Mitragyna speciosa

1898:, released a statement describing further opioid-like properties of kratom and stating that it should not be used for any medical treatment or recreational use. Also in 2018, the FDA supervised the voluntary destruction of kratom dietary supplements by a nationwide distributor in Missouri, and encouraged all companies involved in kratom commerce to remove their products from the market. On February 26, the FDA warned a California manufacturer of a kratom product called "Mitrasafe" that the supplement was not confirmed as safe, was not approved as a dietary supplement or drug, and was illegal for interstate commerce. 1852:) was illegal in Thailand until 2018. The Thai government had passed the Kratom Act 2486, effective 3 August 1943, which made planting the tree illegal, in response to a rise in its use when opium became very expensive in Thailand and the Thai government was attempting to gain control of the opium market. In 1979, the Thai government placed kratom, along with marijuana, in Category V of a five category classification of narcotics. Kratom accounted for less than two percent of arrests for narcotics between 1987 and 1992. 112: 424: 68: 749:, though no clinical trials have been done supporting this use. As of 2018, there have been no formal trials to study the efficacy or safety of kratom to treat opioid addiction. Kratom is not approved for this or any other medical use. Stanciu et al. conducted a review of all literature and found insufficient evidence for any conclusions concerning whether kratom is harmful or whether can serve as harm reduction for those with opioid addiction. While some 87: 5906:

associated with kratom. Calls to U.S. poison control centers regarding kratom have increased 10-fold from 2010 to 2015, with hundreds of calls made each year. The FDA is aware of reports of 36 deaths associated with the use of kratom-containing products. There have been reports of kratom being laced with other opioids like hydrocodone. The use of kratom is also associated with serious side effects like seizures, liver damage and withdrawal symptoms

491: 6403: 671: 6431: 2007: 957:

stimulant effects, side effects include contracted pupils and blushing; adverse effects related to stimulation include anxiety and agitation, and opioid-related effects such as itching, nausea, loss of appetite, and increased urination begin to appear. At moderate to high doses (5–15 g of raw leaves), at which opioid effects generally appear, additional adverse effects include

995:, psychosis and other mental health conditions. Kratom use may worsen existing mental health conditions. In case reports associating kratom use with psychosis, it remains unclear whether kratom use directly caused psychosis or simply unmasked the condition. Serious toxicity is relatively rare and generally appears at high doses or when kratom is used with other substances. 1150:; however, blood biomarkers can show a range of cholestatic, mixed, or hepatocellular injury pattern. The majority of users do not seem to develop liver injury, and it is unclear which users are at heightened risk. The mechanism by which kratom causes liver damage in some people is unknown and poorly studied, but a model has been proposed. 1939:

ending on December 1, 2016. As of July 2016, Alabama, Arkansas, Indiana, Vermont, and Wisconsin had made kratom illegal, and the US Army had forbidden soldiers from using it. Between February 2014 and July 2016, U.S. law-enforcement authorities "encountered 55 tons of kratom," or roughly "50 million individual doses," according to the

1171:, and death, especially in combination with excessive alcohol use. Between 2011 and 2017, 44 U.S. deaths were kratom-related. However, many cases could not be fully assessed, due to limited information. People who die from kratom use typically have taken it in combination with other substances, or have underlying health conditions. 1822:

especially in Northern and East Coast region of Malaysia's Peninsula because the tree grows natively and tea decoctions are readily available in local communities. Certain parties have urged the government to penalize the use of kratom under the Dangerous Drugs Act instead of the Poisons Act, which would carry heavier penalties.

1868:(FDA) banned the import of kratom into the U.S. due to lack of evidence for its safety. As of 2021, kratom is illegal in six states: Alabama, Arkansas, Indiana, Rhode Island, Vermont, and Wisconsin, and it may be outlawed by local ordinance in other states. There was consideration in late 2017 to make kratom a 1075:

admissions as a serious medical condition. Multiple-substance exposures were associated with a higher number of hospitalizations than kratom-only exposures, and involved 11 deaths, including two due to kratom alone. Post-mortem toxicology testing detected multiple substances for almost all those who died, with

1930:

as a warning about an imminent hazard to public safety, citing over 600 calls to poison control centers between 2010 and 2015 and 15 kratom-related deaths between 2014 and 2016. This drew strong protests among those using kratom to deal with chronic pain or wean themselves off opioids or alcohol. A

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The plant's active compounds and metabolites are not detected by a typical drug screening test, but can be detected by more specialized testing. Blood mitragynine concentrations are expected to be in a range of 10–50 μg/L in persons using the drug recreationally. Detection in body fluids is typically

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Young people feel the need to drink 4x100 in hidden settings due to fears of arrest by law enforcement. In one district, 21 of 39 villages reported the presence of 4x100 users in their community. Compared to traditional use, 4x100 users are subject to some measure of community discrimination, though

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The DEA noted the responses but said that it intended to go forward with the listing; a spokesman said: "We can't rely upon public opinion and anecdotal evidence. We have to rely upon science." In October 2016, the DEA withdrew its notice of intent while inviting public comments over a review period

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In April 2019, the FDA issued a statement declaring that kratom was not approved for any medical use, was potentially unsafe in commercial products available in the United States, and remained on an import alert where imported supplies would be confiscated. On April 4, 2018, the FDA issued the first

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The Thai government has considered legalizing kratom for recreational use in 2004, 2009, 2013, and 2020. In 2018, Thailand became the first Southeast Asian country to legalize kratom for medical purposes. In 2021, Thailand fully legalized kratom and removed it from the list of Category V narcotics,

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is the leading cause of death from opioid use. Although evidence is sparse, the risk of respiratory depression caused by taking kratom appears to be low, but, as of 2016, the Food and Drug Administration listed respiratory depression as a concern. Confusingly, a 2018 review found that the alkaloids

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legalized production and export of kratom leaves. Later in September 2024, Indonesia's Ministry of Cooperatives and Small Medium Business stated that Indonesia will start building downstream industries for kratom exports. These developments made kratom legal to export and manufacture in Indonesia.

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Data on how widely it is used worldwide are lacking, as it is not detected by typical drug-screening tests. Rates of kratom use appear to be increasing among those who have been self-managing chronic pain with opioids purchased without a prescription and are cycling (but not quitting) their opioid

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that can grow to a height of 25 m (82 ft). Its trunk may grow to a 0.9 m (3 ft) diameter. The trunk is generally straight, and the outer bark is smooth and grey. The leaves, ovate-acuminate in shape and opposite in growth pattern, are dark green, glossy on their upper surfaces,

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The FDA recommends that consumers not use these or any kratom products and dispose of any products currently in their possession. While the FDA is not aware of recent reports of illness specifically associated with the use of Divinity Products Distribution's kratom-containing products, the agency

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Hassan Z, Muzaimi M, Navaratnam V, Yusoff N, Suhaimi FW, Vadivelu R, Vicknasingam BK, Amato D, von Hörsten S, Ismail N, Jayabalan N, Hazim AI, Mansor SM, Müller CP (2013). "From Kratom to mitragynine and its derivatives: Physiological and behavioural effects related to use, abuse, and addiction".

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received 660 reports of exposure to kratom. Medical outcomes associated with kratom exposure were reported as minor (minimal signs or symptoms, which resolved rapidly with no residual disability) for 162 (24.5%) exposures, moderate (non-life-threatening, with no residual disability, but requiring

736:

Kratom is often used by workers in laborious or monotonous occupations to stave off exhaustion, and as a mood-enhancer and painkiller. In Thailand, kratom was "used as a snack to receive guests and was part of the ritual worship of ancestors and gods". The herb is bitter and is generally combined

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Kratom is a botanical with a known addiction liability and, in vulnerable individuals, dependence may develop rather quickly with tolerance noted at 3 months and 4- to 10-fold dose escalations required within the first few weeks. Kratom addiction carries a relapse risk as high as 78% to 89% at 3

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Takayama H, Ishikawa H, Kurihara M, Kitajima M, Aimi N, Ponglux D, Koyama F, Matsumoto K, Moriyama T, Yamamoto LT, Watanabe K, Murayama T, Horie S (2002). "Studies on the synthesis and opioid agonistic activities of mitragynine-related indole alkaloids: discovery of opioid agonists structurally

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Patients addicted to opioids are using kratom without dependable instructions for use and more importantly, without consultation with a licensed health care provider about the product's dangers, potential side effects or interactions with other drugs. There's clear data on the increasing harms

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is prohibited to use, import, export, manufacture, compound, mix, dispense, sell, supply, administer or possess in Malaysia under Section 30(3) of the Poisons Act 1952, and will be punished by imprisonment or fine or both. Although prohibited by statute, the use of kratom remains widely spread

1909:

in the United States due to the poor quality of the research. In November 2017, the FDA cited serious concerns over the marketing and effects (including death) associated with the use of kratom in the United States, stating that "There is no reliable evidence to support the use of kratom as a

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some form of treatment) for 275 (41.7%) exposures, and major (life-threatening signs or symptoms, with some residual disability) for 49 (7.4%) exposures. Overall, 92.6% of outcomes were resolved with no residual disability. One death was reported in a person who was exposed to the medications

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contamination of several kratom-containing products. Samples of the products, manufactured by Triangle Pharmanaturals, and marketed under the brand name 'Raw Form Organics', tested positive for contamination and the manufacturer did not comply with federal requests for voluntary recall. FDA

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drug. In 2019, the FDA warned consumers that kratom remains unapproved for interstate commerce for use as a drug, may be unsafe in commercially available products, and is on an import alert, which can lead to confiscation of imported supplies. Efforts to schedule kratom generated significant

956:

Kratom products in the U.S. are commonly used in doses of 2–6 g of dried leaf, and doses exceeding 8 g are relatively uncommon. Given that kratom products may vary greatly in potency, there is no standard dosing system. At relatively low doses (1–5 g of raw leaves), at which there are mostly

1955:

of kratom have drawn both criticism and support. FDA commissioner Gottlieb responded to criticism in 2018 by stating that “The FDA has done an exhaustive review of adverse event reports, clinical literature and other sources of information related to kratom." However, in 2021, former Acting

1887:

Commissioner Gottlieb stated that the recall was, "...based on the imminent health risk posed by the contamination of this product with salmonella" and not related to other regulatory concerns. Consumers were advised to immediately discard any such products to prevent serious health risks.

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noted that kratom use was increasing rapidly, with 1807 kratom exposures and a 52-fold increase occurring over the years 2011 to 2017. Most exposures occurred intentionally by adult males in their homes, with 32% of the incidents requiring admission to a health care facility and half of the

1174:

Over 18 months in 2016 and 2017, 152 overdose deaths involving kratom were reported in the United States, with kratom as the primary overdose agent in 91 of the deaths, and 7 with kratom being the only agent detected. Nine deaths occurred in Sweden during 2010–11 relating to use of

810:

In Thailand, a 2007 survey found that the lifetime, past year, and past 30 days kratom consumption rates were 2.32%, 0.81% and 0.57%, respectively, among respondents aged 12–65 years, and that kratom was the most widely used recreational drug in Thailand.

406:

symptoms may occur. A number of deaths have been attributed to the use of kratom, both by itself and mixed with other substances. Serious toxicity is relatively rare and generally appears at high doses or when kratom is used with other substances.

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and can grow to over 14–20 cm (5.5–7.9 in) long and 7–12 cm (2.8–4.7 in) wide. They have 12 to 17 pairs of veins. The spherical inflorescences, which are deep yellow, grow in clusters of three at the ends of the branches. The

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Kratom overdose is a subject of concern in many countries because of the associated rising number of hospitalizations and deaths in which chronic kratom use is a contributing factor. According to clinical reviews, a kratom overdose can cause

414:

in 16 countries. There is growing international concern about a possible threat to public health from kratom use. In some jurisdictions its sale and importation have been restricted, and several public health authorities have raised alerts.

733:. The leaves, or extracts from them, are used to heal wounds and as a local anesthetic. Extracts and leaves have been used to treat coughs, diarrhea, and intestinal infections. They are also used as intestinal deworming agents in Thailand. 784:. At higher doses, kratom produces opioid-like effects. The onset of effects typically begins within five to ten minutes and lasts for two to five hours. Some anecdotal reports describe increased work capacity, alertness, talkativeness, 5880:

asks health care professionals and consumers to report adverse events or quality problems associated with the use of Divinity Products Distribution's products or any kratom product to the agency's online Safety Reporting Portal

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and over the Internet; the prevalence of its U.S. use was unknown at the time. In the United States, kratom use increased rapidly between 2011 and 2017. By 2020, it was estimated that 15 million people in the U.S. use kratom.

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Bachu AK, Singal P, Griffin B, Harbaugh L, Prasad S, Jain L, Mohiuddin S, Papudesi BN, Nagi T, Youssef NA, Chopra A, Ahmed S (November 2023). "Kratom use and mental health: A systematic literature review and case example".

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Kratom was previously scheduled to become an illegal substance in Indonesia in 2024 once new regulations from the Indonesian National Narcotics Agency (BNN) go into effect. However, in 2024, a revision to a regulation by

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Taylor Levine M, Gao J, Satyanarayanan SK, Berman S, Rogers JT, Mischoulon D (2020). "S-adenosyl-l-methionine (SAMe), cannabidiol (CBD), and kratom in psychiatric disorders: Clinical and mechanistic considerations".

5183: 5508: 2617: 9218: 2371:

Cinosi E, Martinotti G, Simonato P, Singh D, Demetrovics Z, Roman-Urrestarazu A, Bersani FS, Vicknasingam B, Piazzon G, Li JH, Yu WJ, Kapitány-Fövény M, Farkas J, Di Giannantonio M, Corazza O (2015).

5992: 1730:'s Executive Committee on Drug Dependency investigated the risks of kratom and declined to recommend a critical review of it. The committee, however, recommended kratom be kept "under surveillance." 1483:, which is used to manage anxiety and some symptoms of opioid withdrawal. This activity might explain why kratom can be dangerous when used in combination with other sedatives. Kratom also contains 6065: 8366: 8361: 8356: 7684: 6602: 6597: 6592: 4284:

Alsarraf E, Myers J, Culbreth S, Fanikos J. Kratom from head to toe—case reviews of adverse events and toxicities. Curr Emerg Hosp Med Rep. 2019;7(4):141-168. doi:10.1007/s40138-019-00194-1

4297:) for opioid withdrawal in the northern states of peninsular Malaysia and implications for drug substitution therapy. Int J Drug Policy.2010;21(4):283-288. doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2009.12.003 7082: 8939: 8065: 4332:

Stanciu C, Ahmed S, Hybki B, Penders T, Galbis-Reig D. Pharmacotherapy for Management of ‘Kratom Use Disorder': A Systematic Literature Review With Survey of Experts. WMJ. 2021;120(1)

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disallowed marketing of kratom for any use by ingestion and has taken action against companies marketing it for such purposes. Kratom can be marketed for other uses, such as incense.

826:. Starting in the 2010s, a tea-based cocktail known as "4×100" became popular among some young people across Southeast Asia and especially in Thailand. It is a mix of kratom leaves, 5604: 7799: 5735: 1963:

claimed that the FDA's recommendation to schedule kratom was rejected because of "embarrassingly poor evidence data." The FDA's position on kratom has also been criticized by the

9210: 6066:"Withdrawal of Notice of Intent to Temporarily Place Mitragynine and 7-Hydroxymitragynine Into Schedule I: A Proposed Rule by the Drug Enforcement Administration on 10/13/2016" 2339:"Statement from FDA Commissioner Scott Gottlieb, M.D., on the agency's scientific evidence on the presence of opioid compounds in kratom, underscoring its potential for abuse" 745:

Because the withdrawal effects of kratom are often reported to be less severe than those associated with traditional opioids, some people use kratom in the attempt to manage

7077: 1964: 5811: 9390: 7493: 1361:, and mitragynaline. The alkaloids mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine are responsible for many of the complex effects of kratom, but other alkaloids may also contribute 9423: 8691: 7939: 6982: 3181: 1914:; there are currently no FDA-approved therapeutic uses of kratom... and the FDA has evidence to show that there are significant safety issues associated with its use." 5402: 9205: 8110: 7819: 5190: 2377:): The Evolution of an Enhancer from a Traditional Use to Increase Work and Productivity in Southeast Asia to a Recreational Psychoactive Drug in Western Countries" 964:

Long-term use of high doses of kratom may lead to development of tolerance, dependence, and withdrawal symptoms, including loss of appetite, weight loss, decreased

370:

describe increased alertness, physical energy, talkativeness, sociability, sedation, changes in mood, and pain relief following kratom use at various doses. Common

3176:[Collegiate Board Resolution No. 816 - Lists of Narcotic, Psychotropic, Precursor, and Other Substances under Special Control] (in Brazilian Portuguese). 768:

In 1836, kratom was reported to have been used as an opium substitute in Malaysia. Kratom was also used as an opium substitute in Thailand in the 19th century.

9316: 9104: 6512: 5454: 1067:) in addition to kratom. For 173 (26.2%) exposure calls, no effects were reported, or poison center staff members were unable to follow up regarding effects. 8190: 5262: 834:

and ice. Around 2011, people who consumed the cocktail were often viewed more negatively than users of traditional kratom, but not as negatively as users of

6000: 5971: 5945: 6463: 6041: 5499:

Veltri C, Grundmann O. Current perspectives on the impact of Kratom use. Subst Abuse Rehabil. 2019;10:23–31. Published 2019 Jul 1. doi:10.2147/SAR.S164261

4372:"The medicinal chemistry and neuropharmacology of kratom: A preliminary discussion of a promising medicinal plant and analysis of its potential for abuse" 9311: 8185: 5184:"Annex I: ASEAN Guiding Principles For Inclusion into or Exclusion from the Negative List of Substances for Traditional Medicines and Health Supplements" 3144: 5736:"FDA issues warnings to companies selling illegal, unapproved kratom drug products marketed for opioid cessation, pain treatment and other medical uses" 5281: 1750:

As of January 2015, kratom was controlled as a narcotic in Australia and under Medicines Regulations 1985 (Amended August 6, 2015) in New Zealand.

