2786:
assume that in the stable state the output Vo = +Vsat. The diode D1 clamps the capacitor to 0.7 V. The voltage at the non-inverting terminal through the potential divider will be + βVsat. Now a negative trigger of magnitude V1 is applied to the non-inverting terminal so that the effective signal at this terminal is less than 0.7 V. Then the output voltage switches from +Vsat to -Vsat. The diode will now get reverse biased and the capacitor starts charging exponentially to -Vsat through R. The voltage at the non-inverting terminal through the potential divider will be - βVsat. After some time the capacitor charges to a voltage more than - βVsat. The voltage on the non-inverting input is now greater than on the inverting input and the output of the op-amp switches again to +Vsat. The capacitor discharges through resistor R and charges again to 0.7 V.
344:. As Q2 base-emitter junction is reverse-biased, it does not conduct, so all the current from R2 goes into C1. Simultaneously, C2 that is fully discharged and even slightly charged to 0.6 V (in the previous State 2) quickly charges via the low-value collector resistor R4 and Q1 forward-biased base-emitter junction (because R4 is less than R2, C2 charges faster than C1). Thus C2 restores its charge and prepares for the next State C2 when it will act as a time-setting capacitor. Q1 is firmly saturated in the beginning by the "forcing" C2 charging current added to R3 current. In the end, only R3 provides the needed input base current. The resistance R3 is chosen small enough to keep Q1 (not deeply) saturated after C2 is fully charged.
143:
3624:
66:
312:
each state, one transistor is switched on and the other is switched off. Accordingly, one fully charged capacitor discharges (reverse charges) slowly thus converting the time into an exponentially changing voltage. At the same time, the other empty capacitor quickly charges thus restoring its charge (the first capacitor acts as a time-setting capacitor and the second prepares to play this role in the next state). The circuit operation is based on the fact that the forward-biased base-emitter junction of the switched-on bipolar transistor can provide a path for the capacitor restoration.
2066:
360:
this change transfers through the fully charged C2 to Q1 base and Q1 begins cutting off. Its collector voltage begins rising; this change transfers back through the almost empty C1 to Q2 base and makes Q2 conduct more thus sustaining the initial input impact on Q2 base. Thus the initial input change circulates along the feedback loop and grows in an avalanche-like manner until finally Q1 switches off and Q2 switches on. The forward-biased Q2 base-emitter junction fixes the voltage of C1 right-hand plate at 0.6 V and does not allow it to continue rising toward +
1901:
348:
2643:
396:. Simultaneously, C1 that is fully discharged and even slightly charged to 0.6 V (in the previous State 1) quickly charges via the low-value collector resistor R1 and Q2 forward-biased base-emitter junction (because R1 is less than R3, C1 charges faster than C2). Thus C1 restores its charge and prepares for the next State 1 when it will act again as a time-setting capacitor...and so on... (the next explanations are a mirror copy of the second part of State 1).
3563:
2660:
415:
234:
2778:
95:, in which one of the states is stable, but the other state is unstable (transient). A trigger pulse causes the circuit to enter the unstable state. After entering the unstable state, the circuit will return to the stable state after a set time. Such a circuit is useful for creating a timing period of fixed duration in response to some external event. This circuit is also known as a
1814:, Q2 base-emitter junction is reverse-biased and capacitor C1 is "unhooked" from ground. The output voltage of the switched-on transistor Q1 changes rapidly from high to low since this low-resistive output is loaded by a high impedance load (the series connected capacitor C1 and the high-resistive base resistor R2).
1821:, Q2 base-emitter junction is forward-biased and capacitor C1 is "hooked" to ground. The output voltage of the switched-off transistor Q1 changes exponentially from low to high since this relatively high resistive output is loaded by a low impedance load (capacitor C1). This is the output voltage of R
311:
The circuit has two astable (unstable) states that change alternatively with maximum transition rate because of the "accelerating" positive feedback. It is implemented by the coupling capacitors that instantly transfer voltage changes because the voltage across a capacitor cannot suddenly change. In
1877:
An astable multivibrator can be synchronized to an external chain of pulses. A single pair of active devices can be used to divide a reference by a large ratio, however, the stability of the technique is poor owing to the variability of the power supply and the circuit elements. A division ratio of
1848:
When the circuit is first powered up, neither transistor will be switched on. However, this means that at this stage they will both have high base voltages and therefore a tendency to switch on, and inevitable slight asymmetries will mean that one of the transistors is first to switch on. This will
2764:
For the circuit in Figure 2, in the stable state Q1 is turned off and Q2 is turned on. It is triggered by zero or negative input signal applied to Q2 base (with the same success it can be triggered by applying a positive input signal through a resistor to Q1 base). As a result, the circuit goes in
1860:
However, if the circuit is temporarily held with both bases high, for longer than it takes for both capacitors to charge fully, then the circuit will remain in this stable state, with both bases at 0.60 V, both collectors at 0 V, and both capacitors charged backwards to −0.60 V. This can occur at
359:
When the voltage of C1 right-hand plate (Q2 base voltage) becomes positive and reaches 0.6 V, Q2 base-emitter junction begins diverting a part of R2 charging current. Q2 begins conducting and this starts the avalanche-like positive feedback process as follows. Q2 collector voltage begins falling;
2785:
The circuit is useful for generating single output pulse of adjustable time duration in response to a triggering signal. The width of the output pulse depends only on external components connected to the op-amp. A diode D1 clamps the capacitor voltage to 0.7 V when the output is at +Vsat. Let us
59:. A variety of active devices can be used to implement multivibrators that produce similar harmonic-rich wave forms; these include transistors, neon lamps, tunnel diodes and others. Although cross-coupled devices are a common form, single-element multivibrator oscillators are also common.
302:
The circuit is usually drawn in a symmetric form as a cross-coupled pair. The two output terminals can be defined at the active devices and have complementary states. One has high voltage while the other has low voltage, except during the brief transitions from one state to the other.
1122:
1596:
3662:
circuit is similar to an astable multivibrator, except that there is no charge or discharge time, due to the absence of capacitors. Hence, when the circuit is switched on, if Q1 is on, its collector is at 0 V. As a result, Q2 gets switched off. This results in more than half
205:
1942 – multivibrator implies astable: "The multivibrator circuit (Fig. 7-6) is somewhat similar to the flip-flop circuit, but the coupling from the anode of one valve to the grid of the other is by a condenser only, so that the coupling is not maintained in the steady
3671:
Switching of state can be done via Set and Reset terminals connected to the bases. For example, if Q2 is on and Set is grounded momentarily, this switches Q2 off, and makes Q1 on. Thus, Set is used to "set" Q1 on, and Reset is used to "reset" it to off state.
