292:(FMRI) scanner, where they were presented with 192 full colour photographs of scenes (containing a centrally presented novel scene and a smaller image of one of six objects). Participants were also instructed to imagine using the presented object in each scene, and were asked to report whether they were successful. A memory test was administered after participants were removed from the scanner. The test consisted of all previously viewed scenes (old) and an equal number of novel scenes (new). They were asked to make an old/new judgement, and if the scene was responded as being old, they were asked to report it as being "remembered" or "familiar". They were then asked to pick an object that was paired with that scene. The researchers were trying to determine the levels of activation for source recollection for the objects paired with the scene during encoding.
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fictitious events from family members. Subjects' parents were interviewed to create a list of memorable childhood events (vacations, instances of being lost, etc.), to which one false event was added, namely spilling a bowl of punch at wedding reception. For each event, subjects were provided with several cues to aid in memory (age at the time, location, nature of the event, etc.) and asked to describe the situation in as much detail as possible. If a participant was unable to recall any event, they were asked either to quietly think about the event for about a minute and then provide any additional information remembered (control condition) or imagine the event happening and describe the people who would have been involved, what the location would have looked like and how the event might have occurred (imagery condition).
201:, stipulates that memories are composed of two components; gist and verbatim traces. Verbatim traces are the surface details of physical stimuli, which encompass the clear visual images and source information of an experience. Though both traces are encoded simultaneously, they are stored in separate regions of the brain, allowing for each trace to posse a distinct lifespan. Verbatim traces, though readily available when a memory is first encoded, deteriorate quickly. Fuzzy-trace theory thus proposes that misattributed memories arise due to the short lifespan of verbatim traces, being that the quality of source information is rapidly declining. The misattribution of memory is therefore more likely to occur as the time between the encoding of an experience and the
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recollect specific details, subsequently causing people to make responses based on memory gist's rather than specific details. People may form a well-organized idea of what the semantic gist is, and anything that is semantically similar to that idea may be falsely recognized. Gist-based similarity has also been shown to occur in circumstances in which implicit associative responses are an unlikely source of misattribution. The false recognition error also becomes evident when a time pressure is presented during a recognition decision. Processes that work to discover a source for the basis of recognition take time to execute, as a result of a lack of time, false recognitions errors are made more often.
494:. In Jacoby's study, participants were given two lists of words: one to read and one which they would hear read aloud. All subjects were then given a "test" list which contained some words they had read, some they had heard, and some novel words; the subjects had to determine which words were which. Jacoby found that university students and 75-year-olds were equally likely to correctly recognize whether or not the word had been presented, but 75-year-olds were much more likely to mistake whether the word was spoken or read. In other words, while recognition of familiar versus novel words remained relatively stable across age groups, source confusion increased dramatically with age.
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later. They found that there were often large discrepancies between the first and second descriptions. For example, many initially reported that they heard the news while sitting in class, but later said that they remember seeing the news on a television broadcast. While the participants were confident in their reports, it became evident that their memories of these emotionally charged events were prone to being manipulated with time, and that false memories of details make their way into memory. One explanation of why false details exist in memories is that people are influenced by life experiences, and they therefore recall memories with insights from other non-related events.
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themselves. Jacoby explains that— because repetition of a word caused recognition to go up but ability to correctly remember the source to go down— recognition and source monitoring are likely separate neurological processes. This may shed some light on the common phenomenon of
Alzheimer's patients mistaking frequently presented non-famous faces as being those of celebrities or asking the same question repeatedly. Patients may recognize faces or identify that the subject of the question is important and was discussed recently, but they have no memory for the meaning attached to these common stimuli and so will misattribute this familiarity or simply ask again.
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associative response has shown to arise when seeing a word such as "car", might cause people to unconsciously think of an associative such as "truck". If the word truck is later presented to them, they may state they recognize seeing the item when they had actually generated it themselves. It is believed that the activation from the shown word may also activate the associative word, allowing the information to be easily accessible to the mind. Research has also shown that the more similar the presented and associative words are, or the more similar list items there are, the more likely it is that a false recognition error will be made.
375:, invites subjects to believe they have experienced a particular word in a given list. The subjects are read a list of associated words by the experimenter. These associated words could be for example: bed, rest, dream, tried, awake, etc. After the subjects have heard these words, they are required to engage in a free recall task in which they must list the words they have heard. The researchers carried out two experiments. The first one involved six lists of associated words. The second experiment involved a wider set of materials, in which twenty-four 15-item lists were read to the subjects.
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credible and accurate, based on the assumption that adults are better memory reporters. In this context, children are assumed to have poor memory capabilities. Eyewitness testimony in adults differs from that of children in a few other ways. Firstly, adults tend to provide more recalled information, whether accurate or inaccurate, to a legal case. Although, the general pattern is to have an increase the amount of correctly recalled information with age. Lastly, objective questions are more accurately answered with less influence of suggestibility in adults.
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scholarly ideas it is often termed 'inadvertent plagiarism', inadvertent because the subject genuinely believes the idea to be their own creation. Inadvertent plagiarism takes two forms. The first involves the plagiarizer regenerating a previously seen idea, but believing the idea to be novel. In the second form, the plagiarizer recalls the ideas of other author's as their own. For example, a person may falsely recall creating an idea, thought, or joke, not intentionally engaging in plagiarism, but nevertheless believing to be the original source of memory.
