Montessori education

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tables and chairs arranged singly or in small clusters, with classroom materials on child-height shelves throughout the room. Activities are for the most part initially presented by the teacher, after which they may be chosen more or less freely by the children as interest dictates. A teacher's role within a Montessori classroom is to guide and consult students individually by letting each child create their own learning pathway. Classroom materials usually include activities for engaging in practical skills such as pouring and spooning, washing up, scrubbing tables and sweeping. Also materials for the development of the senses, mathematical materials, language materials, music, art and cultural materials, including more science-based activities like 'sink and float', Magnetic and Non magnetic and candle and air.

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fingers to learn the shape and sound of each letter. Another example is the use of bead chains to teach math concepts, specifically multiplication. Specifically for multiples of 10, there is one bead that represents one unit, a bar of ten beads put together that represents 1×10, then a flat shape created by fitting 10 of the bars together to represent 10×10, and a cube created by fitting 10 of the flats together to represent 10×10×10. These materials help build a concrete understanding of basic concepts upon which much is built in the later years.

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feel most comfortable. Anything a child would need during their learning experience is placed on a shelf that the student can easily get to. This promotes not only their learning, but also their independence because they do not need to ask for help as much. Montessori classrooms have an age range so that the younger students can look up to the older students and the older students can help the younger students as needed. It gives all age groups a chance to learn from one another.

269:. This educational style operates abiding by two beliefs: that psychological self-construction in children and developing adults occurs through environmental interactions, and that children (especially under the age of six) have an innate path of psychological development. Based on her observations, Montessori believed that children who are at liberty to choose and act freely within an environment prepared according to her model would act spontaneously for optimal development. 588:

plane, and that it fades as the child approached age six. Montessori also observed and discovered periods of special sensitivity to particular stimuli during this time which she called the "sensitive periods". In Montessori education, the classroom environment responds to these periods by making appropriate materials and activities available while the periods are active in each individual young child. She identified the following periods and their durations:

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observed the loss of baby teeth and the lengthening of the legs and torso at the beginning of the plane, and a period of uniform growth following. Psychologically, she observed the "herd instinct", or the tendency to work and socialize in groups, as well as the powers of reason and imagination. Developmentally, she believed the work of the second-plane child is the formation of intellectual independence, of moral sense, and of social organization.

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lower levels ready to fully embrace the study of culture and the sciences in order to influence and lead civilization. She believed that economic independence in the form of work for money was critical for this age, and felt that an arbitrary limit to the number of years in university-level study was unnecessary, as the study of culture could go on throughout a person's life.

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outcomes of Montessori classrooms in which children spent extra time with Montessori materials, a standard amount of time with the Montessori materials ('classic Montessori'), or no time at all with the materials (because they were in conventional classrooms), Lillard (2012) found the best outcomes for children in classic Montessori.

476:, etc. Student-directed explorations of resources outside the classroom are integral to education. Montessori used the term "cosmic education" to indicate both the universal scope of lessons to be presented and the idea that education should help children realize the human role in the interdependent functioning of the universe. 510:

has to be a specific purpose behind using technology. Before using a device, the student should ask themselves if using this device is the best way or if it is the only way to do a certain task. If the answer is yes to both of those questions, then that would be considered using technology in a meaningful way.

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and adolescence, but also psychological changes. She emphasized the psychological instability and difficulties in the concentration of this age, as well as the creative tendencies and the development of "a sense of justice and a sense of personal dignity". She used the term "valorization" to describe

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Finally, Montessori observed in children from three to six years old a psychological state she termed "normalization". Normalization arises from concentration and focus on activity which serves the child's developmental needs, and is characterized by the ability to concentrate as well as "spontaneous

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Montessori described the young child's behavior of effortlessly assimilating the sensorial stimuli of his or her environment, including information from the senses, language, culture, and the development of concepts with the term "absorbent mind". She believed that this is a power unique to the first

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Devices are not commonly used when students are being taught. When students have a question about something, they try to solve it themselves instead of turning to a device to try to figure out an answer. When a device is used by a student, the teacher expects them to use it in a meaningful way. There

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during her lifetime. However, a number of schools have extended their programs for younger children to the middle school and high school levels. In addition, several Montessori organizations have developed teacher training or orientation courses and a loose consensus on the plan of study is emerging.