9428: 5000:

Prozialeck WC, Jivan JK, Andurkar SV (2012). "Pharmacology of kratom: an emerging botanical agent with stimulant, analgesic, and opioid-like effects".

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Chakraborty S, Uprety R, Daibani AE, Rouzic VL, Hunkele A, Appourchaux K, Eans SO, Nuthikattu N, Jilakara R, Thammavong L, Pasternak GW (2021-07-21).

7067: 6532: 5524: 1146:. Liver injury has been reported with a latency (time from first use to onset of symptoms) of median 20.6 days. Reported liver biopsies tend to show 610: 1094:

can be considered to treat an overdose that results in a reduced impulse to breathe, despite mixed results for its utility, based on animal models.

857:

may cause many adverse effects, and in November 2017 the FDA issued a public health advisory for the drug. The side effects of kratom appear to be

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Singh D, Narayanan S, Vicknasingam B (September 2016). "Traditional and non-traditional uses of Mitragynine (Kratom): A survey of the literature".

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In rare cases, though with a dangerous delay, kratom use has been linked to acute liver injury, with symptoms of abdominal discomfort, dark urine,

4961:

Suhaimi FW, Yusoff NH, Hassan R, Mansor SM, Navaratnam V, Müller CP, Hassan Z (2016). "Neurobiology of Kratom and its main alkaloid mitragynine".

9597: 9238: 9230: 8291: 7749: 7634: 7443: 7290: 3794:

Post S, Spiller HA, Chounthirath T, Smith GA (20 February 2019). "Kratom exposures reported to United States poison control centers: 2011–2017".

2087: 1971:. Former commissioner Gottlieb continued to defend the agency's position in 2021, stating that he was convinced that kratom was fueling the U.S. 1856:

and more than 12,000 people who had been convicted for kratom-related offences when it was still considered a narcotic were granted an amnesty.

9507: 9271: 7548: 5155:"Summary of assessments, findings and recommendations of the 44th World Health Organization's (WHO) Expert Committee on Drug Dependence (ECDD)" 4632:"Kratom Alkaloids as Probes for Opioid Receptor Function: Pharmacological Characterization of Minor Indole and Oxindole Alkaloids from Kratom" 4425:

Mari A. Schaefer (April 13, 2019). "CDC: Kratom linked to 91 U.S. overdose deaths". Lodi News-Sentinel. The Philadelphia Inquirer. p. 16.

9768: 9286: 8611: 8496: 7889: 7244: 6907: 6567: 5634: 4489:"Here today, gone tomorrow…and back again? A review of herbal marijuana alternatives (K2, Spice), synthetic cathinones (bath salts), kratom, 6240:

Prozialeck WC, Avery BA, Boyer EW, Grundmann O, Henningfield JE, Kruegel AC, McMahon LR, McCurdy CR, Swogger MT, Veltri CA, Singh D (2019).

9861: 9433: 9403: 9354: 9074: 9064: 8165: 8160: 7669: 6216: 6110: 5612: 4310:) dependence, withdrawal symptoms and craving in regular users. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2014;139:132-137. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2014.03.017 838:. As of 2012, use of the cocktail was a severe problem among youth in three provinces along the border of Malaysia and southern Thailand. 4436: 9542: 9014: 8868: 8531: 8346: 7989: 7398: 6156: 2682: 1723:

As of January 2018, neither the plant nor its alkaloids were listed in any of the Schedules of the United Nations Drug Conventions.

9453: 9443: 8636: 7649: 5758: 5373: 4018:

Meireles V, Rosado T, Barroso M, Soares S, Gonçalves J, Luís Â, Caramelo D, Simão AY, Fernández N, Duarte AP, Gallardo E (2019-03-04).

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in its annex of products that cannot be included in traditional medicines and health supplements that are traded across ASEAN nations.

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Flores-Bocanegra L, Raja HA, Graf TN, Augustinović M, Wallace ED, Hematian S, Kellogg JJ, Todd DA, Cech NB, Oberlies NH (2020-07-24).

9489: 9458: 9359: 9246: 9099: 9079: 8969: 8949: 8676: 7999: 6997: 6627: 6091: 1975:, though Gottlieb's partiality has been called into question as he has since gone on to become a member of the board of directors of 961:(an increased stimulant effect) as well as the opioid side effects of constipation, dizziness, hypotension, dry mouth, and sweating. 352:(FDA) stated that there is no evidence that kratom is safe or effective for treating any condition. Some people take it for managing 6023: 3115:"Import Alert 54-15; Detention without physical examination of dietary supplements and bulk dietary ingredients that are or contain 1931:

group of 51 members of the U.S. House of Representatives and a group of nine Senators each sent letters to acting DEA administrator

9703: 8681: 8245: 8034: 7134: 6456: 2040: 5918: 3415:"The abuse potential of kratom according the 8 factors of the controlled substances act: implications for regulation and research" 9716: 9169: 9094: 9089: 9024: 4437:"Kratom Caused 91 Overdose Deaths During 18-Month Period: CDC – Partnership News Service from the Partnership for Drug-Free Kids" 2134: 2125: 2568:

Warner ML, Kaufman NC, Grundmann O (2016). "The pharmacology and toxicology of kratom: from traditional herb to drug of abuse".

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66% from Thai sources, and 7-hydroxymitragynine constituted ~2% by weight. At least 40 other compounds have been isolated from

9916: 5138: 5056: 4938: 4809:"Psychoactive Substances of Natural Origin: Toxicological Aspects, Therapeutic Properties and Analysis in Biological Samples" 4351: 4135: 3726: 3173: 2994: 2967: 2726: 2304: 1940: 6297:

Johnson LE, Balyan L, Magdalany A, Saeed F, Salinas R, Wallace S, Veltri CA, Swogger MT, Walsh Z, Grundmann O (2020-06-29).

6186: 4260:"Multistate Outbreak of Salmonella I 4,[5],12:b:- Infections Linked to Kratom Products | February 2018 | Salmonella" 725:. The leaves are chewed to relieve musculoskeletal pain and increase energy, appetite, and sexual desire in ways similar to 445:-tube is 2 mm (0.08 in) long and has five lobes; the corolla-tube is 2.5–3 millimetres (0.098–0.12 in) long. 3545:

Stanciu CN, Gnanasegaram SA, Ahmed S, Penders T (January 2019). "Kratom Withdrawal: A Systematic Review with Case Series".

1118:

months post-cessation. In cases of severe addiction, a similar approach to treatment of opioid addiction may be warranted.

1105:

linked to the consumption of contaminated pills, powder, tea or unidentified sources of kratom. An analytical method using

5867:"FDA oversees destruction and recall of kratom products; and reiterates its concerns on risks associated with this opioid" 340:

since at least the 19th century. They have also historically been consumed via chewing, smoking, and as a tea. Kratom has

7047: 6449: 6435: 5300: 1706:

effects in cells and non-human animals, there is no sufficient evidence to support the clinical use of kratom in humans.

5240: 2616:

Corkery JM, Streete P, Claridge H, Goodair C, Papanti D, Orsolini L, Schifano F, Sikka K, Körber S, Hendricks A (2019).

690:(FDA) said that there is no evidence that kratom is safe or effective for treating any condition, and that there are no 5659: 3169: 3081: 4209:"Notes from the Field: Unintentional Drug Overdose Deaths with Kratom Detected — 27 States, July 2016 – December 2017" 3150:. Office of Dietary Supplement Programs, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, US Food and Drug Administration 451:

is indigenous to Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, and Papua New Guinea. It was first formally described by the

5709: 5403:"Bupati Kapuas Hulu: Sudah Terbit Permendag RI Nomor 21 Tahun 2024 Tentang Ekspor Komoditi Kratom - KalbarOnline.Com" 4125: 3769: 1109:

applied to samples from the infected users indicated that the salmonella outbreak likely had a common kratom source.

705:

for use in liquids. Kratom is rarely smoked. Different varieties of kratom contain different relative proportions of

9773: 8811: 3058: 1777: 5266: 5215: 2297:

Julien's Primer of Drug Action: a comprehensive guide to the actions, uses, and side effects of psychoactive drugs

1400:

pathway partly responsible for the respiratory depression, constipation, and sedation associated with traditional

9742: 8806: 2920:"Kratom profile (chemistry, effects, other names, origin, mode of use, other names, medical use, control status)" 1923: 1869: 683: 586: 34: 5893:"Statement from FDA Commissioner Scott Gottlieb, M.D. on FDA advisory about deadly risks associated with kratom" 8731: 5090:"Analysis of mitragynine and metabolites in human urine for detecting the use of the psychoactive plant kratom" 1957: 1891: 865:

of adverse effects in people who use kratom is unknown, a 2019 review of 935 kratom exposures reported to U.S.

858: 9812: 4460: 3174:"RDC Nº 816 - Listas de Substâncias Entorpecentes, Psicotrópicas, Precursoras e Outras sob Controle Especial" 2130: 1805: 1423: 1097:

From October 2017 to February 2018 in the United States, 28 people in 20 different states were infected with

5314: 2041:

IUCN SSC Global Tree Specialist Group & Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI). 2021 (2021).

9911: 9901: 9668: 7929: 5892: 5866: 5840: 5154: 3177: 2338: 1865: 1071: 687: 349: 6418: 9499: 5028: 4918: 1464: 1376:. While most data indicates agonism at all three opioid receptors, other data suggests the alkaloids are 1039: 1028: 9721: 2919: 2116: 2065: 1873:

controversy, both among the general public and scientific community, and were ultimately unsuccessful.

9807: 8909: 8904: 8296: 7639: 6727: 1926:(DEA) announced its intention to place the active materials in the kratom plant into Schedule I of the 1080: 803:

According to the U.S. DEA and a 2020 survey, kratom is used to alleviate pain, anxiety, depression, or

1935:

protesting the listing and around 140,000 people signed an online White House Petition protesting it.

761:

than traditional opioids, other reviews note that kratom withdrawal itself can still be quite severe.

111: 9906: 9886: 8929: 7919: 7644: 6962: 2485: 1927: 1727: 1621: 1311: 348:-like effects. As of 2018, the efficacy and safety of kratom are unclear. In 2019, the United States 30: 364:. The onset of effects typically begins within five to ten minutes and lasts for two to five hours. 9876: 9871: 8899: 8841: 8301: 8060: 7305: 5782: 1488: 862: 5550:

Cheurprakobkit S (2000). "The drug situation in Thailand: the role of government and the police".

3082:"Unauthorized "Sāj" kratom products seized from two Edmonton stores may pose serious health risks" 9479: 8894: 7518: 7300: 3062: 1405: 1389: 1106: 4323:) users in Malaysia. J Psychoactive Drugs. 2015;47(2):125-131. doi:10.1080/02791072.2015.1012610 1770:

As of 2011, the plant was controlled in Denmark, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Romania and Sweden.

9760: 9630: 8306: 7320: 7295: 7194: 3743: 3057: 2714: 2693: 1691: 1454: 1420: 1416: 1393: 1126: 686:(DEA) stated in 2013 that there is no legitimate medical use for kratom, and in 2019, the U.S. 456: 387: 245: 3716: 3358:

Stanciu C, Ahmed S, Gnanasegaram S, Gibson S, Penders T, Grundmann O, McCurdy C (2022-09-03).

2984: 1368:

The effects of both mitragynine and 7-HMG remain disputed despite substantial study. Both are

621:: Unscheduled (Not authorized for sale or use), legal for religious use, such as incense 8461: 6757: 5352: 5027:

Ramanathan S, León F, Chear NJ, Yusof SR, Murugaiyah V, McMahon LR, McCurdy CR (2021-01-01).

3360:"Kratom as an opioid alternative: harm, or harm reduction? A systematic review of literature" 3114: 2081: 2021: 1164: 1043: 866: 464: 361: 228: 9786: 5919:"DEA Announces Intent to Schedule Kratom: SE Asian drug is imminent hazard to public safety" 4693:]: Updated Characterization Data and Methods to Elucidate Indole and Oxindole Alkaloids" 4584: 9921: 9881: 9866: 9690: 6537: 6517: 3202:

Singh D, Narayanan S, Vicknasingam B, Corazza O, Santacroce R, Roman-Urrestarazu A (2017).

1952: 1788: 1776:

The sale, import, and export of kratom have been prohibited in the UK since 2016 under the

1640: 1606: 1577: 1444: 1342: 1269: 926: 754: 722: 534: 411: 375: 8274: 7617: 6483: 4463:. Toxnet, National Library of Medicine, US National Institutes of Health. 14 February 2012 2806:. LiverTox, National Library of Medicine, US National Institutes of Health. 9 March 2017. 2042: 1385: 1381: 1373: 1254: 1244: 1234: 8: 9602: 9188: 9034: 8994: 8321: 8140: 8120: 7418: 7380: 7335: 5976: 5301:"After U.S. delayed decision on kratom, a look at Canada's laws on the psychadelic plant" 4259: 2960:

Kratom and Other Mitragynines: The Chemistry and Pharmacology of Opioids from a Non-Opium

1979:, a company that has been heavily criticized for its sale and marketing of opioid drugs. 1911: 1784: 1503: 1377: 1180: 914: 746: 76: 6408: 4024:: Clinical, Toxicological Aspects and Analysis in Biological and Non-Biological Samples" 9896: 9833: 9799: 9134: 8441: 8130: 7754: 7408: 7088: 6712: 6672: 6475: 6380: 6323: 6298: 6274: 6241: 5922: 5070: 5048: 4982: 4970: 4930: 4843: 4808: 4789: 4725: 4664: 4631: 4612: 4517: 4488: 4407: 4233: 4208: 4181: 4152: 4106: 4058: 4019: 3944: 3886: 3827: 3692: 3655: 3636: 3578: 3519: 3486: 3447: 3414: 3395: 3290: 3278: 2778: 2655: 2593: 2403: 2372: 2277: 2208: 1902: 1612: 1499: 1460: 1211: 918: 910: 698: 521: 367: 257: 106: 8919: 8075: 7315: 6129: 5338: 5282:"Kratom, a controversial herbal product, seized from 2 Edmonton stores: Health Canada" 4371: 9781: 9677: 8924: 8316: 8311: 8085: 7330: 6892: 6527: 6384: 6372: 6364: 6328: 6310: 6279: 6261: 5683: 5134: 5111: 5074: 5062: 5052: 5033:

Korth.): A description on the ethnobotany, alkaloid chemistry, and neuropharmacology"

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Kratom and other mitragynines : the chemistry & pharmacology of opioids from

4238: 4186: 4131: 4110: 4098: 4063: 4045: 3991: 3983: 3979: 3948: 3936: 3928: 3890: 3878: 3870: 3819: 3811: 3722: 3697: 3679: 3675: 3628: 3620: 3570: 3562: 3524: 3506: 3452: 3434: 3399: 3387: 3379: 3340: 3332: 3328: 3282: 3247: 3239: 3040: 2990: 2963: 2872: 2864: 2807: 2782: 2770: 2722: 2659: 2647: 2585: 2458: 2408: 2300: 2269: 2261: 2212: 2200: 1968: 1906: 1687: 1450: 938: 869:

over a seven-year period listed the following signs and symptoms: agitation (18.6%),

815: 804: 793: 750: 391: 357: 6242:"Kratom policy: The challenge of balancing therapeutic potential with public safety" 4411: 3831: 3640: 3582: 2257: 2100: 1783:

In 2017, kratom was designated a Schedule 1 illegal drug (the highest level) in the

9891: 9838: 9682: 9324: 9261: 9084: 8800: 8726: 8451: 8180: 7934: 7774: 7488: 6747: 6356: 6318: 6269: 6253: 5559: 5101: 5044: 4986: 4966: 4926: 4883: 4838: 4820: 4765: 4720: 4704: 4659: 4643: 4596: 4557: 4512: 4504: 4383: 4228: 4220: 4176: 4166: 4127:

Case Studies in Medical Toxicology: From the American College of Medical Toxicology

4090: 4053: 4035: 3975: 3920: 3862: 3803: 3687: 3671: 3612: 3554: 3514: 3498: 3442: 3426: 3371: 3324: 3294: 3274: 3229: 3219: 3032: 2854: 2762: 2637: 2629: 2597: 2577: 2450: 2398: 2388: 2281: 2253: 2190: 2060: 1539: 1521: 1207: 996: 333: 5455:"Menkop Teten Dorong Hilirisasi Produk Kratom, Bisa Dijual Rp90 Juta per Kilogram" 4151:

Patel P, Aknouk M, Keating S, Richard I, Kata P, Ali RY, Cheriyath P (July 2021).

4094: 3964:"Patterns of Kratom use and health impact in the US-Results from an online survey" 3807: 3558: 3375: 8974: 8501: 8456: 7804: 7779: 6822: 6752: 6607: 6498: 6472: 6257: 4708: 4647: 3866: 3487:"Kratom—Pharmacology, Clinical Implications, and Outlook: A Comprehensive Review" 2012: 1972: 1932: 1625: 1588:; e.g., in one study, mitragynine was 12% by weight from Malaysian leaf sources, 1581: 1561: 1484: 1476: 1427: 1412: 1369: 1354: 1346: 1087: 1064: 1000: 898: 890: 785: 679: 403: 337: 149: 8914: 8070: 7310: 5189:. Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN). June 28, 2014. Archived from 4919:"Chapter 14. Natural Product (Fungal and Herbal): Novel Psychoactive Substances" 9794: 9276: 8601: 7899: 7879: 7874: 7679: 6937: 6897: 6887: 6847: 6742: 6707: 6612: 6587: 6542: 6187:"Kratom Association Calls FDA Review of Drug 'Junk Science' in Scathing Report" 5265:. Health Canada, Health Products and Food Branch. 26 March 2015. Archived from 4749: 4688: 3502: 3036: 2766: 2177:

Rech MA, Donahey E, Cappiello Dziedzic JM, Oh L, Greenhalgh E (February 2015).

