous patterns of

1365: 1352: 1118: 958: 881: 865:, "new") and means "less recent" because it has 18% fewer modern 823: 497: 293: 102: 77: 8305:

Susanne S. Renner (2011). "Living fossil younger than thought".

1364:

land connection between Afro-Arabia and Eurasia. The subsequent

1296:

in the late Miocene was partly responsible for the shrinking of

973: 915:(Aquitanian and Burdigalian Stages), becoming widespread in the 113: 10523: 10406: 10040: 9459: 8839: 7503:"Late Miocene global cooling and the rise of modern ecosystems" 5128: 5083:"Early to middle Miocene monsoon climate in Australia: COMMENT" 4102: 3869: 3409: 3343: 3270: 3207: 2954:, are known from the Miocene of Europe, belonging to the genus 2927: 2889: 2815: 1594: 1546: 1356: 1348: 1274: 1250:

was absent, although South America was approaching the western

1180: 717: 7971: 7854: 7500: 7083:

John, Kristen E. K. St.; Krissek, Lawrence A. (28 June 2008).

5606:

Zhang, Ran; Zhang, Zhongshi; Jiang, Dabang (23 October 2018).

4976: 4763: 3146:, proliferated, supporting new species of sea life, including 1486:

in the Middle Miocene (14–12 million years ago) the resulting

793: 9717:

Gurov EP, Gurova HP, Rakitskaya RB, Yamnichenko, AYu (1993).

7591: 6548: 6273: 5885: 4461: 3225: 3147: 2827: 2790:, and three-toed equids. As in the previous Oligocene Epoch, 2776: 1779: 1767:

among terrestrial herbivores correlates to fluctuations in CO

1661: 1653: 1645: 1627:

by the 41 kyr obliquity cycle. A major reorganisation of the

1615: 1259: 1017: 985:

from youngest to oldest are typically named according to the

939: 651: 7335:"Decreasing Atmospheric CO2 During the Late Miocene Cooling" 5557: 5390: 4880: 4540: 9689: 9131:

Dooley, Alton C.; Fraser, Nicholas C.; Luo, Zhe-Xi (2004).

8076: 7858: 7231:

10.1666/0094-8373(2002)028<0399:EOLLPU>2.0.CO;2

5202: 5081:

Travouillon, K. J.; Archer, M.; Hand, S. J. (1 June 2012).

4857:

10.1666/0022-3360(2005)079[1120:csaasg]2.0.co;2

4117: 3945: 3815: 3647:"The base of the Zanclean Stage and of the Pliocene Series" 3347: 3322:

species, including early representatives of clades such as

3319: 3215:

which inhabited South America. Another gigantic form was a

3151: 3143: 2939: 2819: 2799: 1652:

and grasslands. Grasslands allow for more grazers, such as

1567: 1412:

and Early Miocene, the coast of northern Brazil, Colombia,

947: 802: 787: 781: 9507: 8647: 8495: 8455:"Choristoderes and the freshwater assemblages of Laurasia" 6388: 5453: 5032: 3279:

may have preyed upon other species of pinnipeds including

1741:

sink. This, combined with higher surface albedo and lower

9786:

Miocene Microfossils: 200+ images of Miocene Foraminifera

9751:(5th ed.). Blackwell Scientific Publications, Cambridge. 9089: 7892: 7150:

10.1130/0091-7613(1985)13<542:FAEFNG>2.0.CO;2

6702: 5997: 4792: 4492: 3323: 3010: 2754:

Sarjeant and Reynolds, 1999; convex hyporelief) from the

2735: 1597:

was a savanna akin to that of the western margins of the

908: 9623:. Vol. 206. Ocean Drilling Program. pp. 1–24. 7444: 7025: 6317:; Kennett, James P.; Lea, David W. (17 September 2004). 4719: 4324: 3802:. Vol. 3. London, England: John Murray. p. 54. 3754:. Vol. 3. London, England: John Murray. p. 54. 3067:

in North America and the significant diversification of

1549:

from the reduction of deserts and expansion of forests.

9022: 8973: 8847:

Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences

8020:"Cenozoic Expansion of Grasslands and Climatic Cooling" 7631: 7551:"A diatom record of CO2 decline since the late Miocene" 7266: 5717: 4596: 6444: 5941: 5326:

Retallack, Gregory J.; Conde, Giselle D. (June 2020).

5319: 5035:"Early to Middle Miocene monsoon climate in Australia" 1745:

of grassland, contributed to a cooler, drier climate.

9749:

Biogeography. An ecological and evolutionary approach

8933: 7738: 6615:

Flower, Benjamin P.; Kennett, James P. (April 1994).

5773: 5386: 5384: 5382: 5380: 5378: 5124: 5122: 5120: 5080: 3865: 3863: 3412:. Further marked decreases in temperature during the 811: 796: 790: 8241:

Du, Jinlong; Tian, Jun; Ma, Wentao (15 April 2022).

7800: 6855:

Mao, Xuegang; Retallack, Gregory (15 January 2019).

6217: 6048:

Goldner, A.; Herold, N.; Huber, M. (13 March 2014).

4876: 4874: 3439:

The "Middle Miocene disruption" refers to a wave of

3071:(including the origin of many modern genera such as 9357: 8193:Keeley, Jon E.; Rundel, Philip W. (28 April 2005). 7388: 6313: 4715: 4713: 3923:"BBC Nature - Miocene epoch videos, news and facts" 1801: 1347:seaway continued to shrink and then disappeared as 778: 775: 130: 9310: 8706: 6966: 6161: 6047: 5776:"Simulation of the Middle Miocene Climate Optimum" 5375: 5117: 4788: 4786: 4759: 4757: 4384:Torfstein, Adi; Steinberg, Josh (14 August 2020). 4383: 3860: 833:(Ma). The Miocene was named by Scottish geologist 9692:American Geophysical Union Fall Meeting Abstracts 9616: 8578:Revista del Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales 8404:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 8371: 8304: 8195:"Fire and the Miocene expansion of C4 grasslands" 6918:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 6862:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 6814:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 6622:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 6169:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 6113:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 5565:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 5517:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 5328:"Deep time perspective on rising atmospheric CO2" 4871: 4652: 4276: 4235:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 4146:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 3544:"Neogene Expansion of the North American Prairie" 3296:, which were considerably larger than modern age 10588: 7957:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ( 7806: 7028:"Seven Million Years of Glaciation in Greenland" 4710: 3541: 1436:. Connection would have occurred through narrow 9950: 9130: 5605: 5551: 4783: 4754: 9567: 9565: 8904: 8902: 8452: 7440: 7438: 7162: 6662: 6501:Woodruff, Fay; Savin, Samuel (December 1991). 5661: 5325: 4134: 4132: 4080:Torsvik, Trond H.; Cocks, L. Robin M. (2017). 3601: 961:patterns in Asia, which were interlinked with 9936: 9820: 8558: 7939:. Archived from the original on 12 April 2023 7260: 6744: 6614: 6500: 1830: 1726:, displacing desert, woodland, and browsers. 1332:and aridification of the Asian interior. The 9747:Cox, C. Barry & Moore, Peter D. (1993): 8803: 8192: 6910: 6854: 4905:Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth 4449: 4231: 4123: 4111: 4079: 3535: 3499: 3428: 1416:, central Chile and large swathes of inland 513:Subdivision of the Neogene according to the 9562: 8899: 8070: 8035:(4). University of Chicago Press: 407–426. 7435: 7082: 6750: 6155: 5188:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 4901: 4129: 3762: 3362:Microbial life in the igneous crust of the 3002:from Asia, and the possible herpetotheriid 1707:, led to a major expansion of grass-grazer 784: 9943: 9929: 9827: 9813: 6857:"Late Miocene drying of central Australia" 4138: 3404:There is evidence from oxygen isotopes at 1837: 1823: 9545: 9535: 9399: 9090:Peter Klimley & David Ainley (1996). 9066: 8875: 8724: 8675: 8541: 8523: 8480: 8169: 8159: 8108: 8017: 7783: 7715: 7576: 7418: 7408: 7302: 7102: 7002: 6807:Retallack, Gregory J. (4 November 2004). 6806: 6584: 6075: 6025: 5238: 5165: 5108: 5009: 4825: 4419: 4360: 4056: 4046: 4000:"International Chronostratigraphic Chart" 3992: 3898: 3843: 3732: 3665: 3629: 3245:, a clade of large terrestrial predatory 1234:The Mediterranean during the Late Miocene 923:had split away from the ancestors of the 911:first evolved and diversified during the 9317:Journal of South American Earth Sciences 8240: 4797:Journal of South American Earth Sciences 4007:International Commission on Stratigraphy 3384: 3120: 3104: 2761: 2745: 1671: 1576: 1510: 1269:Mountain building took place in western 1229: 1221: 987:International Commission on Stratigraphy 972: 8778:. University of Toronto. Archived from 8376:. New York: Freeman. pp. 525–526. 4840: 3871:Stoll, H.; Strömberg, C. a. E. (2021). 3006:from the late Early Miocene of Uganda. 2758:(Miocene) of Rainbow Basin, California. 957:occurred during the Miocene, affecting 14: 10589: 9710: 9467:Communications Earth & Environment 9306: 9304: 9186: 9184: 8908: 8571:: a Neogene survivor of Dryolestoidea" 7202: 5949:Communications Earth & Environment 4548:Communications Earth & Environment 2977:The youngest known representatives of 2731: 1786:fossil leaves occur in the Miocene of 1752:grasses, which are able to assimilate 837:; the name comes from the Greek words 510: 9924: 9808: 8941:Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 8755: 7639:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology 7340:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology 6710:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology 6670:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology 6508:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology 6281:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology 5725:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology 5461:Paleoclimatology and Paleoceanography 3878:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology 3873:"The Miocene: The Future of the Past" 3823:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology 3795: 3747: 3334:, but also a diverse herpetofauna of 2830:, along with now-extinct groups like 1815: 520:Vertical axis: millions of years ago. 8963:– via Elsevier Science Direct. 8829:– via Elsevier Science Direct. 8773:"Fossil Record of Miocene Hominoids" 8641: 8442:– via Elsevier Science Direct. 8294:– via Elsevier Science Direct. 7621:– via Elsevier Science Direct. 7203:Jacobs, Bonnie Fine (8 April 2016). 7192:– via Elsevier Science Direct. 6844:– via Elsevier Science Direct. 6105: 5707:– via Elsevier Science Direct. 5269:Australian Journal of Earth Sciences 4642:– via Elsevier Science Direct. 2674: 2652: 2630: 2606: 2586: 2566: 2542: 2522: 2499: 2476: 2456: 2436: 2416: 2396: 1804: 873:has. The Miocene is preceded by the 485: 465: 10542:= kiloannum (thousands years ago); 9301: 9259:Journal of Systematic Palaeontology 9181: 9093:Great White Sharks: the Biology of 8446: 8248:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 7599:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 7556:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 6106:Kroh, Andreas (14 September 2007). 5845:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 5261: 4943:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 3509:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2869:to North America. The expansion of 1376:) near the end of the Miocene. The 24: 10546:= megaannum (millions years ago); 9834: 9799:National Museum of Natural History 9741: 9447:10.1111/j.1440-1738.1994.tb00119.x 9138:Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 9083: 8804:van der Made, Jan (1 April 2014). 7104:10.1111/j.1502-3885.2002.tb01053.x 4468:Austrian Journal of Earth Sciences 3768: 3395:whales pursued by the giant shark 3187:. Other notable large sharks were 25: 10618: 10550:= gigaannum (billions years ago). 9769: 8770: 4082:Earth history and palaeogeography 3425:time, about 3 million years ago. 3133:Children's Museum of Indianapolis 1564:Middle Miocene Climate Transition 1262:and a southward extension of the 1217: 877:and is followed by the Pliocene. 