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differences exist, it is widely accepted that young children are highly susceptible to leading questioning and biased interviewing techniques, due to their insufficient cognitive development. A wide variety of studies on the subject have revealed that children become more accurate in their recollections with increasing age and their ability to ignore biased questioning practices increases substantially until age 12. As a result, neutral wording is encouraged where a young child's testimony must be relied upon.
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been, or not been, from the previously presented list. The word at the end of the sentence was either highly predictable given the context of the sentence, for example: "The stormy seas tossed the BOAT", or the end word was less predictable such as: "She saved her money and bought a LAMP". The subjects were then required to state whether the capitalized end word had appeared, or not, on the previous list of words. If not, they were to respond by saying that the word was "new" versus it being "old".
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provided themselves. This is likely due to memory compensation strategies of imagery and imagination employed at an early age. As children age, other memory strategies such as auditory rehearsal or use of schemas and semantic relationships replace the reliance on imagery, leading to more reliable memories for events, but also presenting greater opportunity for memory errors. By the time children reach high school, memory strategies such as audial rehearsal, schema formation and
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grade teacher and childhood best friend; in other conditions, the participants were told a more generic version of the story. When interviewed, 68.2% of participants in the self-relevant details condition reported mental images and memories of the false event, compared to only 36.4% of participants in the more generic condition. Thus, the presence of specific personal details from a participant's life greatly increase the chance that a false memory is successfully implanted.
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word "sleep". As with the study by Henry L. Roediger and
Kathleen McDermott, subjects claimed to remember similar amounts of non-presented words as they did the words that were actually presented. The researchers noted that brain activity during the true and false recognition tasks were very similar. Monitoring the blood flow in the brain revealed there were in the left medial temporal lobe for both veridical and illusory recognition.
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confidence in the source of each solution listed. Subjects were more likely to plagiarize solutions given by the computer opponent than their own solutions after indicating that they were very confident that the solution was truly novel; when subjects indicated that they were "guessing" whether the solution had been seen before, they were more likely to duplicate solutions they had found during the first round of the test.
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those responses was observed for both true and false memories in the imagery condition, while those in the control condition showed much less improvement. While participants who 'remembered' the false situation rated this event as being less emotionally intense than the other remembered true events, participants rated their confidence in accurately remembering the false scenario higher than any of the true events.
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were later asked whether specific events were familiar and how they happened. The study revealed that elderly subjects were more likely than younger subjects to claim that they recognized events that never happened. Additionally, these participants were more likely to say that they watched specific actions occurring when they had actually either imagined them occurring or had never experienced the actions.
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as well as other similar traumatic events. Participants were able to describe what they were doing, things around them, and other details. However, this data was collected just once, years after the event, and Brown and Kulik were not able to compare the accuracy of those recollections to previous descriptions to see if their memories were indeed comparable to photographs.
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than on properties that may elicit the influence of personal attitudes. One important question under consideration, is whether people confuse misleading suggestions and personal attitudes for their real memories of a witnessed event. Moreover, misattribution of memory has been especially well investigated in terms of its application to cases of potential eyewitness
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indicated that the more words and lists available the harder it is to actually recall words correctly. This experiment illustrates how subjects can provide false recall without noticing their errors. Even after the researchers indicate that they did not say the mistaken words, subjects still felt very convinced that the researcher had said the word.
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words. Whittlesea was able to conclude from this study that subjects misattributed their fast responses for highly predictable words as an indication that they had previously experienced the word whereas in fact that was incorrect. As a result, the fluency of processing caused the subjects to misinterpret their quickness as a case of familiarity.
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but hear the car misleadingly referred to as white after the fact may create a false memory of a white car present at the scene of the crime, rather than a blue one. False memories can range from small details about an event to entire events that never happened, such as being lost in a crowded shopping mall as a child.
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source information. The evidence provides support for the role of the right perirhinal cortex in attributing an object to the right source. As decreased activation was associated with poorer performance, decreased activation of the right perirhinal cortex could be a possible mechanism for source confusion.