990:
2735:
When triggered by an input pulse, a monostable multivibrator will switch to its unstable position for a period of time, and then return to its stable state. The time period monostable multivibrator remains in unstable state is given by
1798:
1230:
126:. A free-running multivibrator with a frequency of one-half to one-tenth of the reference frequency would accurately lock to the reference frequency. This technique was used in early electronic organs, to keep notes of different
3258:
3667:
volts being applied to R4 causing current into the base of Q1, thus keeping it on. Thus, the circuit remains stable in a single state continuously. Similarly, Q2 remains on continuously, if it happens to get switched on first.
294:
An astable multivibrator consists of two amplifying stages connected in a positive feedback loop by two capacitive-resistive coupling networks. The amplifying elements may be junction or field-effect transistors, vacuum tubes,
3355:
3074:
1001:
121:
Multivibrators find applications in a variety of systems where square waves or timed intervals are required. For example, before the advent of low-cost integrated circuits, chains of multivibrators found use as
2337:
209:
1942 – multivibrator as a particular flip-flop circuit: "Such circuits were known as 'trigger' or 'flip-flop' circuits and were of very great importance. The earliest and best known of these circuits was the
1422:
2461:
1297:
632:
1832:
To approach the needed square waveform, the collector resistors have to be low in resistance. The base resistors have to be low enough to make the transistors saturate in the end of the restoration (R
2196:
3791:
Abraham, H.; E. Bloch (1919). "Mesure en valeur absolue des périodes des oscillations électriques de haute fréquence" [Measurement of the periods of high frequency electrical oscillations].
1890:
connected in series with the base or emitter of the transistors are required to prevent the base-emitter junction being driven into reverse breakdown when the supply voltage is in excess of the
2886:
213:
1943 – flip-flop as one-shot pulse generator: "...an essential difference between the two-valve flip-flop and the multivibrator is that the flip-flop has one of the valves biased to cutoff."
2023:
at some point. The voltage at inverting terminal will be greater than the voltage at the non-inverting terminal of the op-amp. This is a comparator circuit and hence, the output becomes -V
3452:
3152:
2062:
is the voltage across the capacitor and from the graph, the time period of the wave formed at capacitor and the output would match, then the time period could be calculated in this way:
3410:
2932:
827:
336:. C1 begins discharging (reverse charging) via the high-value base resistor R2, so that the voltage of its right-hand plate (and at the base of Q2) is rising from below ground (-
792:
388:. C2 begins discharging (reverse charging) via the high-value base resistor R3, so that the voltage of its left-hand plate (and at the base of Q1) is rising from below ground (-
1352:
749:
55:. It consisted of two vacuum tube amplifiers cross-coupled by a resistor-capacitor network. They called their circuit a "multivibrator" because its output waveform was rich in
838:
2633:
2537:
2732:. Q2 collector voltage is the output of the circuit (in contrast to the astable circuit, it has a perfect square waveform since the output is not loaded by the capacitor).
1995:
1897:
breakdown voltage, typically around 5-10 volts for general purpose silicon transistors. In the monostable configuration, only one of the transistors requires protection.
2972:
3510:
3542:
3484:
3103:
105:, in which the circuit is stable in either state. It can be flipped from one state to the other by an external trigger pulse. This circuit is also known as a
1878:
10, for example, is easy to obtain but not dependable. Chains of bistable flip-flops provide more predictable division, at the cost of more active elements.
1713:
1149:
3158:
2051:. The voltage at the non-inverting terminal will be greater than the voltage at the inverting terminal of the op-amp. So, the output of the op-amp is +V
705:. How long this takes is half our multivibrator switching time (the other half comes from C1). In the charging capacitor equation above, substituting:
194:
above the fundamental frequency, which could be used for calibrating high frequency radio circuits. For this reason
Abraham and Bloch called it a
3269:
380:
and connects the right-hand positive plate of C2 to ground. As its left-hand negative plate is connected to Q1 base, a maximum negative voltage (-
328:
and connects the left-hand positive plate of C1 to ground. As its right-hand negative plate is connected to Q2 base, a maximum negative voltage (-
1849:
quickly put the circuit into one of the above states, and oscillation will ensue. In practice, oscillation always occurs for practical values of
1117:{\displaystyle t=-RC\times \ln \left({\frac {V_{{\text{BE}}\_{\text{Q1}}}-V_{\text{CC}}}{V_{{\text{BE}}\_{\text{Q1}}}-2V_{\text{CC}}}}\right)}
2980:
219:
1949 – monostable as flip-flop: "... a flip-flop is a monostable multivibrator and the ordinary multivibrator is an astable multivibrator."
2202:
1591:{\displaystyle f={\frac {1}{T}}={\frac {1}{\ln(2)\cdot (R_{2}C_{1}+R_{3}C_{2})}}\approx {\frac {1}{0.693\cdot (R_{2}C_{1}+R_{3}C_{2})}}}
673:. The moment after Q2 turns on, the right terminal of C2 is now at 0 V which drives the left terminal of C2 to 0 V minus (
3765:
3738:
3711:
2354:
1243:
514:
2075:
2789:
The pulse width T of a monostable multivibrator is calculated as follows: The general solution for a low pass RC circuit is
3826:
Ginoux, Jean-Marc (2012). "Van der Pol and the history of relaxation oscillations: Toward the emergence of a concepts".
2795:
3775:
3911:
4046:
3898:
3610:
2707:
462:
281:
134:
systems, where the various line and frame frequencies were kept synchronized by pulses included in the video signal.
3592:
2689:
488:
as it depends on the charging of C1, and the duration of state 2 (high output) will be related to the time constant
444:
263:
1807:
The output voltage has a shape that approximates a square waveform. It is considered below for the transistor Q1.