1992: 1895: 1695: 1664: 1472: 1434: 1160: 1060: 1052: 1032: 1008: 991:

Frequent use of high doses of kratom may cause tremors, anorexia, weight loss,

906: 514: 399: 309: 136: 6360: 5812:"FDA Orders An Unprecedented Recall After Kratom Company Ignored Its Requests" 4887: 4825: 4769: 4508: 4319:

Singh D, Müller CP, Vicknasingam BK, Mansor SM. Social functioning of kratom (

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Ya K, Tangamornsuksan W, Scholfield CN, Methaneethorn J, Lohitnavy M (2019).

4716: 4655: 4608: 4395: 4049: 4040: 3987: 3932: 3874: 3815: 3683: 3660:): User demographics, use patterns, and implications for the opioid epidemic" 3624: 3566: 3510: 3438: 3383: 3336: 3243: 2868: 2633: 2265: 2051: 1988: 1831: 1759: 1617: 1440: 1350: 894: 789: 758: 691: 96: 91: 9825: 4867: 4293:

Vicknasingam B, Narayanan S, Beng GT, Mansor SM. The informal use of ketum (

3963: 3908: 3846: 3359: 3312: 9587: 9522: 9448: 9256: 8831: 8796: 8596: 8401: 8260: 7854: 7849: 7744: 7719: 7714: 7538: 7463: 7209: 7164: 7017: 7012: 6967: 6867: 6702: 6667: 6662: 6376: 6332: 6283: 5841:"FDA orders mandatory recall for kratom products due to risk of salmonella" 5563: 5115: 5013: 4978: 4903: 4852: 4785: 4734: 4673: 4569: 4526: 4403: 4242: 4224: 4190: 4102: 4067: 3995: 3940: 3882: 3823: 3701: 3632: 3574: 3528: 3456: 3391: 3344: 3286: 3251: 3044: 3018: 2876: 2859: 2838: 2811: 2774: 2651: 2589: 2462: 2412: 2273: 2204: 1960: 1660: 1362: 950: 452: 383: 353: 4923:

Novel Psychoactive Substances: Classification, Pharmacology and Toxicology

2393: 1035:

is one of the rare and serious complications of this herb at high dosage.

9729: 9662: 9517: 9494: 9408: 9334: 9301: 9281: 9159: 9144: 9139: 9129: 9119: 9039: 9009: 9004: 8849: 8821: 8816: 8786: 8771: 8761: 8741: 8736: 8696: 8661: 8651: 8606: 8586: 8571: 8566: 8536: 8481: 8476: 8471: 8416: 8391: 8376: 8351: 8341: 8331: 8326: 8240: 8235: 8230: 8215: 8155: 8150: 8125: 7984: 7974: 7954: 7914: 7909: 7884: 7869: 7834: 7829: 7729: 7704: 7598: 7593: 7583: 7573: 7563: 7498: 7428: 7385: 7229: 7159: 7129: 7114: 7099: 7072: 7037: 7022: 7007: 6992: 6957: 6947: 6917: 6902: 6877: 6842: 6837: 6827: 6817: 6777: 6772: 6732: 6722: 6657: 6642: 6617: 6577: 6562: 6552: 5509:

Pengasih wants abuse of kratom leaves penalised under Dangerous Drugs Act

5106: 5089: 4171: 3599:

Babu KM, McCurdy CR, Boyer EW (2008). "Opioid receptors and legal highs:

2922:. European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. 8 January 2015 1976: 1792: 1699: 1652: 1565: 1551: 1338: 1290: 1147: 1056: 973: 958: 922: 870: 827: 710: 659: 529: 398:, elevated heart rate and blood pressure, trouble sleeping, and, rarely, 371: 185: 4750:"Pharmacokinetics of mitragynine, a major analgesic alkaloid in kratom ( 4747: 4207:

Olsen EO, O'Donnell J, Mattson CL, Schier JG, Wilson N (12 April 2019).

988:, restlessness, anger, and sadness. This may lead to resumption of use. 67: 9708: 9612: 9582: 9557: 9438: 9349: 9329: 9306: 9149: 9124: 9114: 9069: 9059: 9044: 8959: 8853: 8781: 8776: 8751: 8721: 8711: 8686: 8671: 8646: 8616: 8591: 8581: 8541: 8521: 8511: 8491: 8421: 8406: 8225: 8205: 8200: 8175: 8105: 8044: 8024: 7979: 7969: 7964: 7904: 7894: 7824: 7739: 7588: 7578: 7568: 7558: 7523: 7513: 7478: 7448: 7438: 7433: 7370: 7214: 7189: 7184: 7179: 7169: 7154: 7124: 7042: 7032: 7027: 6977: 6932: 6912: 6882: 6832: 6812: 6767: 6692: 6582: 6572: 2721:(Eighth ed.). London: Elsevier Health Sciences. pp. 2015–23. 2454: 1883: 1703: 1668: 1656: 1601: 1573: 1568:, which is a tetracyclic relative of the pentacyclic indole alkaloids, 1507: 1495: 1358: 1098: 1048: 874: 9734: 5972:"DEA defies senators' appeal to reconsider 'unprecedented' kratom ban" 5360:

STATUTORY INSTRUMENTS, S.I. No. 174 of 2017. Stationery Office, Dublin

4600: 4561: 3924: 3234: 2803: 2712: 2642: 2195: 2178: 1070:

A 2019 report from the American Association of Poison Control Centers

402:. Addiction is a possible risk with regular use: when use is stopped, 9567: 9562: 9512: 9484: 9413: 9374: 9369: 9344: 9339: 9266: 9174: 9164: 9054: 8964: 8878: 8836: 8826: 8766: 8756: 8746: 8716: 8706: 8701: 8656: 8626: 8506: 8486: 8386: 8381: 8336: 8255: 8250: 8210: 8195: 8170: 8100: 8039: 8009: 7959: 7949: 7944: 7809: 7699: 7664: 7659: 7603: 7528: 7508: 7503: 7473: 7403: 7365: 7345: 7340: 7280: 7264: 7254: 7199: 7109: 7057: 7052: 6987: 6942: 6922: 6802: 6792: 6637: 5427:"Teten Masduki Akan Wariskan Program Hilirisasi Kratom untuk Prabowo" 3224: 3203: 3145:"FDA warning letter to Industrial Chemicals, LLC, and INI Botanicals" 1683: 1679: 1672: 1569: 1480: 1024: 977: 969: 942: 882: 842: 831: 655: 563: 544: 539: 436: 395: 345: 321: 305: 301: 205: 195: 9624: 6345: 6157:"The U.S. May Ban Kratom. But Are its Effects Deadly or Lifesaving?" 5993:"Congress members ask DEA not to ban kratom: opioid research needed" 5921:. US Drug Enforcement Administration. 30 August 2016. Archived from 5341:. The National Archives, HM Government Publishing. 9 September 2016. 4686: 2692:. U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration. January 2013. Archived from 2441:

White CM (2018). "Pharmacologic and clinical assessment of kratom".

678:

As of 2013, kratom has been studied in cells and in animals, but no

9820: 9647: 9572: 9364: 9109: 9019: 8999: 8989: 8944: 8873: 8666: 8576: 8561: 8526: 8516: 8396: 8220: 8115: 8090: 8029: 8014: 7924: 7844: 7814: 7794: 7764: 7709: 7689: 7654: 7543: 7468: 7453: 7375: 7355: 7224: 7219: 7204: 7174: 7144: 7104: 6972: 6862: 6807: 6717: 6652: 6622: 6507: 4868:"A botanical, phytochemical and ethnomedicinal review of the genus 4342:

Beckett JR (2014). "Non-Analgesic CNS Effects". In Raffa RB (ed.).

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at the μ-opioid receptor than mitragynine. These compounds display

1334: 1184: 1143: 1139: 1102: 1091: 1076: 1016: 1004: 985: 934: 930: 878: 819: 797: 777: 706: 647: 568: 325: 317: 313: 175: 162: 9747: 6111:"Kratom, an Addict's Alternative, Is Found to Be Addictive Itself" 3907:

Eggleston W, Stoppacher R, Suen K, Marraffa JM, Nelson LS (2019).

3019:

Adkins JE, Edward W. Boyer, Christopher R. McCurdy (2011-05-01). "

2843:) Exposures Reported to Poison Centers – United States, 2010–2015" 1845: 490: 9537: 9418: 9296: 8979: 8863: 8641: 8631: 7859: 7789: 7724: 7674: 7533: 7285: 7259: 7249: 7234: 7139: 6952: 6927: 6677: 6557: 6299:"The Potential for Kratom as an Antidepressant and Antipsychotic" 5319:Национална информационна линия за наркотиците, алкохола и хазарта 4124:

Dye LR, Murphy C, Calello DP, Levine MD, Skolnik A (2017-12-22).

3201: 3023:, a psychoactive tree from Southeast Asia with opioid activity". 1648: 1644: 1020: 992: 886: 841:

In the U.S., as of 2015, kratom was available in outlets such as

823: 702: 651: 329: 9695: 5710:"HHS recommended that the DEA ban kratom, documents show – STAT" 4546: 3654:

Garcia-Romeu A, Cox DJ, Smith KE, Dunn KE, Griffiths RR (2020).

2719:

Rosen's emergency medicine : concepts and clinical practice

670: 423: 9547: 9532: 9527: 9398: 9291: 8954: 8621: 8436: 8095: 8019: 8004: 7994: 7769: 7360: 7239: 6857: 6737: 6430: 4206: 4157: 3906: 3544: 3059:

Department of Health and Aging Therapeutic Goods Administration

2176: 1535: 1532: 1528: 1524: 1401: 1012: 965: 946: 835: 504: 379: 341: 249: 5241:"Unauthorized products may pose serious health risks (kratom)" 4629: 3744:"Kratom in Thailand: Decriminalisation and Community Control?" 3357: 1083:

being the most frequently identified co-occurring substances.

697:

Kratom is commonly ingested by chewing, as a tea, powdered in

9552: 9154: 9049: 8791: 8546: 8411: 7784: 7734: 7694: 7458: 7149: 7093: 7002: 6687: 6682: 6239: 5479:"Amend the Act leaves the density of the Dangerous Drugs Act" 5133:. Seal Beach, Calif.: Biomedical Publications. p. 1382. 4153:"Cheating Death: A Rare Case Presentation of Kratom Toxicity" 3753: 2615: 2370: 2242: 1739: 1511: 981: 913:(0.6%). The study also reported two deaths and four cases of 442: 123: 6493: 5946:"Kratom Advocates Speak Out Against Proposed Government Ban" 5783:"Kratom ban will hinder studies of the plant as a treatment" 5525:"Thailand legislature legalises medical cannabis and kratom" 5374:"Mulai 2024, Pemerintah Larang Penggunaan dan Ekspor Kratom" 3793: 8556: 6296: 6042:"Kratom Gets Reprieve From Drug Enforcement Administration" 4806: 4017: 1426:, and interact with other receptors in the brain including 1168: 902: 781: 730: 726: 721:

In cultures where the plant grows, kratom has been used in

634: Unscheduled (Drug of concern), subject to import bans 4441:

Partnership to End Addiction | Where Families Find Answers

4083: 3264: 3070:. 40th meeting. Government of Australia. pp. 103–105. 2299:(14th ed.). New York: Worth Publishers. p. 570. 861:

and are more common with doses that exceed 8 g. While the

4960: 4807:

Gonçalves J, Luís Â, Gallardo E, Duarte AP (2021-03-05).

4150: 2958:(Korth.) Havil. and Related Species". In Raffa RB (ed.). 917:. A different 2019 review listed as common side effects: 5026: 3653: 336:, where its leaves, known as "kratom" have been used in 6217:"A Sensible, Evidence-Based Proposal for Kratom Reform" 5635:"Parliament votes to remove kratom from narcotics list" 4999: 3770:"A Fading Thai Drug Finds Its Resurgence in a Cocktail" 1475:(noradrenaline); other compounds in this class include 1042:

issued a report stating that between 2010 and 2015, US

463:; it was renamed and reclassified several times before 6184: 5759:"Kratom: Fear-worthy foliage or beneficial botanical?" 4123: 2618:"Characteristics of deaths associated with kratom use" 2567: 5895:. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 14 November 2017 5869:. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 21 February 2018 5605:"Decision yet to be reached on making 'kratom' legal" 4585:"Kratom: A systematic review of toxicological issues" 4486: 3121:. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 20 December 2016 495:

Powder produced from unspecified tissues of the plant

6024:"Kratom Will Remain Legal for Days, Possibly Longer" 3412: 3014: 3012: 3010: 3008: 3006: 2002: 467:

provided the final name and classification in 1859.

6130:"The Herbal Supplement That Might Be a Deadly Drug" 5002:

The Journal of the American Osteopathic Association

4916: 3484: 3313:"Kratom use and mental health: A systematic review" 3212:

Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental

2713:Marx, John, Walls, Ron, Hockberger, Robert (2014). 2294: 2066:

10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-1.RLTS.T192376330A192376332.en