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However, the fallibility of children's memories is a complicated issue: memory does not strictly improve over time, but varies in the number of errors made as different skills are developed. Young children are very prone to suggestibility and false memories, even for false story-situations which they
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In legal testimony, the fact that witnesses are under oath does not preclude the occurrence of unintentional false reports: false memory and cryptomnesia present a significant problem in cases of alleged child abuse, in which the principal witness is already at a memory disadvantage. While individual
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False memories are also related to flashbulb memories, which are memories of one's circumstances during an emotionally charged event. Examples of flashbulb memories include how one remembers learning about the explosion of the
Challenger shuttle, the attacks on the World Trade Center on September 11,
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After three interviews in this fashion, 25% of participants from the imagery condition reported remembering the false situation of spilling the punch bowl, as compared to fewer than 10% of subjects in the control condition. An overall improvement in the detail of responses given and the confidence of
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That is not to say that there were not differences. While monitoring blood flow in the brain during false recognition, a part of the frontal lobe that is thought to be a key monitor of memories actually showed greater activity when presented with a false recognition than with a true one. There seemed
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False memories are memories that individuals believe and recall as true that, in fact, never occurred. Often, people form false memories for details of events after hearing others mistakenly report information about an event. For example, participants who watch a video of a crime featuring a blue car
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Early research done by Brown and Kulik (1977) found that flashbulb memories were similar to photographs because they could be described in accurate, vivid detail. In this study, participants described their circumstances about the moment they learned of the assassination of
President John F. Kennedy
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In a similar study, researchers convinced participants that they had played a prank on a first grade teacher involving toy slime. In the experimental condition, researchers added self-relevant details to the story (obtained from the participants' parents), such as the name of the participant's first
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activation was greater when scenes were recalled. The results provide evidence of distinct encoding activation in the subregions of the medial temporal lobe. The first subregion is the perirhinal cortex, which encodes item information. The second subregion, the parahippocampal cortex, is involved in
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postulates that memory errors occur when perceptual information is incorrectly attributed as being the source of a past experience. This may take place because one event shares the characteristics of another source. When a person has many sources of perceptual information about an event, their brain
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effect occurs because the words associated with sleep are in the list leading subjects to believe that the words associated with the words provided in the list have to be right. In fact, with the second experiment the results were 55% false recall rate compared to 40% for the first experiment. This
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In an extension of this test, after each puzzle solution was generated, participants were asked one of two questions: is this word greater than 3 letters long? (physical judgement) or does this word have a positive connotation? (semantic judgement). Participants then generated lists of solutions as
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scanner. During the first scan, subjects would make recognition judgments to determine what were the previous presented words. During the second scan, subjects had to make judgments about words that were not presented. For example: bed, rest, dream, tired, and awake would be in the list but not the
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structures, have demonstrated that the same processes involved in accurate recognition, are also involved in false recognition. These cortices play a role in strategic monitoring processing, as they attempt to examine other cortical outputs. If these cortices were damaged, there would be no control
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damage and age-matched controls, showed a significantly higher level of false recognition amongst the frontal lobe damaged individuals. The damage is believed to have caused disruptions in the adequate encoding of item-specific details or caused defective retrieval monitoring processes. These types
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It has also been noted that misattribution may be a product of adaptive features of memory, rather than a product of a flaw in the memory system. The misattribution error often leads to conclusions of an inefficient memory system, however some researchers believe that the error is a cost associated
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Cryptomnesia is a form of misattribution. It involves the unconscious influence of memory that causes current thoughts to be wrongfully attributed as novel. In other words, individuals mistakenly believe that they are the original generators of the thought. When cryptomnesia arises in literature or
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Cohen and
Faulkner discovered similar age-related source confusion errors ten years earlier when studying short events rather than word lists. Participants were asked to carry out, imagine, or watch a series of short events (placing a fork on top of a plate, putting a pen inside a mug, etc.). They
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As noted, misattribution is likely to occur when individuals are unable to monitor and control the influence of their attitudes at the time of retrieval. Hence, researchers have applied techniques to minimize misattribution by encouraging individuals to focus on distinctive characteristics, rather
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Later studies used a research technique called repeated recall to gauge the accuracy of repeated descriptions of traumatic events. Neiser and Harsh (1992) gave participants a questionnaire about the 1986 Challenger explosion at two periods of time: 1) The day after the incident, and 2) Three years
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In one particular case of source confusion, a female rape survivor falsely accused a memory doctor of being her rapist. In this case, the doctor had made a television appearance seen by the female survivor prior to her attack. The woman misattributed the doctor's face with that of her attacker. An
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The study revealed that the new words that were highly predictable were more likely to be incorrectly identified as being previously seen, whereas the new words that were less predictable were not so identified. In fact, subjects actually named predictable words faster than they did unpredictable
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through the conceptual context of the target word, rather than the physical context. After the subjects were given a brief moment to study the list of words, the subjects were presented with sentences that would contain a word that was capitalized at the end of the sentence that would have either
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False memories can also be created through leading questioning and simple use of imagination. In 1996, Ira Hyman Jr. and Joel
Petland published a study showing that subjects can falsely 'remember' anecdotes from their childhood, based on suggestions from the researcher and corroboration of these
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Bruce
Whittlesea presented subjects with a list of common words. Each word was briefly displayed to the subject. The task required the subject to judge whether a target word was semantically related to any word in the list. Unlike Whittlesea's first experiment involving the recognition of target
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Source confusion is an attribute seen in different people's accounts of the same event after hearing people speak about the situation. An example of this would be, a witness who heard a police officer say he had a gun and then that witness later says they saw the gun. Understanding the source of
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in 1993 monitored subjects' memory for solutions found to a word puzzle game when paired against a computer opponent. After several rounds of generating solutions in turn, participants were asked to generate a list of solutions they provided themselves, or a list of new solutions and rate their
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Unintentional plagiarism is greater for information generated by others than ourselves. Researchers believe this may due to having better memory and associations for words we generate, as self-generated information is better remembered later. Moreover, cryptomnesia increases when information is
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in which people often have difficulty determining whether a concept was internally generated or experienced externally. People occasionally misattribute the creation of a novel thought or idea as their own, when in fact they are retrieving it from a previous experience. Some individuals fail to
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These studies show that simply rehearsing material may not always work to improve memory. In the Jacoby study, older adults who read a word several times were likely to accurately judge it as familiar but were then more likely to think they had heard the word read aloud, rather than reading it
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Successful remembering involves recognition that something is familiar and recall of the context in which it was previously experienced. With age, the ability to discriminate between new and previous events begins to fail, and errors in recalling experiences become more common. Larry Jacoby of
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In terms of eyewitness testimony, judgements of memory credibility are particularly important in their persuasive impact. At any stage of a legal case, the success or failure of eyewitness persuasion can have consequences. Generally speaking, people assume the testimony of an adult to be more
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system in which information that does not require people to remember all the specific details is lost. Specific details would only be preserved in situations where the specific details need to be remembered, such as memories of a highly emotional experience. The use of semantic gists may be a
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information rather than distinctive encoding, is another cause of false recognition. When studying a list of numerous related words, there is a high level of semantic overlap between memory items. The inability to keep each concepts separate and distinct from one another makes it difficult to
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False recognition can occur as the result of making an implicit associative response, an automatic association between two concepts in memory. It is believed that associative responses never come to conscious attention, thus the activation of the concept is assumed to be implicit. An implicit
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The results of both experiments demonstrated that the subjects were confident about their incorrect answers regarding words heard in the list. For example, given the list; bed, rest, dream, tired, awake. Many of the subjects heard "sleep" which was not one of the words presented. This
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T. Awipi and L. Davachi sought to provide evidence of competing subregions in the medial temporal lobe (MTL) that differed on the type of content they encoded. The researchers conducted a study in which subjects were asked to perform an
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establish memories with enough detail to generate a source attribution, causing a misattribution of memory to the wrong source. People often truly believe that the information they plagiarized was actually that of their own.
