Music of Mesopotamia

1912: 519: 2211:, evidence suggests Egypt was influenced by the Babylonians and Hittites, and from the fifteenth century BCE onwards, Egypt adopted the Babylonian vertical angular harp. The Sumerian lyre was introduced to Egypt by nomadic Syrian people, and the Egyptians elaborated upon the design. A seal from Ur dated to 2,800 BCE depicts a small animal playing a pair of clappers; similar clappers appear in ancient Egypt centuries later. Because the lute, harp, and lyre appear significantly earlier in the Near East than in Egypt, it is often assumed that the former introduced them to the latter, but direct evidence is lacking. On the other hand, the sistrum appears in Egypt either before or at the same time as Mesopotamia. The Babylonian lute was introduced to Egypt by way of Asia, from whom the Egyptians also likely inherited their heptatonic system. In the first centuries CE, a certain type of clapper was simultaneously depicted not only in Egypt, but on mosaics in 186: 1297: 1146: 1442: 1584: 626:. Still, other texts, including music instruction texts, differentiate between male and female apprentice musicians. Some of the ambiguity surrounding the gala's gender could be explained by the history of lamentation prayers, which may have originated with the funerary laments of women. The earliest documented gala performance was in the context of a funeral, with women lamenters accompanying the gala in the mourning. These origins may explain why female characteristics, and the dialect associated with women, Emesal, have long been associated with the gala and temple prayers. 8662: 1855: 307: 582:) musician, who had a close association with royalty, was known to play and transport musical instruments and to have a close correspondence with the king. The chief musician of the palace directed musical performances and also taught apprentice musicians. In the royal harem, which included the king's wives, concubines, children, and servants, the king also kept young apprentice musicians. The possession of musicians was a sign of status, and musicians were traded over long distances, including as diplomatic gifts and in war. When the 1191:. Plucked instruments came in many varieties, differing in the manner in which they were intended to be held. The psaltery, whose strings are parallel to the soundbox and stretched across its full length, first appears in the 8th century BCE on a Phoenecian ivory piece (British Museum). This instrument is sometimes called the ‘dulcimer’ when struck or the ‘psaltery’ when plucked. When used by royalty or as part of a religious ceremony, string instruments were adorned with precious metals and stones, such as gold, silver, 1863: 8651: 19: 802: 1574: 8673: 635: 8042: 9575: 1064:, and drums. A scraper consisted of a stick and an object with notches cut in it, while rattles were made of gourds or other materials and contained pebbles or clay objects that produced the rattling sound when shaken. A Mesopotamian sistrum consisted of a handle, a frame, and cross bars that jingled. Cymbals were small but heavy, with some shaped like plates and others like cups, and some were made of bronze. 7770: 9563: 9803: 1133:, the earliest surviving literary work from Mesopotamia. The text describes “A flute of carnelian”. There are numerous depictions of flutes in visual art throughout Mesopotamian history, including a woman playing a flute on a Sumerian shell ornament from Nippur dating to 2600–2500 BCE, a flautist on an Akkadian cylinder seal dating to 2400–2200 BCE, an ivory box from 2302:, the tuning of the lyre was seen as “a microcosm of a universal harmony.” Morever, the Greeks inherited the Mesopotamians’ emphasis on the seven-stringed lyre, a seven-pitched scale, and in compositions that focus on the central string, as the Hurrian hymns. Sumerian adornment of lyres with animals was a practice adopted by Greece, which can be seen in the 1460:, modern-day Syria, dating to approximately 1400 BCE. Hurrian Hymn No. 6, the "Hymn to Nikkal", is considered to be the oldest surviving substantially complete written music in the world. At least five interpretations of this tablet have been made in an attempt to reconstruct the music, notably by Anne Draffkorn Kilmer, Marcelle Duchesne-Guillemin, 348:, often featured in laments, are also prominent as the divine lovers in romantic songs, and both genres used Emesal, a dialect associated with women. The use of Emesal by women singers extended into wedding songs as well, but over time these singing roles were taken over by male performers, at least among the elite. In the 1543:

related to a wedding between a priestess and a king “ring out with passionate love and sexual ecstacy”. Kramer infers from the surviving words that some marriages were motivated by sex and love, rather than practical considerations, and relates this fact to a Sumerian proverb: “Marry a wife according to your choice!”

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one head, carried vertically. Sumerian drums were made of metal rather than wood and were played with the hands rather than with sticks. The skin of the Babylonian drum was made from bull hide, and the placement of the skin over the sacred instrument was itself the subject of a ritual at the Temple of Ea.