27:First epoch of the Neogene Period 10571: 10560: 9781:UCMP Berkeley Miocene Epoch Page 9683: 9635: 9629:10.2973/odp.proc.sr.206.013.2007 9610: 9501: 9453: 9416: 9351: 9238: 9124: 9016: 8967: 8927: 8833: 8797: 8764: 8749: 8700: 8602: 8489: 8390: 8365: 8351: 8298: 8221:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2005.00767.x 3366:shifted from being dominated by 3290:waters witnessed the arrival of 2946:The youngest representatives of 1756:and water more efficiently than 1403: 771: 112: 45: 9670:10.1016/j.earscirev.2022.104228 8482:10.5209/rev_jige.2010.v36.n2.11 8234: 8186: 8125: 8011: 7965: 7886: 7848: 7814:Journal of Geophysical Research 7732: 7673: 7625: 7585: 7542: 7494: 7382: 7326: 7196: 7156: 7119: 7076: 7019: 6960: 6904: 6848: 6800: 6696: 6656: 6608: 6542: 6494: 6438: 6382: 6307: 6267: 6211: 6099: 6041: 5991: 5935: 5879: 5831: 5767: 5711: 5690:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2015.02.002 5655: 5599: 5503: 5447: 5422:10.1016/j.earscirev.2021.103503 5354:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2020.103177 5255: 5196: 5074: 5026: 4970: 4932: 4895: 4834: 4748:10.1016/j.earscirev.2013.04.005 4646: 4590: 4534: 4486: 4455: 4377: 4318: 4270: 4225: 4188: 4073: 4020: 3939: 3915: 3789: 3667:10.18814/epiiugs/2000/v23i3/005 3631:10.18814/epiiugs/1997/v20i1/005 3451: 3370:to being primarily composed of 2981:(the broader grouping to which 1258:, causing both the rise of the 1163:South American Land Mammal Ages 1126:North American Land Mammal Ages 968: 8954:10.1016/j.revpalbo.2021.104569 8911:Fossil Snakes of North America 8756:Yirka, Bob (August 15, 2012). 8709:"The last African metatherian" 8567:"The Patagonian fossil mammal 8453:Matsumoto R, Evans SE (2010). 3733:Todhunter, Isaac, ed. (1876). 3714: 3707:Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary 3694: 3674: 3638: 3580: 2395: 1316:continued to collide with the 1226:Japan during the Early Miocene 826:Period and extends from about 464: 13: 1: 9989:Pleistocene (11.7 ka–2.58 Ma) 4625:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2017.01.008 4084:. Cambridge, United Kingdom: 3493: 3419:Antarctic Circumpolar Current 3372:sulphate-reducing prokaryotes 3357: 3224:, which inhabited modern age 3131:) from the collection of the 3009:Approximately 100 species of 9791:Human Timeline (Interactive) 9537:10.1371/journal.pone.0084857 9337:10.1016/j.jsames.2018.12.026 8820:10.1016/j.quaint.2013.12.003 8584:(2): 261–306. Archived from 8425:10.1016/j.palaeo.2010.01.039 7997:10.1016/j.biocon.2007.05.009 7183:10.1016/j.palwor.2015.11.002 7054:10.1126/science.264.5161.952 6939:10.1016/j.palaeo.2019.109339 6883:10.1016/j.palaeo.2018.10.008 6827:10.1016/j.palaeo.2004.07.024 6758:Geophysical Research Letters 6643:10.1016/0031-0182(94)90251-8 6190:10.1016/j.palaeo.2019.02.019 6134:10.1016/j.palaeo.2007.03.039 5781:Geophysical Research Letters 5613:Geophysical Research Letters 5586:10.1016/j.palaeo.2017.04.024 5538:10.1016/j.palaeo.2003.11.014 5262:You, Y. (17 February 2010). 4818:10.1016/j.jsames.2014.06.008 4681:10.1016/j.margeo.2022.106794 4284:Geophysical Research Letters 4256:10.1016/j.palaeo.2018.10.008 4167:10.1016/j.palaeo.2020.109907 3529:10.1016/0012-821X(96)00109-4 2775:Both marine and continental 1722:across broad sweeps of open 1566:(MMCT). Abrupt increases in 1531:anthropogenic global warming 1497: 965:in the northern hemisphere. 7: 9952:Geological history of Earth 8018:Retallack, Gregory (2001). 5669:Global and Planetary Change 5333:Global and Planetary Change 5002:10.1016/j.tecto.2018.06.011 3776:Online Etymology Dictionary 3471: 3389:Artistic impression of two 3052:chimpanzee–human divergence 2922:Unequivocally-recognizable 2842:, and hornless rhinos like 2732: 1954: 1340:and drying it as a result. 977:Subdivisions of the Miocene 511: 250: 40:23.03 ± 0.3 – 5.333 ± 0.08 10: 10623: 10225:Mississippian (323–359 Ma) 10220:Pennsylvanian (299–323 Ma) 9984:Holocene (present–11.7 ka) 9480:10.1038/s43247-021-00170-2 9384:10.1038/s41598-018-36795-1 9051:10.1038/s41598-023-31034-8 8635:10.1016/j.crpv.2012.01.004 8460:Journal of Iberian Geology 8372:Steven M. Stanley (1999). 8269:10.1016/j.epsl.2022.117457 7921:10.1038/s41586-023-05712-6 7872:10.1007/s12542-022-00623-9 7768:10.1038/s41467-021-27054-5 7708:10.1038/s41467-020-18733-w 7612:10.1016/j.epsl.2017.07.038 7578:10.1016/j.epsl.2017.08.034 7295:10.1038/s41561-022-00982-7 6995:10.1038/s41598-022-15441-x 6577:10.1038/s41598-020-64119-9 5970:10.1038/s43247-023-00684-x 5866:10.1016/j.epsl.2014.06.040 5231:10.1038/s41598-020-64743-5 4964:10.1016/j.epsl.2012.12.036 4569:10.1038/s43247-023-00899-y 4404:10.1038/s41598-020-70652-4 4353:10.1038/s41598-019-45308-7 4086:Cambridge University Press 3731:dated 31 January 1831 in: 3464:(52 km diameter), in 3432: 1591:obliquity modulation cycle 1545:and enhanced by decreased 1506: 1463:. As the southern part of 1440:that formed channels in a 1307: 852: 838: 618:Base of magnetic polarity 10537: 10522: 10509:Paleoarchean (3.2–3.6 Ga) 10486: 10446: 10415: 10384: 10371: 10359:Terreneuvian (521–539 Ma) 10331: 10300: 10264: 10233: 10207: 10176: 10163: 10128: 10097: 10071: 10058: 10023: 9997: 9971: 9958: 9842: 9280:10.1017/S147720190600188X 5290:10.1080/08120090903521671 3687:Dictionary.com Unabridged 3542:Retallack, G. J. (1997). 3435:Middle Miocene disruption 3429:Middle Miocene disruption 3406:Deep Sea Drilling Program 3380: 3175:. Prominent examples are 3109:Miocene fossils from the 2905:and bunodont otters like 1737:in sediments, produced a 1692:, fibrous, fire-tolerant 1374:Messinian salinity crisis 1089:European Land Mammal Ages 1058: 1033: 1005: 894:Messinian salinity crisis 755: 704: 697:Upper boundary definition 696: 688: 642: 613:Lower boundary definition 612: 604: 594: 584: 579: 571: 559: 549: 544: 536: 531: 477:Messinian salinity crisis 128: 123: 111: 37: 32: 10504:Mesoarchean (2.8–3.2 Ga) 10349:Miaolingian (497–509 Ma) 10194:Guadalupian (260–272 Ma) 10046:Paleocene (56.0–66.0 Ma) 10036:Oligocene (23.0–33.9 Ma) 9765:". Retrieved 2006-04-30. 8909:Holman, J. Alan (2000). 8811:Quaternary International 4452:, p. 259, 267, 287. 4450:Torsvik & Cocks 2017 4124:Torsvik & Cocks 2017 4112:Torsvik & Cocks 2017 3799:Principles of Geology, … 3751:Principles of Geology, … 3488:Category:Miocene animals 3241:The youngest members of 3128:Tumidocarcinus giganteus 3115:Calvert County, Maryland 1847: 1797: 1667: 1624:sea surface temperatures 1238:Continents continued to 829:23.03 to 5.333 708:Heraclea Minoa section, 646:Lemme-Carrosio Section, 634:Paragloborotalia kugleri 630:Planktonic foraminiferan 133: 10499:Neoarchean (2.5–2.8 Ga) 10464:Orosirian (1.8–2.05 Ga) 10459:Statherian (1.6–1.8 Ga) 10402:Cryogenian (635–720 Ma) 10292:Llandovery (433–444 Ma) 10199:Cisuralian (272–299 Ma) 10010:Pliocene (2.59–5.33 Ma) 8525:10.1073/pnas.1212997109 8329:10.1126/science.1214649 8261:2022E&PSL.58417457D 8161:10.1073/pnas.0708588105 7976:Biological Conservation 7569:2017E&PSL.479...18M 7410:10.1073/pnas.2214655120 6345:10.1126/science.1100061 5858:2014E&PSL.403..254A 5620:(21): 11, 941–11, 948. 4956:2013E&PSL.364..157G 4926:10.1029/jb091ib01p00471 4844:Journal of Paleontology 3796:Lyell, Charles (1833). 3748:Lyell, Charles (1833). 3739:. Vol. 2. London: 3521:1996E&PSL.142..367K 3234:also thrived alongside 3038:, and an early form of 2719:P a r a n t h r o p u s 2578:Dispersal beyond Africa 1639: 1572:sea surface temperature 955:geology of the Himalaya 10469:Rhyacian (2.05–2.3 Ga) 10438:Calymmian (1.4–1.6 Ga) 10397:Ediacaran (539–635 Ma) 10344:Furongian (485–497 Ma) 10189:Lopingian (252–260 Ma) 10015:Miocene (5.33–23.0 Ma) 9776:PBS Deep Time: Miocene 9095:Carcharodon carcharias 8860:10.1098/rspb.2010.0523 8615:Comptes Rendus Palevol 8101:10.1098/rstb.2005.1737 8028:The Journal of Geology 6077:10.5194/cp-10-523-2014 5158:10.1126/sciadv.1602567 3401: 3293:Megapiranha paranensis 3135: 3118: 2772: 2759: 1850:−10 — 1739:carbon and water vapor 1681: 1585: 1543:Columbia River Basalts 1515: 1438:epicontinental seaways 1235: 1227: 978: 206:−10 — 196:−12 — 186:−14 — 176:−16 — 166:−18 — 156:−20 — 146:−22 — 136:−24 — 10607:Neogene geochronology 10474:Siderian (2.3–2.5 Ga) 10433:Ectasian (1.2–1.4 Ga) 10354:Series 2 (509–521 Ma) 10041:Eocene (33.9–56.0 Ma) 9649:Earth-Science Reviews 7747:Nature Communications 7687:Nature Communications 6027:10.5194/cp-6-675-2010 5401:Earth-Science Reviews 4727:Earth-Science Reviews 4048:10.1093/sysbio/syy006 3588:"ICS Timescale Chart" 3388: 3124: 3108: 2765: 2749: 1940:−1 — 1930:−2 — 1920:−3 — 1910:−4 — 1900:−5 — 1890:−6 — 1880:−7 — 1870:−8 — 1860:−9 — 1675: 1583:Rattlesnake Formation 1580: 1514: 1473:asthenospheric window 1457:Chile Triple Junction 1298:tropical rain forests 1233: 1225: 976: 246:−2 — 236:−4 — 226:−6 — 216:−8 — 10514:Eoarchean (3.6–4 Ga) 10407:Tonian (720 Ma–1 Ga) 10287:Wenlock (427–433 Ma) 10277:Pridoli (419–423 Ma) 8814:. 