682:have been conducted in the United States. The U.S. 2288: 1987:Kratom is under preliminary research for possible 6092:"States ban kratom supplement over abuse worries" 5578:"Leafy highs: Kratom personal use push under way" 5400: 4582: 4482: 4480: 4478: 3844: 3109: 3107: 3105: 3103: 3003: 1882:mandatory recall in its history over concerns of 968:, insomnia, muscle spasms, muscle and bone pain, 9853: 9615:(met-enkephalin releaser/degradation stabilizer) 5279: 4872:korth: Implications for products sold as kratom" 4424: 4369: 3909:"Kratom Use and Toxicities in the United States" 3598: 1130:in kratom do not induce respiratory depression. 6096:Associated Press via US News & World Report 5738:. US Food and Drug Administration. 25 June 2019 5131:Disposition of toxic drugs and chemicals in man 4542: 4540: 4538: 4536: 4266:. Centers for Disease Control. 20 February 2018 2488:. US Food and Drug Administration. 3 April 2019 2336: 1580:(7-HMG) compose significant proportions of the 1404:. Both mitragynine and 7-HMG readily cross the 1349:, paynantheine, corynantheidine, speciogynine, 6471: 5549: 5519: 5517: 4865: 4475: 3752:community perceptions are far milder than for 3364:The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse 3100: 2954:Eisenman SW (2014). "Chapter 5. The Botany of 2836: 2744: 2742: 2740: 2738: 1773:Kratom is a controlled substance in Bulgaria. 6457: 6072:. Drug Enforcement Administration. 2016-10-13 5834: 5832: 5087: 4306:Singh D, Müller CP, Vicknasingam BK. Kratom ( 3064:National Drugs and Poisons Schedule Committee 1538:, which results in significant potential for 1086:Overdoses of kratom are managed similarly to 5847:. United States Food and Drug Administration 5838: 5805: 5803: 5298: 4993: 4533: 4144: 3714: 3310: 2748: 2480: 2478: 2476: 2474: 2472: 2238: 2236: 2234: 2232: 2230: 2228: 2226: 2224: 2222: 1745: 1715:by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. 6185:Garber-Paul E, Garber-Paul E (2018-08-15). 5514: 4487:Rosenbaum CD, Carreiro SP, Babu KM (2012). 4335: 4213:MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 3540: 3538: 2949: 2947: 2945: 2943: 2941: 2939: 2937: 2847:MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 2798: 2796: 2794: 2792: 2735: 2172: 2170: 2086:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 1817:The use of kratom leaves, known locally as 1709: 1682:. Although some of these compounds possess 15: 6464: 6450: 5829: 5511:. The Malaysian Insider. October 28, 2012. 5353:"MISUSE OF DRUGS (DESIGNATION) ORDER 2017" 4866:Brown PN, Lund JA, Murch SJ (2017-04-18). 4365: 4363: 4202: 4200: 3721:(Fifth ed.). CRC Press. p. 528. 3413:Henningfield JE, Fant RV, Wang DW (2018). 2914: 2912: 2910: 2908: 2906: 2611: 2609: 2607: 2563: 2561: 2559: 2557: 2555: 2553: 2551: 2549: 2547: 2545: 2543: 2541: 2539: 2537: 2535: 2533: 2531: 2529: 2527: 2525: 2523: 2168: 2166: 2164: 2162: 2160: 2158: 2156: 2154: 2152: 2150: 1556:Many of the key psychoactive compounds in 1212: 489: 85: 66: 16: 6322: 6273: 5990: 5943: 5800: 5128: 5105: 4842: 4824: 4724: 4663: 4516: 4232: 4180: 4170: 4057: 4039: 3961: 3691: 3518: 3485:Eastlack SC, Cornett EM, Kaye AD (2020). 3446: 3233: 3223: 2904: 2902: 2900: 2898: 2896: 2894: 2892: 2890: 2888: 2886: 2858: 2753:) Liver Injury: A Comprehensive Review". 2749:Schimmel J, Dart RC (Feb 2020). "Kratom ( 2641: 2521: 2519: 2517: 2515: 2513: 2511: 2509: 2507: 2505: 2503: 2469: 2402: 2392: 2366: 2364: 2362: 2360: 2358: 2356: 2332: 2330: 2328: 2326: 2324: 2322: 2320: 2318: 2316: 2295:Advokat CD, Comaty JE, Julien RM (2019). 2219: 2194: 2106:. Theplantlist.org. Retrieved 2013-12-26. 2064: 1255: 1245: 1235: 1121: 753:claim that kratom has less potential for 51:Plant species, recreational drug (kratom) 6303:The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine 6246:The International Journal on Drug Policy 5969: 5809: 5676: 4453: 4254: 4252: 4079: 4077: 3535: 2953: 2934: 2789: 2708: 2706: 2677: 2675: 2673: 2671: 2669: 999:may result when kratom is combined with 669: 422: 24:This is an accepted version of this page 6108: 5728: 5657: 5602: 5263:"Health Product Advertising Complaints" 4360: 4341: 4197: 3789: 3787: 3785: 3783: 3741: 3204:"Changing trends in the use of kratom ( 3138: 3136: 2837:Anwar M, Law R, Schier J (2016-01-01). 2604: 2436: 2434: 2432: 2430: 2428: 2426: 2424: 2422: 2147: 2135:United States Department of Agriculture 2126:Germplasm Resources Information Network 1183:, a metabolite of the opioid analgesic 386:. More severe side-effects may include 14: 9854: 6214: 6210: 6208: 6206: 6180: 6178: 6176: 6151: 6149: 6021: 5471: 5449: 5447: 4548:different from other opioid ligands". 3767: 3168: 2982: 2883: 2832: 2830: 2828: 2500: 2353: 2313: 1982: 638: 9629: 9628: 6445: 6127: 6089: 5396: 5394: 5037:Studies in Natural Products Chemistry 4249: 4074: 4013: 4011: 4009: 4007: 4005: 3902: 3900: 3594: 3592: 3480: 3478: 3476: 3474: 3472: 3470: 3468: 3466: 3306: 3304: 3025:Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry 2986:Studies in Natural Products Chemistry 2703: 2666: 2440: 1941:International Narcotics Control Board 800:following the consumption of kratom. 629: 470: 5911: 4925:. Academic Press. pp. 345–362. 3780: 3142: 3133: 2419: 2104:(Korth.) Havil. is an accepted name 1951:The FDA's arguments for the federal 1179:, a mixture of kratom, caffeine and 771: 740: 9862:IUCN Red List least concern species 6203: 6173: 6146: 5502: 5444: 2825: 2337:Gottlieb, Scott (6 February 2018). 2109: 2052:IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 48: 5991:Stapleton C (September 29, 2016). 5756: 5391: 5380:(in Indonesian). December 22, 2020 5339:"Psychoactive Substances Act 2016" 5088:Le D, Goggin MM, Janis GC (2012). 5049:10.1016/B978-0-12-819487-4.00003-3 4971:10.1016/j.brainresbull.2016.03.015 4931:10.1016/B978-0-12-415816-0.00014-6 4917:Gibbons S, Arunotayanun W (2013). 4002: 3897: 3647: 3589: 3463: 3311:Swogger MT, Walsh Z (2018-02-01). 3301: 3279:10.1016/j.brainresbull.2016.05.004 2373:"Following "the Roots" of Kratom ( 1946: 1901:Although it was a federally legal 1610:), corynantheidine (also found in 1479:, which is used for sedation, and 849: 716: 434:is an evergreen tree in the genus 49: 9933: 8432:Desmetramadol (desmethyltramadol) 7760:Desmetramadol (desmethyltramadol) 6713:Dextropropoxyphene (propoxyphene) 6698:Desmetramadol (desmethyltramadol) 6394: 5970:Ingraham C (September 30, 2016). 5944:Silverman L (12 September 2016). 5660:"Kratom now listed as legal herb" 5280:Phil Heidenreich (27 June 2017). 4493:, methoxetamine, and piperazines" 3845:Ramanathan S, McCurdy CR (2020). 2341:. US Food and Drug Administration 1917: 1876: 1738:As of 2013, kratom was listed by 1596:leaves, including ~25 additional 1576:. In particular, mitragynine and 1133: 595: 308:family (coffee family) native to 9813:urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:756303-1 8812:Salvinorin B methoxymethyl ether 6429: 6401: 6339: 6290: 6233: 6121: 6102: 6083: 6058: 6034: 6015: 5984: 5963: 5937: 5885: 5859: 5775: 5401:adminkalbaronline (2024-09-04). 5299:Coles, Terri (14 October 2016). 5243:. Health Canada. 21 October 2020 5094:Journal of Analytical Toxicology 4583:Kerrigan S, Basiliere S (2021). 4388:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.08.026 4370:Kruegel AC, Grundmann O (2018). 3980:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2017.03.007 3676:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2020.107849 3329:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2017.10.012 2005: 1859: 549:and more than 40 other compounds 110: 8807:Salvinorin B ethoxymethyl ether 6022:Nelson S (September 30, 2016). 5750: 5702: 5651: 5627: 5596: 5570: 5543: 5493: 5419: 5366: 5345: 5331: 5307: 5292: 5273: 5255: 5233: 5208: 5176: 5147: 5122: 5081: 5020: 4954: 4910: 4859: 4800: 4741: 4680: 4623: 4576: 4429: 4418: 4346:. CRC Press. pp. 195–204. 4326: 4313: 4300: 4287: 4278: 4117: 3955: 3838: 3761: 3735: 3718:Karch's Pathology of Drug Abuse 3708: 3406: 3351: 3258: 3195: 3184:from the original on 2023-10-19 3162: 3074: 3051: 2976: 2839:"Notes from the Field: Kratom ( 2258:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.11.012 1924:Drug Enforcement Administration 1905:, kratom was not approved as a 1388:. 7-HMG appears to have higher 1190: 814:Kratom may be mixed with other 780:effects comparable to those of 684:Drug Enforcement Administration 8732:Norbuprenorphine-3-glucuronide 4689:"The Chemistry of Kratom [ 2094: 2034: 1958:Commissioner of Food and Drugs 1506:mechanisms with the resulting 1199:alkaloids at opioid receptors 776:At low doses, kratom produces 617: 604: 418: 13: 1: 8707:Nalodeine (N-allylnorcodeine) 7900:Met-enkephalin (metenkefalin) 7509:Nalodeine (N-allylnorcodeine) 6938:Met-enkephalin (metenkefalin) 6349:Brain, Behavior, and Immunity 4497:Journal of Medical Toxicology 4095:10.1080/10550887.2023.2273192 3855:Current Opinion in Psychiatry 3808:10.1080/15563650.2019.1569236 3559:10.1080/02791072.2018.1562133 3547:Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 3376:10.1080/00952990.2022.2111685 2962:. CRC Press. pp. 57–76. 2381:BioMed Research International 2131:Agricultural Research Service 2028: 1830:Possession of kratom leaves ( 1718: 1520:experiments, kratom extracts 9917:Herbal and fungal stimulants 7930:N-Phenethyl-14-ethoxymetopon 6258:10.1016/j.drugpo.2019.05.003 6109:Schwarz A (2 January 2016). 6028:U.S. News & World Report 5603:Prasert P (4 October 2013). 5216:"Medicines Regulations 1984" 4876:Journal of Ethnopharmacology 4709:10.1021/acs.jnatprod.0c00257 4648:10.1021/acschemneuro.1c00149 3867:10.1097/YCO.0000000000000621 3715:Karch SB, Drummer O (2015). 3143:Tave SJ (26 February 2018). 2715:"Chapter 156: Hallucinogens" 2622:J. Psychopharmacol. (Oxford) 1866:Food and Drug Administration 1798: 1545: 1471:, inhibiting the release of 1411:Mitragynine also appears to 1333:Kratom contains at least 54 1112: 1029:monoamine oxidase inhibitors 915:neonatal abstinence syndrome 688:Food and Drug Administration 350:Food and Drug Administration 7: 9583:β-Lipotropin (proendorphin) 9211:((pF)Phe)Nociceptin(1-13)NH 8592:Leumorphin (dynorphin B-29) 7078:Oxymorphone phenylhydrazone 5810:Chappell B (4 April 2018). 4758:Asian Journal of Psychiatry 4697:Journal of Natural Products 3968:Drug and Alcohol Dependence 3749:. Transnational Institute. 3664:Drug and Alcohol Dependence 3317:Drug and Alcohol Dependence 1998: 1965:American Kratom Association 1864:In 2014, the United States 1846: 1825: 1812: 1778:Psychoactive Substances Act 1040:Centers for Disease Control 581:Worldwide (No. 1: Thailand) 10: 9938: 9603:Proopiomelanocortin (POMC) 9223:-NH)Gly)Nociceptin(1-13)NH 8327:Adrenorphin (metorphamide) 7494:Methylsamidorphan chloride 6728:Dimethylaminopivalophenone 6553:Adrenorphin (metorphamide) 3962:Grundmann O (2017-07-01). 3503:10.1007/s40122-020-00151-x 3037:10.2174/156802611795371305 2767:10.1007/s40265-019-01242-6 2059:: e.T192376330A192376332. 1967:and researchers including 1604:(originally isolated from 1549: 1384:with low affinity for the 1221:Tooltip Inhibitor constant 474: 427:Kratom flowers and foliage 344:-like properties and some 9637: 9523:Racecadotril (acetorphan) 9471: 9383: 9198: 9187: 8930:Buprenorphine/samidorphan 8887: 8842:Tricyclic antidepressants 8284: 8273: 8053: 7920:Mitragynine pseudoindoxyl 7627: 7616: 7273: 6963:Mitragynine pseudoindoxyl 6482: 6361:10.1016/j.bbi.2019.07.013 5658:Laohong Ko (2021-08-23). 4888:10.1016/j.jep.2017.03.020 4826:10.3390/molecules26051397 4770:10.1016/j.ajp.2019.05.016 4636:ACS Chemical Neuroscience 4509:10.1007/s13181-011-0202-2 3768:Fuller T (23 July 2012). 3617:10.1080/15563650701241795 3431:10.1007/s00213-017-4813-4 2582:10.1007/s00414-015-1279-y 1928:Controlled Substances Act 1835: 1765: 1758:As of October 2020, 1753: 1746:Australia and New Zealand 1728:World Health Organization 1622:mitragynine pseudoindoxyl 1463:. Mitragynine stimulates 1312:Mitragynine pseudoindoxyl 1260:Tooltip κ-Opioid receptor 1250:Tooltip δ-Opioid receptor 1240:Tooltip μ-Opioid receptor 1228: 1206: 1203: 585: 577: 556: 520: 510: 500: 488: 483: 263: 256: 234: 227: 107:Scientific classification 105: 83: 74: 65: 58: 9508:Dexecadotril (retorphan) 9480:Enkephalinase inhibitors 9409:BTRX-246040 (LY-2940094) 9391:(Nphe)Nociceptin(1-13)NH 9307:Nociceptin (orphanin FQ) 6090:Brown M (May 20, 2016). 4965:. Mar 25 (Pt 1): 29–40. 4041:10.3390/medicines6010035 3742:Tanguay P (April 2011). 3180:(published 2023-09-18). 2983:Rahman Au (2021-04-16). 2634:10.1177/0269881119862530 1922:On August 30, 2016, the 1733: 1710:Detection in body fluids 1643:. These include various 1489:NMDA receptor antagonist 1396:and do not activate the 1153: 410:As of 2018, kratom is a 31:latest accepted revision 9206:(Arg14,Lys15)Nociceptin 8477:Dynorphin B (rimorphin) 7519:Nalorphine dinicotinate 6215:Marlan D (2021-06-08). 6128:Smith PA (2019-02-19). 