4069:
3417:
3111:
3748:
3721:
3588:
3584:
2685:
2681:
440:
436:
259:
255:
3363:
2894:
320:
In the beginning, the capacitor C1 is fully charged (in the previous State 2) to the power supply voltage
2753:. If repeated application of the input pulse maintains the circuit in the unstable state, it is called a
2647:
805:
352:
3964:
985:{\displaystyle V_{{\text{BE}}\_{\text{Q1}}}=\left(\left\times e^{-{\frac {t}{RC}}}\right)+V_{\text{CC}}}
770:
2728:
in Figure 1) is replaced by a resistive network (just a resistor). The circuit can be thought as a 1/2
1310:
718:
637:
Looking at C2, just before Q2 turns on, the left terminal of C2 is at the base-emitter voltage of Q1 (V
142:
198:. It is a predecessor of the Eccles-Jordan trigger which was derived from the circuit a year later.
4074:
2566:
2470:
4079:
3573:
2670:
425:
244:
82:
3980:
Time bases (scanning generators): their design and development, with notes on the cathode ray tube
3686:
1940:
3577:
3552:
2937:
2674:
429:
248:
106:
36:
3489:
2069:
Graph showing the output waveform of the Op-Amp and the waveform formed across the capacitor C.
216:
1949 – monostable as flip-flop: "Monostable multivibrators have also been called 'flip-flops'."
65:
3623:
3515:
3951:
372:
Now, the capacitor C2 is fully charged (in the previous State 1) to the power supply voltage
296:
159:
86:
40:
28:
2541:
We are taking values of R, C and β such that we get a symmetrical square wave. Thus, we get
501:
as it depends on the charging of C2. Because they do not need to be the same, an asymmetric
3845:
3800:
3627:
Figure 3: Basic animated interactive BJT bistable multivibrator circuit (suggested values:
3457:
2065:
299:, or other types of amplifier. Figure 1, below right, shows bipolar junction transistors.
8:
4002:
3681:
3659:
3082:
4016:
O. S. Puckle (Jan 1949). "Development of Time Bases: The
Principles of Known Circuits".
3849:
3804:
3869:
3835:
3812:
1793:{\displaystyle f={\frac {1}{T}}={\frac {1}{\ln(2)\cdot 2RC}}\approx {\frac {0.72}{RC}}}
24:
1225:{\displaystyle t=-RC\times \ln \left({\frac {-V_{\text{CC}}}{-2V_{\text{CC}}}}\right)}
4042:
3894:
3861:
3771:
3744:
3717:
3655:
in Figure 1) are replaced by resistive networks (just resistors or direct coupling).
3253:{\displaystyle -\beta V_{\text{sat}}=-V_{\text{sat}}+(V_{d}+V_{\text{sat}})e^{-T/RC}}
123:
1900:
3914:" British patent number: GB 148582 (filed: 21 June 1918; published: 5 August 1920).
3853:
3808:
190:
generated by most other oscillator circuits of the time, its output contained many
3873:
2769:
described above. After elapsing the time, it returns to its stable initial state.
3691:
2757:
monostable. If further trigger pulses do not affect the period, the circuit is a
701:. From this instant in time, the left terminal of C2 must be charged back up to V
114:
3995:
3926:
Electrical counting: with special reference to counting alpha and beta particles
2055:. This repeats and forms a free-running oscillator or an astable multivibrator.
1913:
Assume all the capacitors to be discharged at first. The output of the op-amp V
4063:
4001:(Vol. 19 of MIT Radiation Lab Series ed.). McGraw-Hill Book Co. p.
167:
44:
3350:{\displaystyle T=RC\ln \left({1+V_{d}/V_{\text{sat}} \over 1-\beta }\right)}
201:
Historically, the terminology of multivibrators has been somewhat variable:
3865:
347:
48:
475:
The duration of state 1 (low output) will be related to the time constant
183:
70:
52:
2642:
85:—it continually switches from one state to the other. It functions as a
502:
131:
3977:
3857:
3069:{\displaystyle V_{c}=-V_{\text{sat}}+(V_{d}+V_{\text{sat}})e^{-t/RC}}
2561:. So, the time period of the square wave generated at the output is:
1608:
187:
3639:
In the bistable multivibrator, both resistive-capacitive networks (C
3562:
2720:
In the monostable multivibrator, one resistive-capacitive network (C
2659:
414:
233:
191:
158:
The first multivibrator circuit, the classic astable multivibrator
146:
A vacuum tube
Abraham-Bloch multivibrator oscillator, France, 1920
56:
3840:
2332:{\displaystyle V_{c}(t)=V_{sat}+e^{\left({\frac {-t}{RC}}\right)}}
2037:
due to voltage division. Now the capacitor discharges towards -V
27:
used to implement a variety of simple two-state devices such as
127:
1653:
is the period (In this case, the sum of two period durations).
39:. The first multivibrator circuit, the astable multivibrator
2777:
2456:{\displaystyle \beta V_{sat}=V_{sat}(1-e^{\tfrac {-T1}{RC}})}
1887:
1612:
73:
Abraham-Bloch multivibrator oscillator, from their 1919 paper
32:
508:
The voltage on a capacitor with non-zero initial charge is:
1292:{\displaystyle t=-RC\times \ln \left({\frac {1}{2}}\right)}
1143:=0.6 V), therefore the equation can be simplified to:
627:{\displaystyle V_{\text{cap}}(t)=\left+V_{\text{charging}}}
110:
3828:
2191:{\displaystyle V_{c}=V_{c}(\infty )+e^{\tfrac {-t}{RC}}}
1908:
150:. Its harmonics are being used to calibrate a wavemeter
113:
of information, and is widely used in digital logic and
3713:
2425:
2166:
130:
accurately in tune. Other applications included early
16:
Electronic circuit used to implement two-state devices
3923:
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1943:
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1313:
1246:
1152:
1004:
841:
808:
773:
721:
517:
3799:(1). Paris: Société Française de Physique: 237–302.
3891:
IEEE Std. 100 Dictionary of
Standards Terms 7th ed.
3994:
3536:
3504:
3478:
3446:
3404:
3349:
3252:
3146:
3097:
3068:
2966:
2926:
2881:{\displaystyle V_{o}=V_{f}+(V_{i}-V_{f})e^{-t/RC}}
2880:
2627:
2531:
2455:
2331:
2190:
1989:
1792:
1590:
1346:
1291:
1224:
1116:
984:
821:
786:
743:
626:
4061:
3910:William Henry Eccles and Frank Wilfred Jordan, "
3978:Owen Standige Puckle and E. B. Moullin (1943).