326–327: 431–447. 8374:Earth System History 7835:10.1029/2011JD016237 7652:10.1029/1999PA000487 7473:10.1029/2022JB024131 7361:10.1029/2020PA003925 6779:10.1029/2021GL097008 6723:10.1002/2013PA002538 6683:10.1029/2007PA001552 6315:Shevenell, Amelia E. 6294:10.1002/2016PA002988 5802:10.1029/2008GL036571 5746:10.1002/2014PA002653 5634:10.1029/2018GL079930 5482:10.1029/2018PA003420 4297:10.1029/2020GL090623 3900:10.1029/2020PA004037 3885:(4): e2020PA004037. 3845:10.1029/2021PA004358 3830:(2): e2021PA004358. 3595:www.stratigraphy.org 3483:List of fossil sites 3364:Fennoscandian Shield 3352:Saint Bathans Mammal 2766:Life restoration of 2750:Cameloid footprint ( 2534:Earliest stone tools 1560:orbital eccentricity 1442:dissected topography 1434:La Cascada Formation 1422:marine transgression 1300:in that region, and 867:marine invertebrates 815:-ə-seen, -⁠oh- 10569: • 10558: • 10556:Geologic time scale 10318:Middle (458–470 Ma) 10282:Ludlow (423–427 Ma) 10251:Middle (383–393 Ma) 10146:Middle (237–247 Ma) 10115:Middle (164–174 Ma) 9732:1993LPI....24..591G 9704:2011AGUFM.P31A1701B 9662:2022ESRv..23404228E 9588:1983Natur.306..250M 9528:2014PLoSO...984857L 9439:1994IsArc...3..329B 9376:2019NatSR...9..514W 9329:2019JSAES..90..392C 9272:2006JSPal...4..221A 9216:10.1038/nature09067 9208:2010Natur.466..105L 9151:2004JVPal..24..453D 9043:2023NatSR..13.4015P 8854:(1697): 3105–3112. 8785:on October 30, 2013 8726:10.3897/fr.25.80706 8677:10.1017/pab.2017.34 8668:2018Pbio...44..171B 8627:2012CRPal..11..371F 8516:2012PNAS..10920053R 8510:(49): 20053–20058. 8473:2010JIbG...36..253M 8417:2011PPP...304..219F 8321:2011Sci...334..766R 8213:2005EcolL...8..683K 8152:2008PNAS..105..449K 8041:2001JG....109..407R 7989:2007BCons.138..430A 7913:2023Natur.614..708F 7827:2011JGRD..11624114H 7760:2021NatCo..12.6935A 7700:2020NatCo..11.5013D 7521:2016NatGe...9..843H 7465:2022JGRB..12724131Q 7353:2020PaPa...35.3925T 7287:2022NatGe..15..664B 7223:2002Pbio...28..399J 7142:1985Geo....13..542F 7046:1994Sci...264..952L 6987:2022NatSR..1211396M 6931:2020PPP...53809339L 6875:2019PPP...514..292M 6771:2022GeoRL..4997008Z 6635:1994PPP...108..537F 6569:2020NatSR..10.7141M 6521:1991PalOc...6..755W 6465:2018Geo....46..519S 6409:2014Geo....42...19H 6337:2004Sci...305.1766S 6331:(5691): 1766–1770. 6238:2009Geo....37..955W 6182:2019PPP...525...25L 6126:2007PPP...253..169K 6068:2014CliPa..10..523G 6055:Climate of the Past 6018:2010CliPa...6..675H 6005:Climate of the Past 5962:2023ComEE...4...21G 5906:2015Geo....43..123H 5794:2009GeoRL..36.4702Y 5738:2014PalOc..29..845G 5682:2015GPC...128...31Z 5626:2018GeoRL..4511941Z 5578:2017PPP...481...14G 5530:2004PPP...205...43R 5474:2019PaPa...34..316G 5414:2021ESRv..21503503S 5346:2020GPC...18903177R 5282:2010AuJES..57..207Y 5223:2020NatSR..10.7989M 5150:2017SciA....3E2567G 5101:2012Geo....40E.273T 5053:2011Geo....39....3H 4994:2018Tectp.744..134F 4918:1986JGR....91..471C 4810:2014JSAES..55....1E 4740:2013ESRv..123...87R 4673:2022MGeol.44706794M 4617:2017ChGeo.451...38L 4561:2023ComEE...4..231L 4345:2019NatSR...9.8842B 4248:2019PPP...514..292M 4211:2010Geo....38..543W 4159:2020PPP...55709907J 3962:2001Natur.411...62Z 3891:2021PaPa...36.4037S 3836:2022PaPa...37.4358G 3478:Geologic time scale 3316:Saint Bathans Fauna 1620:Antarctic ice sheet 1366:uplift of mountains 1328:, resulting in the 921:ancestors of humans 898:Strait of Gibraltar 756:Upper GSSP ratified 740:37.3917°N 13.2806°E 736: / 705:Upper boundary GSSP 689:Lower GSSP ratified 669: / 643:Lower boundary GSSP 605:Time span formality 10567:Geology portal 10428:Stenian (1–1.2 Ga) 10323:Early (470–485 Ma) 10256:Early (393–419 Ma) 10151:Early (247–252 Ma) 10120:Early (174–201 Ma) 10089:Early (100–145 Ma) 10084:Late (66.0–100 Ma) 9761:Ogg, Jim (2004): " 9364:Scientific Reports 9099:. Academic Press. 9030:Scientific Reports 8995:10.1111/ecog.06463 7403:(5): e2214655120. 6974:Scientific Reports 6556:Scientific Reports 5210:Scientific Reports 4391:Scientific Reports 4332:Scientific Reports 4114:, p. 261-264. 4034:Systematic Biology 3710:. Merriam-Webster. 3402: 3350:and the enigmatic 3228:. A strange form, 3136: 3119: 2881:high-crowned teeth 2832:borophagine canids 2773: 2760: 2335:H. heidelbergensis 1743:evapotranspiration 1711:. Herds of large, 1705:high-crowned teeth 1682: 1586: 1516: 1461:Strait of Magellan 1420:were subject to a 1414:south-central Peru 1324:and uplifting the 1236: 1228: 979: 673:44.6589°N 8.8364°E 595:Stratigraphic unit 585:Chronological unit 572:Time scale(s) used 10602:Geological epochs 10584: 10583: 10482: 10481: 10448:Paleoproterozoic 10367: 10366: 10313:Late (444–458 Ma) 10246:Late (359–383 Ma) 10159: 10158: 10141:Late (201–237 Ma) 10110:Late (145–164 Ma) 10054: 10053: 9975:(present–2.58 Ma) 9963:(present–66.0 Ma) 9918: 9917: 9913: 9912: 9582:(5940): 250–253. 9202:(7302): 105–108. 8315:(6057): 766–767. 8095:(1465): 173–194. 7907:(7949): 708–712. 7508:Nature Geoscience 7274:Nature Geoscience 7040:(5161): 952–955. 6529:10.1029/91PA02561 6246:10.1130/G30139A.1 5110:10.1130/G32600C.1 4095:978-1-107-10532-4 3769:Harper, Douglas. 3741:Macmillan and Co. 3200:Hemipristis serra 3111:Calvert Formation 2840:three-toed horses 2756:Barstow Formation 2744: 2743: 2736:million years ago 2695: 2694: 2673: 2672: 2651: 2650: 2643:Earliest rock art 2629: 2628: 2605: 2604: 2598:Earliest language 2585: 2584: 2565: 2564: 2541: 2540: 2521: 2520: 2511:Earliest sign of 2498: 2497: 2488:Earliest sign of 2475: 2474: 2455: 2454: 2435: 2434: 2415: 2414: 2058:Ou. macedoniensis 1733:, with long-term 1678:dragon blood tree 1612:Great Rift Valley 1551:Climate modelling 1492:Patagonian Desert 1477:mantle convection 1213:(21.0 to 17.5 Ma) 1207:(17.5 to 16.3 Ma) 1201:(16.3 to 15.5 Ma) 1195:(15.5 to 13.8 Ma) 1189:(13.8 to 11.8 Ma) 1158:(30.6 to 20.6 Ma) 1152:(20.6 to 16.3 Ma) 1146:(16.3 to 13.6 Ma) 1140:(13.6 to 10.3 Ma) 1121:(23.8 to 20.0 Ma) 1115:(20.0 to 16.0 Ma) 1109:(16.0 to 11.6 Ma) 1083: 1082: 831:million years ago 763: 762: 714:Cattolica Eraclea 545:Usage information 526: 525: 506: 505: 484: 483: 16:(Redirected from 10614: 10578:World portal 10576: 10575: 10565: 10564: 10527: 10491: 10451: 10420: 10417:Mesoproterozoic 10389: 10382: 10381: 10377: 10336: 10305: 10269: 10238: 10212: 10181: 10174: 10173: 10169: 10133: 10102: 10076: 10069: 10068: 10064: 10028: 10002: 9976: 9969: 9968: 9964: 9945: 9938: 9931: 9922: 9921: 9845: 9844: 9829: 9822: 9815: 9806: 9805: 9736: 9735: 9725: 9714: 9708: 9707: 9687: 9681: 9680: 9678: 9676: 9639: 9633: 9632: 9614: 9608: 9607: 9596:10.1038/306250a0 9569: 9560: 9559: 9549: 9539: 9505: 9499: 9498: 9496: 9494: 9457: 9451: 9450: 9420: 9414: 9413: 9403: 9355: 9349: 9348: 9308: 9299: 9298: 9296: 9290:. Archived from 9255: 9242: 9236: 9235: 9188: 9179: 9178: 9128: 9122: 9121: 9119: 9118: 9109:. Archived from 9087: 9081: 9080: 9070: 9020: 9014: 9013: 9011: 9009: 8971: 8965: 8964: 8962: 8960: 8931: 8925: 8924: 8906: 8897: 8896: 8894: 8892: 8879: 8837: 8831: 8830: 8828: 8826: 8801: 8795: 8794: 8792: 8790: 8784: 8777: 8768: 8762: 8761: 8753: 8747: 8746: 8728: 8704: 8698: 8697: 8679: 8645: 8639: 8638: 8606: 8600: 8599: 8597: 8596: 8590: 8575: 8562: 8556: 8555: 8545: 8527: 8493: 8487: 8486: 8484: 8450: 8444: 8443: 8441: 8439: 8394: 8388: 8387: 8369: 8363: 8362: 8355: 8349: 8348: 8302: 8296: 8295: 8293: 8291: 8238: 8232: 8231: 8229: 8227: 8190: 8184: 8183: 8173: 8163: 8129: 8123: 8122: 8112: 8074: 8068: 8067: 8065: 8059:. Archived from 8024: 8015: 8009: 8008: 7983:(3–4): 430–439. 7969: 7963: 7962: 7956: 7948: 7946: 7944: 7890: 7884: 7883: 7852: 7846: 7845: 7843: 7841: 7804: 7798: 7797: 7787: 7736: 7730: 7729: 7719: 7677: 7671: 7670: 7668: 7666: 7629: 7623: 7622: 7620: 7618: 7589: 7583: 7582: 7580: 7546: 7540: 7539: 7537: 7535: 7529:10.1038/ngeo2813 7498: 7492: 7491: 7489: 7487: 7442: 7433: 7432: 7422: 7412: 7386: 7380: 7379: 7377: 7375: 7330: 7324: 7323: 7321: 7319: 7306: 7264: 7258: 7257: 7255: 7253: 7200: 7194: 7193: 7191: 7189: 7160: 7154: 7153: 7123: 7117: 7116: 7106: 7080: 7074: 7073: 7023: 7017: 7016: 7006: 6964: 6958: 6957: 6955: 6953: 6908: 6902: 6901: 6899: 6897: 6852: 6846: 6845: 6843: 6841: 6804: 6798: 6797: 6795: 6793: 6748: 6742: 6741: 6739: 6737: 6700: 6694: 6693: 6691: 6689: 6660: 6654: 6653: 6651: 6649: 6629:(3–4): 537–555. 