42:. Misattribution is likely to occur when individuals are unable to monitor and control the influence of their attitudes, toward their judgments, at the time of retrieval. Misattribution is divided into three components:
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in the first test. While the same correlation of confidence level and error type were seen, participants were much more likely to plagiarize answers after making a physical judgement as compared to a semantic one.
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of processes are needed to accurately recall the origins of memory representations, and without them, errors of origin can be made. Studies of false recognition in amnesic patients with damage to either the
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Brain-damaged patients have provided useful insights into the underlying biological mechanisms involved in false recognition. Results from studies comparing levels of false recognition between patients with
457:. Currently, researchers have focused on determining the circumstances under which misattribution might occur, and the factors that could increase or decrease these errors, in an eyewitness situation.
125:. In this instance, Ronald Reagan tells a story about a heroic pilot to whom he personally awarded a medal. However, he was actually recalling the story line from a theatrical production entitled "
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one's memories is important to memory processes necessary for every day living. Memories arise both from perceptual experiences and from one's thoughts, feelings, inferences, and imagination.
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generated by others before a self-generated idea. This may be due to the likelihood that people were thinking of their next response, rather than processing the source of the information.
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have a reduced level of false recognition, believed to be caused by taking too many trials to create the semantic gist information needed for the attribution error.
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Leippe MR, Romanczyk A, Manion AP (1992). "Eyewitness persuasion: How and how well do fact finders judge the accuracy of adults' and children's memory reports?".
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fundamental mechanism of memory, allowing people to categorize information and generalize across situations, a function associated with higher intelligence.
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Researchers Henry L. Roediger and
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Some of the most common experimental designs in the study of cryptomnesia involve solving word puzzles. One such study from
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over the cortical outputs, increasingly the likelihood of a false recognition error. Additionally, patients with amnesia or
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is easily able to evoke a memory of that event, even if they did not experience it, thus creating a misattributed memory.
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with the benefits of a functioning and adequate memory system. The misattribution error reflects an
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Goodman GS, Reed RS (1986). "Age Difference in Eyewitness Testimony".
317:
In one of the earliest studies involving misattribution, the Canadian
2013:
1601:
924:
778:
1194:"Content-specific source encoding in the human medial temporal lobe"
686:
2502:
1832:
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
1682:
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
1276:
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
1246:
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
1198:
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
1038:
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
1001:
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
994:"Creating False Memories: Remembering Words Not Presented in Lists"
958:
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
635:
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
469:
285:
187:
183:
2215:
477:
1951:
1518:
35:
258:
and colleagues. Similar to the study by Henry L. Roediger and
1551:
137:
1630:"Misattribution, false recognition and the sins of memory"
222:
868:
520:
404:
1135:
1519:
Muir-Broaddus J, King T, Downey D, Petersen M (1998).
1100:
254:
A follow-up to the previous research was conducted by
1914:
1724:
1602:
Association for Psychological Science (May 1, 2007).
1273:
141:
Frontal and temporal lobe location in the human brain
362:
426:
1343:
1244:Whittlesea BW (1993). "Illusions of Familiarity".
278:
991:
826:"False Memories: Source Confusion and Suggestion"
464:
447:
299:activation was greater for objects recalled, and
2943:
1313:
951:
121:additional example of source confusion involves
1915:Bartlett JC, Strater L, Fulton A (March 1991).
1591:. New York: Psychology Press. pp. 267–291.
1421:Brown R, Kulik J (1977). "Flashbulb memories".
668:
666:
664:
322:words, this study involved the manipulation of
249:
65:
1627:
791:
710:
1967:
1879:
1455:
1239:
1237:
760:
672:
1727:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
1679:
1392:(4th ed.). New york: Cengage learning.
1191:
756:
754:
661:
628:
626:
624:
622:
620:
523:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
387:
34:is the misidentification of the origin of a
2098:The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two
1785:
1781:
1779:
1675:
1673:
987:
985:
983:
981:
979:
819:
817:
815:
604:
602:
600:
598:
596:
594:
592:
590:
588:
586:
584:
582:
173:
1974:
1960:
1908:
1751:
1420:
1344:Desjardins T, Scoboria A (December 2007).