5552:Drug and Alcohol Review 5220:New Zealand Legislation 4754:): A systematic review" 3267:Brain Research Bulletin 3178:Diário Oficial da União 1892:commissioner of the FDA 1107:whole genome sequencing 477:Mitragynine § Uses 390:(decreased breathing), 374:include appetite loss, 8822:Spiradoline (U-62,066) 8767:Pethidine (meperidine) 7960:Pethidine (meperidine) 7650:ADL-5747 (PF-04856881) 7296:4-Caffeoyl-1,5-quinide 7195:Tetrahydropapaveroline 7110:Pethidine (meperidine) 5564:10.1080/09595230096101 4589:WIREs Forensic Science 4225:10.15585/mmwr.mm6814a2 2860:10.15585/mmwr.mm6529a4 2443:Am J Health Syst Pharm 1890:In February 2018, the 1394:functional selectivity 1127:Respiratory depression 1122:Respiratory depression 1044:poison control centers 997:Herb–drug interactions 899:respiratory depression 867:poison control centers 692:approved clinical uses 675: 459:in 1839, who named it 428: 388:respiratory depression 312:. It is indigenous to 9513:Ecadotril (sinorphan) 9000:CERC-501 (LY-2456302) 8900:4',7-Dihydroxyflavone 8462:Dinalbuphine sebacate 8337:Alazocine (SKF-10047) 8061:4',7-Dihydroxyflavone 8020:Thiobromadol (C-8813) 7660:Alazocine (SKF-10047) 7306:4',7-Dihydroxyflavone 7286:2-(S)-N,N-(R)-Viminol 6758:Dinalbuphine sebacate 5162:SD3.documentcloud.org 2246:Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2022:Pausinystalia johimbe 1667:, as well as various 1641:secondary metabolites 1469:-adrenergic receptors 673: 465:George Darby Haviland 426: 362:recreational purposes 9370:Sunobinop (S-117957) 9105:N-Fluoropropyl-JDTic 8437:Diamorphine (heroin) 7770:Diamorphine (heroin) 6738:Diamorphine (heroin) 6538:Acetyldihydrocodeine 6518:7-Hydroxymitragynine 6513:7-Acetoxymitragynine 6438:at Wikimedia Commons 5925:on 15 September 2016 5757:MD PG (2019-08-07). 5303:. Yahoo News Canada. 5269:on 14 February 2017. 4172:10.7759/cureus.16582 3851:): worldwide issues" 3208:) in Southeast Asia" 3088:. Canada. 4 May 2018 3061:(26 February 2004). 2179:"New drugs of abuse" 1789:7-hydroxymitragynine 1639:produces many other 1607:Rauvolfia serpentina 1602:raubasine/ajmalicine 1578:7-hydroxymitragynine 1487:, a non-competitive 1343:7-hydroxymitragynine 1270:7-Hydroxymitragynine 927:erectile dysfunction 723:traditional medicine 535:7-hydroxymitragynine 412:controlled substance 376:erectile dysfunction 9912:Trees of New Guinea 9902:Trees of Indo-China 9573:Ubenimex (bestatin) 9317:Nociceptin (1-13)NH 8925:β-Chlornaltrexamine 8895:4′-Hydroxyflavanone 8317:β-Chlornaltrexamine 8191:N-Benzylnaltrindole 8086:β-Chlornaltrexamine 8005:TAN-67 (SB-205,607) 7670:AR-M100390 (ARM390) 7331:β-Chlornaltrexamine 7301:4′-Hydroxyflavanone 6528:α-Chlornaltrexamine 6003:on November 3, 2016 5977:The Washington Post 5845:Press Announcements 5196:on October 26, 2016 3796:Clinical Toxicology 3611:(2): 146–152: 149. 3605:Clinical Toxicology 2394:10.1155/2015/968786 1983:Research directions 1912:opioid use disorder 1785:Republic of Ireland 1461:adenosine receptors 1441:serotonin receptors 1406:blood-brain barrier 1200: 1181:O-desmethyltramadol 891:withdrawal symptoms 747:opioid use disorder 613:(Controlled plants) 461:Stephegyne speciosa 285:Stephegyne speciosa 273:Nauclea luzoniensis 77:Conservation status 21:Page version status 9669:Mitragyna speciosa 9639:Mitragyna speciosa 9135:Norbinaltorphimine 8442:Diacetylnalorphine 8131:Diacetylnalorphine 7755:Desmethylclozapine 7409:Diacetylnalorphine 7089:Papaver somniferum 6673:Chloroxymorphamine 6436:Mitragyna speciosa 6419:Mitragyna speciosa 6115:The New York Times 5839:FDA News Release. 5531:. 26 December 2018 5481:. 13 December 2012 5129:Baselt RC (2014). 5107:10.1093/jat/bks073 5031:Mitragyna speciosa 4752:Mitragyna speciosa 4691:Mitragyna speciosa 4321:Mitragyna speciosa 4308:Mitragyna speciosa 4295:Mitragyna speciosa 4022:Mitragyna speciosa 3849:Mitragyna speciosa 3774:The New York Times 3658:Mitragyna speciosa 3419:Psychopharmacology 3206:Mitragyna speciosa 3117:Mitragyna speciosa 3021:Mitragyna speciosa 2956:Mitragyna speciosa 2841:Mitragyna speciosa 2751:Mitragyna speciosa 2685:Mitragyna speciosa 2570:Int. J. Legal Med. 2455:10.2146/ajhp161035 2375:Mitragyna speciosa 2119:Mitragyna speciosa 2102:Mitragyna speciosa 2045:Mitragyna speciosa 1903:dietary supplement 1787:, under the names 1613:Corynanthe johimbe 1451:dopamine receptors 1197:Mitragyna speciosa 1195: 1038:In July 2016, the 919:decreased appetite 911:respiratory arrest 855:Mitragyna speciosa 816:psychoactive drugs 751:literature reviews 737:with a sweetener. 676: 522:Active ingredients 471:Uses of the leaves 449:Mitragyna speciosa 432:Mitragyna speciosa 429: 297:Mitragyna speciosa 269:Steud. nom. inval. 267:Nauclea korthalsii 238:Mitragyna speciosa 60:Mitragyna speciosa 27: 9849: 9848: 9782:Open Tree of Life 9631:Taxon identifiers 9622: 9621: 9467: 9466: 9312:Nociceptin (1-11) 9183: 9182: 8312:14-Methoxymetopon 8269: 8268: 8186:Methylnaltrindole 7612: 7611: 7281:(3S,4S)-Picenadol 6893:Levacetylmethadol 6434:Media related to 6161:Discover Magazine 5716:. 9 November 2018 5684:"What is Kratom?" 5584:. 5 February 2020 5529:Aljazeera English 5407:kalbaronline.com/ 5315:"Какво е кратом?" 5140:978-0-9626523-9-4 5058:978-0-12-819487-4 4940:978-0-12-415816-0 4642:(14): 2661–2678. 4601:10.1002/wfs2.1420 4562:10.1021/jm010576e 4382:(Pt A): 108–120. 4376:Neuropharmacology 4353:978-1-4822-2518-1 4137:978-3-319-56449-4 3925:10.1002/phar.2280 3728:978-1-4398-6147-9 2996:978-0-323-89815-7 2969:978-1-4822-2519-8 2728:978-1-4557-4987-4 2306:978-1-319-20054-1 2196:10.1002/phar.1522 1969:Walter Prozialeck 1907:therapeutic agent 1844: 1806:Ministry of Trade 1688:anti-inflammatory 1540:drug interactions 1386:κ-opioid receptor 1382:δ-opioid receptor 1374:μ-opioid receptor 1357:, mitralactonal, 1331: 1330: 939:hyperpigmentation 805:opioid withdrawal 772:Recreational uses 741:Opioid withdrawal 699:capsules or pills 668: 667: 643: Unscheduled 642: 633: 620: 608: 599: 511:Geographic origin 368:Anecdotal reports 360:symptoms, or for 358:opioid withdrawal 293: 292: 100: 39:28 September 2024 18: 9929: 9907:Trees of Malesia 9887:Medicinal plants 9842: 9841: 9829: 9828: 9816: 9815: 9803: 9802: 9790: 9789: 9777: 9776: 9764: 9763: 9751: 9750: 9738: 9737: 9725: 9724: 9712: 9711: 9699: 9698: 9686: 9685: 9673: 9672: 9671: 9658: 9657: 9656: 9626: 9625: 9502: 9429:Nociceptin (1-7) 9325:Norbuprenorphine 9262:Dihydroetorphine 9196: 9195: 9085:Methylnaltrexone 8995:Catechin gallate 8727:Norbuprenorphine 8452:Dihydroetorphine 8322:β-Funaltrexamine 8282: 8281: 8181:Methylnaltrexone 8121:Catechin gallate 7935:Norbuprenorphine 7775:Dihydroetorphine 7625: 7624: 7489:Methylnaltrexone 7381:Catechin gallate 7336:β-Funaltrexamine 6748:Dihydroetorphine 6491: 6490: 6466: 6459: 6452: 6443: 6442: 6433: 6405: 6404: 6389: 6388: 6343: 6337: 6336: 6326: 6294: 6288: 6287: 6277: 6237: 6231: 6230: 6228: 6227: 6212: 6201: 6200: 6198: 6197: 6182: 6171: 6170: 6168: 6167: 6153: 6144: 6143: 6141: 6140: 6125: 6119: 6118: 6106: 6100: 6099: 6087: 6081: 6080: 6078: 6077: 6070:Federal Register 6062: 6056: 6055: 6053: 6052: 6038: 6032: 6031: 6019: 6013: 6012: 6010: 6008: 5999:. Archived from 5988: 5982: 5981: 5967: 5961: 5960: 5958: 5956: 5941: 5935: 5934: 5932: 5930: 5915: 5909: 5908: 5902: 5900: 5889: 5883: 5882: 5876: 5874: 5863: 5857: 5856: 5854: 5852: 5836: 5827: 5826: 5824: 5822: 5807: 5798: 5797: 5795: 5794: 5779: 5773: 5772: 5770: 5769: 5754: 5748: 5747: 5745: 5743: 5732: 5726: 5725: 5723: 5721: 5706: 5700: 5699: 5697: 5695: 5688:Cleveland Clinic 5680: 5674: 5673: 5671: 5670: 5655: 5649: 5648: 5646: 5645: 5631: 5625: 5624: 5622: 5620: 5611:. Archived from 5600: 5594: 5593: 5591: 5589: 5574: 5568: 5567: 5547: 5541: 5540: 5538: 5536: 5521: 5512: 5506: 5500: 5497: 5491: 5490: 5488: 5486: 5475: 5469: 5468: 5466: 5465: 5451: 5442: 5441: 5439: 5438: 5423: 5417: 5416: 5414: 5413: 5398: 5389: 5388: 5386: 5385: 5370: 5364: 5363: 5357: 5349: 5343: 5342: 5335: 5329: 5328: 5326: 5325: 5311: 5305: 5304: 5296: 5290: 5289: 5277: 5271: 5270: 5259: 5253: 5252: 5250: 5248: 5237: 5231: 5230: 5228: 5226: 5212: 5206: 5205: 5203: 5201: 5195: 5188: 5180: 5174: 5173: 5171: 5169: 5159: 5151: 5145: 5144: 5126: 5120: 5119: 5109: 5085: 5079: 5078: 5024: 5018: 5017: 4997: 4991: 4990: 4958: 4952: 4951: 4949: 4947: 4914: 4908: 4907: 4863: 4857: 4856: 4846: 4828: 4804: 4798: 4797: 4745: 4739: 4738: 4728: 4703:(7): 2165–2177. 4684: 4678: 4677: 4667: 4627: 4621: 4620: 4580: 4574: 4573: 4544: 4531: 4530: 4520: 4491:Salvia divinorum 4484: 4473: 4472: 4470: 4468: 4457: 4451: 4450: 4448: 4447: 4433: 4427: 4426: 4422: 4416: 4415: 4367: 4358: 4357: 4339: 4333: 4330: 4324: 4317: 4311: 4304: 4298: 4291: 4285: 4282: 4276: 4275: 4273: 4271: 4256: 4247: 4246: 4236: 4204: 4195: 4194: 4184: 4174: 4148: 4142: 4141: 4121: 4115: 4114: 4081: 4072: 4071: 4061: 4043: 4015: 4000: 3999: 3959: 3953: 3952: 3904: 3895: 3894: 3842: 3836: 3835: 3791: 3778: 3777: 3765: 3759: 3758: 3756:or heroin users. 3748: 3739: 3733: 3732: 3712: 3706: 3705: 3695: 3651: 3645: 3644: 3601:Salvia divinorum 3596: 3587: 3586: 3542: 3533: 3532: 3522: 3491:Pain and Therapy 3482: 3461: 3460: 3450: 3410: 3404: 3403: 3355: 3349: 3348: 3308: 3299: 3298: 3262: 3256: 3255: 3237: 3227: 3225:10.1002/hup.2582 3199: 3193: 3192: 3190: 3189: 3166: 3160: 3159: 3157: 3155: 3149: 3140: 3131: 3130: 3128: 3126: 3111: 3098: 3097: 3095: 3093: 3078: 3072: 3071: 3069: 3055: 3049: 3048: 3016: 3001: 3000: 2980: 2974: 2973: 2951: 2932: 2931: 2929: 2927: 2916: 2881: 2880: 2862: 2834: 2823: 2822: 2820: 2818: 2800: 2787: 2786: 2746: 2733: 2732: 2710: 2701: 2700: 2699:on 11 June 2016. 2698: 2691: 2679: 2664: 2663: 2645: 2628:(9): 1102–1123. 2613: 2602: 2601: 2565: 2498: 2497: 2495: 2493: 2486:"FDA and kratom" 2482: 2467: 2466: 2438: 2417: 2416: 2406: 2396: 2368: 2351: 2350: 2348: 2346: 2334: 2311: 2310: 2292: 2286: 2285: 2240: 2217: 2216: 2198: 2174: 2145: 2144: 2142: 2141: 2113: 2107: 2098: 2092: 2091: 2085: 2077: 2075: 2073: 2068: 2038: 2015: 2010: 2009: 2008: 1851: 1839: 1837: 1692:gastrointestinal 1582:natural products 1562:indole alkaloids 1424:calcium channels 1370:partial agonists 1337:. These include 1261: 1257: 1251: 1247: 1241: 1237: 1222: 1218: 1201: 1194: 1088:opioid overdoses 1081:fentanyl analogs 640: 637: 631: 628: 619: 616: 606: 603: 597: 594: 501:Part(s) of plant 493: 481: 480: 334:Papua New Guinea 279:Nauclea speciosa 240: 220:M. speciosa 115: 114: 94: 89: 88: 70: 56: 55: 9937: 9936: 9932: 9931: 9930: 9928: 9927: 9926: 9877:Antidiarrhoeals 9872:Antidepressants 9852: 9851: 9850: 9845: 9837: 9832: 9824: 9819: 9811: 9806: 9798: 9793: 9785: 9780: 9772: 9767: 9759: 9754: 9746: 9741: 9733: 9728: 9720: 9715: 9707: 9702: 9694: 9689: 9681: 9676: 9667: 9666: 9661: 9652: 9651: 9646: 9633: 9623: 9618: 9500: 9463: 9394: 9379: 9320: 9242: 9234: 9226: 9222: 9214: 9191: 9179: 8975:Binaltorphimine 8920:6β-Naltrexol-d4 8883: 8502:Ethylketazocine 8457:Dihydromorphine 8277: 8265: 8076:6β-Naltrexol-d4 8049: 7805:Ethylketazocine 7780:Dihydromorphine 7620: 7608: 7316:6β-Naltrexol-d4 7269: 7068:Oxymorphonazine 6823:Furanylfentanyl 6753:Dihydromorphine 6608:Benzhydrocodone 6497: 6495: 6486: 6478: 6473:Opioid receptor 6470: 6426: 6425: 6424: 6406: 6402: 6397: 6392: 6344: 6340: 6295: 6291: 6238: 6234: 6225: 6223: 6213: 6204: 6195: 6193: 6183: 6174: 6165: 6163: 6155: 6154: 6147: 6138: 6136: 6126: 6122: 6107: 6103: 6088: 6084: 6075: 6073: 6064: 6063: 6059: 6050: 6048: 6040: 6039: 6035: 6020: 6016: 6006: 6004: 5997:Palm Beach Post 5989: 5985: 5968: 5964: 5954: 5952: 5942: 5938: 5928: 5926: 5917: 5916: 5912: 5898: 5896: 5891: 5890: 5886: 5872: 5870: 5865: 5864: 5860: 5850: 5848: 5837: 5830: 5820: 5818: 5808: 5801: 5792: 5790: 5781: 5780: 5776: 5767: 5765: 5755: 5751: 5741: 5739: 5734: 5733: 5729: 5719: 5717: 5708: 5707: 5703: 5693: 5691: 5690:. June 30, 2021 5682: 5681: 5677: 5668: 5666: 5656: 5652: 5643: 5641: 5633: 5632: 5628: 5618: 5616: 5601: 5597: 5587: 5585: 5576: 5575: 5571: 5548: 5544: 5534: 5532: 5523: 5522: 5515: 5507: 5503: 5498: 5494: 5484: 5482: 5477: 5476: 5472: 5463: 5461: 5453: 5452: 5445: 5436: 5434: 5433:(in Indonesian) 5425: 5424: 5420: 5411: 5409: 5399: 5392: 5383: 5381: 5372: 5371: 5367: 5355: 5351: 5350: 5346: 5337: 5336: 5332: 5323: 5321: 5313: 5312: 5308: 5297: 5293: 5278: 5274: 5261: 5260: 5256: 5246: 5244: 5239: 5238: 5234: 5224: 5222: 5214: 5213: 5209: 5199: 5197: 5193: 5186: 5182: 5181: 5177: 5167: 5165: 5157: 5153: 5152: 5148: 5141: 5127: 5123: 5086: 5082: 5059: 5025: 5021: 4998: 4994: 4959: 4955: 4945: 4943: 4941: 4915: 4911: 4864: 4860: 4805: 4801: 4746: 4742: 4685: 4681: 4628: 4624: 4581: 4577: 4545: 4534: 4485: 4476: 4466: 4464: 4459: 4458: 4454: 4445: 4443: 4435: 4434: 4430: 4423: 4419: 4368: 4361: 4354: 4340: 4336: 4331: 4327: 4318: 4314: 4305: 4301: 4292: 4288: 4283: 4279: 4269: 4267: 4258: 4257: 4250: 4219:(14): 326–327. 4205: 4198: 4149: 4145: 4138: 4122: 4118: 4082: 4075: 4016: 4003: 3960: 3956: 3913:Pharmacotherapy 3905: 3898: 3843: 3839: 3802:(10): 847–854. 3792: 3781: 3766: 3762: 3746: 3740: 3736: 3729: 3713: 3709: 3652: 3648: 3597: 3590: 3543: 3536: 3483: 3464: 3411: 3407: 3356: 3352: 3309: 3302: 3273:(Pt 1): 41–46. 