6612: 6606: 6605: 6603: 6601: 6588: 6546: 6540: 6539: 6537: 6535: 6498: 6492: 6491: 6489: 6487: 6473:10.1130/G40228.1 6442: 6436: 6435: 6433: 6431: 6417:10.1130/G34890.1 6386: 6380: 6379: 6377: 6375: 6311: 6305: 6304: 6302: 6300: 6288:(9): 1176–1192. 6271: 6265: 6264: 6262: 6260: 6215: 6209: 6208: 6206: 6204: 6159: 6153: 6152: 6150: 6148: 6103: 6097: 6096: 6094: 6092: 6079: 6045: 6039: 6038: 6036: 6034: 6029: 5995: 5989: 5988: 5986: 5984: 5939: 5933: 5932: 5930: 5928: 5914:10.1130/G36317.1 5883: 5877: 5876: 5874: 5872: 5835: 5829: 5828: 5826: 5824: 5771: 5765: 5764: 5762: 5760: 5715: 5709: 5708: 5706: 5704: 5659: 5653: 5652: 5650: 5648: 5603: 5597: 5596: 5594: 5592: 5555: 5549: 5548: 5546: 5544: 5507: 5501: 5500: 5498: 5496: 5451: 5445: 5441: 5397: 5388: 5373: 5372: 5370: 5368: 5323: 5317: 5316: 5314: 5312: 5259: 5253: 5252: 5242: 5200: 5194: 5193: 5187: 5179: 5169: 5137:Science Advances 5126: 5115: 5114: 5112: 5078: 5072: 5071: 5069: 5067: 5061:10.1130/G31208.1 5030: 5024: 5023: 5013: 4974: 4968: 4967: 4936: 4930: 4929: 4899: 4893: 4892: 4878: 4869: 4868: 4838: 4832: 4831: 4829: 4790: 4781: 4780: 4770: 4761: 4752: 4751: 4717: 4708: 4707: 4705: 4703: 4650: 4644: 4643: 4641: 4639: 4604:Chemical Geology 4594: 4588: 4587: 4585: 4583: 4538: 4532: 4531: 4529: 4527: 4513:10.1130/G45698.1 4490: 4484: 4483: 4481: 4479: 4459: 4453: 4447: 4441: 4440: 4438: 4436: 4423: 4381: 4375: 4374: 4364: 4322: 4316: 4315: 4313: 4311: 4274: 4268: 4267: 4229: 4223: 4222: 4219:10.1130/G31022.1 4192: 4186: 4185: 4183: 4181: 4136: 4127: 4121: 4115: 4109: 4100: 4099: 4077: 4071: 4070: 4060: 4050: 4024: 4018: 4017: 4015: 4013: 4004: 3996: 3990: 3989: 3970:10.1038/35075035 3943: 3937: 3936: 3934: 3933: 3919: 3913: 3912: 3902: 3867: 3858: 3857: 3847: 3813: 3804: 3803: 3793: 3787: 3786: 3784: 3783: 3766: 3760: 3755: 3744: 3718: 3712: 3711: 3698: 3692: 3691: 3678: 3672: 3671: 3669: 3651: 3642: 3636: 3635: 3633: 3615: 3605: 3599: 3598: 3592: 3584: 3578: 3577: 3575: 3574: 3539: 3533: 3532: 3515:(3–4): 367–380. 3503: 3398:Otodus megalodon 3125:A Miocene crab ( 2992:the peradectids 2988:Amphiperatherium 2724: 2722: 2721: 2707: 2705: 2689: 2680: 2675: 2667: 2665:Earliest clothes 2658: 2653: 2645: 2636: 2631: 2612: 2607: 2592: 2587: 2572: 2567: 2554:Earliest sign of 2548: 2543: 2528: 2523: 2513:Australopithecus 2505: 2500: 2482: 2477: 2468:Earliest bipedal 2462: 2457: 2448:Chimpanzee split 2442: 2437: 2422: 2417: 2402: 2397: 2383: 2382: 2368: 2367: 2351: 2337: 2323: 2295: 2282: 2262: 2249: 2221: 2219:Australopithecus 2208: 2193: 2176: 2163: 2139: 2126: 2113: 2100: 2087: 2074: 2062: 2043: 2030: 2017: 2005: 1991: 1978: 1965: 1963: 1951: 1946: 1941: 1936: 1931: 1926: 1921: 1916: 1911: 1906: 1901: 1896: 1891: 1886: 1881: 1876: 1871: 1866: 1861: 1856: 1851: 1839: 1832: 1825: 1819: 1809: 1808:Hominin timeline 1802: 1735:burial of carbon 1696:and long-legged 1482:As the southern 1183:(11.8 to 9.0 Ma) 1134:(10.3 to 4.9 Ma) 1103:(11.6 to 9.0 Ma) 992: 991: 863: 856: 849: 842: 832: 820:geological epoch 814: 809: 808: 805: 804: 799: 798: 795: 792: 789: 786: 783: 780: 777: 751: 750: 748: 747: 746: 745:37.3917; 13.2806 741: 737: 734: 733: 732: 729: 684: 683: 681: 680: 679: 674: 670: 667: 666: 665: 662: 501: 491: 486: 479: 471: 466: 440: 431: 422: 413: 404: 395: 386: 377: 361: 346: 309: 284: 273: 247: 242: 237: 232: 227: 222: 217: 212: 207: 202: 197: 192: 187: 182: 177: 172: 167: 162: 157: 152: 147: 142: 137: 131: 116: 107: 44: 30: 29: 21: 10622: 10621: 10617: 10616: 10615: 10613: 10612: 10611: 10587: 10586: 10585: 10580: 10570: 10559: 10551: 10533: 10525: 10518: 10489: 10478: 10449: 10442: 10418: 10411: 10387: 10386:Neoproterozoic 10376:(539 Ma–2.5 Ga) 10375: 10374: 10373:Proterozoic Eon 10363: 10334: 10327: 10303: 10296: 10267: 10260: 10236: 10229: 10210: 10203: 10179: 10167: 10166: 10155: 10131: 10124: 10100: 10093: 10074: 10062: 10061: 10050: 10026: 10019: 10000: 9993: 9974: 9962: 9961: 9954: 9949: 9919: 9914: 9909: 9893: 9838: 9833: 9772: 9744: 9742:Further reading 9739: 9723: 9715: 9711: 9688: 9684: 9674: 9672: 9640: 9636: 9615: 9611: 9570: 9563: 9506: 9502: 9492: 9490: 9458: 9454: 9421: 9417: 9356: 9352: 9309: 9302: 9294: 9253: 9243: 9239: 9189: 9182: 9129: 9125: 9116: 9114: 9107: 9088: 9084: 9021: 9017: 9007: 9005: 8972: 8968: 8958: 8956: 8932: 8928: 8921: 8907: 8900: 8890: 8888: 8838: 8834: 8824: 8822: 8802: 8798: 8788: 8786: 8782: 8775: 8769: 8765: 8754: 8750: 8705: 8701: 8646: 8642: 8607: 8603: 8594: 8592: 8588: 8580:. Nueva Serie. 8573: 8563: 8559: 8494: 8490: 8451: 8447: 8437: 8435: 8395: 8391: 8384: 8370: 8366: 8357: 8356: 8352: 8303: 8299: 8289: 8287: 8239: 8235: 8225: 8223: 8200:Ecology Letters 8191: 8187: 8130: 8126: 8077:Osborne, C.P.; 8075: 8071: 8063: 8022: 8016: 8012: 7970: 7966: 7950: 7949: 7942: 7940: 7891: 7887: 7853: 7849: 7839: 7837: 7805: 7801: 7737: 7733: 7678: 7674: 7664: 7662: 7630: 7626: 7616: 7614: 7590: 7586: 7547: 7543: 7533: 7531: 7515:(11): 843–847. 7499: 7495: 7485: 7483: 7443: 7436: 7387: 7383: 7373: 7371: 7331: 7327: 7317: 7315: 7265: 7261: 7251: 7249: 7201: 7197: 7187: 7185: 7161: 7157: 7124: 7120: 7081: 7077: 7024: 7020: 6965: 6961: 6951: 6949: 6909: 6905: 6895: 6893: 6853: 6849: 6839: 6837: 6805: 6801: 6791: 6789: 6749: 6745: 6735: 6733: 6701: 6697: 6687: 6685: 6661: 6657: 6647: 6645: 6613: 6609: 6599: 6597: 6547: 6543: 6533: 6531: 6499: 6495: 6485: 6483: 6443: 6439: 6429: 6427: 6387: 6383: 6373: 6371: 6312: 6308: 6298: 6296: 6272: 6268: 6258: 6256: 6232:(10): 955–958. 6216: 6212: 6202: 6200: 6160: 6156: 6146: 6144: 6104: 6100: 6090: 6088: 6046: 6042: 6032: 6030: 5996: 5992: 5982: 5980: 5940: 5936: 5926: 5924: 5884: 5880: 5870: 5868: 5836: 5832: 5822: 5820: 5772: 5768: 5758: 5756: 5716: 5712: 5702: 5700: 5660: 5656: 5646: 5644: 5604: 5600: 5590: 5588: 5556: 5552: 5542: 5540: 5508: 5504: 5494: 5492: 5452: 5448: 5395: 5389: 5376: 5366: 5364: 5324: 5320: 5310: 5308: 5260: 5256: 5201: 5197: 5181: 5180: 5144:(5): e1602567. 5127: 5118: 5079: 5075: 5065: 5063: 5031: 5027: 4975: 4971: 4937: 4933: 4912:(B1): 471–496. 4900: 4896: 4879: 4872: 4839: 4835: 4791: 4784: 4768: 4762: 4755: 4718: 4711: 4701: 4699: 4651: 4647: 4637: 4635: 4595: 4591: 4581: 4579: 4539: 4535: 4525: 4523: 4491: 4487: 4477: 4475: 4460: 4456: 4448: 4444: 4434: 4432: 4382: 4378: 4323: 4319: 4309: 4307: 4275: 4271: 4230: 4226: 4193: 4189: 4179: 4177: 4137: 4130: 4122: 4118: 4110: 4103: 4096: 4088:. p. 264. 4078: 4074: 4025: 4021: 4011: 4009: 4002: 3998: 3997: 3993: 3956:(6833): 62–66. 3944: 3940: 3931: 3929: 3921: 3920: 3916: 3868: 3861: 3814: 3807: 3794: 3790: 3781: 3779: 3767: 3763: 3725:William Whewell 3719: 3715: 3700: 3699: 3695: 3680: 3679: 3675: 3649: 3643: 3639: 3613: 3606: 3602: 3590: 3586: 3585: 3581: 3572: 3570: 3560:10.2307/3515337 3540: 3536: 3504: 3500: 3496: 3474: 3454: 3437: 3431: 3423:Middle Pliocene 3383: 3360: 3247:crocodyliformes 3195:Isurus hastalis 3138:In the oceans, 2995:Siamoperadectes 2952:Middle Jurassic 2877: 2752:Lamaichnum alfi 2740: 2739: 2727: 2726: 2725: 2717: 2716: 2714: 2710: 2709: 2708: 2703:H o m i n i d s 2701: 2699: 2691: 2690: 2685: 2678: 2669: 2668: 2663: 2656: 2647: 2646: 2641: 2634: 2625: 2624: 2610: 2601: 2600: 2590: 2581: 2580: 2570: 2561: 2560: 2555: 2546: 2537: 2536: 2526: 2517: 2516: 2503: 2494: 2493: 2480: 2471: 2470: 2460: 2451: 2450: 2440: 2431: 2430: 2420: 2411: 2410: 2400: 2393: 2392: 2391: 2386: 2385: 2384: 2378: 2377: 2373: 2371: 2370: 2369: 2363: 2362: 2358: 2356: 2355: 2354: 2347: 2341: 2340: 2339: 2333: 2328: 2326: 2325: 2324: 2315: 2307: 2299: 2298: 2291: 2285: 2284: 2283: 2274: 2266: 2265: 2258: 2252: 2251: 2250: 2241: 2233: 2225: 2224: 2217: 2211: 2210: 2209: 2200: 2196: 2195: 2194: 2185: 2181: 2180: 2179: 2172: 2166: 2165: 2164: 2155: 2147: 2143: 2142: 2141: 2135: 2130: 2129: 2128: 