1243:
1234:
1129:
1073:
945:
632:
580:
578:
576:
574:
572:
570:
568:
566:
564:
562:
1932:
1843:
1825:
1823:
1821:
1819:
1817:
1693:
1653:
1628:Schacter DL, Dodson CS (September 2001).
1621:
1536:
1387:
1361:
1269:
1267:
1217:
1153:
1012:
906:"Inadvertent Plagiarism in Everyday Life"
842:
751:
617:
613:. New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin Company.
534:
150:
1875:
1873:
1871:
1776:
1670:
1309:
1307:
1305:
1187:
1185:
1183:
1181:
1069:
1067:
1035:
976:
903:
897:
812:
608:
476:
468:
307:
136:
1586:
862:
559:
516:
514:
223:Neurological basis of false recognition
2944:
1829:
1814:
1264:
952:Marsh RL, Landau JD, Hicks JL (1997).
217:
1955:
1868:
1383:
1381:
1339:
1337:
1302:
1178:
1064:
836:
823:
711:Loftus EF, Pickrell JE (1995-12-01).
405:False memories and flashbulb memories
290:functional magnetic resonance imaging
1029:
706:
704:
511:
205:of the subsequent memory increases.
54:. It was originally noted as one of
1758:Journal of Developmental Psychology
1076:Learning and Individual Differences
794:Learning and Individual Differences
145:
100:
13:
1378:
1334:
992:Roediger HL, McDermott HB (1995).
182:Gist-based similarity, the robust
14:
2978:
2379:Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm
1525:Psychonomic Bulletin & Review
1350:Psychonomic Bulletin & Review
713:"The Formation of False Memories"
701:
442:Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm
373:Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm
363:Deese—Roediger—McDermott Paradigm
357:
334:
312:
2924:
2912:
1981:
1192:Awipi T, Davachi L (July 2008).
427:Eyewitness testimony in children
1745:
1718:
1595:
1580:
1545:
1512:
1449:
1414:
1094:
421:
371:. This procedure, known as the
279:Source confusion and FMRI scans
85:
70:
2589:Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model
2462:Memory and social interactions
1316:Journal of Memory and Language
785:
761:Henkel LA, Coffman KJ (2004).
675:American Journal of Psychology
465:Source confusion in later life
448:Eyewitness testimony in adults
1:
1462:Affect and Accuracy in Recall
1155:10.1016/S0896-6273(00)80158-0
1088:10.1016/S1041-6080(97)90002-9
806:10.1016/s1041-6080(01)00035-8
729:10.3928/0048-5713-19951201-07
505:
2298:Retrieval-induced forgetting
1470:10.1017/cbo9780511664069.003
1456:Neisser U, Harsch N (1992).
1435:10.1016/0010-0277(77)90018-X
913:Applied Cognitive Psychology
843:Mikkelson D (5 March 2009).
767:Applied Cognitive Psychology
250:False memories and PET scans
66:Components of misattribution
7:
1752:Poole DA, White LE (1991).
1258:10.1037/0278-7393.19.6.1235
1103:Zeitschrift fĂĽr Psychologie
295:The researchers found that
10:
2983:
2636:Levels of Processing model
2561:World Memory Championships
2394:Lost in the mall technique
2241:dissociative (psychogenic)
1770:10.1037/0012-1649.27.6.975
1739:10.1037/0022-3514.63.2.181
1704:10.1037/0278-7393.20.4.934
1288:10.1037/0278-7393.26.2.321
1210:10.1037/0278-7393.34.4.769
1115:10.1027/0044-3409.215.1.12
1050:10.1037/0278-7393.27.4.941
1023:10.1037/0278-7393.21.4.803
970:10.1037/0278-7393.23.4.886
647:10.1037/0278-7393.19.3.673
545:10.1037/0022-3514.89.3.277
338:
154:
104:
89:
74:
15:
2907:
2862:
2831:
2690:
2683:
2576:
2548:
2480:
2437:
2409:
2369:
2311:
2206:
2112:
2087:
2039:
2032:
1989:
883:10.1037/0033-2909.114.1.3
388:Implanting a false memory
132:
38:by the person making the
2674:The Seven Sins of Memory
2619:Intermediate-term memory
2424:Indirect tests of memory
2401:Recovered-memory therapy
2351:Misattribution of memory
1894:10.1037/0882-7974.4.1.10
1854:10.1037/0278-7393.25.1.3
611:The Seven Sins of Memory
197:, an opposing theory to
174:Causes of false memories
114:Source monitoring theory
28:misattribution of memory
2361:Source-monitoring error
1566:10.1023/A:1024859219764
830:The Strangest Situation
481:PET Alzheimer's disease
199:source monitoring error
163:source-monitoring error
2768:George Armitage Miller
2728:Patricia Goldman-Rakic
1921:Memory & Cognition
1788:Law and Human Behavior
1646:10.1098/rstb.2001.0938
1554:Law and Human Behavior
1328:10.1006/jmla.1996.0006
871:Psychological Bulletin
482:
474:
319:cognitive psychologist
301:parahippocampal cortex
151:Causes of cryptomnesia
142:
2931:Philosophy portal
2919:Psychology portal
2783:Henry L. Roediger III
2384:False memory syndrome
2356:Misinformation effect
2336:Imagination inflation
1388:Goldstein EB (2015).