3790:
368:State 2 (Q1 is switched off, Q2 is switched on)
316:State 1 (Q1 is switched on, Q2 is switched off)
81:, in which the circuit is not stable in either
62:The three types of multivibrator circuits are:
3992:
2013:. During this charging period, the voltage at
659:" to ease notation). The voltage across C2 is
1372:The total period of oscillation is given by:
384:) is applied to Q1 base that keeps Q1 firmly
332:) is applied to Q2 base that keeps Q2 firmly
4015:
2009:to ground charges the capacitor C towards +V
1886:While not fundamental to circuit operation,
3743:. Tata McGraw-Hill Education. p. 268.
3716:. Tata McGraw-Hill Education. p. 159.
3591:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
3447:{\displaystyle V_{\text{sat}}>>V_{d}}
3147:{\displaystyle V_{c}=-\beta V_{\text{sat}}}
2688:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
1361:of the multivibrator is therefore given by
443:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
376:with the polarity shown in Figure 1. Q2 is
324:with the polarity shown in Figure 1. Q1 is
262:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
2772:
1904:Astable Multivibrator using Op-Amp circuit
1861:startup without external intervention, if
399:
4033:
4031:
4024:(1). Iliffe Electrical Publications: 139.
3839:
3709:
3611:Learn how and when to remove this message
2974:, the diode forward voltage. Therefore,
2708:Learn how and when to remove this message
463:Learn how and when to remove this message
282:Learn how and when to remove this message
3622:
2776:
2641:
2064:
1937:is formed due to voltage division where
1899:
1881:
346:
141:
64:
3763:
3405:{\displaystyle \beta ={R2 \over R1+R2}}
4062:
4028:
3825:
3784:
3757:
3982:. Chapman & Hall Ltd. p. 51.
3819:
2927:{\displaystyle V_{f}=-V_{\text{sat}}}
2781:monostable multivibrator using op-amp
1909:Astable multivibrator using an op-amp
1802:
3589:adding citations to reliable sources
3556:
2686:adding citations to reliable sources
2653:
1997:. The current that flows from nodes
1872:
441:adding citations to reliable sources
408:
260:adding citations to reliable sources
227:
3736:
3703:
1843:
822:{\displaystyle V_{\text{charging}}}
13:
3730:
2152:
2105:
1081:
1046:
890:
852:
787:{\displaystyle V_{\text{capinit}}}
180:Annales de Physique 12, 252 (1919)
14:
4091:
4055:
1347:{\displaystyle t=RC\times \ln(2)}
744:{\displaystyle V_{\text{cap}}(t)}
3813:10.1051/jphystap:019190090021100
3561:
2658:
2041:. At some point, the voltage at
413:
232:
4039:Electronics Engineers' Handbook
4009:
3986:
3971:
3710:Jain, R. P.; Anand, M. (1983).
1647:are capacitor values in farads.
641:) and the right terminal is at
3932:
3924:Wilfred Bennett Lewis (1942).
3917:
3904:
3880:
3767:Operational Amplifiers, 2nd Ed
3223:
3197:
3039:
3013:
2851:
2825:
2628:{\displaystyle T=2RC\ln \left}
2532:{\displaystyle T1=RC\ln \left}
2450:
2417:
2405:
2396:
2291:
2247:
2222:
2216:
2158:
2155:
2149:
2133:
2127:
2114:
2108:
2102:
1754:
1748:
1582:
1536:
1515:
1469:
1463:
1457:
1341:
1335:
738:
732:
534:
528:
1:
3697:
2637:
404:
3912:Improvements in ionic relays
2766:
2729:
1990:{\displaystyle \beta =\left}
1818:
1811:
1631:are resistor values in ohms.
655:" is used here instead of "+
306:
7:
3675:
3546:
2967:{\displaystyle V_{i}=V_{d}}
1127:For this circuit to work, V
164:plate-coupled multivibrator
109:or latch. It can store one
10:
4096:
3928:. CUP Archive. p. 68.
3740:Pulse And Digital Circuits
3550:
3505:{\displaystyle \beta =0.5}
995:Solving for t results in:
223:
137:
3770:. Elsevier. p. 267.
2019:becomes greater than +β V
166:) was first described by
3537:{\displaystyle T=0.69RC}
2650:monostable multivibrator
93:Monostable multivibrator
3993:Britton Chance (1949).
3553:Flip-flop (electronics)
2773:Monostable using op-amp
400:Multivibrator frequency
182:. Since it produced a
4070:Electronic oscillators
3636:
3538:
3506:
3480:
3448:
3406:
3351:
3263:after simplification,
3254:
3148:
3099:
3070:
2968:
2928:
2882:
2782:
2651:
2629:
2549:and total time period
2533:
2465:Upon solving, we get:
2457:
2333:
2192:
2070:
2047:becomes less than -β V
2027:. The voltage at node
1991:
1905:
1794:
1592:
1348:
1293:
1226:
1118:
986:
823:
788:
745:
628:
356:
297:operational amplifiers
176:Ministère de la Guerre
155:
103:Bistable multivibrator
74:
37:latches and flip-flops
29:relaxation oscillators
3764:Clayton, G B (2013).
3737:Rao, Prakash (2006).
3626:
3539:
3507:
3481:
3479:{\displaystyle R1=R2}
3449:
3407:
3352:
3255:
3149:
3100:
3071:
2969:
2929:
2883:
2780:
2730:astable multivibrator
2645:
2630:
2534:
2458:
2334:
2193:
2068:
1992:
1903:
1882:Protective components
1869:are both very small.
1829:integrating circuit.
1795:
1593:
1349:
1294:
1227:
1119:
987:
824:
789:
746:
629:
355:astable multivibrator
350:
186:, in contrast to the
145:
87:relaxation oscillator
79:Astable multivibrator
68:
4041:, McGraw Hill, 1975
3585:improve this section
3516:
3490:
3458:
3418:
3364:
3270:
3159:
3112:
3083:
2981:
2938:
2895:
2796:
2682:improve this section
2567:
2471:
2355:
2203:
2076:
1941:
1714:
1658:For the special case
1423:
1311:
1244:
1150:
1002:
839:
806:
771:
719:
515:
505:is easily achieved.