2122: 2117: 2116: 2115: 2109: 2104: 2103: 2102: 2096: 2091: 2090: 2089: 2083: 2078: 2077: 2076: 2072:Chororapithecus 2070: 2065: 2064: 2063: 2054: 2046: 2045: 2039: 2034: 2033: 2032: 2028:Samburupithecus 2026: 2021: 2020: 2019: 2013: 2008: 2007: 2006: 1999: 1995: 1994: 1993: 1987: 1982: 1981: 1980: 1974: 1969: 1968: 1967: 1961: 1959: 1952: 1949: 1947: 1944: 1942: 1939: 1937: 1934: 1932: 1929: 1927: 1924: 1922: 1919: 1917: 1914: 1912: 1909: 1907: 1904: 1902: 1899: 1897: 1894: 1892: 1889: 1887: 1884: 1882: 1879: 1877: 1874: 1872: 1869: 1867: 1864: 1862: 1859: 1857: 1854: 1852: 1849: 1843: 1817: 1811: 1807: 1800: 1774: 1770: 1761: 1750: 1731:grassland soils 1718:were hunted by 1670: 1642: 1509: 1500: 1490:originated the 1449:Antarctic Plate 1426:central segment 1406: 1392:The modern day 1368:in the western 1326:Tibetan Plateau 1322:mountain ranges 1320:, creating new 1310: 1252:subduction zone 1220: 1177:(9.0 to 6.8 Ma) 1171:(6.8 to 4.0 Ma) 1097:(9.0 to 5.3 Ma) 1079:23.03–20.44 Ma 1069:20.44–15.97 Ma 1054:15.97–13.82 Ma 1044:13.82–11.63 Ma 1029:11.63–7.246 Ma 971: 963:glacial periods 827: 818:) is the first 812: 801: 774: 770: 744: 742: 738: 735: 730: 727: 725: 723: 722: 721: 678:44.6589; 8.8364 677: 675: 671: 668: 663: 660: 658: 656: 655: 654: 527: 522: 521: 519: 502: 496:North American 495: 489: 480: 475: 469: 462: 461: 457: 456: 452: 451: 447: 446: 442: 441: 436: 433: 432: 427: 424: 423: 418: 415: 414: 409: 406: 405: 400: 397: 396: 391: 388: 387: 382: 379: 378: 373: 370: 369: 363: 362: 358: 356: 354: 351: 348: 347: 343: 341: 339: 337: 335: 333: 330: 327: 326: 320: 319: 311: 310: 305: 303: 301: 299: 297: 295: 291: 288: 287: 282: 280: 275: 274: 269: 267: 265: 263: 261: 259: 257: 253: 248: 245: 243: 240: 238: 235: 233: 230: 228: 225: 223: 220: 218: 215: 213: 210: 208: 205: 203: 200: 198: 195: 193: 190: 188: 185: 183: 180: 178: 175: 173: 170: 168: 165: 163: 160: 158: 155: 153: 150: 148: 145: 143: 140: 138: 135: 119: 106: 105: 100: 95: 90: 85: 80: 75: 70: 65: 60: 55: 50: 39: 38: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 10620: 10610: 10609: 10604: 10599: 10582: 10581: 10538: 10535: 10534: 10531: 10529: 10520: 10519: 10517: 10516: 10511: 10506: 10501: 10495: 10493: 10484: 10483: 10480: 10479: 10477: 10476: 10471: 10466: 10461: 10455: 10453: 10444: 10443: 10441: 10440: 10435: 10430: 10424: 10422: 10413: 10412: 10410: 10409: 10404: 10399: 10393: 10391: 10379: 10369: 10368: 10365: 10364: 10362: 10361: 10356: 10351: 10346: 10340: 10338: 10329: 10328: 10326: 10325: 10320: 10315: 10309: 10307: 10298: 10297: 10295: 10294: 10289: 10284: 10279: 10273: 10271: 10262: 10261: 10259: 10258: 10253: 10248: 10242: 10240: 10231: 10230: 10228: 10227: 10222: 10216: 10214: 10209:Carboniferous 10205: 10204: 10202: 10201: 10196: 10191: 10185: 10183: 10171: 10161: 10160: 10157: 10156: 10154: 10153: 10148: 10143: 10137: 10135: 10126: 10125: 10123: 10122: 10117: 10112: 10106: 10104: 10095: 10094: 10092: 10091: 10086: 10080: 10078: 10066: 10056: 10055: 10052: 10051: 10049: 10048: 10043: 10038: 10032: 10030: 10027:(23.0–66.0 Ma) 10021: 10020: 10018: 10017: 10012: 10006: 10004: 10001:(2.58–23.0 Ma) 9995: 9994: 9992: 9991: 9986: 9980: 9978: 9966: 9956: 9955: 9948: 9947: 9940: 9933: 9925: 9916: 9915: 9911: 9910: 9908: 9907: 9902: 9896: 9894: 9892: 9891: 9886: 9881: 9876: 9871: 9866: 9860: 9857: 9856: 9854:Pliocene Epoch 9851: 9843: 9840: 9839: 9836:Neogene Period 9832: 9831: 9824: 9817: 9809: 9803: 9802: 9801:(August 2016). 9788: 9783: 9778: 9771: 9770:External links 9768: 9767: 9766: 9759: 9743: 9740: 9738: 9737: 9709: 9682: 9634: 9609: 9561: 9500: 9452: 9433:(4): 329–360. 9415: 9350: 9300: 9297:on 2012-03-29. 9266:(3): 221–232. 9237: 9180: 9145:(2): 453–463. 9123: 9105: 9082: 9015: 8966: 8926: 8919: 8898: 8832: 8796: 8771:Begun, David. 8763: 8748: 8719:(1): 173–186. 8699: 8662:(2): 171–198. 8640: 8621:(5): 371–377. 8601: 8557: 8488: 8467:(2): 253–274. 8445: 8411:(3): 219–229. 8389: 8382: 8364: 8350: 8297: 8233: 8207:(7): 683–690. 8185: 8124: 8079:Beerling, D.J. 8069: 8066:on 2013-05-06. 8049:10.1086/320791 8010: 7964: 7885: 7847: 7799: 7731: 7672: 7646:(2): 164–178. 7624: 7584: 7541: 7493: 7434: 7381: 7325: 7281:(8): 664–670. 7259: 7217:(3): 399–421. 7195: 7155: 7136:(8): 542–546. 7118: 7075: 7018: 6959: 6903: 6847: 6799: 6743: 6717:(4): 688–699. 6695: 6655: 6607: 6541: 6515:(6): 755–806. 6493: 6459:(6): 519–522. 6437: 6381: 6306: 6266: 6210: 6154: 6120:(1): 169–207. 6098: 6062:(2): 523–536. 6040: 6012:(5): 675–694. 5990: 5934: 5900:(2): 123–126. 5878: 5830: 5766: 5732:(9): 845–853. 5710: 5654: 5598: 5550: 5524:(1–2): 43–67. 5502: 5468:(3): 316–328. 5446: 5374: 5318: 5276:(2): 207–219. 5254: 5195: 5116: 5073: 5025: 4981:Tectonophysics 4969: 4931: 4894: 4870: 4833: 4782: 4753: 4709: 4660:Marine Geology 4645: 4589: 4533: 4485: 4454: 4442: 4376: 4317: 4269: 4224: 4205:(6): 543–546. 4187: 4128: 4126:, p. 267. 4116: 4101: 4094: 4072: 4041:(4): 681–699. 4019: 3991: 3938: 3914: 3859: 3805: 3788: 3761: 3759: 3758: 3745: 3713: 3693: 3690:(Online). n.d. 3673: 3660:(3): 179–187. 3637: 3600: 3579: 3554:(4): 380–390. 3534: 3497: 3495: 3492: 3491: 3490: 3485: 3480: 3473: 3470: 3462:Karakul crater 3453: 3450: 3433:Main article: 3430: 3427: 3414:Middle Miocene 3392:Eobalaenoptera 3382: 3379: 3359: 3356: 3336:sphenodontians 3288:South American 3269:. A ferocious 3190:O. chubutensis 3029:Sahelanthropus 3000:Sinoperadectes 2966:Meridiolestida 2924:dabbling ducks 2917:Eulipotyphlans 2875: 2742: 2741: 2733: 2729: 2728: 2713: 2712: 2711: 2698: 2697: 2696: 2693: 2692: 2684: 2683: 2681: 2671: 2670: 2662: 2661: 2659: 2649: 2648: 2640: 2639: 2637: 2627: 2626: 2616: 2615: 2613: 2603: 2602: 2596: 2595: 2593: 2583: 2582: 2576: 2575: 2573: 2563: 2562: 2552: 2551: 2549: 2539: 2538: 2532: 2531: 2529: 2519: 2518: 2509: 2508: 2506: 2496: 2495: 2486: 2485: 2483: 2473: 2472: 2466: 2465: 2463: 2453: 2452: 2446: 2445: 2443: 2433: 2432: 2426: 2425: 2423: 2413: 2412: 2406: 2405: 2403: 2394: 2389: 2388: 2387: 2376: 2375: 2374: 2372: 2361: 2360: 2359: 2357: 2344: 2343: 2342: 2331: 2330: 2329: 2327: 2288: 2287: 2286: 2270:H. rudolfensis 2255: 2254: 2253: 2214: 2213: 2212: 2199: 2198: 2197: 2184: 2183: 2182: 2169: 2168: 2167: 2146: 2145: 2144: 2133: 2132: 2131: 2124:Graecopithecus 2120: 2119: 2118: 2111:Sahelanthropus 2107: 2106: 2105: 2094: 2093: 2092: 2081: 2080: 2079: 2068: 2067: 2066: 2041:Ouranopithecus 2037: 2036: 2035: 2024: 2023: 2022: 2015:Nakalipithecus 2011: 2010: 2009: 1998: 1997: 1996: 1985: 1984: 1983: 1972: 1971: 1970: 1957: 1956: 1955: 1953: 1950:0 — 1948: 1943: 1938: 1933: 1928: 1923: 1918: 1913: 1908: 1903: 1898: 1893: 1888: 1883: 1878: 1873: 1868: 1863: 1858: 1853: 1848: 1845: 1844: 1842: 1841: 1834: 1827: 1816: 1813: 1812: 1805: 1799: 1796: 1772: 1768: 1759: 1754:carbon dioxide 1748: 1669: 1666: 1641: 1638: 1508: 1505: 1499: 1496: 1405: 1402: 1351:collided with 1330:rain shadowing 1318:Eurasian Plate 1309: 1306: 1219: 1218:Paleogeography 1216: 1215: 1214: 1208: 1202: 1196: 1190: 1184: 1178: 1172: 1160: 1159: 1153: 1147: 1141: 1135: 1123: 1122: 1116: 1110: 1104: 1098: 1081: 1080: 1077: 1071: 1070: 1067: 1062: 1056: 1055: 1052: 1046: 1045: 1042: 1037: 1035:Middle Miocene 1031: 1030: 1027: 1021: 1020: 1014: 1009: 1003: 1002: 999: 996: 970: 967: 902:Zanclean flood 851:, "less") and 761: 760: 757: 753: 752: 710:Heraclea Minoa 706: 702: 701: 698: 694: 693: 690: 686: 685: 644: 640: 639: 638: 637: 623: 614: 610: 609: 606: 602: 601: 596: 592: 591: 586: 582: 581: 577: 576: 575:ICS Time Scale 573: 569: 568: 561: 560:Regional usage 557: 556: 551: 550:Celestial body 547: 546: 542: 541: 538: 537:Name formality 534: 533: 529: 528: 524: 523: 508: 507: 504: 503: 494: 492: 482: 481: 474: 472: 463: 459: 458: 454: 453: 449: 448: 444: 443: 435: 434: 426: 425: 417: 416: 408: 407: 399: 398: 390: 389: 381: 380: 372: 371: 365: 364: 350: 349: 329: 328: 322: 321: 313: 312: 290: 289: 277: 276: 252: 251: 249: 244: 239: 234: 229: 224: 219: 214: 209: 204: 199: 194: 189: 184: 179: 174: 169: 164: 159: 154: 149: 144: 139: 134: 129: 126: 125: 121: 120: 117: 109: 108: 101: 96: 