3263: 3259: 3200: 3196: 3187: 3185: 3167: 3163: 3153: 3151: 3147: 3141: 3134: 3124: 3122: 3113: 3112: 3101: 3091: 3089: 3080: 3079: 3075: 3067: 3056: 3052: 3017: 3004: 2997: 2981: 2977: 2970: 2952: 2935: 2925: 2923: 2918: 2917: 2884: 2835: 2826: 2816: 2814: 2802: 2801: 2790: 2747: 2736: 2729: 2711: 2704: 2696: 2689: 2681: 2680: 2667: 2614: 2605: 2566: 2501: 2491: 2489: 2484: 2483: 2470: 2439: 2420: 2369: 2354: 2344: 2342: 2335: 2314: 2307: 2293: 2289: 2241: 2220: 2183:Pharmacotherapy 2175: 2148: 2139: 2137: 2115: 2114: 2110: 2099: 2095: 2079: 2078: 2071: 2069: 2039: 2035: 2031: 2013:Medicine portal 2011: 2006: 2004: 2001: 1985: 1973:opioid epidemic 1949: 1947:Public response 1933:Chuck Rosenberg 1920: 1879: 1862: 1828: 1815: 1801: 1768: 1756: 1748: 1736: 1721: 1712: 1684:antinociceptive 1631:In addition to 1626:rhynchophylline 1554: 1548: 1494:Mitragynine is 1485:rhynchophylline 1477:dexmedetomidine 1468: 1458: 1448: 1438: 1431: 1363:synergistically 1355:rhynchophylline 1347:speciociliatine 1259: 1249: 1239: 1220: 1216: 1193: 1156: 1136: 1124: 1115: 1065:mood stabilizer 1009:benzodiazepines 852: 850:Adverse effects 774: 743: 719: 717:Traditional use 680:clinical trials 664: 573: 552: 540:Other alkaloids 496: 479: 473: 457:Pieter Korthals 421: 356:, for treating 338:herbal medicine 252: 242: 236: 223: 109: 101: 90: 86: 79: 52: 47: 46: 45: 44: 43: 42: 26: 12: 11: 5: 9935: 9925: 9924: 9919: 9914: 9909: 9904: 9899: 9894: 9889: 9884: 9879: 9874: 9869: 9864: 9847: 9846: 9844: 9843: 9839:wfo-0000244943 9830: 9817: 9804: 9791: 9778: 9765: 9752: 9739: 9726: 9713: 9700: 9687: 9674: 9659: 9643: 9641: 9635: 9634: 9620: 9619: 9617: 9616: 9606: 9605: 9600: 9595: 9590: 9585: 9576: 9575: 9570: 9565: 9560: 9555: 9550: 9545: 9540: 9535: 9530: 9525: 9520: 9515: 9510: 9505: 9503:-Phenylalanine 9497: 9492: 9487: 9475: 9473: 9469: 9468: 9465: 9464: 9462: 9461: 9456: 9451: 9446: 9441: 9436: 9431: 9426: 9421: 9416: 9411: 9406: 9401: 9396: 9392: 9387: 9385: 9381: 9380: 9378: 9377: 9372: 9367: 9362: 9357: 9352: 9347: 9342: 9337: 9332: 9330:Racemethorphan 9327: 9322: 9318: 9314: 9309: 9304: 9299: 9294: 9289: 9284: 9279: 9277:Levomethorphan 9274: 9269: 9264: 9259: 9254: 9249: 9244: 9240: 9236: 9232: 9228: 9224: 9220: 9216: 9212: 9208: 9202: 9200: 9193: 9185: 9184: 9181: 9180: 9178: 9177: 9172: 9167: 9162: 9157: 9152: 9147: 9142: 9137: 9132: 9127: 9122: 9117: 9112: 9107: 9102: 9097: 9092: 9087: 9082: 9077: 9072: 9067: 9062: 9057: 9052: 9047: 9042: 9037: 9032: 9027: 9022: 9017: 9012: 9007: 9002: 8997: 8992: 8987: 8982: 8977: 8972: 8967: 8962: 8957: 8952: 8947: 8942: 8937: 8932: 8927: 8922: 8917: 8912: 8907: 8902: 8897: 8891: 8889: 8885: 8884: 8882: 8881: 8876: 8871: 8866: 8861: 8839: 8834: 8829: 8824: 8819: 8814: 8809: 8804: 8794: 8789: 8784: 8782:Racemethorphan 8779: 8774: 8769: 8764: 8759: 8754: 8749: 8744: 8739: 8734: 8729: 8724: 8719: 8714: 8709: 8704: 8699: 8694: 8689: 8684: 8679: 8674: 8669: 8664: 8659: 8654: 8649: 8644: 8639: 8634: 8629: 8624: 8619: 8614: 8609: 8604: 8602:Levomethorphan 8599: 8594: 8589: 8584: 8579: 8574: 8569: 8564: 8559: 8554: 8549: 8544: 8539: 8534: 8529: 8524: 8519: 8514: 8509: 8504: 8499: 8494: 8489: 8484: 8479: 8474: 8469: 8464: 8459: 8454: 8449: 8444: 8439: 8434: 8429: 8424: 8419: 8414: 8409: 8404: 8399: 8394: 8389: 8384: 8379: 8374: 8369: 8364: 8359: 8354: 8349: 8344: 8339: 8334: 8329: 8324: 8319: 8314: 8309: 8304: 8299: 8294: 8288: 8286: 8279: 8271: 8270: 8267: 8266: 8264: 8263: 8258: 8253: 8248: 8243: 8238: 8233: 8228: 8223: 8218: 8213: 8208: 8203: 8198: 8193: 8188: 8183: 8178: 8173: 8168: 8163: 8158: 8153: 8148: 8143: 8138: 8133: 8128: 8123: 8118: 8113: 8108: 8103: 8098: 8093: 8088: 8083: 8078: 8073: 8068: 8063: 8057: 8055: 8051: 8050: 8048: 8047: 8042: 8037: 8032: 8027: 8022: 8017: 8012: 8007: 8002: 7997: 7992: 7987: 7982: 7977: 7972: 7970:Racemethorphan 7967: 7962: 7957: 7952: 7947: 7942: 7937: 7932: 7927: 7922: 7917: 7912: 7907: 7902: 7897: 7892: 7887: 7882: 7880:Levomethorphan 7877: 7875:Leu-enkephalin 7872: 7867: 7862: 7857: 7852: 7847: 7842: 7837: 7832: 7827: 7822: 7817: 7812: 7807: 7802: 7797: 7792: 7787: 7782: 7777: 7772: 7767: 7762: 7757: 7752: 7747: 7742: 7737: 7732: 7727: 7722: 7717: 7712: 7707: 7702: 7697: 7692: 7687: 7682: 7677: 7672: 7667: 7662: 7657: 7652: 7647: 7642: 7637: 7631: 7629: 7622: 7614: 7613: 7610: 7609: 7607: 7606: 7601: 7596: 7591: 7586: 7581: 7576: 7571: 7566: 7561: 7556: 7554:Naltrexonazine 7551: 7546: 7541: 7536: 7531: 7526: 7521: 7516: 7511: 7506: 7501: 7496: 7491: 7486: 7481: 7476: 7471: 7466: 7461: 7456: 7451: 7446: 7441: 7436: 7431: 7426: 7421: 7416: 7411: 7406: 7401: 7396: 7391: 7388: 7383: 7378: 7373: 7368: 7363: 7358: 7353: 7348: 7343: 7338: 7333: 7328: 7323: 7318: 7313: 7308: 7303: 7298: 7293: 7288: 7283: 7277: 7275: 7271: 7270: 7268: 7267: 7262: 7257: 7252: 7247: 7242: 7237: 7232: 7227: 7222: 7217: 7212: 7207: 7202: 7197: 7192: 7187: 7182: 7177: 7172: 7167: 7162: 7157: 7155:Racemethorphan 7152: 7147: 7142: 7137: 7132: 7127: 7122: 7117: 7112: 7107: 7102: 7097: 7085: 7080: 7075: 7070: 7065: 7060: 7055: 7050: 7045: 7040: 7035: 7030: 7025: 7020: 7015: 7010: 7005: 7000: 6995: 6990: 6985: 6980: 6975: 6970: 6965: 6960: 6955: 6950: 6945: 6940: 6935: 6930: 6925: 6920: 6915: 6910: 6905: 6900: 6898:Levomethorphan 6895: 6890: 6888:Leu-enkephalin 6885: 6880: 6875: 6870: 6865: 6860: 6855: 6850: 6848:Hydromorphinol 6845: 6840: 6835: 6830: 6825: 6820: 6815: 6810: 6805: 6800: 6795: 6790: 6785: 6780: 6775: 6770: 6765: 6760: 6755: 6750: 6745: 6743:Dihydrocodeine 6740: 6735: 6730: 6725: 6720: 6715: 6710: 6708:Dextromoramide 6705: 6700: 6695: 6690: 6685: 6680: 6675: 6670: 6665: 6660: 6655: 6650: 6645: 6640: 6635: 6630: 6625: 6620: 6615: 6613:Benzylmorphine 6610: 6605: 6600: 6595: 6590: 6585: 6580: 6575: 6570: 6565: 6560: 6555: 6550: 6545: 6543:Acetylfentanyl 6540: 6535: 6530: 6525: 6520: 6515: 6510: 6504: 6502: 6488: 6480: 6479: 6469: 6468: 6461: 6454: 6446: 6440: 6439: 6407: 6400: 6399: 6398: 6396: 6395:External links 6393: 6391: 6390: 6338: 6309:(2): 283–289. 6289: 6232: 6221:Bill of Health 6202: 6172: 6145: 6134:Outside Online 6120: 6101: 6082: 6057: 6033: 6014: 5983: 5962: 5936: 5910: 5884: 5858: 5828: 5799: 5774: 5763:Harvard Health 5749: 5727: 5701: 5675: 5650: 5626: 5615:on 16 May 2019 5595: 5569: 5542: 5513: 5501: 5492: 5470: 5443: 5418: 5390: 5378:beritasatu.com 5365: 5344: 5330: 5306: 5291: 5272: 5254: 5232: 5207: 5175: 5164:. October 2021 5146: 5139: 5121: 5080: 5057: 5019: 5008:(12): 792–99. 4992: 4963:Brain Res Bull 4953: 4939: 4909: 4858: 4799: 4740: 4679: 4622: 4575: 4556:(9): 1949–56. 4532: 4474: 4452: 4428: 4417: 4359: 4352: 4334: 4325: 4312: 4299: 4286: 4277: 4248: 4196: 4143: 4136: 4116: 4073: 4001: 3954: 3919:(7): 775–777. 3896: 3861:(4): 312–318. 3837: 3779: 3760: 3734: 3727: 3707: 3646: 3588: 3534: 3462: 3425:(2): 573–589. 3405: 3370:(5): 509–528. 3350: 3300: 3257: 3194: 3172:(2023-09-15). 3161: 3132: 3099: 3073: 3050: 3031:(9): 1165–75. 3002: 2995: 2975: 2968: 2933: 2882: 2853:(29): 748–49. 2824: 2788: 2761:(3): 263–283. 2734: 2727: 2702: 2665: 2603: 2499: 2468: 2449:(5): 261–267. 2418: 2352: 2312: 2305: 2287: 2252:(2): 138–151. 2218: 2146: 2108: 2093: 2032: 2030: 2027: 2026: 2025: 2017: 2016: 2000: 1997: 1993:antidepressant 1984: 1981: 1948: 1945: 1919: 1918:DEA scheduling 1916: 1910:treatment for 1896:Scott Gottlieb 1878: 1877:FDA assessment 1875: 1861: 1858: 1827: 1824: 1814: 1811: 1800: 1797: 1767: 1764: 1755: 1752: 1747: 1744: 1735: 1732: 1720: 1717: 1711: 1708: 1696:antidepressant 1671:including the 1653:monoterpenoids 1616:), as well as 1584:isolable from 1550:Main article: 1547: 1544: 1498:in humans via 1473:norepinephrine 1466: 1456: 1446: 1436: 1429: 1329: 1328: 1326: 1323: 1320: 1317: 1314: 1308: 1307: 1305: 1302: 1299: 1296: 1293: 1287: 1286: 1284: 1281: 1278: 1275: 1272: 1266: 1265: 1262: 1252: 1242: 1231: 1230: 1227: 1224: 1214: 1205: 1192: 1189: 1161:liver toxicity 1155: 1152: 1135: 1134:Liver toxicity 1132: 1123: 1120: 1114: 1111: 1061:anticonvulsant 1053:antidepressant 1033:Rhabdomyolysis 895:hallucinations 859:dose-dependent 851: 848: 773: 770: 742: 739: 718: 715: 666: 665: 663: 662: 644: 635: 623: 622: 614: 601: 591: 589: 583: 582: 579: 578:Main consumers 575: 574: 572: 571: 566: 560: 558: 557:Main producers 554: 553: 551: 550: 547: 542: 537: 532: 526: 524: 518: 517: 515:Southeast Asia 512: 508: 507: 502: 498: 497: 494: 486: 485: 475:Main article: 472: 469: 453:Dutch colonial 420: 417: 400:liver toxicity 310:Southeast Asia 300:is a tropical 291: 290: 289: 288: 282: 276: 270: 261: 260: 254: 253: 243: 232: 231: 225: 224: 217: 215: 211: 210: 203: 199: 198: 193: 189: 188: 183: 179: 178: 173: 166: 165: 160: 153: 152: 147: 140: 139: 134: 127: 126: 121: 117: 116: 103: 102: 84: 81: 80: 75: 72: 71: 63: 62: 50: 28: 22: 19: 17: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9934: 9923: 9920: 9918: 9915: 9913: 9910: 9908: 9905: 9903: 9900: 9898: 9895: 9893: 9890: 9888: 9885: 9883: 9880: 9878: 9875: 9873: 9870: 9868: 9865: 9863: 9860: 9859: 9857: 9840: 9835: 9831: 9827: 9822: 9818: 9814: 9809: 9805: 9801: 9796: 9792: 9788: 9783: 9779: 9775: 9770: 9766: 9762: 9757: 9753: 9749: 9744: 9740: 9736: 9731: 9727: 9723: 9718: 9714: 9710: 9705: 9701: 9697: 9692: 9688: 9684: 9679: 9675: 9670: 9664: 9660: 9655: 9649: 9645: 9644: 9642: 9640: 9636: 9632: 9627: 9614: 9611: 9608: 9607: 9604: 9601: 9599: 9598:Pronociceptin 9596: 9594: 9593:Proenkephalin 9591: 9589: 9586: 9584: 9581: 9578: 9577: 9574: 9571: 9569: 9566: 9564: 9561: 9559: 9556: 9554: 9551: 9549: 9546: 9544: 9541: 9539: 9536: 9534: 9531: 9529: 9526: 9524: 9521: 9519: 9516: 9514: 9511: 9509: 9506: 9504: 9498: 9496: 9493: 9491: 9488: 9486: 9483: 9481: 9477: 9476: 9474: 9470: 9460: 9457: 9455: 9452: 9450: 9447: 9445: 9442: 9440: 9437: 9435: 9432: 9430: 9427: 9425: 9422: 9420: 9417: 9415: 9412: 9410: 9407: 9405: 9402: 9400: 9397: 9395: 9389: 9388: 9386: 9382: 9376: 9373: 9371: 9368: 9366: 9363: 9361: 9358: 9356: 9353: 9351: 9348: 9346: 9343: 9341: 9338: 9336: 9333: 9331: 9328: 9326: 9323: 9321: 9315: 9313: 9310: 9308: 9305: 9303: 9300: 9298: 9295: 9293: 9290: 9288: 9285: 9283: 9280: 9278: 9275: 9273: 9270: 9268: 9265: 9263: 9260: 9258: 9255: 9253: 9252:Buprenorphine 9250: 9248: 9245: 9243: 9237: 9235: 9229: 9227: 9217: 9215: 9209: 9207: 9204: 9203: 9201: 9197: 9194: 9190: 9186: 9176: 9173: 9171: 9168: 9166: 9163: 9161: 9158: 9156: 9153: 9151: 9148: 9146: 9143: 9141: 9138: 9136: 9133: 9131: 9128: 9126: 9123: 9121: 9118: 9116: 9113: 9111: 9108: 9106: 9103: 9101: 9098: 9096: 9093: 9091: 9088: 9086: 9083: 9081: 9078: 9076: 9073: 9071: 9068: 9066: 9063: 9061: 9058: 9056: 9053: 9051: 9048: 9046: 9043: 9041: 9038: 9036: 9033: 9031: 9028: 9026: 9023: 9021: 9018: 9016: 9013: 9011: 9008: 9006: 9003: 9001: 8998: 8996: 8993: 8991: 8988: 8986: 8985:Buprenorphine 8983: 8981: 8978: 8976: 8973: 8971: 8968: 8966: 8963: 8961: 8958: 8956: 8953: 8951: 8948: 8946: 8943: 8941: 8938: 8936: 8935:Amentoflavone 8933: 8931: 8928: 8926: 8923: 8921: 8918: 8916: 8913: 8911: 8908: 8906: 8903: 8901: 8898: 8896: 8893: 8892: 8890: 8886: 8880: 8877: 8875: 8872: 8870: 8867: 8865: 8862: 8859: 8858:nortriptyline 8855: 8851: 8847: 8846:amitriptyline 8843: 8840: 8838: 8835: 8833: 8830: 8828: 8825: 8823: 8820: 8818: 8815: 8813: 8810: 8808: 8805: 8802: 8798: 8795: 8793: 8790: 8788: 8785: 8783: 8780: 8778: 8775: 8773: 8770: 8768: 8765: 8763: 8760: 8758: 8755: 8753: 8750: 8748: 8745: 8743: 8740: 8738: 8735: 8733: 8730: 8728: 8725: 8723: 8720: 8718: 8715: 8713: 8710: 8708: 8705: 8703: 8700: 8698: 8695: 8693: 8690: 8688: 8685: 8683: 8680: 8678: 8675: 8673: 8670: 8668: 8665: 8663: 8660: 8658: 8655: 8653: 8650: 8648: 8645: 8643: 8640: 8638: 8635: 8633: 8630: 8628: 8625: 8623: 8620: 8618: 8615: 8613: 8610: 8608: 8605: 8603: 8600: 8598: 8595: 8593: 8590: 8588: 8585: 8583: 8580: 8578: 8575: 8573: 8570: 8568: 8565: 8563: 8560: 8558: 8555: 8553: 8552:Hydromorphone 8550: 8548: 8545: 8543: 8540: 8538: 8535: 8533: 8530: 8528: 8525: 8523: 8520: 8518: 8515: 8513: 8510: 8508: 8505: 8503: 8500: 8498: 8495: 8493: 8490: 8488: 8485: 8483: 8480: 8478: 8475: 8473: 8470: 8468: 8467:Diprenorphine 8465: 8463: 8460: 8458: 8455: 8453: 8450: 8448: 8447:Difelikefalin 8445: 8443: 8440: 8438: 8435: 8433: 8430: 8428: 8427:Cyprenorphine 8425: 8423: 8420: 8418: 8415: 8413: 8410: 8408: 8405: 8403: 8400: 8398: 8395: 8393: 8390: 8388: 8385: 8383: 8380: 8378: 8375: 8373: 8372:Big dynorphin 8370: 8368: 8365: 8363: 8360: 8358: 8355: 8353: 8350: 8348: 8345: 8343: 8340: 8338: 8335: 8333: 8330: 8328: 8325: 8323: 8320: 8318: 8315: 8313: 8310: 8308: 8305: 8303: 8300: 8298: 8295: 8293: 8292:3CS-nalmefene 8290: 8289: 8287: 8283: 8280: 8276: 8272: 8262: 8259: 8257: 8254: 8252: 8249: 8247: 8244: 8242: 8239: 8237: 8234: 8232: 8229: 8227: 8224: 8222: 8219: 8217: 8214: 8212: 8209: 8207: 8204: 8202: 8199: 8197: 8194: 8192: 8189: 8187: 8184: 8182: 8179: 8177: 8174: 8172: 8169: 8167: 8164: 8162: 8159: 8157: 8154: 8152: 8149: 8147: 8144: 8142: 8139: 8137: 8136:Diprenorphine 8134: 8132: 8129: 8127: 8124: 8122: 8119: 8117: 8114: 8112: 8109: 8107: 8104: 8102: 8099: 8097: 8094: 8092: 8089: 8087: 8084: 8082: 8079: 8077: 8074: 8072: 8069: 8067: 8064: 8062: 8059: 8058: 8056: 8052: 8046: 8043: 8041: 8038: 8036: 8033: 8031: 8028: 8026: 8023: 8021: 8018: 8016: 8013: 8011: 8008: 8006: 8003: 8001: 7998: 7996: 7993: 7991: 7988: 7986: 7983: 7981: 7978: 7976: 7973: 7971: 7968: 7966: 7963: 7961: 7958: 7956: 7953: 7951: 7948: 7946: 7943: 7941: 7938: 7936: 7933: 7931: 7928: 7926: 7923: 7921: 7918: 7916: 7913: 7911: 7908: 7906: 7903: 7901: 7898: 7896: 7893: 7891: 7888: 7886: 7883: 7881: 7878: 7876: 7873: 7871: 7868: 7866: 7863: 7861: 7858: 7856: 7853: 7851: 7848: 7846: 7843: 7841: 7840:Hydromorphone 7838: 7836: 7833: 