437:improve this section
256:improve this section
170:and Eugene Bloch in
3893:, IEEE Press, 2000
3850:2012Chaos..22b3120G
3805:1919AnPh....9..237A
3793:Annales de Physique
3682:Blocking oscillator
3098:{\displaystyle t=T}
1933:, a voltage of +β V
1927:initially. At node
1357:The period of each
4037:Donald Fink (ed),
3637:
3534:
3502:
3476:
3444:
3402:
3347:
3250:
3144:
3095:
3066:
2964:
2924:
2878:
2783:
2652:
2625:
2529:
2453:
2447:
2329:
2188:
2185:
2071:
1987:
1906:
1803:Output pulse shape
1790:
1588:
1344:
1289:
1222:
1114:
982:
819:
784:
741:
624:
357:
156:
124:frequency dividers
75:
43:, was invented by
25:electronic circuit
4018:Wireless Engineer
3959:Missing or empty
3858:10.1063/1.3670008
3621:
3620:
3613:
3428:
3400:
3341:
3326:
3220:
3191:
3175:
3141:
3036:
3007:
2921:
2759:non-retriggerable
2718:
2717:
2710:
2619:
2523:
2446:
2321:
2184:
1981:
1873:Frequency divider
1788:
1770:
1731:
1586:
1519:
1440:
1283:
1216:
1212:
1194:
1108:
1104:
1087:
1079:
1066:
1052:
1044:
979:
960:
928:
910:
896:
888:
858:
850:
816:
781:
729:
621:
602:
570:
557:
525:
473:
472:
465:
292:
291:
284:
148:(small box, left)
4087:
4075:Digital circuits
4050:
4035:
4026:
4025:
4013:
4007:
4006:
4000:
3990:
3984:
3983:
3975:
3969:
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3962:
3957:
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3921:
3915:
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3884:
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3877:
3843:
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3788:
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3609:
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3511:
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3477:
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3408:
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3382:
3374:
3356:
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3296:
3259:
3257:
3256:
3251:
3249:
3248:
3241:
3222:
3221:
3218:
3209:
3208:
3193:
3192:
3189:
3177:
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3153:
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3142:
3139:
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3123:
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3101:
3096:
3075:
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3067:
3065:
3064:
3057:
3038:
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3005:
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2992:
2973:
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2965:
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2962:
2950:
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2933:
2931:
2930:
2925:
2923:
2922:
2919:
2907:
2906:
2887:
2885:
2884:
2879:
2877:
2876:
2869:
2850:
2849:
2837:
2836:
2821:
2820:
2808:
2807:
2713:
2706:
2702:
2699:
2693:
2662:
2654:
2646:Figure 2: Basic
2634:
2632:
2631:
2626:
2624:
2620:
2618:
2607:
2596:
2538:
2536:
2535:
2530:
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2522:
2511:
2500:
2462:
2460:
2459:
2454:
2449:
2448:
2445:
2437:
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2290:
2289:
2271:
2270:
2243:
2242:
2215:
2214:
2197:
2195:
2194:
2189:
2187:
2186:
2183:
2175:
2167:
2148:
2147:
2126:
2125:
2101:
2100:
2088:
2087:
1996:
1994:
1993:
1988:
1986:
1982:
1980:
1963:
1955:
1844:Initial power-up
1799:
1797:
1796:
1791:
1789:
1787:
1776:
1771:
1769:
1737:
1732:
1724:
1677:(50% duty cycle)
1597:
1595:
1594:
1589:
1587:
1585:
1581:
1580:
1571:
1570:
1558:
1557:
1548:
1547:
1525:
1520:
1518:
1514:
1513:
1504:
1503:
1491:
1490:
1481:
1480:
1446:
1441:
1433:
1353:
1351:
1350:
1345:
1298:
1296:
1295:
1290:
1288:
1284:
1276:
1231:
1229:
1228:
1223:
1221:
1217:
1215:
1214:
1213:
1210:
1197:
1196:
1195:
1192:
1182:
1123:
1121:
1120:
1115:
1113:
1109:
1107:
1106:
1105:
1102:
1090:
1089:
1088:
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1080:
1077:
1069:
1068:
1067:
1064:
1055:
1054:
1053:
1050:
1045:
1042:
1034:
991:
989:
988:
983:
981:
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977:
968:
964:
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962:
961:
959:
948:
935:
931:
930:
929:
926:
917:
913:
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911:
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899:
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897:
894:
889:
886:
861:
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851:
848:
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826:
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791:
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785:
783:
782:
779:
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748:
747:
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727:
633:
631:
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623:
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619:
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601:
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571:
568:
559:
558:
555:
527:
526:
523:
468:
461:
457:
454:
448:
417:
409:
351:Figure 1: Basic
287:
280:
276:
273:
267:
236:
228:
4095:
4094:
4090:
4089:
4088:
4086:
4085:
4084:
4080:Analog circuits
4060:
4059:
4058:
4053:
4036:
4029:
4014:
4010:
3991:
3987:
3976:
3972:
3960:
3958:
3949:
3948:
3946:. Feb 13, 1942.
3940:The Electrician
3938:
3937:
3933:
3922:
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3905:
3885:
3881:
3824:
3820:
3789:
3785:
3778:
3762:
3758:
3751:
3735:
3731:
3724:
3708:
3704:
3700:
3692:Schmitt trigger
3678:
3654:
3650:
3646:
3642:
3617:
3606:
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3597:
3582:
3566:
3555:
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3157:
3156:
3138:
3134:
3119:
3115:
3113:
3110:
3109:
3084:
3081:
3080:
3053:
3046:
3042:
3033:
3029:
3020:
3016:
3004:
3000:
2988:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2978:
2958:
2954:
2945:
2941:
2939:
2936:
2935:
2918:
2914:
2902:
2898:
2896:
2893:
2892:
2865:
2858:
2854:
2845:
2841:
2832:
2828:
2816:
2812:
2803:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2793:
2775:
2761:multivibrator.
2752:
2746:
2727:
2723:
2714:
2703:
2697:
2694:
2679:
2663:
2640:
2608:
2597:
2595:
2591:
2568:
2565:
2564:
2512:
2501:
2499:
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2472:
2469:
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2299:
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2256:
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2201:
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2176:
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2092:
2083:
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2061:
2054:
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2040:
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2026:
2022:
2012:
1964:
1956:
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1950:
1942:
1939:
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1926:
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1911:
1896:
1884:
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1198:
1191:
1187:
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1177:
1151:
1148:
1147:
1142:
1138:
1135:(for example: V
1134:
1130:
1101:
1097:
1084:
1076:
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1049:
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309:
288:
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226:
210:multivibrator."