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Activities in Children's Houses are typically hands-on, tactile materials to teach concepts. For example, to teach writing, students use sandpaper letters. These are letters created by cutting letters out of sandpaper and placing them on wooden blocks. The children then trace these letters with their

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Montessori education involves free activity within a "prepared environment", meaning an educational environment tailored to basic human characteristics, to the specific characteristics of children at different ages, and to the individual personalities of each child. The function of the environment is

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approach embedded in a rich language context, providing a sensorial foundation for mathematics education) are effective, although these studies suffer from several methodological limitations. At the same time, it was concluded that while some evidence exists that children may benefit cognitively and

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The fourth plane of development extends from around eighteen years to around twenty-four years old. Montessori wrote comparatively little about this period and did not develop an educational program for the age. She envisioned young adults prepared by their experiences in Montessori education at the

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that involves children's natural interests and activities rather than formal teaching methods. A Montessori classroom places an emphasis on hands-on learning and developing real-world skills. It emphasizes independence and it views children as naturally eager for knowledge and capable of initiating

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Some studies have not found positive outcomes for children in Montessori classrooms. For example, a 2005 study in a Buffalo public Montessori magnet school "failed to support the hypothesis that enrollment in a Montessori school was associated with higher academic achievement". Explicitly comparing

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found that "when strictly implemented, Montessori education fosters social and academic skills that are equal or superior to those fostered by a pool of other types of schools". Another study in the Milwaukee Public Schools found that children who had attended Montessori from ages 3–11 outperformed

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or 3 to 6 years old are often called Children's Houses, after Montessori's first school, the Casa dei Bambini in Rome in 1906. A typical classroom serves 20 to 30 children in mixed-age groups, staffed by a fully trained lead teacher and assistants. Classrooms are usually outfitted with child-sized

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Montessori observed four distinct periods, or "planes", in human development, extending from birth to 6 years, from 6 to 12, from 12 to 18, and from 18 to 24. She saw different characteristics, learning modes, and developmental imperatives active in each of these planes and called for educational

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Although not supported by all, most Montessori schools include new technologies with the purpose of preparing students for their future use. Ideally, digital technology is not used in the same way it would be used in most other contemporary classrooms. Instead it is used "in meaningful ways," not

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Montessori schools are more flexible than traditional schools. In traditional schools, the students sit at tables or desks to do their work. At a Montessori school, the child gets to decide where they would like to work whether that is at a table or on the floor. It is about them going where they

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Maria Montessori initially resisted a career in teaching, one of only a few professions open to women in that time period. She became one of the first women to become a medical doctor in Italy in the 19th century, and specialized in psychiatry and pediatrics. Maria Montessori began developing her

90:, student freedom (including their choices of activity), long blocks of uninterrupted work time, specially trained teachers, and prepared environment. Scientific studies regarding the Montessori method are mostly positive, with a 2017 review stating that "broad evidence" exists for its efficacy. 665:

that "reventing conflicts is the work of politics; establishing peace is the work of education". She felt that children allowed to develop according to their inner laws of development would give rise to a more peaceful and enduring civilization. From the 1930s to the end of her life, she gave a

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met with Maria Montessori in London. At the time, Gandhi was very interested in the role the Montessori method might play in helping to build an independent nation. Thus, initially, Montessori education in India was connected to the Indian independence movement. Later, elite, private Montessori

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limited the spread of Montessori's ideas, and they languished after 1914. Montessori education returned to the United States in 1960 and has since spread to thousands of schools there. Montessori continued to extend her work during her lifetime, developing a comprehensive model of psychological

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The second plane of development extends from around six years to twelve years old. During this period, Montessori observed physical and psychological changes in children, and she developed a classroom environment, lessons, and materials, to respond to these new characteristics. Physically, she

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Elementary school classrooms usually serve mixed-age 6- to 9-year-old and 9- to 12-year-old groupings; 6- to 12-year-old groups are also used. Lessons are typically presented to small groups of children, who are then free to follow up with independent work of their own as interest and personal

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or 3 years old. Both environments emphasize materials and activities scaled to the children's size and abilities, opportunities to develop movement, and activities to develop independence. The development of independence in toileting is typically emphasized as well. Some schools also offer

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The first plane extends from birth to around six years of age. During this period, Montessori observed that the child undergoes striking physical and psychological development. The first-plane child is seen as a concrete, sensorial explorer and learner engaged in the developmental work of

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Montessori wrote that "The essential reform of our plan from this point of view may be defined as follows: during the difficult time of adolescence it is helpful to leave the accustomed environment of the family in town and to go to quiet surroundings in the country, close to nature".