91: 86: 81: 76: 71: 66: 61: 56: 51: 46: 35: 34: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10619: 10608: 10605: 10603: 10600: 10598: 10595: 10594: 10592: 10579: 10574: 10568: 10563: 10557: 10554: 10549: 10545: 10541: 10536: 10530: 10528: 10521: 10515: 10512: 10510: 10507: 10505: 10502: 10500: 10497: 10496: 10494: 10492: 10485: 10475: 10472: 10470: 10467: 10465: 10462: 10460: 10457: 10456: 10454: 10452: 10445: 10439: 10436: 10434: 10431: 10429: 10426: 10425: 10423: 10421: 10414: 10408: 10405: 10403: 10400: 10398: 10395: 10394: 10392: 10390: 10388:(539 Ma–1 Ga) 10383: 10380: 10378: 10370: 10360: 10357: 10355: 10352: 10350: 10347: 10345: 10342: 10341: 10339: 10337: 10330: 10324: 10321: 10319: 10316: 10314: 10311: 10310: 10308: 10306: 10299: 10293: 10290: 10288: 10285: 10283: 10280: 10278: 10275: 10274: 10272: 10270: 10263: 10257: 10254: 10252: 10249: 10247: 10244: 10243: 10241: 10239: 10232: 10226: 10223: 10221: 10218: 10217: 10215: 10213: 10206: 10200: 10197: 10195: 10192: 10190: 10187: 10186: 10184: 10182: 10175: 10172: 10170: 10165:Paleozoic Era 10162: 10152: 10149: 10147: 10144: 10142: 10139: 10138: 10136: 10134: 10127: 10121: 10118: 10116: 10113: 10111: 10108: 10107: 10105: 10103: 10096: 10090: 10087: 10085: 10082: 10081: 10079: 10077: 10075:(66.0–145 Ma) 10070: 10067: 10065: 10063:(66.0–252 Ma) 10057: 10047: 10044: 10042: 10039: 10037: 10034: 10033: 10031: 10029: 10022: 10016: 10013: 10011: 10008: 10007: 10005: 10003: 9996: 9990: 9987: 9985: 9982: 9981: 9979: 9977: 9970: 9967: 9965: 9957: 9953: 9946: 9941: 9939: 9934: 9932: 9927: 9926: 9923: 9906: 9903: 9901: 9898: 9897: 9895: 9890: 9887: 9885: 9882: 9880: 9877: 9875: 9872: 9870: 9867: 9865: 9862: 9861: 9859: 9858: 9855: 9852: 9850: 9849:Miocene Epoch 9847: 9846: 9841: 9837: 9830: 9825: 9823: 9818: 9816: 9811: 9810: 9807: 9800: 9796: 9792: 9789: 9787: 9784: 9782: 9779: 9777: 9774: 9773: 9764: 9760: 9758: 9757:0-632-02967-6 9754: 9750: 9746: 9745: 9733: 9729: 9722: 9721: 9713: 9705: 9701: 9698:: P31A–1701. 9697: 9693: 9686: 9671: 9667: 9663: 9659: 9655: 9651: 9650: 9645: 9638: 9630: 9626: 9622: 9621: 9613: 9605: 9601: 9597: 9593: 9589: 9585: 9581: 9577: 9576: 9568: 9566: 9557: 9553: 9548: 9543: 9538: 9533: 9529: 9525: 9522:(1): e84857. 9521: 9517: 9516: 9511: 9504: 9489: 9485: 9481: 9477: 9473: 9469: 9468: 9463: 9456: 9448: 9444: 9440: 9436: 9432: 9428: 9427: 9419: 9411: 9407: 9402: 9397: 9393: 9389: 9385: 9381: 9377: 9373: 9369: 9365: 9361: 9354: 9346: 9342: 9338: 9334: 9330: 9326: 9322: 9318: 9314: 9307: 9305: 9293: 9289: 9285: 9281: 9277: 9273: 9269: 9265: 9261: 9260: 9252: 9250: 9247:"A new giant 9241: 9233: 9229: 9225: 9221: 9217: 9213: 9209: 9205: 9201: 9197: 9196: 9187: 9185: 9176: 9172: 9168: 9164: 9160: 9156: 9152: 9148: 9144: 9140: 9139: 9134: 9127: 9113:on 2012-10-12 9112: 9108: 9106:0-12-415031-4 9102: 9098: 9097: 9094: 9086: 9078: 9074: 9069: 9064: 9060: 9056: 9052: 9048: 9044: 9040: 9036: 9032: 9031: 9026: 9019: 9004: 9000: 8996: 8992: 8988: 8984: 8983: 8978: 8970: 8955: 8951: 8947: 8943: 8942: 8937: 8930: 8922: 8920:0-253-33721-6 8916: 8912: 8905: 8903: 8887: 8883: 8878: 8873: 8869: 8865: 8861: 8857: 8853: 8849: 8848: 8843: 8836: 8821: 8817: 8813: 8812: 8807: 8800: 8781: 8774: 8767: 8759: 8752: 8744: 8740: 8736: 8732: 8727: 8722: 8718: 8714: 8713:Fossil Record 8710: 8703: 8695: 8691: 8687: 8683: 8678: 8673: 8669: 8665: 8661: 8657: 8656: 8651: 8644: 8636: 8632: 8628: 8624: 8620: 8616: 8612: 8605: 8591:on 2013-11-04 8587: 8583: 8579: 8572: 8570: 8561: 8553: 8549: 8544: 8539: 8535: 8531: 8526: 8521: 8517: 8513: 8509: 8505: 8504: 8499: 8492: 8483: 8478: 8474: 8470: 8466: 8462: 8461: 8456: 8449: 8434: 8430: 8426: 8422: 8418: 8414: 8410: 8406: 8405: 8400: 8393: 8385: 8383:0-7167-2882-6 8379: 8375: 8368: 8361:. 2014-09-22. 8360: 8354: 8346: 8342: 8338: 8334: 8330: 8326: 8322: 8318: 8314: 8310: 8309: 8301: 8286: 8282: 8278: 8274: 8270: 8266: 8262: 8258: 8254: 8250: 8249: 8244: 8237: 8222: 8218: 8214: 8210: 8206: 8202: 8201: 8196: 8189: 8181: 8177: 8172: 8167: 8162: 8157: 8153: 8149: 8146:(2): 449–53. 8145: 8141: 8140: 8135: 8128: 8120: 8116: 8111: 8106: 8102: 8098: 8094: 8090: 8089: 8084: 8080: 8073: 8062: 8058: 8054: 8050: 8046: 8042: 8038: 8034: 8030: 8029: 8021: 8014: 8006: 8002: 7998: 7994: 7990: 7986: 7982: 7978: 7977: 7968: 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7143: 7139: 7135: 7131: 7130: 7122: 7114: 7110: 7105: 7100: 7096: 7092: 7091: 7086: 7079: 7071: 7067: 7063: 7059: 7055: 7051: 7047: 7043: 7039: 7035: 7034: 7029: 7022: 7014: 7010: 7005: 7000: 6996: 6992: 6988: 6984: 6980: 6976: 6975: 6970: 6963: 6948: 6944: 6940: 6936: 6932: 6928: 6924: 6920: 6919: 6914: 6907: 6892: 6888: 6884: 6880: 6876: 6872: 6868: 6864: 6863: 6858: 6851: 6836: 6832: 6828: 6824: 6821:(1): 97–123. 6820: 6816: 6815: 6810: 6803: 6788: 6784: 6780: 6776: 6772: 6768: 6764: 6760: 6759: 6754: 6747: 6732: 6728: 6724: 6720: 6716: 6712: 6711: 6706: 6699: 6684: 6680: 6676: 6672: 6671: 6666: 6659: 6644: 6640: 6636: 6632: 6628: 6624: 6623: 6618: 6611: 6596: 6592: 6587: 6582: 6578: 6574: 6570: 6566: 6562: 6558: 6557: 6552: 6545: 6530: 6526: 6522: 6518: 6514: 6510: 6509: 6504: 6497: 6482: 6478: 6474: 6470: 6466: 6462: 6458: 6454: 6453: 6448: 6441: 6426: 6422: 6418: 6414: 6410: 6406: 6402: 6398: 6397: 6392: 6385: 6370: 6366: 6362: 6358: 6354: 6350: 6346: 6342: 6338: 6334: 6330: 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5467: 5463: 5462: 5457: 5450: 5444: 5439: 5435: 5431: 5427: 5423: 5419: 5415: 5411: 5407: 5403: 5402: 5394: 5387: 5385: 5383: 5381: 5379: 5363: 5359: 5355: 5351: 5347: 5343: 5339: 5335: 5334: 5329: 5322: 5307: 5303: 5299: 5295: 5291: 5287: 5283: 5279: 5275: 5271: 5270: 5265: 5258: 5250: 5246: 5241: 5236: 5232: 5228: 5224: 5220: 5216: 5212: 5211: 5206: 5199: 5191: 5185: 5177: 5173: 5168: 5163: 5159: 5155: 5151: 5147: 5143: 5139: 5138: 5133: 5125: 5123: 5121: 5111: 5106: 5102: 5098: 5094: 5090: 5089: 5084: 5077: 5062: 5058: 5054: 5050: 5046: 5042: 5041: 5036: 5029: 5021: 5017: 5012: 5007: 5003: 4999: 4995: 4991: 4987: 4983: 4982: 4973: 4965: 4961: 4957: 4953: 4949: 4945: 4944: 4935: 4927: 4923: 4919: 4915: 4911: 4907: 4906: 4898: 4890: 4886: 4885: 4877: 4875: 4866: 4862: 4858: 4854: 4851:: 1120–1130. 4850: 4846: 4845: 4837: 4828: 4823: 4819: 4815: 4811: 4807: 4803: 4799: 4798: 4789: 4787: 4779:(1–2): 25–37. 4778: 4774: 4767: 4760: 4758: 4749: 4745: 4741: 4737: 4733: 4729: 4728: 4723: 4716: 4714: 4698: 4694: 4690: 4686: 4682: 4678: 4674: 4670: 4666: 4662: 4661: 4656: 4649: 4634: 4630: 4626: 4622: 4618: 4614: 4610: 4606: 4605: 4600: 4593: 4578: 4574: 4570: 4566: 4562: 4558: 4554: 4550: 4549: 4544: 4537: 4522: 4518: 4514: 4510: 4506: 4502: 4501: 4496: 4489: 4473: 4469: 4465: 4458: 4451: 4446: 4431: 4427: 4422: 4417: 4413: 4409: 4405: 4401: 4397: 4393: 4392: 4387: 4380: 4372: 4368: 4363: 4358: 4354: 4350: 4346: 4342: 4338: 4334: 4333: 4328: 4321: 4306: 4302: 4298: 4294: 4290: 4286: 4285: 4280: 4273: 4265: 4261: 4257: 4253: 4249: 4245: 4241: 4237: 4236: 4228: 4220: 4216: 4212: 4208: 4204: 4200: 4199: 4191: 4176: 4172: 4168: 4164: 4160: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4147: 4142: 4135: 4133: 4125: 4120: 4113: 4108: 4106: 4097: 4091: 4087: 4083: 4076: 4068: 4064: 4059: 4054: 4049: 4044: 4040: 4036: 4035: 4030: 4023: 4008: 4001: 3995: 3987: 3983: 3979: 3975: 3971: 3967: 3963: 3959: 3955: 3951: 3950: 3942: 3928: 3924: 3918: 3910: 3906: 3901: 3896: 3892: 3888: 3884: 3880: 3879: 3874: 3866: 3864: 3855: 3851: 3846: 3841: 3837: 3833: 3829: 3825: 3824: 3819: 3812: 3810: 3801: 3800: 3792: 3778: 3777: 3772: 3765: 3753: 3752: 3746: 3742: 3738: 3737: 3730: 3729:Charles Lyell 3726: 3722: 3721: 3717: 3709: 3708: 3703: 3697: 3689: 3688: 3683: 3677: 3668: 3663: 3659: 3655: 3648: 3641: 3632: 3627: 3623: 3619: 3612: 3604: 3596: 3589: 3583: 3569: 3565: 3561: 3557: 3553: 3549: 3545: 3538: 3530: 3526: 3522: 3518: 3514: 3510: 3502: 3498: 3489: 3486: 3484: 3481: 3479: 3476: 3475: 3469: 3467: 3463: 3459: 3449: 3446: 3442: 3436: 3426: 3424: 3420: 3415: 3411: 3407: 3400: 3399: 3394: 3393: 3387: 3378: 3375: 3373: 3369: 3365: 3355: 