480:
472:
308:Experimental research
140:
32:source misattribution
2288:Motivated forgetting
1882:Psychology and Aging
904:Defeldre AC (2005).
824:Laura (2011-02-02).
609:Schacter DL (2001).
438:semantic relatedness
235:medial temporal lobe
60:seven sins of memory
2798:Arthur P. Shimamura
2698:Richard C. Atkinson
2515:Effects of exercise
2389:Memory implantation
2273:Interference theory
2189:Selective retention
2169:Meaningful learning
1640:(1413): 1385–1393.
845:"Wing and a Prayer"
492:Alzheimer's disease
488:New York University
347:Stanford University
244:Alzheimer's disease
218:Neurological causes
2895:Andriy Slyusarchuk
2718:Hermann Ebbinghaus
2624:Involuntary memory
2525:Memory improvement
2510:Effects of alcohol
2472:Transactive memory
2450:Politics of memory
2419:Exceptional memory
1934:10.3758/BF03197115
1800:10.1007/BF01047344
1538:10.3758/BF03208821
1363:10.3758/BF03193096
717:Psychiatric Annals
483:
475:
324:processing fluency
260:Kathleen McDermott
256:Daniel L. Schacter
195:Fuzzy-trace theory
161:Cryptomnesia is a
143:
2939:
2938:
2903:
2902:
2890:Cosmos Rossellius
2738:Marcia K. Johnson
2609:Exosomatic memory
2594:Context-dependent
2584:Absent-mindedness
2467:Memory conformity
2445:Collective memory
2346:Memory conformity
2283:Memory inhibition
2202:
2201:
2194:Tip of the tongue
1399:978-1-285-76388-0
297:perirhinal cortex
127:Wing and a Prayer
2974:
2967:Memory disorders
2929:
2928:
2927:
2917:
2916:
2915:
2870:Jonathan Hancock
2823:Robert Stickgold
2793:Richard Shiffrin
2748:Elizabeth Loftus
2688:
2687:
2604:Childhood memory
2411:Research methods
2293:Repressed memory
2268:Forgetting curve
2256:transient global
2127:Autobiographical
2037:
2036:
1976:
1969:
1962:
1953:
1952:
1947:
1946:
1936:
1912:
1906:
1905:
1877:
1866:
1865:
1847:
1827:
1812:
1811:
1783:
1774:
1773:
1749:
1743:
1742:
1722:
1716:
1715:
1697:
1677:
1668:
1667:
1657:
1625:
1619:
1618:
1616:
1614:
1599:
1593:
1592:
1584:
1578:
1577:
1549:
1543:
1542:
1540:
1516:
1510:
1509:
1503:
1499:
1497:
1489:
1487:
1486:
1453:
1447:
1446:
1418:
1412:
1411:
1385:
1376:
1375:
1365:
1356:(6): 1090–1095.
1341:
1332:
1331:
1311:
1300:
1299:
1271:
1262:
1261:
1252:(6): 1235–1253.
1241:
1232:
1231:
1221:
1189:
1176:
1175:
1157:
1133:
1127:
1126:
1098:
1092:
1091:
1071:
1062:
1061:
1033:
1027:
1026:
1016:
998:
989:
974:
973:
949:
943:
942:
940:
939:
933:
927:. Archived from
925:10.1002/acp.1129
910:
901:
895:
894:
866:
860:
859:
857:
855:
840:
834:
833:
821:
810:
809:
789:
783:
782:
779:10.1002/acp.1026
758:
749:
748:
708:
699:
698:
670:
659:
658:
630:
615:
614:
606:
557:
556:
538:
518:
473:PET Normal brain
146:Cognitive causes
101:Source confusion
52:source confusion
2982:
2981:
2977:
2976:
2975:
2973:
2972:
2971:
2942:
2941:
2940:
2935:
2925:
2923:
2913:
2911:
2899:
2880:Dominic O'Brien
2858:
2827:
2808:Susumu Tonegawa
2788:Daniel Schacter
2763:Eleanor Maguire
2753:Geoffrey Loftus
2708:Stephen J. Ceci
2703:Robert A. Bjork
2679:
2598:state-dependent
2572:
2544:
2476:
2457:Cultural memory
2433:
2429:Memory disorder
2405:
2365:
2307:
2198:
2108:
2083:
2028:
1985:
1980:
1950:
1913:
1909:
1878:
1869:
1845:10.1.1.475.3783
1828:
1815:
1784:
1777:
1750:
1746:
1723:
1719:
1695:10.1.1.596.9002
1678:
1671:
1626:
1622:
1612:
1610:
1600:
1596:
1585:
1581:
1550:
1546:
1517:
1513:
1501:
1500:
1491:
1490:
1484:
1482:
1480:
1454:
1450:
1419:
1415:
1400:
1386:
1379:
1342:
1335:
1312:
1303:
1272:
1265:
1242:
1235:
1190:
1179:
1134:
1130:
1099:
1095:
1072:
1065:
1034:
1030:
996:
990:
977:
950:
946:
937:
935:
931:
908:
902:
898:
867:
863:
853:
851:
841:
837:
822:
813:
790:
786:
759:
752:
723:(12): 720–725.