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ruled that "the term 'Montessori' has a generic and/or descriptive significance". According to many Montessori advocates, the lack of trademark protection has led to public misconceptions of the method due to some schools' using the term without adhering to Montessorian principles.

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to help and allow the child to develop independence in all areas according to their inner psychological directives. In addition to offering access to the Montessori materials appropriate to the age of the children, the environment should exhibit the following characteristics:

461:, which they refer to as "great lessons". These lessons are typically given near the beginning of the school term and provide the basis for learning throughout the year. The lessons also offer inspiration and open doors to new areas of investigation. 439:

One of the most important benefits of a Montessori school experience is that each child is understood as an individual learner who will naturally seek to excel when their strengths, weaknesses, and interests are understood and taken into account.

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Montessori perceived specific elements of human psychology which her son and collaborator Mario Montessori identified as "human tendencies" in 1957. There is some debate about the exact list, but the following are clearly identified:

383:, Italian for "nest", serves a small number of children from around two months to around 14 months, or when the child is confidently walking. A "Young Child Community" serves a larger number of children from around one year to 2369:

Randolph, Justus J.; Bryson, Anaya; Menon, Lakshmi; Henderson, David K.; Kureethara Manuel, Austin; Michaels, Stephen; rosenstein, debra leigh walls; McPherson, Warren; O'Grady, Rebecca; Lillard, Angeline S. (September 2023).

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Beatty, Barbara (March 2011). "The Dilemma of Scripted Instruction: Comparing Teacher Autonomy, Fidelity, and Resistance in the Froebelian Kindergarten, Montessori, Direct Instruction, and Success for All".

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With the development of mobile touchscreen devices, some Montessori activities have been made into mobile apps. Mobile applications have been criticized due to the lack of physical interaction with objects.

147:. From the beginning, Montessori based her work on her observations of children and experimentation with the environment, materials, and lessons available to them. She frequently referred to her work as " 645:

the adolescents' drive for an externally derived evaluation of their worth. Developmentally, Montessori believed that the work of the third plane child is the construction of the adult self in society.

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psychological self-construction and building functional independence. Montessori introduced several concepts to explain this work, including the absorbent mind, sensitive periods, and normalization.

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found that while Montessori programs could not be considered to have undergone detailed evaluation, they performed equal to or better than other programs in certain areas. A 2006 study published in

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schools also arose, and in the 1950s, some Montessori schools opened to serve children from lower-socioeconomic families, a trend that continues today with foundation and government-funded schools.

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their high school classmates several years later on mathematics and science; another found that Montessori had some of the largest positive effects on the achievement of all programs evaluated.

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claims that despite financial background, students in Montessori schools did score higher on academic tests than their peers in the same economic classes who did not attend Montessori schools.

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Dohrmann, Kathryn Rindskopf; Nishida, Tracy K.; Gartner, Alan; Lipsky, Dorothy Kerzner; Grimm, Kevin J. (December 2007). "High School Outcomes for Students in a Public Montessori Program".

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A 2017 review on evaluations of Montessori education studies states that broad evidence exists that certain elements of the Montessori method (e.g. teaching early literacy through a

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Montessori education for this level is less developed than programs for younger children. Montessori did not establish a teacher training program or a detailed plan of education for

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during her schooling with a teacher, Montessori observed that confined children were in need of more stimulation from their environment. In 1907, she opened her first classroom, the

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Allen, Sophie (19 January 2024). "An exploration of parental perceptions surrounding the influence of the Montessori ethos towards education on aspects of children's development".