162:(also called a
140:
115:computer memory
17:
12:
11:
5:
4093:
4083:
4082:
4077:
4072:
4057:
4056:External links
4054:
4052:
4051:
4027:
4008:
3985:
3970:
3931:
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3903:
3879:
3818:
3783:
3777:978-1483135557
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3551:Main article:
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196:multivibrateur
174:of the French
172:Publication 27
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15:
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4:
3:
2:
4092:
4081:
4078:
4076:
4073:
4071:
4068:
4067:
4065:
4048:
4047:0-07-020980-4
4044:
4040:
4034:
4032:
4023:
4019:
4012:
4004:
3999:
3998:
3989:
3981:
3974:
3966:
3953:
3945:
3941:
3935:
3927:
3920:
3913:
3907:
3900:
3899:0-7381-2601-2
3896:
3892:
3888:
3887:Multivibrator
3883:
3875:
3871:
3867:
3863:
3859:
3855:
3851:
3847:
3842:
3837:
3834:(2): 023120.
3833:
3829:
3822:
3814:
3810:
3806:
3802:
3798:
3795:(in French).
3794:
3787:
3779:
3773:
3769:
3768:
3760:
3752:
3746:
3742:
3741:
3733:
3725:
3719:
3715:
3714:
3706:
3702:
3693:
3690:
3688:
3685:
3683:
3680:
3679:
3673:
3669:
3666:
3661:
3656:
3634:
3630:
3625:
3615:
3612:
3604:
3601:February 2022
3594:
3590:
3586:
3580:
3579:
3575:
3570:This section
3568:
3564:
3559:
3558:
3554:
3544:
3531:
3528:
3525:
3522:
3519:
3499:
3496:
3493:
3473:
3470:
3467:
3464:
3461:
3439:
3435:
3431:
3422:
3412:
3396:
3393:
3390:
3387:
3384:
3379:
3376:
3370:
3367:
3343:
3337:
3334:
3331:
3320:
3315:
3309:
3305:
3301:
3298:
3292:
3288:
3285:
3282:
3279:
3276:
3273:
3266:
3265:
3264:
3245:
3242:
3238:
3234:
3231:
3227:
3214:
3210:
3205:
3201:
3194:
3185:
3181:
3178:
3169:
3165:
3162:
3155:
3135:
3131:
3128:
3125:
3120:
3116:
3108:
3107:
3106:
3092:
3089:
3086:
3061:
3058:
3054:
3050:
3047:
3043:
3030:
3026:
3021:
3017:
3010:
3001:
2997:
2994:
2989:
2985:
2977:
2976:
2975:
2959:
2955:
2951:
2946:
2942:
2915:
2911:
2908:
2903:
2899:
2873:
2870:
2866:
2862:
2859:
2855:
2846:
2842:
2838:
2833:
2829:
2822:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2804:
2800:
2792:
2791:
2790:
2787:
2779:
2770:
2768:
2762:
2760:
2756:
2755:retriggerable
2749:
2743:
2740: = ln(2)
2739:
2733:
2731:
2712:
2709:
2701:
2698:February 2022
2691:
2687:
2683:
2677:
2676:
2672:
2667:This section
2665:
2661:
2656:
2655:
2649:
2644:
2635:
2621:
2615:
2612:
2609:
2604:
2601:
2598:
2592:
2588:
2585:
2582:
2579:
2576:
2573:
2570:
2562:
2560:
2556:
2552:
2548:
2544:
2539:
2525:
2519:
2516:
2513:
2508:
2505:
2502:
2496:
2492:
2489:
2486:
2483:
2480:
2477:
2474:
2466:
2463:
2442:
2439:
2434:
2431:
2428:
2421:
2414:
2411:
2408:
2402:
2399:
2391:
2388:
2385:
2381:
2377:
2372:
2369:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2350:
2348:
2344:
2339:
2323:
2317:
2314:
2309:
2306:
2300:
2295:
2286:
2283:
2280:
2276:
2272:
2267:
2264:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2250:
2244:
2239:
2236:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2219:
2211:
2207:
2198:
2180:
2177:
2172:
2169:
2162:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2130:
2122:
2118:
2111:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2084:
2080:
2067:
2063:
2056:
2046:
2045:
2032:
2031:
2018:
2017:
2008:
2007:
2002:
2001:
1983:
1977:
1974:
1971:
1968:
1965:
1960:
1957:
1951:
1947:
1944:
1932:
1931:
1922:
1921:
1902:
1898:
1893:
1889:
1879:
1870:
1868:
1864:
1858:
1856:
1852:
1841:
1830:
1820:
1815:
1813:
1808:
1800:
1784:
1781:
1777:
1772:
1766:
1763:
1760:
1757:
1751:
1745:
1742:
1738:
1733:
1728:
1725:
1720:
1717:
1704:
1697:
1694:
1689:
1682:
1679:
1673:
1666:
1663:
1662:
1661:
1659:
1652:
1649:
1643:
1636:
1633:
1627:
1620:
1617:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1603:
1602:
1601:
1598:
1577:
1573:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1554:
1550:
1544:
1540:
1533:
1530:
1526:
1521:
1510:
1506:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1487:
1483:
1477:
1473:
1466:
1460:
1454:
1451:
1447:
1442:
1437:
1434:
1429:
1426:
1418:
1414:
1408:
1401:
1395:
1388:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1370:
1368:
1365: = ln(2)
1364:
1360:
1338:
1332:
1329:
1326:
1323:
1320:
1317:
1314:
1307:
1306:
1302:
1301:
1285:
1280:
1277:
1272:
1268:
1265:
1262:
1259:
1256:
1253:
1250:
1247:
1240:
1239:
1235:
1234:
1218:
1206:
1202:
1199:
1188:
1184:
1178:
1174:
1171:
1168:
1165:
1162:
1159:
1156:
1153:
1146:
1145:
1144:
1110:
1098:
1094:
1091:
1072:
1060:
1056:
1037:
1030:
1026:
1023:
1020:
1017:
1014:
1011:
1008:
1005:
998:
997:
996:
973:
969:
965:
956:
953:
949:
944:
940:
936:
932:
922:
918:
914:
904:
900:
881:
876:
871:
866:
862:
843:
835:
834:
833:
810:
798:
795:
775:
763:
756:
752:
735:
723:
711:
708:
707:
706:
697:
690:
683:
676:
669:
662:
658:
651:
644:
615:
611:
607:
598:
595:
591:
586:
582:
578:
574:
564:
560:
551:
546:
541:
537:
531:
519:
511:
510:
509:
506:
504:
497:
491:
484:
478:
467:
464:
456:
446:
442:
438:
432:
431:
427:
422:This section
420:
416:
411:
410:
397:
395:
391:
387:
383:
379:
375:
370:
369:
365:
363:
354:
349:
345:
343:
339:
335:
331:
327:
323:
318:
317:
313:
304:
300:
298:
286:
283:
275:
272:February 2022
265:
261:
257:
251:
250:
246:
241:This section
239:
235:
230:
229:
218:
215:
212:
208:
204:
203:
202:
199:
197:
193:
189:
185:
181:
177:
173:
169:
168:Henri Abraham
165:
161:
153:
149:
144:
135:
133:
129:
125:
116:
112:
108:
104:
101:
98:
94:
91:
88:
84:
80:
77:
76:
72:
67:
63:
60:
58:
54:
50:
46:
45:Henri Abraham
42:
38:
34:
30:
26:
22:
21:multivibrator
4049:, page 16-40
4038:
4021:
4017:
4011:
3996:
3988:
3979:
3973:
3961:|title=
3952:cite journal
3943:
3939:
3934:
3925:
3919:
3906:
3890:
3886:
3882:
3831:
3827:
3821:
3796:
3792:
3786:
3766:
3759:
3739:
3732:
3712:
3705:
3670:
3664:
3657:
3638:
3632:
3628:
3607:
3598:
3583:Please help
3571:
3413:
3359:
3262:
3078:
2890:
2788:
2784:
2763:
2758:
2754:
2747:
2741:
2737:
2734:
2719:
2704:
2695:
2680:Please help
2668:
2563:
2558:
2554:
2550:
2546:
2542:
2540:
2467:
2464:
2351:
2346:
2342:
2340:
2199:
2072:
2057:
2043:
2042:
2029:
2028:
2015:
2014:
2005:
2004:
1999:
1998:
1929:
1928:
1919:
1918:
1912:
1891:
1885:
1876:
1866:
1862:
1859:
1854:
1850:
1847:
1831:
1816:
1809:
1806:
1710:
1702:
1695:
1687:
1680:
1671:
1664:
1657:
1656:
1650:
1641:
1634:
1625:
1618:
1604:
1599:
1419:
1412:
1406:
1399:
1393:
1386:
1379:
1375:
1374:
1371:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1356:
1139:=5 V, V
1126:
994:
832:results in:
831:
796:
761:
754:
709:
695:
688:
681:
674:
667:
660:
656:
649:
642:
636:
507:
495:
489:
482:
476:
474:
459:
453:January 2011
450:
435:Please help
423:
393:
389:
385:
381:
377:
373:
371:
367:
366:
361:
358:
341:
337:
333:
329:
325:
321:
319:
315:
314:
310:
301:
293:
278:
269:
254:Please help
242:
200:
195:
179:
175:
171:
163:
157:
151:
147:
120:
102:
96:
92:
78:
61:
49:Eugene Bloch
20:
18:
2033:becomes -βV
184:square wave
71:vacuum tube
53:World War I
4064:Categories
3750:0070606560
3723:0074516922
3698:References
3687:RC circuit
2638:Monostable
503:duty cycle
405:Derivation
392:) toward +
340:) toward +
160:oscillator
132:television
41:oscillator
3997:Waveforms
3841:1408.4890
3572:does not
3494:β
3368:β
3338:β
3335:−
3289:
3232:−
3182:−
3166:β
3163:−
3132:β
3129:−
3048:−
2998:−
2912:−
2860:−
2839:−
2669:does not
2616:β
2613:−
2605:β
2589:
2520:β
2517:−
2509:β
2493:
2429:−
2409:β
2403:−
2359:β
2307:−
2273:−
2254:β
2251:−
2170:−
2153:∞
2137:−
2106:∞
1945:β
1773:≈
1758:⋅
1746:
1609:frequency
1600:where...
1534:⋅
1522:≈
1467:⋅
1455:
1333:
1327:×
1269:
1263:×
1254:−
1200:−
1185:−
1175:
1169:×
1160:−
1131:>>V
1092:−
1082:_
1057:−
1047:_
1027:
1021:×
1012:−
945:−
937:×
919:−
901:−
891:_
853:_
587:−
579:×
561:−
424:does not
307:Operation
243:does not
192:harmonics
188:sine wave
178:, and in
107:flip-flop
69:Original
57:harmonics
3901:page 718
3866:22757527
3676:See also
3635:= 10 kΩ)
3547:Bistable
3486:so that
3432:>>
1917:at node
1836:< β.R
815:charging
620:charging
569:charging
152:(center)
97:one shot
3846:Bibcode
3801:Bibcode
3631:= 1 kΩ
3593:removed
3578:sources
3512:, then
2767:State 1
2690:removed
2675:sources
1819:State 2
1817:During
1812:State 1
1810:During
1405:+ ln(2)
1392:= ln(2)
780:capinit
556:capinit
445:removed
430:sources
264:removed
249:sources
224:Astable
206:state."
138:History
128:octaves
51:during
4045:
3897:
3874:293369
3872:
3864:
3774:
3747:
3720:
3633:R3, R4
3629:R1, R2
3360:where
2891:where
1888:diodes
1660:where
767:) for
666:minus
33:timers
23:is an
3870:S2CID
3836:arXiv
3660:latch
3658:This
3647:and C
1923:is +V
1613:hertz
1531:0.693
1141:BE_Q1
1133:BE_Q1
758:BE_Q1
713:BE_Q1
703:BE_Q1
692:BE_Q1
687:) or
685:BE_Q1
671:BE_Q1
639:BE_Q1
83:state
4043:ISBN
3965:help
3895:ISBN
3862:PMID
3772:ISBN
3745:ISBN
3718:ISBN
3576:any
3574:cite
3526:0.69
3454:and
2934:and
2673:any
2671:cite
2058:If V
2021:sat
2003:and
1935:sat
1865:and
1853:and
1778:0.72
1640:and
1624:and
1359:half
802:for
715:for
428:any
426:cite
247:any
245:cite
47:and
4003:167
3944:128
3889:in
3854:doi
3809:doi
3587:by
3500:0.5
3427:sat
3414:If
3325:sat
3219:sat
3190:sat
3174:sat
3140:sat
3079:at
3035:sat
3006:sat
2920:sat
2684:by
2648:BJT
2341:At
2053:sat
2049:sat
2039:sat
2035:sat
2025:sat
2011:sat
1925:sat
1840:).