709:
702:
687:10.2307/1422937
671:
662:
631:
618:
607:
560:
536:10.1.1.392.4775
519:
512:
508:
467:
450:
429:
424:
407:
390:
365:
360:
343:
337:
315:
310:
281:
273:memory illusion
252:
225:
220:
211:adaptive memory
176:
159:
153:
148:
135:
109:
103:
94:
88:
79:
73:
68:
56:Daniel Schacter
20:
12:
11:
5:
2980:
2970:
2969:
2964:
2959:
2954:
2937:
2936:
2934:
2933:
2921:
2908:
2905:
2904:
2901:
2900:
2898:
2897:
2892:
2887:
2882:
2877:
2875:Paul R. McHugh
2872:
2866:
2864:
2860:
2859:
2857:
2856:
2851:
2846:
2841:
2835:
2833:
2829:
2828:
2826:
2825:
2820:
2815:
2810:
2805:
2800:
2795:
2790:
2785:
2780:
2775:
2770:
2765:
2760:
2755:
2750:
2745:
2740:
2735:
2733:Ivan Izquierdo
2730:
2725:
2720:
2715:
2710:
2705:
2700:
2694:
2692:
2685:
2681:
2680:
2678:
2677:
2670:
2660:
2659:
2658:
2648:
2643:
2638:
2633:
2632:
2631:
2621:
2616:
2611:
2606:
2601:
2591:
2586:
2580:
2578:
2574:
2573:
2571:
2570:
2565:
2564:
2563:
2552:
2550:
2546:
2545:
2543:
2542:
2537:
2532:
2527:
2522:
2517:
2512:
2507:
2506:
2505:
2500:
2490:
2484:
2482:
2478:
2477:
2475:
2474:
2469:
2464:
2459:
2454:
2453:
2452:
2441:
2439:
2435:
2434:
2432:
2431:
2426:
2421:
2415:
2413:
2407:
2406:
2404:
2403:
2398:
2397:
2396:
2386:
2381:
2375:
2373:
2367:
2366:
2364:
2363:
2358:
2353:
2348:
2343:
2338:
2333:
2331:Hindsight bias
2328:
2323:
2317:
2315:
2309:
2308:
2306:
2305:
2300:
2295:
2290:
2285:
2280:
2278:Memory erasure
2275:
2270:
2265:
2260:
2259:
2258:
2253:
2248:
2243:
2238:
2236:post-traumatic
2233:
2228:
2223:
2212:
2210:
2204:
2203:
2200:
2199:
2197:
2196:
2191:
2186:
2181:
2176:
2174:Personal-event
2171:
2166:
2161:
2156:
2151:
2150:
2149:
2144:
2139:
2129:
2124:
2118:
2116:
2110:
2109:
2107:
2106:
2104:Working memory
2101:
2093:
2091:
2085:
2084:
2082:
2081:
2076:
2074:Motor learning
2071:
2066:
2061:
2056:
2051:
2045:
2043:
2034:
2030:
2029:
2027:
2026:
2021:
2016:
2010:
2009:
2004:
1999:
1993:
1991:
1990:Basic concepts
1987:
1986:
1979:
1978:
1971:
1964:
1956:
1949:
1948:
1927:(2): 177–188.
1907:
1867:
1813:
1794:(4): 317–332.
1775:
1764:(6): 975–986.
1744:
1733:(2): 181–197.
1717:
1688:(4): 934–945.
1669:
1620:
1594:
1579:
1560:(4): 405–426.
1544:
1531:(3): 454–458.
1511:
1502:|website=
1478:
1448:
1413:
1398:
1377:
1333:
1301:
1282:(2): 321–335.
1263:
1233:
1204:(4): 769–779.
1177:
1148:(2): 267–274.
1128:
1093:
1063:
1044:(4): 941–947.
1028:
1014:10.1.1.495.353
1007:(4): 803–814.
975:
964:(4): 886–887.
944:
896:
861:
835:
811:
800:(2): 145–161.
784:
773:(5): 567–588.
750:
700:
681:(4): 475–490.
660:
641:(3): 673–688.
616:
558:
529:(3): 277–293.
509:
507:
504:
466:
463:
455:suggestibility
449:
446:
428:
425:
423:
420:
406:
403:
389:
386:
364:
361:
359:
358:False memories
356:
339:Main article:
336:
333:
314:
313:Misattribution
311:
309:
306:
280:
277:
251:
248:
224:
221:
219:
216:
175:
172:
155:Main article:
152:
149:
147:
144:
134:
131:
107:Sleeper effect
102:
99:
90:Main article:
87:
84:
75:Main article:
72:
69:
67:
64:
48:false memories
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2979:
2968:
2965:
2963:
2962:Memory biases
2960:
2958:
2955:
2953:
2950:
2949:
2947:
2932:
2922:
2920:
2910:
2909:
2906:
2896:
2893:
2891:
2888:
2886:
2883:
2881:
2878:
2876:
2873:
2871:
2868:
2867:
2865:
2861:
2855:
2854:Clive Wearing
2852:
2850:
2847:
2845:
2842:
2840:
2837:
2836:
2834:
2830:
2824:
2821:
2819:
2818:Endel Tulving
2816:
2814:
2813:Anne Treisman
2811:
2809:
2806:
2804:
2801:
2799:
2796:
2794:
2791:
2789:
2786:
2784:
2781:
2779:
2776:
2774:
2773:Brenda Milner
2771:
2769:
2766:
2764:
2761:
2759:
2758:James McGaugh
2756:
2754:
2751:
2749:
2746:
2744:
2741:
2739:
2736:
2734:
2731:
2729:
2726:
2724:
2723:Sigmund Freud
2721:
2719:
2716:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2706:
2704:
2701:
2699:
2696:
2695:
2693:
2689:
2686:
2682:
2676:
2675:
2671:
2668:
2667:retrospective
2664:
2661:
2657:
2654:
2653:
2652:
2649:
2647:
2646:Muscle memory
2644:
2642:
2639:
2637:
2634:
2630:
2627:
2626:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2615:
2612:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2602:
2599:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2585:
2582:
2581:
2579:
2575:
2569:
2566:
2562:
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2341:Memory biases
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2321:Confabulation
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2159:Hyperthymesia
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2122:Active recall
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2019:Consolidation
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123:Ronald Reagan
118:
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63:
61:
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53:
49:
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41:
40:memory recall
37:
33:
29:
25:
19:
2885:Ben Pridmore
2803:Larry Squire
2713:Susan Clancy
2672:
2556:Memory sport
2481:Other topics
2371:False memory
2350:
2326:Cryptomnesia
2303:Weapon focus
2263:Decay theory
2024:Neuroanatomy
1983:Human memory
1924:
1920:
1910:
1888:(1): 10–17.