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socially from Montessori education that sticks to original principles, it is less clear whether modern adapted forms of Montessori education are as effective. In 2017,

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learning in a sufficiently supportive and well-prepared learning environment. It also discourages some conventional measures of achievement, such as grades and tests.

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Lopata, Christopher; Wallace, Nancy V.; Finn, Kristin V. (31 March 2005). "Comparison of Academic Achievement Between Montessori and Traditional Education Programs".

1434: 1363: 1341: 897: 1045: 193:, the first Montessori school in the U.S. However, conflict arose between Montessori and the American educational establishment. The 1914 critical booklet 166:. Montessori lived with the Franchettis for two years and refined her methodology together with Alice Franchetti. In 1909, she documented her theories in 162:. Maria Montessori was invited to hold her first course for teachers and to set up a "Casa dei Bambini" at Villa Montesca, the home of the Franchettis in 2258: 920: 2227: 1122: 744:(DepED) has noted the proliferation of private schools which misuse the term "Montessori" similar to how educational institutes present themselves as " 136: 2188: 753: 1651: 71:, who developed her theories through scientific experimentation with her students; the method has since been used in many parts of the world, in 2144:

Lillard, Angeline S. (June 2012). "Preschool children's development in classic Montessori, supplemented Montessori, and conventional programs".

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shall allow schools to use the term "Montessori" only if they satisfy certain guidelines by the Federation of Philippine Montessori Schools.

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A thoughtfully prepared environment where materials are organized by subject area, is accessible to children, and is appropriately sized

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showed that every year over a four-year period from Pre-K to Grade 2 children under a Montessori program had higher mean scores on the

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in 1912). The Franchetti Barons financed the publication of the book, and the methodology had the name "Method Franchetti-Montessori".

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or 3 to 6 years old are by far the most common, but 0–3, 3–6, 6–9, 9–12, 12–15, and 15–18-year-old classrooms exist as well

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The third plane of development extends from around twelve years to around eighteen years of age, encompassing the period of

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Specialized educational materials are often made out of natural, aesthetic materials such as wood, rather than plastic

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or "discovery" model, in which students learn concepts from working with materials rather than by direct instruction

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development from birth to age 24, as well as educational approaches for children ages 0 to 3, 3 to 6, and 6 to 12.

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Montessori classrooms for children under three fall into several categories, with a number of terms being used. A

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A trained teacher experienced in observing a child's characteristics, tendencies, innate talents, and abilities

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responsibility dictate. Montessori educators give interdisciplinary lessons examining subjects ranging from

406: 2350: 2561: 1625: 277: 128: 24: 1657: 1244: 765: 148: 2341: 2541: 1865:. The clio montessori series (New. ed., repr. and rev ed.). Oxford: Clio Press. pp. 59–81. 36:

Traditional Montessori educational materials on display at the exhibition "Designed for children" at

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Redesigning & rethinking montessori adolescent education: A hybrid model for the 21st Century

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Limitation of materials, so that only material that supports the child's development is included

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Educational materials like sandpaper letters are designed to appeal to young children's senses.

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Lillard, Angeline; Else-Quest, Nicole (29 September 2006). "Evaluating Montessori Education".

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discipline, continuous and happy work, social sentiments of help and sympathy for others".

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From childhood to adolescence: including "Erdkinder" and the functions of the university

1748: 969: 752:(DECS; now DepED) Order 65 issued in June 1997, the education department along with the 2351:"A Public School Makes the Case for 'Montessori for All', edutopia.org, April 25, 2019" 2169: 2126: 2079: 2044: 2001: 1974: 1760: 1226: 986: 953: 529: 190: 186: 103: 76: 398:"Parent-Infant" classes, in which parents participate with their very young children. 2401: 2161: 2083: 2048: 2036: 1945: 1920: 1891: 1866: 1841: 1790: 1764: 1297: 1270: 1230: 1159: 1149: 1017: 991: 706: 2130: 1992:

Chattin-McNichols, John (July 1981). "The Effects of Montessori School Experience".

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Miller, L; Dyer, J (1975). "Four preschool programs: Their dimensions and effects".

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by 1912 and became widely known in educational and popular publications. In 1913

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Montessori Today: A Comprehensive Approach to Education from Birth to Adulthood

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Merrett, Stephen (March 2004). "The Demand for Water: Four Interpretations".