3353: 3349: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3333: 3329: 3325: 3321: 3317: 3313: 3309: 3305: 3301: 3299: 3295: 3294: 3289: 3286:Furthermore, 3284: 3282: 3278: 3277: 3272: 3268: 3267: 3262: 3257: 3255: 3254:Desmostylians 3250: 3248: 3244: 3239: 3237: 3233: 3232: 3227: 3223: 3222: 3221:Rhamphosuchus 3218: 3217:false gharial 3214: 3213: 3209: 3204: 3202: 3201: 3196: 3192: 3191: 3186: 3185: 3180: 3179: 3174: 3170: 3169:baleen whales 3166: 3162: 3159: 3157: 3156:invertebrates 3153: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3134: 3130: 3129: 3123: 3116: 3112: 3107: 3103: 3101: 3100:Neoisopterans 3096: 3094: 3093: 3088: 3087: 3082: 3081: 3076: 3075: 3070: 3066: 3062: 3056: 3053: 3049: 3048: 3043: 3042: 3037: 3036: 3031: 3030: 3025: 3021: 3017: 3012: 3007: 3005: 3001: 2997: 2996: 2991: 2989: 2984: 2980: 2975: 2974: 2972: 2967: 2962: 2960: 2958: 2957:Lazarussuchus 2953: 2949: 2944: 2941: 2937: 2933: 2929: 2925: 2920: 2918: 2914: 2910: 2909: 2904: 2903: 2898: 2897: 2892: 2891: 2886: 2882: 2878: 2872: 2868: 2864: 2863: 2862:Thinobadistes 2858: 2854: 2852: 2847: 2846: 2841: 2837: 2833: 2829: 2825: 2821: 2817: 2813: 2809: 2805: 2801: 2797: 2793: 2789: 2785: 2780: 2778: 2771: 2770: 2764: 2757: 2753: 2748: 2737: 2730: 2723: 2720: 2706: 2704: 2688: 2687:Modern humans 2682: 2677: 2676: 2666: 2660: 2655: 2654: 2644: 2638: 2633: 2632: 2623: 2619: 2618:Earliest fire 2614: 2609: 2608: 2599: 2594: 2589: 2588: 2579: 2574: 2569: 2568: 2559: 2558: 2550: 2545: 2544: 2535: 2530: 2525: 2524: 2515: 2514: 2507: 2502: 2501: 2492: 2491: 2484: 2479: 2478: 2469: 2464: 2459: 2458: 2449: 2444: 2439: 2438: 2429: 2428:Gorilla split 2424: 2419: 2418: 2409: 2404: 2399: 2398: 2381: 2366: 2353: 2352: 2350: 2338: 2336: 2322: 2320: 2314: 2312: 2306: 2304: 2303:H. antecessor 2297: 2296: 2294: 2281: 2279: 2273: 2271: 2264: 2263: 2261: 2248: 2246: 2245:Au. anamensis 2240: 2238: 2237:Au. afarensis 2232: 2230: 2229:Au. africanus 2223: 2222: 2220: 2207: 2205: 2192: 2190: 2178: 2177: 2175: 2162: 2160: 2159:O. tugenensis 2154: 2152: 2140: 2138: 2127: 2125: 2114: 2112: 2101: 2099: 2088: 2086: 2075: 2073: 2061: 2059: 2053: 2051: 2044: 2042: 2031: 2029: 2018: 2016: 2004: 2003: 1992: 1990: 1979: 1977: 1966: 1964: 1846: 1840: 1835: 1833: 1828: 1826: 1821: 1820: 1814: 1810: 1803: 1795: 1793: 1789: 1785: 1781: 1777: 1766: 1762: 1755: 1751: 1744: 1740: 1736: 1732: 1727: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1714: 1710: 1706: 1702: 1699: 1695: 1691: 1687: 1679: 1674: 1665: 1663: 1659: 1655: 1651: 1647: 1637: 1635: 1630: 1625: 1621: 1617: 1613: 1608: 1604: 1600: 1599:Sierra Nevada 1596: 1592: 1584: 1579: 1575: 1573: 1569: 1565: 1561: 1557: 1552: 1548: 1544: 1538: 1534: 1532: 1528: 1524: 1521: 1513: 1504: 1495: 1494:to the east. 1493: 1489: 1485: 1480: 1478: 1474: 1470: 1466: 1462: 1458: 1454: 1450: 1445: 1443: 1439: 1435: 1429: 1427: 1423: 1419: 1415: 1411: 1404:South America 1401: 1399: 1395: 1390: 1387: 1382: 1379: 1375: 1371: 1370:Mediterranean 1367: 1362: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1346: 1341: 1339: 1335: 1331: 1327: 1323: 1319: 1315: 1305: 1303: 1299: 1295: 1290: 1288: 1284: 1280: 1276: 1272: 1271:North America 1267: 1265: 1264:Meso-American 1261: 1257: 1256:Pacific Ocean 1253: 1249: 1248:North America 1245: 1244:South America 1241: 1232: 1224: 1212: 1211:Colhuehuapian 1209: 1206: 1203: 1200: 1197: 1194: 1191: 1188: 1185: 1182: 1179: 1176: 1173: 1170: 1169:Montehermosan 1167: 1166: 1165: 1164: 1157: 1154: 1151: 1150:Hemingfordian 1148: 1145: 1142: 1139: 1136: 1133: 1130: 1129: 1128: 1127: 1120: 1117: 1114: 1111: 1108: 1105: 1102: 1099: 1096: 1093: 1092: 1091: 1090: 1086: 1078: 1076: 1073: 1072: 1068: 1066: 1063: 1061: 1060:Early Miocene 1057: 1053: 1051: 1048: 1047: 1043: 1041: 1038: 1036: 1032: 1028: 1026: 1023: 1022: 1019: 1015: 1013: 1010: 1008: 1004: 1000: 998:Faunal stage 997: 994: 993: 990: 988: 984: 983:faunal stages 975: 966: 964: 960: 956: 951: 949: 945: 941: 936: 934: 930: 926: 922: 918: 914: 913:early Miocene 910: 905: 903: 899: 895: 891: 890:proboscideans 885: 883: 878: 876: 872: 868: 864: 862: 855: 850: 848: 841: 836: 835:Charles Lyell 830: 825: 821: 817: 816: 807: 768: 758: 754: 749: 719: 715: 711: 707: 703: 699: 695: 691: 687: 682: 653: 649: 645: 641: 636: 635: 631: 627: 624: 621: 617: 616: 615: 611: 607: 603: 600: 597: 593: 590: 587: 583: 578: 574: 570: 566: 562: 558: 555: 552: 548: 543: 539: 535: 530: 518: 517:, as of 2021. 516: 509: 499: 493: 488: 487: 478: 473: 468: 467: 439: 430: 421: 412: 403: 394: 385: 376: 368: 360: 345: 325: 318: 317: 308: 307: 286: 285: 272: 271: 132: 127: 122: 115: 110: 104: 99: 94: 89: 84: 79: 74: 69: 64: 59: 54: 49: 43: 36: 31: 19: 18:Miocene epoch 10552: 10488:Archean Eon 10450:(1.6–2.5 Ga) 10335:(485–539 Ma) 10304:(444–485 Ma) 10268:(419–444 Ma) 10237:(359–419 Ma) 10211:(299–359 Ma) 10180:(252–299 Ma) 10168:(252–539 Ma) 10132:(201–252 Ma) 10101:(145–201 Ma) 10060:Mesozoic Era 10014: 9960:Cenozoic Era 9879:Serravallian 9848: 9748: 9719: 9712: 9695: 9691: 9685: 9673:. Retrieved 9653: 9647: 9637: 9619: 9612: 9579: 9573: 9519: 9513: 9503: 9491:. Retrieved 9471: 9465: 9455: 9430: 9424: 9418: 9367: 9363: 9353: 9320: 9316: 9292:the original 9263: 9257: 9248: 9240: 9199: 9193: 9159:10.1671/2401 9142: 9136: 9126: 9115:. Retrieved 9111:the original 9096: 9092: 9085: 9034: 9028: 9018: 9006:. Retrieved 8986: 8980: 8969: 8957:. Retrieved 8945: 8939: 8929: 8910: 8889:. Retrieved 8851: 8845: 8835: 8823:. Retrieved 8809: 8799: 8787:. Retrieved 8780:the original 8766: 8751: 8716: 8712: 8702: 8659: 8655:Paleobiology 8653: 8643: 8618: 8614: 8604: 8593:. Retrieved 8586:the original 8581: 8577: 8568: 8560: 8507: 8501: 8491: 8464: 8458: 8448: 8436:. Retrieved 8408: 8402: 8392: 8373: 8367: 8353: 8312: 8306: 8300: 8288:. Retrieved 8252: 8246: 8236: 8224:. Retrieved 8204: 8198: 8188: 8143: 8137: 8127: 8092: 8086: 8072: 8061:the original 8032: 8026: 8013: 8005:11573/234206 7980: 7974: 7967: 7953:cite journal 7941:. Retrieved 7904: 7898: 7888: 7863: 7857: 7850: 7838:. Retrieved 7818: 7812: 7802: 7751: 7745: 7734: 7691: 7685: 7675: 7665:19 September 7663:. Retrieved 7643: 7637: 7627: 7615:. Retrieved 7603: 7597: 7587: 7560: 7554: 7544: 7532:. Retrieved 7512: 7506: 7496: 7484:. Retrieved 7456: 7450: 7400: 7394: 7384: 7372:. Retrieved 7344: 7338: 7328: 7316:. Retrieved 7278: 7272: 7262: 7250:. Retrieved 7214: 7210:Paleobiology 7208: 7198: 7186:. Retrieved 7177:(1): 60–66. 7174: 7168: 7158: 7133: 7127: 7121: 7097:(1): 28–35. 7094: 7088: 7078: 7037: 7031: 7021: 6981:(1): 11396. 6978: 6972: 6962: 6950:. Retrieved 6922: 6916: 6906: 6894:. Retrieved 6866: 6860: 6850: 6838:. Retrieved 6818: 6812: 6802: 6790:. Retrieved 6762: 6756: 6746: 6734:. Retrieved 6714: 6708: 6698: 6688:19 September 6686:. Retrieved 6674: 6668: 6658: 6646:. Retrieved 6626: 6620: 6610: 6598:. Retrieved 6560: 6554: 6544: 6532:. Retrieved 6512: 6506: 6496: 6484:. Retrieved 6456: 6450: 6440: 6428:. Retrieved 6403:(1): 19–22. 6400: 6394: 6384: 6372:. Retrieved 6328: 6322: 6309: 6297:. Retrieved 6285: 6279: 6269: 6257:. Retrieved 6229: 6223: 6213: 6201:. Retrieved 6173: 6167: 6157: 6145:. Retrieved 6117: 6111: 6101: 6089:. Retrieved 6059: 6053: 6043: 6031:. Retrieved 6009: 6003: 5993: 5981:. Retrieved 5953: 5947: 5937: 5925:. Retrieved 5897: 5891: 5881: 5869:. Retrieved 5849: 5843: 5833: 5821:. Retrieved 5785: 5779: 5769: 5757:. Retrieved 5729: 5723: 5713: 5701:. Retrieved 5673: 5667: 5657: 5645:. Retrieved 5617: 5611: 5601: 5589:. Retrieved 5569: 5563: 5553: 5541:. Retrieved 5521: 5515: 5505: 5493:. Retrieved 5465: 5459: 5449: 5405: 5399: 5365:. Retrieved 5337: 5331: 5321: 5309:. Retrieved 5273: 5267: 5257: 5214: 5208: 5198: 5184:cite journal 5141: 5135: 5092: 5086: 5076: 5064:. Retrieved 5044: 5038: 5028: 4985: 4979: 4972: 4947: 4941: 4934: 4909: 4903: 4897: 4888: 4882: 4848: 4842: 4836: 4827:10533/130517 4801: 4795: 4776: 4773:Geódynamique 4772: 4731: 4725: 4702:19 September 4700:. Retrieved 4664: 4658: 4648: 4636:. Retrieved 4608: 4602: 4592: 4580:. 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