1885:
1881:
1835:
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1791:
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1761:
1757:
1747:
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1726:
1720:
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1633:
1623:
1611:. Retrieved
1608:ScienceDaily
1607:
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1483:. Retrieved
1461:
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1109:(1): 12–24.
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1041:
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957:
947:
936:. Retrieved
929:the original
916:
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852:. Retrieved
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422:Applications
416:
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381:false memory
377:
366:
352:
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341:Cryptomnesia
335:Cryptomnesia
329:
316:
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282:
269:
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239:diencephalon
230:frontal lobe
226:
207:
193:
181:
177:
168:
160:
157:Cryptomnesia
119:
110:
95:
92:False memory
86:False memory
80:
77:Cryptomnesia
71:Cryptomnesia
44:cryptomnesia
31:
27:
21:
18:False memory
2743:Eric Kandel
2691:Researchers
2663:Prospective
2614:Free recall
2568:Shas Pollak
2221:anterograde
2137:Declarative
1838:(1): 3–22.
877:(1): 3–28.
369:James Deese
2946:Categories
2778:Lynn Nadel
2656:intertrial
2641:Metamemory
2629:flashbacks
2549:In society
2246:retrograde
2208:Forgetting
2179:Procedural
2089:Short-term
2059:Eyewitness
1485:2020-03-31
938:2016-07-10
919:(8): 1–8.
849:Snopes.com
506:References
288:task in a
105:See also:
24:psychology
16:See also:
2530:Nutrition
2438:In groups
2251:selective
2226:childhood
2154:Flashbulb
2114:Long-term
2014:Attention
1840:CiteSeerX
1808:143732060
1690:CiteSeerX
1613:March 11,
1574:144734478
1504:ignored (
1494:cite book
1429:: 73–99.
1423:Cognition
1408:885178247
1123:144688520
1009:CiteSeerX
737:0048-5713
531:CiteSeerX
237:or other
2832:Patients
2503:mnemonic
2498:chunking
2164:Implicit
2147:Semantic
2142:Episodic
2132:Explicit
1997:Encoding
1664:11571030
1443:53195074
1372:18229480
1296:10764099
1228:18605867
1058:11486927
745:59286093
553:16248714
286:encoding
188:semantic
184:encoding
2651:Priming
2577:Related
2520:Emotion
2216:Amnesia
2054:Eidetic
2041:Sensory
2002:Storage
1943:2017041
1902:2803602
1862:9949705
1712:8064252
1655:1088522
1219:2938959
1172:9262181
1164:8780650
891:8346328
695:1422937
655:8501434
2957:Memory
2684:People
2669:memory
2600:memory
2540:Trauma
2079:Visual
2069:Iconic
2064:Haptic
2049:Echoic
2007:Recall
1941:
1900:
1860:
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1589:Memory
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1142:Neuron
1121:
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1011:
889:
743:
735:
693:
653:
551:
533:
203:recall
133:Causes
50:, and
36:memory
26:, the
2952:Error
2863:Other
2535:Sleep
2488:Aging
2033:Types
1804:S2CID
1570:S2CID
1439:S2CID
1168:S2CID
1119:S2CID
997:(PDF)
932:(PDF)
909:(PDF)
854:8 May
741:S2CID
691:JSTOR
2665:and
2596:and
1939:PMID
1898:PMID
1858:PMID
1708:PMID
1660:PMID
1615:2011
1506:help
1474:ISBN
1404:OCLC
1394:ISBN
1368:PMID
1292:PMID
1224:PMID
1160:PMID
1054:PMID
887:PMID
856:2020
733:ISSN
651:PMID
549:PMID
1929:doi
1890:doi
1850:doi
1796:doi
1766:doi
1735:doi
1700:doi
1650:PMC
1642:doi
1638:356
1562:doi
1533:doi
1466:doi
1431:doi
1358:doi
1324:doi
1284:doi
1254:doi
1214:PMC
1206:doi
1150:doi
1111:doi
1107:215
1084:doi
1046:doi
1019:doi
966:doi
921:doi
879:doi
875:114
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