7831: 7828: 7826: 7823: 7821: 7818: 7816: 7813: 7811: 7808: 7806: 7803: 7801: 7798: 7796: 7793: 7791: 7788: 7786: 7783: 7781: 7778: 7776: 7773: 7771: 7768: 7766: 7763: 7761: 7758: 7756: 7753: 7751: 7750:Deltorphin II 7748: 7746: 7743: 7741: 7738: 7736: 7733: 7731: 7728: 7726: 7723: 7721: 7718: 7716: 7713: 7711: 7708: 7706: 7703: 7701: 7698: 7696: 7693: 7691: 7688: 7686: 7683: 7681: 7678: 7676: 7673: 7671: 7668: 7666: 7663: 7661: 7658: 7656: 7653: 7651: 7648: 7646: 7643: 7641: 7638: 7636: 7635:3CS-nalmefene 7633: 7632: 7630: 7626: 7623: 7619: 7615: 7605: 7602: 7600: 7597: 7595: 7592: 7590: 7587: 7585: 7582: 7580: 7577: 7575: 7572: 7570: 7567: 7565: 7562: 7560: 7557: 7555: 7552: 7550: 7547: 7545: 7542: 7540: 7537: 7535: 7532: 7530: 7527: 7525: 7522: 7520: 7517: 7515: 7512: 7510: 7507: 7505: 7502: 7500: 7497: 7495: 7492: 7490: 7487: 7485: 7484:Methocinnamox 7482: 7480: 7477: 7475: 7472: 7470: 7467: 7465: 7462: 7460: 7457: 7455: 7452: 7450: 7447: 7445: 7444:Ginsenoside R 7442: 7440: 7437: 7435: 7432: 7430: 7427: 7425: 7422: 7420: 7417: 7415: 7414:Diprenorphine 7412: 7410: 7407: 7405: 7402: 7400: 7397: 7395: 7392: 7389: 7387: 7384: 7382: 7379: 7377: 7374: 7372: 7369: 7367: 7364: 7362: 7359: 7357: 7354: 7352: 7349: 7347: 7344: 7342: 7339: 7337: 7334: 7332: 7329: 7327: 7324: 7322: 7319: 7317: 7314: 7312: 7309: 7307: 7304: 7302: 7299: 7297: 7294: 7292: 7291:3CS-nalmefene 7289: 7287: 7284: 7282: 7279: 7278: 7276: 7272: 7266: 7263: 7261: 7258: 7256: 7253: 7251: 7248: 7246: 7243: 7241: 7238: 7236: 7233: 7231: 7228: 7226: 7223: 7221: 7218: 7216: 7213: 7211: 7208: 7206: 7203: 7201: 7198: 7196: 7193: 7191: 7188: 7186: 7183: 7181: 7178: 7176: 7173: 7171: 7168: 7166: 7163: 7161: 7158: 7156: 7153: 7151: 7148: 7146: 7143: 7141: 7138: 7136: 7133: 7131: 7128: 7126: 7123: 7121: 7120:Phencyclidine 7118: 7116: 7113: 7111: 7108: 7106: 7103: 7101: 7098: 7095: 7091: 7090: 7086: 7084: 7081: 7079: 7076: 7074: 7071: 7069: 7066: 7064: 7063:Oxymorphazone 7061: 7059: 7056: 7054: 7051: 7049: 7046: 7044: 7041: 7039: 7036: 7034: 7031: 7029: 7026: 7024: 7021: 7019: 7016: 7014: 7011: 7009: 7006: 7004: 7001: 6999: 6996: 6994: 6991: 6989: 6986: 6984: 6981: 6979: 6976: 6974: 6971: 6969: 6966: 6964: 6961: 6959: 6956: 6954: 6951: 6949: 6946: 6944: 6941: 6939: 6936: 6934: 6931: 6929: 6926: 6924: 6921: 6919: 6916: 6914: 6911: 6909: 6906: 6904: 6901: 6899: 6896: 6894: 6891: 6889: 6886: 6884: 6881: 6879: 6876: 6874: 6871: 6869: 6866: 6864: 6861: 6859: 6856: 6854: 6853:Hydromorphone 6851: 6849: 6846: 6844: 6841: 6839: 6836: 6834: 6831: 6829: 6826: 6824: 6821: 6819: 6816: 6814: 6811: 6809: 6806: 6804: 6801: 6799: 6798:Ethylmorphine 6796: 6794: 6791: 6789: 6788:Endomorphin-2 6786: 6784: 6783:Endomorphin-1 6781: 6779: 6776: 6774: 6771: 6769: 6766: 6764: 6763:Diphenoxylate 6761: 6759: 6756: 6754: 6751: 6749: 6746: 6744: 6741: 6739: 6736: 6734: 6731: 6729: 6726: 6724: 6721: 6719: 6716: 6714: 6711: 6709: 6706: 6704: 6701: 6699: 6696: 6694: 6691: 6689: 6686: 6684: 6681: 6679: 6676: 6674: 6671: 6669: 6666: 6664: 6661: 6659: 6656: 6654: 6651: 6649: 6648:Butyrfentanyl 6646: 6644: 6641: 6639: 6636: 6634: 6633:Buprenorphine 6631: 6629: 6626: 6624: 6621: 6619: 6616: 6614: 6611: 6609: 6606: 6604: 6601: 6599: 6596: 6594: 6591: 6589: 6586: 6584: 6581: 6579: 6576: 6574: 6571: 6569: 6566: 6564: 6561: 6559: 6556: 6554: 6551: 6549: 6548:Acrylfentanyl 6546: 6544: 6541: 6539: 6536: 6534: 6531: 6529: 6526: 6524: 6523:ψ-Akuammigine 6521: 6519: 6516: 6514: 6511: 6509: 6506: 6505: 6503: 6500: 6492: 6489: 6485: 6481: 6477: 6474: 6467: 6462: 6460: 6455: 6453: 6448: 6447: 6444: 6437: 6432: 6428: 6427: 6422: 6421: 6420: 6414: 6410: 6386: 6382: 6378: 6374: 6370: 6366: 6362: 6358: 6354: 6350: 6342: 6334: 6330: 6325: 6320: 6316: 6312: 6308: 6304: 6300: 6293: 6285: 6281: 6276: 6271: 6267: 6263: 6259: 6255: 6251: 6247: 6243: 6236: 6222: 6218: 6211: 6209: 6207: 6192: 6191:Rolling Stone 6188: 6181: 6179: 6177: 6162: 6158: 6152: 6150: 6135: 6131: 6124: 6116: 6112: 6105: 6097: 6093: 6086: 6071: 6067: 6061: 6047: 6043: 6037: 6029: 6025: 6018: 6002: 5998: 5994: 5987: 5979: 5978: 5973: 5966: 5951: 5947: 5940: 5924: 5920: 5914: 5907: 5894: 5888: 5881: 5868: 5862: 5846: 5842: 5835: 5833: 5817: 5813: 5806: 5804: 5788: 5784: 5778: 5764: 5760: 5753: 5737: 5731: 5715: 5711: 5705: 5689: 5685: 5679: 5665: 5661: 5654: 5640: 5636: 5630: 5614: 5610: 5606: 5599: 5583: 5579: 5573: 5565: 5561: 5557: 5553: 5546: 5530: 5526: 5520: 5518: 5510: 5505: 5496: 5480: 5474: 5460: 5456: 5450: 5448: 5432: 5428: 5422: 5408: 5404: 5397: 5395: 5379: 5375: 5369: 5361: 5354: 5348: 5340: 5334: 5320: 5316: 5310: 5302: 5295: 5287: 5283: 5276: 5268: 5264: 5258: 5242: 5236: 5221: 5217: 5211: 5200:September 12, 5192: 5185: 5179: 5163: 5156: 5150: 5142: 5136: 5132: 5125: 5117: 5113: 5108: 5103: 5100:(9): 616–25. 5099: 5095: 5091: 5084: 5076: 5072: 5068: 5064: 5060: 5054: 5050: 5046: 5042: 5038: 5034: 5032: 5023: 5015: 5011: 5007: 5003: 4996: 4988: 4984: 4980: 4976: 4972: 4968: 4964: 4957: 4942: 4936: 4932: 4928: 4924: 4920: 4913: 4905: 4901: 4897: 4893: 4889: 4885: 4881: 4877: 4873: 4871: 4862: 4854: 4850: 4845: 4840: 4836: 4832: 4827: 4822: 4818: 4814: 4810: 4803: 4795: 4791: 4787: 4783: 4779: 4775: 4771: 4767: 4763: 4759: 4755: 4753: 4744: 4736: 4732: 4727: 4722: 4718: 4714: 4710: 4706: 4702: 4698: 4694: 4692: 4683: 4675: 4671: 4666: 4661: 4657: 4653: 4649: 4645: 4641: 4637: 4633: 4626: 4618: 4614: 4610: 4606: 4602: 4598: 4594: 4590: 4586: 4579: 4571: 4567: 4563: 4559: 4555: 4551: 4543: 4541: 4539: 4537: 4528: 4524: 4519: 4514: 4510: 4506: 4502: 4498: 4494: 4492: 4483: 4481: 4479: 4462: 4461:"Mitragynine" 4456: 4442: 4438: 4432: 4421: 4413: 4409: 4405: 4401: 4397: 4393: 4389: 4385: 4381: 4377: 4373: 4366: 4364: 4355: 4349: 4345: 4338: 4329: 4322: 4316: 4309: 4303: 4296: 4290: 4281: 4265: 4261: 4255: 4253: 4244: 4240: 4235: 4230: 4226: 4222: 4218: 4214: 4210: 4203: 4201: 4192: 4188: 4183: 4178: 4173: 4168: 4165:(7): e16582. 4164: 4160: 4159: 4154: 4147: 4139: 4133: 4129: 4128: 4120: 4112: 4108: 4104: 4100: 4096: 4092: 4088: 4080: 4078: 4069: 4065: 4060: 4055: 4051: 4047: 4042: 4037: 4033: 4029: 4025: 4023: 4014: 4012: 4010: 4008: 4006: 3997: 3993: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3977: 3973: 3969: 3965: 3958: 3950: 3946: 3942: 3938: 3934: 3930: 3926: 3922: 3918: 3914: 3910: 3903: 3901: 3892: 3888: 3884: 3880: 3876: 3872: 3868: 3864: 3860: 3856: 3852: 3850: 3841: 3833: 3829: 3825: 3821: 3817: 3813: 3809: 3805: 3801: 3797: 3790: 3788: 3786: 3784: 3775: 3771: 3764: 3757: 3755: 3745: 3738: 3730: 3724: 3720: 3719: 3711: 3703: 3699: 3694: 3689: 3685: 3681: 3677: 3673: 3669: 3665: 3661: 3659: 3650: 3642: 3638: 3634: 3630: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3614: 3610: 3606: 3603:and Kratom". 3602: 3595: 3593: 3584: 3580: 3576: 3572: 3568: 3564: 3560: 3556: 3552: 3548: 3541: 3539: 3530: 3526: 3521: 3516: 3512: 3508: 3504: 3500: 3496: 3492: 3488: 3481: 3479: 3477: 3475: 3473: 3471: 3469: 3467: 3458: 3454: 3449: 3444: 3440: 3436: 3432: 3428: 3424: 3420: 3416: 3409: 3401: 3397: 3393: 3389: 3385: 3381: 3377: 3373: 3369: 3365: 3361: 3354: 3346: 3342: 3338: 3334: 3330: 3326: 3322: 3318: 3314: 3307: 3305: 3296: 3292: 3288: 3284: 3280: 3276: 3272: 3268: 3261: 3253: 3249: 3245: 3241: 3236: 3231: 3226: 3221: 3217: 3213: 3209: 3207: 3198: 3183: 3179: 3175: 3171: 3165: 3146: 3139: 3137: 3120: 3118: 3110: 3108: 3106: 3104: 3087: 3086:Health Canada 3083: 3077: 3066: 3065: 3060: 3054: 3046: 3042: 3038: 3034: 3030: 3026: 3022: 3015: 3013: 3011: 3009: 3007: 2998: 2992: 2988: 2987: 2979: 2971: 2965: 2961: 2957: 2950: 2948: 2946: 2944: 2942: 2940: 2938: 2921: 2915: 2913: 2911: 2909: 2907: 2905: 2903: 2901: 2899: 2897: 2895: 2893: 2891: 2889: 2887: 2878: 2874: 2870: 2866: 2861: 2856: 2852: 2848: 2844: 2842: 2833: 2831: 2829: 2813: 2809: 2805: 2799: 2797: 2795: 2793: 2784: 2780: 2776: 2772: 2768: 2764: 2760: 2756: 2752: 2745: 2743: 2741: 2739: 2730: 2724: 2720: 2716: 2709: 2707: 2695: 2688: 2686: 2678: 2676: 2674: 2672: 2670: 2661: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2644: 2639: 2635: 2631: 2627: 2623: 2619: 2612: 2610: 2608: 2599: 2595: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2576:(1): 127–38. 2575: 2571: 2564: 2562: 2560: 2558: 2556: 2554: 2552: 2550: 2548: 2546: 2544: 2542: 2540: 2538: 2536: 2534: 2532: 2530: 2528: 2526: 2524: 2522: 2520: 2518: 2516: 2514: 2512: 2510: 2508: 2506: 2504: 2487: 2481: 2479: 2477: 2475: 2473: 2464: 2460: 2456: 2452: 2448: 2444: 2437: 2435: 2433: 2431: 2429: 2427: 2425: 2423: 2414: 2410: 2405: 2400: 2395: 2390: 2386: 2382: 2378: 2376: 2367: 2365: 2363: 2361: 2359: 2357: 2340: 2333: 2331: 2329: 2327: 2325: 2323: 2321: 2319: 2317: 2308: 2302: 2298: 2291: 2283: 2279: 2275: 2271: 2267: 2263: 2259: 2255: 2251: 2247: 2239: 2237: 2235: 2233: 2231: 2229: 2227: 2225: 2223: 2214: 2210: 2206: 2202: 2197: 2192: 2189:(2): 189–97. 2188: 2184: 2180: 2173: 2171: 2169: 2167: 2165: 2163: 2161: 2159: 2157: 2155: 2153: 2151: 2136: 2132: 2128: 2127: 2122: 2120: 2112: 2105: 2103: 2097: 2089: 2083: 2067: 2062: 2058: 2054: 2053: 2048: 2046: 2037: 2033: 2024: 2023: 2019: 2018: 2014: 2003: 1996: 1994: 1990: 1989:antipsychotic 1980: 1978: 1974: 1970: 1966: 1962: 1959: 1954: 1944: 1942: 1936: 1934: 1929: 1925: 1915: 1913: 1908: 1904: 1899: 1897: 1893: 1888: 1885: 1874: 1871: 1867: 1860:United States 1857: 1853: 1850: 1849: 1842: 1833: 1823: 1820: 1819:ketum or Biak 1810: 1807: 1796: 1794: 1790: 1786: 1781: 1779: 1774: 1771: 1763: 1761: 1760:Health Canada 1751: 1743: 1741: 1731: 1729: 1726:In 2021, the 1724: 1716: 1707: 1705: 1704:antibacterial 1701: 1697: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1681: 1677: 1674: 1670: 1666: 1662: 1658: 1657:triterpenoids 1654: 1650: 1646: 1642: 1638: 1634: 1629: 1627: 1623: 1619: 1618:mitraphylline 1615: 1614: 1609: 1608: 1603: 1599: 1595: 1591: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1563: 1559: 1553: 1543: 1541: 1537: 1534: 1530: 1526: 1523: 1519: 1518: 1513: 1509: 1505: 1501: 1497: 1492: 1490: 1486: 1482: 1478: 1474: 1470: 1462: 1459: 1452: 1449: 1442: 1439: 1432: 1425: 1422: 1418: 1414: 1413:inhibit COX-2 1409: 1407: 1403: 1399: 1395: 1391: 1387: 1383: 1379: 1375: 1371: 1366: 1364: 1360: 1356: 1352: 1351:mitraphylline 1348: 1344: 1340: 1336: 1327: 1324: 1321: 1318: 1315: 1313: 1310: 1309: 1306: 1303: 1300: 1297: 1294: 1292: 1289: 1288: 1285: 1282: 1279: 1276: 1273: 1271: 1268: 1267: 1263: 1258: 1253: 1248: 1243: 1238: 1233: 1232: 1225: 1219: 1209: 1202: 1198: 1188: 1186: 1182: 1178: 1172: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1151: 1149: 1145: 1141: 1131: 1128: 1119: 1110: 1108: 1104: 1100: 1095: 1093: 1089: 1084: 1082: 1078: 1073: 1068: 1066: 1062: 1058: 1054: 1050: 1045: 1041: 1036: 1034: 1030: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1014: 1010: 1006: 1002: 998: 994: 989: 987: 983: 979: 975: 971: 967: 962: 960: 954: 952: 948: 944: 940: 936: 932: 928: 924: 920: 916: 912: 908: 904: 900: 896: 892: 888: 884: 880: 876: 872: 868: 864: 860: 856: 847: 844: 839: 837: 833: 829: 825: 821: 817: 812: 808: 806: 801: 799: 795: 794:positive mood 791: 790:sexual desire 787: 783: 779: 769: 766: 762: 760: 756: 752: 748: 738: 734: 732: 728: 724: 714: 712: 708: 704: 700: 695: 693: 689: 685: 681: 674:Kratom leaves 672: 661: 657: 653: 649: 645: 636: 627: 626: 625: 615: 612: 602: 593: 592: 590: 588: 584: 580: 576: 570: 567: 565: 562: 561: 559: 555: 548: 546: 543: 541: 538: 536: 533: 531: 528: 527: 525: 523: 519: 516: 513: 509: 506: 503: 499: 492: 487: 482: 478: 468: 466: 462: 458: 454: 450: 446: 444: 439: 438: 433: 425: 416: 413: 408: 405: 401: 397: 393: 389: 385: 381: 377: 373: 369: 365: 363: 359: 355: 351: 347: 343: 339: 335: 331: 327: 323: 319: 315: 311: 307: 303: 299: 298: 286: 283: 281:(Korth.) Miq. 280: 277: 274: 271: 268: 265: 264: 262: 259: 255: 251: 247: 241: 239: 233: 230: 229:Binomial name 226: 222: 221: 216: 213: 212: 209: 208: 204: 201: 200: 197: 194: 191: 190: 187: 184: 181: 180: 177: 174: 171: 168: 167: 164: 161: 158: 155: 154: 151: 148: 145: 142: 141: 138: 137:Tracheophytes 135: 132: 129: 128: 125: 122: 119: 118: 113: 108: 104: 98: 93: 92:Least Concern 82: 78: 73: 69: 64: 61: 57: 54: 40: 36: 32: 25: 20: 9638: 9609: 9588:Prodynorphin 9580:Propeptides: 9579: 9478: 9449:Thienorphine 9272:JNJ-19385899 9257:Cebranopadol 9239:Ac-RYYRIK-NH 9231:Ac-RYYRWK-NH 8915:6β-Naltrexol 8832:Thienorphine 8797:Salvinorin A 8597:Levallorphan 8402:Cebranopadol 8261:Thienorphine 8071:6β-Naltrexol 7864: 7855:JNJ-20788560 7850:Isomethadone 7745:Deltorphin I 7740:Deltorphin A 7720:Cebranopadol 7715:Casokefamide 7549:Naltrexazone 7539:Naloxonazine 7464:Levallorphan 7311:6β-Naltrexol 7210:Thienorphine 7165:Remifentanil 7087: 7018:Nicomorphine 7013:Nicodicodine 6968:Morphiceptin 6872: 6868:Ketobemidone 6703:Desomorphine 6688:DAMGO (DAGO) 6668:Cebranopadol 6663:Casokefamide 6417: 6416: 6415:profile for 6412: 6352: 6348: 6341: 6306: 6302: 6292: 6249: 6245: 6235: 6224:. Retrieved 6220: 6194:. Retrieved 6190: 6164:. Retrieved 6160: 6137:. Retrieved 6133: 6123: 6114: 6104: 6095: 6085: 6074:. Retrieved 6069: 6060: 6049:. Retrieved 6045: 6036: 6027: 6017: 6005:. Retrieved 6001:the original 5996: 5986: 5975: 5965: 5955:12 September 5953:. Retrieved 5949: 5939: 5927:. Retrieved 5923:the original 5913: 5904: 5897:. Retrieved 5887: 5878: 5871:. Retrieved 5861: 5849:. Retrieved 5844: 5819:. Retrieved 5815: 5791:. Retrieved 5789:. 