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Student choice of activity from within a prescribed range of optional choices

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American Montessori Society, Inc. v. Association Montessori Internationale

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Montessori believed that education had an important role in achieving

640:. Montessori characterized the third plane by the physical changes of 272:

Although a range of practices exists under the "Montessori" name, the

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The method was started in the early 20th century by Italian physician

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A range of practices exist under the name "Montessori", which is not

60: 579: 2494: 1544:"Montessori Letter Sounds:Another Winning App from Les Trois Elles" 837: 835: 473: 458: 140: 124: 1656:. Amsterdam: Association Montessori Internationale. Archived from 1068:"ADHER – HERITAGE ADOPTED FOR EDUCATION in Italy – Villa Montesca" 921:"Montessori: An Effective Learning Approach or a Matter of Faith?" 1944:. New York, New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 351–376. 1146:

The Changing Landscape: A History of Briarcliff Manor-Scarborough

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Montessori education also spread throughout the world, including

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educational philosophy and methods in 1897, attending courses in

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also reviewed research on the outcomes of Montessori education.

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In 1901, Maria Montessori met the prominent education reformers

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Children working with a moveable alphabet at a Montessori school

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simply to replace "real-world activities with high-tech ones."

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Teachers College Record: The Voice of Scholarship in Education

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Interest in small objects—from around 18 months to 3 years old

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Montessori, Maria (1969). "The Four Planes of Development".

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Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development

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Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development

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Uninterrupted blocks of work time, ideally three hours long

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as the site of the first American Montessori school in 1911

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Construction in proportion to the child and their needs

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and learning educational theory. While visiting Rome's

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Montessori Accreditation Council for Teacher Education

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An arrangement that facilitates movement and activity

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Nature in the classroom and outside of the classroom

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Sensory refinement—from birth to around 4 years old