1611:in
1607:is
728:cap
524:cap
439:by
386:off
353:BJT
334:off
258:by
111:bit
4066::
4030:^
4022:26
4020:.
3956::
3954:}}
3950:{{
3942:.
3868:.
3860:.
3852:.
3844:.
3832:22
3830:.
3807:.
3651:-R
3643:-R
3286:ln
3105:,
2724:-R
2586:ln
2559:T2
2557:+
2555:T1
2553:=
2547:T2
2545:=
2543:T1
2490:ln
2349:,
2347:T1
1895:eb
1857:.
1743:ln
1701:=
1686:=
1670:=
1452:ln
1385:+
1378:=
1369:.
1367:RC
1330:ln
1303:or
1266:ln
1236:or
1211:CC
1193:CC
1172:ln
1137:CC
1129:CC
1103:CC
1086:Q1
1078:BE
1065:CC
1051:Q1
1043:BE
1024:ln
978:CC
927:CC
909:CC
895:Q1
887:BE
857:Q1
849:BE
800:CC
765:CC
760:-
699:CC
694:-
680:-
678:CC
664:CC
653:CC
648:("
646:CC
378:on
364:.
326:on
35:,
31:,
19:A
4005:.
3967:)
3963:(
3876:.
3856::
3848::
3838::
3815:.
3811::
3803::
3797:9
3780:.
3753:.
3726:.
3665:V
3663:+
3653:3
3649:2
3645:2
3641:1
3614:)
3608:(
3603:)
3599:(
3595:.
3581:.
3532:C
3529:R
3523:=
3520:T
3497:=
3474:2
3471:R
3468:=
3465:1
3462:R
3440:d
3436:V
3423:V
3397:2
3394:R
3391:+
3388:1
3385:R
3380:2
3377:R
3371:=
3344:)
3332:1
3321:V
3316:/
3310:d
3306:V
3302:+
3299:1
3293:(
3283:C
3280:R
3277:=
3274:T
3246:C
3243:R
3239:/
3235:T
3228:e
3224:)
3215:V
3211:+
3206:d
3202:V
3198:(
3195:+
3186:V
3179:=
3170:V
3136:V
3126:=
3121:c
3117:V
3093:T
3090:=
3087:t
3062:C
3059:R
3055:/
3051:t
3044:e
3040:)
3031:V
3027:+
3022:d
3018:V
3014:(
3011:+
3002:V
2995:=
2990:c
2986:V
2960:d
2956:V
2952:=
2947:i
2943:V
2916:V
2909:=
2904:f
2900:V
2874:C
2871:R
2867:/
2863:t
2856:e
2852:)
2847:f
2843:V
2834:i
2830:V
2826:(
2823:+
2818:f
2814:V
2810:=
2805:o
2801:V
2751:1
2748:C
2745:2
2742:R
2738:t
2726:3
2722:2
2711:)
2705:(
2700:)
2696:(
2692:.
2678:.
2622:]
2610:1
2602:+
2599:1
2593:[
2583:C
2580:R
2577:2
2574:=
2571:T
2551:T
2526:]
2514:1
2506:+
2503:1
2497:[
2487:C
2484:R
2481:=
2478:1
2475:T
2451:)
2443:C
2440:R
2435:1
2432:T
2422:e
2418:]
2415:1
2412:+
2406:[
2400:1
2397:(
2392:t
2389:a
2386:s
2382:V
2378:=
2373:t
2370:a
2367:s
2363:V
2345:=
2343:t
2324:)
2318:C
2315:R
2310:t
2301:(
2296:e
2292:]
2287:t
2284:a
2281:s
2277:V
2268:t
2265:a
2262:s
2258:V
2248:[
2245:+
2240:t
2237:a
2234:s
2230:V
2226:=
2223:)
2220:t
2217:(
2212:c
2208:V
2181:C
2178:R
2173:t
2163:e
2159:]
2156:)
2150:(
2145:c
2141:V
2134:)
2131:0
2128:(
2123:c
2119:V
2115:[
2112:+
2109:)
2103:(
2098:c
2094:V
2090:=
2085:c
2081:V
2060:C
2044:b
2030:a
2016:b
2006:b
2000:c
1984:]
1978:2
1975:R
1972:+
1969:1
1966:R
1961:2
1958:R
1952:[
1948:=
1930:a
1920:c
1915:o
1892:V
1867:C
1863:R
1855:C
1851:R
1838:C
1834:B
1827:1
1825:C
1823:1
1785:C
1782:R
1767:C
1764:R
1761:2
1755:)
1752:2
1749:(
1739:1
1734:=
1729:T
1726:1
1721:=
1718:f
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1703:C
1699:1
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1615:.
1605:f
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1537:(
1527:1
1516:)
1511:2
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1488:1
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1478:2
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1470:(
1464:)
1461:2
1458:(
1448:1
1443:=
1438:T
1435:1
1430:=
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1336:(
1324:C
1321:R
1318:=
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1281:2
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1260:C
1257:R
1251:=
1248:t
1219:)
1207:V
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1189:V
1179:(
1166:C
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1157:=
1154:t
1111:)
1099:V
1095:2
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1061:V
1038:V
1031:(
1018:C
1015:R
1009:=
1006:t
974:V
970:+
966:)
957:C
954:R
950:t
941:e
933:]
923:V
915:)
905:V
882:V
877:(
872:[
867:(
863:=
844:V
811:V
797:V
776:V
762:V
755:V
753:(
739:)
736:t
733:(
724:V
710:V
696:V
689:V
682:V
675:V
668:V
661:V
657:V
650:V
643:V
616:V
612:+
608:]
599:C
596:R
592:t
583:e
575:)
565:V
552:V
547:(
542:[
538:=
535:)
532:t
529:(
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499:2
496:C
493:3
490:R
486:1
483:C
480:2
477:R
466:)
460:(
455:)
451:(
447:.
433:.
394:V
390:V
382:V
374:V
362:V
342:V
338:V
330:V
322:V
285:)
279:(
274:)
270:(
266:.
252:.
154:.
117:.
99:.
89:.
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