2016-09-08 5786: 5777: 5766:. Retrieved 5762: 5752: 5740:. Retrieved 5730: 5718:. Retrieved 5713: 5704: 5692:. Retrieved 5687: 5678: 5667:. Retrieved 5664:Bangkok Post 5663: 5653: 5642:. Retrieved 5639:Bangkok Post 5638: 5629: 5619:13 September 5617:. Retrieved 5613:the original 5608: 5598: 5586:. Retrieved 5582:Bangkok Post 5581: 5572: 5558:(1): 17–26. 5555: 5551: 5545: 5533:. Retrieved 5528: 5504: 5495: 5483:. Retrieved 5473: 5462:. Retrieved 5458: 5435:. Retrieved 5430: 5421: 5410:. Retrieved 5406: 5382:. Retrieved 5377: 5368: 5359: 5347: 5333: 5322:. Retrieved 5318: 5309: 5294: 5285: 5275: 5267:the original 5257: 5245:. Retrieved 5235: 5223:. Retrieved 5219: 5210: 5198:. Retrieved 5191:the original 5178: 5166:. Retrieved 5161: 5149: 5130: 5124: 5097: 5093: 5083: 5040: 5036: 5030: 5022: 5005: 5001: 4995: 4962: 4956: 4944:. Retrieved 4922: 4912: 4879: 4875: 4869: 4861: 4816: 4812: 4802: 4761: 4757: 4751: 4743: 4700: 4696: 4690: 4682: 4639: 4635: 4625: 4592: 4588: 4578: 4553: 4550:J. Med. Chem 4549: 4503:(1): 15–32. 4500: 4496: 4490: 4465:. Retrieved 4455: 4444:. Retrieved 4440: 4431: 4420: 4379: 4375: 4343: 4337: 4328: 4320: 4315: 4307: 4302: 4294: 4289: 4280: 4268:. Retrieved 4263: 4216: 4212: 4162: 4156: 4146: 4130:. Springer. 4126: 4119: 4087:J Addict Dis 4086: 4031: 4027: 4021: 3971: 3967: 3957: 3916: 3912: 3858: 3854: 3848: 3840: 3799: 3795: 3773: 3763: 3750: 3737: 3717: 3710: 3667: 3663: 3657: 3649: 3608: 3604: 3600: 3553:(1): 12–18. 3550: 3546: 3497:(1): 55–69. 3494: 3490: 3422: 3418: 3408: 3367: 3363: 3353: 3320: 3316: 3270: 3266: 3260: 3218:(3): e2582. 3215: 3211: 3205: 3197: 3186:. Retrieved 3164: 3152:. Retrieved 3123:. Retrieved 3116: 3090:. Retrieved 3085: 3076: 3063: 3053: 3028: 3024: 3020: 2989:. Elsevier. 2985: 2978: 2959: 2955: 2926:12 September 2924:. Retrieved 2850: 2846: 2840: 2815:. Retrieved 2758: 2754: 2750: 2718: 2694:the original 2684: 2625: 2621: 2573: 2569: 2490:. Retrieved 2446: 2442: 2384: 2380: 2374: 2343:. Retrieved 2296: 2290: 2249: 2245: 2186: 2182: 2138:. Retrieved 2124: 2118: 2111: 2101: 2096: 2082:cite journal 2070:. Retrieved 2056: 2050: 2044: 2036: 2020: 1995:properties. 1986: 1961:Brett Giroir 1950: 1937: 1921: 1900: 1889: 1880: 1863: 1854: 1847: 1829: 1818: 1816: 1802: 1782: 1775: 1772: 1769: 1757: 1749: 1737: 1725: 1722: 1713: 1665:oleanic acid 1661:ursolic acid 1636: 1630: 1611: 1605: 1600:, including 1593: 1589: 1585: 1557: 1555: 1515: 1510:excreted in 1493: 1410: 1367: 1332: 1264:MOR:DOR:KOR 1196: 1191:Pharmacology 1176: 1173: 1157: 1137: 1125: 1116: 1096: 1085: 1069: 1037: 990: 963: 955: 951:constipation 905:(2.3%), and 854: 853: 840: 813: 809: 802: 788:, increased 775: 767: 763: 744: 735: 720: 696: 694:for kratom. 677: 624: 587:Legal status 460: 448: 447: 435: 431: 430: 409: 384:constipation 372:side-effects 366: 354:chronic pain 304:tree of the 296: 295: 294: 284: 278: 272: 266: 237: 235: 219: 218: 206: 169: 156: 143: 130: 59: 53: 38: 29:This is the 23: 9922:Herbal teas 9882:Euphoriants 9867:Anxiolytics 9730:iNaturalist 9663:Wikispecies 9518:Kelatorphan 9495:Candoxatril 9384:Antagonists 9335:Racemorphan 9302:NNC 63-0532 9287:Lexanopadol 9282:Levorphanol 9160:Quadazocine 9145:Pawhuskin A 9140:Noribogaine 9130:Navacaprant 9120:Naltrindole 9040:Epicatechin 9005:Clocinnamox 8888:Antagonists 8850:desipramine 8817:Samidorphan 8787:Racemorphan 8772:Phenazocine 8762:Pentazocine 8742:Norketamine 8737:Noribogaine 8697:Nalfurafine 8662:Mirtazapine 8652:Metkefamide 8612:Lexanopadol 8607:Levorphanol 8587:Laudanosine 8572:ICI-204,448 8567:ICI-199,441 8537:Hemorphin-4 8497:Erinacine E 8482:Eluxadoline 8472:Dynorphin A 8417:Cyclazocine 8392:Butorphanol 8377:Bremazocine 8352:Asimadoline 8342:Allomatrine 8332:Akuammicine 8241:Quadazocine 8236:Pawhuskin A 8231:Noribogaine 8216:Naltrindole 8156:Epicatechin 8151:Eluxadoline 8126:Clocinnamox 8054:Antagonists 7985:Samidorphan 7975:Racemorphan 7955:Oxymorphone 7915:Mitragynine 7910:Metkefamide 7890:Lexanopadol 7885:Levorphanol 7870:Laudanosine 7835:Hydrocodone 7830:Hemorphin-4 7730:Cyclazocine 7705:Butorphanol 7680:β-Endorphin 7599:Samidorphan 7594:Quadazocine 7584:Pawhuskin A 7574:Noribogaine 7564:Naltrindole 7499:Naldemedine 7429:Epicatechin 7386:Clocinnamox 7274:Antagonists 7245:Tubotaiwine 7230:Trimebutine 7160:Racemorphan 7130:Piritramide 7115:Phenazocine 7100:Pentazocine 7073:Oxymorphone 7038:Oliceridine 7023:Norketamine 7008:Nicocodeine 6993:Naltalimide 6958:Mitragynine 6948:Metkefamide 6918:Loxicodegol 6908:Lexanopadol 6903:Levorphanol 6878:Laudanosine 6843:Hydrocodone 6838:Hodgkinsine 6828:Hemorphin-4 6818:Frakefamide 6778:Embutramide 6773:Dynorphin A 6733:Eluxadoline 6723:Dimenoxadol 6658:Carfentanil 6643:Butorphanol 6618:Bezitramide 6588:β-Endorphin 6578:Anileridine 6568:Akuammidine 6563:Akuammicine 6533:α-Narcotine 6355:: 152–161. 5899:14 November 5720:15 November 5535:26 December 5459:merdeka.com 5286:Global News 5043:: 195–225. 4946:January 24, 4882:: 302–325. 4819:(5): 1397. 4467:15 February 4270:22 February 3323:: 134–140. 1977:Pfizer Inc. 1953:prohibition 1848:ton krathom 1793:mitragynine 1700:antioxidant 1669:polyphenols 1637:M. speciosa 1594:M. speciosa 1586:M. speciosa 1566:mitragynine 1564:related to 1558:M. speciosa 1552:Mitragynine 1508:metabolites 1496:metabolized 1378:antagonists 1339:mitragynine 1291:Mitragynine 1148:cholestasis 1057:lamotrigine 978:hot flashes 974:watery eyes 959:tachycardia 923:weight loss 871:tachycardia 828:cough syrup 786:sociability 711:mitragynine 660:New Zealand 646:Illegal in 530:Mitragynine 419:Description 186:Gentianales 150:Angiosperms 9856:Categories 9800:kew-128805 9795:Plant List 9613:Kyotorphin 9558:Spinorphin 9439:SB-612,111 9434:Nocistatin 9404:BAN-ORL-24 9355:SCH-486757 9350:SCH-221510 9189:Nociceptin 9150:PF-4455242 9125:Naringenin 9115:Naltrexone 9075:LY-2795050 9070:LY-2459989 9065:LY-2444296 9060:LY-2196044 9045:Hyperoside 8960:Aticaprant 8854:imipramine 8777:Proxorphan 8752:Oxilorphan 8722:Niravoline 8712:Nalorphine 8687:Nalbuphine 8672:Moxazocine 8647:Metazocine 8617:Lofentanil 8582:Ketazocine 8542:Herkinorin 8522:Gemazocine 8512:Fedotozine 8492:Eptazocine 8422:Cyclorphan 8407:Ciprefadol 8226:Naringenin 8206:Naltrexone 8201:Nalorphine 8176:LY-2196044 8166:ICI-174864 8161:ICI-154129 8106:Bevenopran 8081:α-Santolol 8045:Zenazocine 8025:Tonazocine 7980:RWJ-394674 7965:Proglumide 7905:Metazocine 7895:Lofentanil 7825:Fluorophen 7589:Rimonabant 7579:Oxilorphan 7569:Naringenin 7559:Naltrexone 7524:Naloxazone 7514:Nalorphine 7479:LY-2196044 7449:Hyperoside 7439:Gemazocine 7434:Eptazocine 7371:Bevenopran 7215:Tianeptine 7190:Tapentadol 7185:Sufentanil 7180:Sinomenine 7170:Salsolinol 7125:Piminodine 7043:Oxycodegol 7033:Octreotide 7028:Nufenoxole 6978:Nalbuphine 6933:Meptazinol 6913:Loperamide 6883:Lefetamine 6833:Herkinorin 6813:Fluorophen 6768:Dipipanone 6693:Dermorphin 6583:Apparicine 6573:Alfentanil 6496:(abridged; 6476:modulators 6226:2021-06-22 6196:2021-06-22 6166:2021-06-22 6139:2019-02-20 6076:2016-10-18 6051:2016-10-12 6007:October 2, 5793:2021-06-21 5768:2021-06-21 5742:16 January 5669:2021-08-24 5644:2021-06-22 5609:The Nation 5588:5 February 5464:2024-09-18 5437:2024-09-18 5412:2024-09-04 5384:2022-06-12 5324:2023-11-28 5247:18 January 4446:2020-08-05 3670:: 107849. 3235:2299/18790 3188:2023-10-19 3119:or kratom" 2643:2299/21622 2624:(Review). 2572:(Review). 2445:(Review). 2345:6 February 2140:2013-12-26 2029:References 1884:salmonella 1870:Schedule I 1836:ต้นกระท่อม 1719:Regulation 1673:flavonoids 1651:and other 1574:voacangine 1398:β-arrestin 1208:Affinities 1099:salmonella 1049:paroxetine 875:drowsiness 843:head shops 818:, such as 755:dependence 404:withdrawal 9897:Naucleeae 9826:100225434 9761:192376330 9568:Tynorphin 9563:Thiorphan 9543:Opiorphan 9485:Amastatin 9414:J-113,397 9375:TH-030418 9345:Ro65-6570 9340:Ro64-6198 9267:Etorphine 9175:Zyklophin 9165:Taxifolin 9055:LY-255582 9015:Cyclofoxy 8965:Axelopran 8879:Xorphanol 8869:U-54,494A 8837:Tifluadom 8827:TH-030418 8757:Oxycodone 8747:Oripavine 8717:Naltriben 8702:Nalmefene 8657:Mianserin 8627:Lufuradom 8532:GR-103545 8507:Etorphine 8487:Enadoline 8387:Butorphan 8382:BRL-52537 8347:Apadoline 8256:Taxifolin 8251:SoRI-9409 8211:Naltriben 8196:Nalmefene 8171:LY-255582 8101:Axelopran 8040:Xorphanol 8010:TH-030418 7990:SB-235863 7950:Oxycodone 7945:Oripavine 7810:Etorphine 7700:Butorphan 7665:Amoxapine 7604:Taxifolin 7529:Naloxegol 7504:Nalmefene 7474:LY-255582 7404:Cyprodime 7399:Cyclofoxy 7366:Axelopran 7346:Alvimopan 7341:Akuammine 7326:α-Gliadin 7265:Xorphanol 7255:Valorphin 7200:TH-030418 7058:Oxycodone 7053:Oripavine 6988:Nalmexone 6943:Methadone 6923:LS-115509 6803:Etorphine 6793:Eseroline 6638:Butorphan 6499:full list 6385:195848995 6369:1090-2139 6315:0044-0086 6266:1873-4758 6252:: 70–77. 5929:31 August 5075:234947828 5067:1572-5995 5029:"Kratom ( 4896:1872-7573 4870:Mitragyna 4835:1420-3049 4813:Molecules 4794:157067698 4778:1876-2018 4764:: 73–82. 4717:0163-3864 4656:1948-7193 4617:236630556 4609:2573-9468 4595:: e1420. 4396:0028-3908 4111:265064749 4050:2305-6320 4034:(1): 35. 4028:Medicines 3988:1879-0046 3974:: 63–70. 3949:157058636 3933:1875-9114 3891:218893286 3875:1473-6578 3847:"Kratom ( 3816:1556-3650 3684:0376-8716 3656:"Kratom ( 3625:1556-3650 3567:2159-9777 3511:2193-8237 3439:1432-2072 3400:251810402 3384:1097-9891 3337:1879-0046 3244:1099-1077 2869:0149-2195 2783:210088143 2683:"Kratom ( 2660:201095094 2266:0149-7634 2213:206358469 1799:Indonesia 1680:quercetin 1633:alkaloids 1598:alkaloids 1570:yohimbine 1546:Chemistry 1522:inhibited 1481:clonidine 1359:raubasine 1345:(7-HMG), 1335:alkaloids 1113:Addiction 1031:(MAOIs). 1025:yohimbine 1005:sedatives 970:myoclonus 943:hair loss 883:confusion 881:(11.2%), 877:(13.6%), 873:(16.9%), 863:incidence 832:Coca-Cola 707:alkaloids 703:extracted 656:Indonesia 564:Indonesia 545:Raubasine 455:botanist 437:Mitragyna 396:psychosis 346:stimulant 322:Indonesia 306:Rubiaceae 302:evergreen 214:Species: 207:Mitragyna 196:Rubiaceae 120:Kingdom: 9821:Tropicos 9748:756303-1 9648:Wikidata 9454:Trap-101 9444:SR-16430 9365:SR-16435 9219:(PheΨ(CH 9199:Agonists 9110:Naloxone 9020:Dezocine 8990:Catechin 8945:Apigenin 8874:U-69,593 8667:Morphine 8637:MB-1C-OH 8577:Ketamine 8562:Ibogaine 8527:GR-89696 8517:Fentanyl 8397:BW373U86 8285:Agonists 8275:κ-opioid 8221:Naloxone 8116:Catechin 8091:Apigenin 8030:Tramadol 8015:Thebaine 7925:Morphine 7845:Ibogaine 7815:Fentanyl 7795:DPI-3290 7765:Dezocine 7710:BW373U86 7690:Biphalin 7655:ADL-5859 7628:Agonists 7618:δ-opioid 7544:Naloxone 7469:Lobeline 7454:Ibogaine 7376:Catechin 7356:Apigenin 7225:Tramadol 7220:Tilidine 7205:Thebaine 7175:SC-17599 7145:Propiram 7105:Pericine 7048:OM-3-MNZ 6973:Morphine 6863:Ketamine 6808:Fentanyl 6718:Dezocine 6653:BW373U86 6623:Biphalin 6508:3-HO-PCP 6494:Agonists 6484:μ-opioid 6377:31301401 6333:32607089 6284:31103778 5485:18 April 5431:kumparan 5116:23024321 5014:23212430 4979:27018165 4904:28330725 4853:33807728 4786:31100603 4735:32597657 4674:34213886 4570:11960505 4527:22271566 4412:24009429 4404:28830758 4243:30973850 4191:34430176 4103:37942896 4089:: 1–12. 4068:30836609 3996:28521200 3941:31099038 3883:32452943 3832:73507086 3824:30786220 3702:32029298 3641:32501470 3633:18259963 3583:58643707 3575:30614408 3529:31994019 3457:29273821 3392:36001875 3345:29248691 3287:27178014 3252:28544011 3182:Archived 3092:8 August 3045:21050173 2877:27466822 2817:29 March 2812:31643176 2804:"Kratom" 2775:31919755 2652:31429622 2590:26511390 2492:8 August 2463:29255059 2413:26640804 2387:: 1–11. 2274:23206666 2205:25471045 1999:See also 1826:Thailand 1813:Malaysia 1676:apigenin 1659:such as 1649:iridoids 1645:saponins 1517:in vitro 1504:phase II 1415:, block 1390:affinity 1325:1:35:913 1204:Compound 1185:tramadol 1165:seizures 1144:jaundice 1103:outbreak 1092:naloxone 1077:fentanyl 1017:caffeine 993:seizures 986:diarrhea 935:sweating 931:insomnia 901:(2.8%), 897:(4.8%), 893:(6.1%), 889:(6.1%), 887:seizures 885:(8.1%), 879:vomiting 820:caffeine 798:euphoria 778:euphoric 759:overdose 709:such as 648:Malaysia 600: S8 569:Thailand 326:Malaysia 318:Thailand 314:Cambodia 258:Synonyms 192:Family: 176:Asterids 163:Eudicots 97:IUCN 3.1 35:reviewed 9892:Opioids 9709:2900453 9696:1106532 9654:Q139698 9610:Others: 9538:RB-3007 9490:BL-2401 9459:UFP-101 9424:NalBzOH 9419:JTC-801 9360:SR-8993 9297:MT-7716 9247:BU08070 9100:MR-2266 9080:MeJDTic 9010:CVL-354 8980:BU09059 8970:AZ-MTAB 8950:Arodyne 8910:6'-GNTI 8905:5'-GNTI 8864:U-50488 8844:(e.g., 8692:NalBzOH 8677:MR-2034 8642:Menthol 8632:Matrine 8367:BAM-22P 8362:BAM-18P 8357:BAM-12P 8297:6'-GNTI 8066:5'-NTII 8000:SNC-162 7940:NalBzOH 7860:KNT-127 7790:DPI-221 7725:Codeine 7685:BAM-18P 7675:AZD2327 7640:6'-GNTI 7534:Naloxol 7260:Viminol 7250:U-47700 7235:TRIMU 5 7140:Prodine 7083:OxyPNPH 6998:Neopine 6983:NalBzOH 6953:Metopon 6928:Matrine 6678:Codeine 6628:BU08070 6603:BAM-22P 6598:BAM-18P 6593:BAM-12P 6558:AH-7921 6409:Scholia 6324:7309668 6275:7881941 6046:NPR.org 5873:7 March 5851:5 April 5821:5 April 5694:July 8, 5362:. 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