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and the looting, singer/composer Stef Conner and harpist Mark Hamer performed with a replica of the lyre, recreated by harpist Andy Lowings. The lyre was built of authentic wood, and adorned with lapis lazuli, other precious stones, and $ 13,000 worth of 24k gold. They played a musical interpretation

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Mesopotamian art depicts at least four types of drums: a shallow drum, which a Sumerian relief dating to 2100 BCE depicts as an estimated 1.7 metres (5 ft 7 in) across, and which required two men to play; a small cylindrical drum held horizontally; a large footed drum; and a small drum with

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Its seven harpists are identically depicted, except that they are plucking different strings. As the style is realistic, indeed almost photographic, this cannot be accidental; that variety in that one point cannot be explained by any consideration for design. Each harpist plucks two strings, but the

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In early April of 2003, the museum was looted. The lyre went missing, only to be found in pieces. The irreparably damaged gold and mother-of-pearl bull's head was subsequently discovered in the flooded basement vaults of Iraq's Central Bank. Looters stripped parts of the body of much of its gold and

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The best-known musician of the Third Dynasty of Ur period, Dada, was a wealthy individual who held the title of gala. His career began during the reign of Shulgi, and it seems that he was a special kind of gala who acted as the gala of the royal court or even of the state, and was in charge of other

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Outside of the classroom, music was taught through one-on-one apprenticeship. Both male and female musicians were trained, some of whom lived with their teachers. Contracts for training were either official, as among royalty, or in a private agreement between two families; music was also passed down

2157:, for their musical achievements in addition to those in mathematics and astronomy. This classical education spread abroad during the second millennium BCE, and these musical systems came to represent a common language from which cities abroad could adapt to their local circumstances in syncretism. 1542:

contains a catalog of song titles organized by genre, including workmen's songs, shepherds’ songs, love songs, and songs of youth, although the melodies are lost. Nevertheless, Mesopotamian views of love, sex, and marriage can be inferred from some love songs. In two surviving examples, love songs

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The Hurrian hymns were authored by four composers from Ugarit: Tapšihuni, Puhiya(na), Urhiya, and Ammiya, and were recorded by two scribes, Ammurabi and Ipšali. To notate the music, the scribes used cuneiform, including both words and numerals from the script. The tablets were divided by a double

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and Ur, and two of Dada's children, Hedut-Amar-Sin and Šu-Sin-migir-Eštar, entertained the king with their own music. Dada's main assistant, or perhaps star performer, was a nar musician named Ur-Ningublaga. While Dada's story offers a glimpse into the life of a Mesopotamian musician, it is likely

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describes an early Iranian seal that depicts a harp rising above the head of a goddess and concludes, “harp and rite were so strongly linked that it was unnecessary to show the player.” Nevertheless, they're not identical—while harps shown were similar to those of Mesopotamia, they were used in a

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By piecing together such fragments, researchers have been able to come up with what Leon Crickmore called "credible reconstructions" of the Mesopotamian tuning systems for string instruments. Tablets reveal that string instruments were tuned by alternating descending fourths and ascending fifths;

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Tablets reveal words in the Mesopotamian musical vocabulary. For example, on a nine-stringed harp, the strings were numbered from one to five, then back down to one: '1st', '2nd', '3rd-thin', 'God-Ea-made-it', '5th', '4th-behind', '3rd-behind', '2nd-behind', and '1st-behind'. In addition, a text

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Other instruments discovered at the cemetery include a pair of silver pipes, as well as drums, sistra, and cymbals. In earlier findings dating to the 5th millennium BCE, two bone wind instruments have been recovered, one complete and the other in fragments. Also recovered is a fragment of a clay

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showing a peaceful scene of a shepherd playing a flute to his flock. Music was a normal part of social life in Mesopotamia and was used in many secular contexts. Music played important roles at funerals, among royalty, and was also depicted in relation to sports and sex. Mesopotamian love songs,

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script, they recorded texts that listed genres and song titles, included instructions on how to play instruments, and articulated their music theory. By piecing together thousands of surviving tablets, as well as examining surviving artworks and instruments, researchers have been able to offer a

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as the ‘dulcimer’ (when struck) or the ‘psaltery’ (when plucked). While an instrument in the dulcimer family usually consists of a box body with sound holes, derivatives include variations in body size, string length, and string tension, among other characteristics. Variants of the dulcimer are

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Although musicians and musical instruments were depicted in Mesopotamian art in various forms over a 3,000 year period, very few of the instruments themselves have survived. Only eleven stringed instruments have been recovered, nine lyres and two harps, all from the Royal Cemetery of Ur. These

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For example, pottery in the Mediterranean and Near East showed a common, stereotyped motif — a typical musical ensemble that could be found throughout the region, consisting of lyres, double pipes, and percussion. Variations in this motif show local adaption, for example in ancient Greece the

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Sumerian and Akkadian language texts provide insight into the role of musicians in society. Two distinct types of musicians are known, the gala and the nar. Both classes of musicians were highly regarded, and associated with religion and royalty, but their roles differed. The gala (Akkadian:

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Classical education also helped disseminate musical ideas. The Mesopotamian musical system made up part of the classical education curriculum that scribes, priests and other educated professionals went through, and there were major Mesopotamian music centers at the temples of Babylon,

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Two silver pipes dating to 2800 BCE were discovered in Ur. Both pipes are 24 centimetres (9.4 in) in length. One has four finger holes and the other has three; when placed next to each other, three of the finger holes from each pipe are aligned. While scholars agree this was a

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III period, music was depicted at banquets, but the purpose is unclear. The celebration may have been “a regular calendrical event, such as the New Year’s festival” or the occasions may have been “extensions of temple practices or celebrations of successful military campaigns.”