284:Mixed-age classrooms: classrooms for children ages 2469:Association Montessori International/USA (AMI/USA) 1782: 1541: 1340:. North American Montessori Teachers Association. 856: 19:"Montessori" redirects here. For the founder, see 2108: 2018: 1991: 1831: 1829: 1776: 1774: 666:number of lectures and addresses on the subject. 2528: 1822:North American Montessori Teacher's Association. 1600:"Computers and Technology in Montessori Schools" 1296:. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 22. 815:"Computers and Technology in Montessori Schools" 2220:"The Many Faces of Montessori (Published 1998)" 1917:The Bloomsbury Handbook of Montessori Education 2251:"How many are really 'international schools'?" 1826: 1771: 1510: 1245:"What Is Maria Montessori Theory Of Education" 947: 945: 943: 941: 561:Work (also described as "purposeful activity") 370: 336:Beauty and harmony, cleanliness of environment 217:. In October 1931, Indian independence leader 1653:The Human Tendencies and Montessori Education 1148:. West Kennebunk, Maine: Phoenix Publishing. 401: 377: 2274:"The Montessori movement in the Philippines" 1840:. Oxford, England: ABC-Clio. pp. 7–16. 1478:"Montessori Elementary Classroom Experience" 265:Montessori education is based on a model of 2459:Association Montessori Internationale (AMI) 1694:Grazzini, Camillo (January–February 1988). 1317: 1315: 1313: 1285: 938: 787:. The Montessorian wordpress. 22 May 2011. 750:Department of Education, Culture and Sports 261:A Montessori classroom in the United States 16:Teaching method encouraging autodidacticism 2111:Journal of Research in Childhood Education 2064:Journal of Research in Childhood Education 1964: 1958: 1885: 1860: 1835: 1780: 1678: 1649: 1574:"Montessori Education in the Internet Age" 1513:"On Making Montessori Apps for the iPhone" 513: 2395: 2248: 1942:Montessori: The Science Behind the Genius 1919:. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 91–95. 1220: 985: 727: 483: 2464:The International Montessori Index (AMI) 2329: 1910: 1693: 1459: 1321: 1310: 1111: 1016:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1007: 1005: 951: 918: 652: 578: 443: 417:Montessori classrooms for children from 410:Hand painting in a Montessori school of 405: 357: 280:(AMS) cite these elements as essential: 256: 97: 46: 31: 2186: 2143: 1985: 1939: 1734: 1338:"The Montessori Infant-Toddler Program" 1291: 1259: 1176: 1143: 808: 806: 241:. Their method was further adapted by 177:Montessori education had spread to the 2529: 2429: 1913:"Peace Education: Education and Peace" 1091: 1011: 891: 353: 225:The Montessori method was adapted for 2522:Montessori Education Related Articles 2412: 2217: 1597: 1344:from the original on 20 February 2020 1042:Association Montessori Internationale 1002: 900:from the original on 16 February 2015 873:from the original on 10 February 2019 812: 496: 274:Association Montessori Internationale 168:Il metodo della pedagogia scientifica 1326:. New York: Plume. pp. 118–140. 1202: 1177:Pearson, Sharon Ely (15 June 2011). 1137: 1119:"Narcissa Cox Vanderlip (1879–1966)" 803: 572:approaches specific to each period. 116:National Register of Historic Places 2271: 1716:from the original on 8 October 2020 1435:"The Montessori Elementary Program" 1324:Maria Montessori: Her Life and Work 952:Marshall, Chloë (27 October 2017). 867:"Introduction to Montessori Method" 843:"Montessori Foundations of Chicago" 239:The Catechesis of the Good Shepherd 13: 2552:Pedagogical movements and theories 2294: 2249:Esplanada, Jerry (11 March 2009). 2218:Rosen, Barbara (9 February 1998). 1364:"The Montessori Preschool Program" 1048:from the original on 14 April 2019 1038:"Biography of Dr Maria Montessori" 919:Benyamin, Chaya (13 August 2021). 791:from the original on 26 March 2014 754:Securities and Exchange Commission 692:Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales 615:Order—from around 1 to 3 years old 464:Lessons include work in language, 170:(later translated into English as 14: 2573: 2474:American Montessori Society (AMS) 2452: 1554:from the original on 1 March 2021 1523:from the original on 1 March 2021 1511:Daniel Donahod (20 August 2012). 1125:from the original on 21 June 2020 624:—from birth to around 6 years old 546:Manipulation (of the environment) 197:by influential education teacher 2483: 2230:from the original on 17 May 2021 2187:Barshay, Jill (2 January 2018). 1890:. Oxford: ANC-Clio. p. 24. 1789:. New York: Delta. p. 207. 1623: 1542:Kristen Rutherford (June 2012). 1092:Wilson, Jane (30 January 2024). 892:Meinke, Hannah (11 April 2019). 362:White Pine Montessori School in 215:was interned during World War II 2500:Digitized library book copy of 2345:. Vol. 31 (12th ed.). 2265: 2242: 2211: 2199: 2180: 2137: 2102: 2090: 2055: 2012: 1933: 1904: 1879: 1854: 1803: 1728: 1687: 1672: 1643: 1617: 1598:Jones, Stacy (11 August 2020). 1591: 1566: 1535: 1504: 1495: 1470: 1453: 1427: 1408: 1382: 1356: 1330: 1237: 1196: 1170: 1085: 1060: 869:. American Montessori Society. 813:Jones, Stacy (11 August 2020). 2517:Montessori Bibliography Online 2502:The Montessori System Examined 2208:, 155 U.S.P.Q. 591, 592 (1967) 1209:History of Education Quarterly 1030: 912: 885: 777: 734:US Patent and Trademark Office 195:The Montessori System Examined 57:Montessori method of education 1: 2423:10.1080/03004279.2024.2303234 1838:From Childhood to Adolescence 1415:Guide to Montessori Education 1203:Debs, Mira (September 2022). 771: 518: 2320:Resources in other libraries 2146:Journal of School Psychology 2098:Review of Education Research 1911:Van Hook, Stephanie (2023). 1811:The Process of Normalization 1460:Gambrill, Stephanie (2015). 1394:www.milwaukee-montessori.org 1292:Lillard, Paula Polk (2011). 139:, or Children's House, in a 7: 2493:public domain audiobook at 2376:Campbell Systematic Reviews 759: 661:, stating in her 1936 book 371:Infant and toddler programs 278:American Montessori Society 86:. 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