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allowed for the free flow of musical instruments, while classical education spread Mesopotamian musical theory and insights. From 1300 BCE onwards, musician-priests formed guilds and were housed in a temple college, attracting intellectual attention from across the region.

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Musical instruments were intimately associated with Mesopotamian religion, and some were regarded as minor gods: intermediaries that could help the priest communicate with a major god. Clear evidence for the divinity of musical instruments comes from the Sumerian language.

1203: 671:, was a generous patron of the arts, especially music. In self-laudatory texts, he professed to be an expert musician, claiming that the zeal with which he studied it prevented it from being too difficult. He listed numerous instruments he claimed to have mastered: the 617:

or regarded as a third gender. Gabbay writes, "The term Gala/kalû should be understood as a general concept, relating to a third gender which shares features of both female and male, but which is an independent gender category." Other sources suggest they may have been

545:) musician was closely associated with temple rituals; it has been suggested by the musicologist Piotr Michalowski that their job was "normally less glamorous and perhaps temporary". Musical instruments associated with the gala priests include a small drum (Sumerian: 1263:

BCE) depict lutenists playing their instruments in the presence of Ea. Later representations appear after the Third Dynasty of Ur, including a relief from Larsa (Louvre) showing a sexual scene involving two participants, a lute, and a small drum; a relief from Mari

502:, the goddess Ninmah creates various human creatures, and their destiny is then fixed by the god Enki. When Ninmah creates a blind person, Enki allots him the “art of the musician.”” Texts reveal that a disproportionate number of Mesopotamian musicians were blind. 506:

within a family. Among the elite class, children received a comprehensive education in reading, writing, religion, the sciences, law, and medicine, among other topics; whether music was included is largely uncertain. Some evidence suggests that Mesopotamians had

282:, not only bemoaning the loss of food, drink, and luxury, but also because there were “no sweet-sounding musical instruments such as the lyre, drum, tambourine, and reed pipe; no comforting songs and soothing words from the temple singers and priests.” 1569:, without half-tones – the plucked notes were A, e, a, e', a', e", that is, a fifth chord orchestrated in the modern way, the two notes being distributed among the seven players in different combinations, as double octave, octave, unison, and fifth. 1529:

into their contents; still others break up into sections separated by liturgic rubrics of varying types. The hymns were divided by the ancient Sumerian scribes themselves into different groups and categories. At times, not unlike the hymns in the

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made battle music a real influence in the determination of conquest. Their footmen struck to the sound of drum, cymbal and shrill double-flutes, and when the fierce Assyrian horsemen charged they did so to the clashing of iron bells (like modern

1312:. Some elements are original, including the shell and lapis-lazuli mosaic, some of the sheet gold, and part of the silver cross-bar. The wood body and gold head are modern. The instrument also likely had legs, but these were not reconstructed. 1846:), known from the second millennium BCE. A Babylonian tablet reveals that the Mesopotamians also used another visualization of their heptatonic tuning system: a seven-pointed star. However, knowledge about these Mesopotamian ideas is sparse. 6180: 1486:

horizontal line; the song’s words were written above the lines and the musical notation was written below. The music notation consists of a musical term followed by a numeral. While the musical terms are better understood, including the

1238:. The legs of the instrument were meant to represent animal legs, with the rear post as the tail. The instrument was played either in place with its legs on the ground, or as part of a procession, carried over the shoulder with a strap. 273:

prayers, whose purpose was to persuade the local deity not to abandon the city. Moreover, some laments included grief over the loss of music itself during the destruction of a city and its temple. In one such work, the "weeping goddess"

1029:. Reliefs carved in stone show that singers would sometimes squeeze their larynx with their fingers in order to achieve high notes. Researchers also know that choral singing was sometimes done in unison and at other times in parts; 1551:

A corpus of thousands of surviving clay tablets provides details about ancient Mesopotamian music theory. While some relate to tuning, others relate to musical scales. Mesopotamian art also provides information; the musicologist

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points out that because the main depictions of musical instruments come from reliefs celebrating royal and religious events, it is likely that there are many instruments, perhaps popular ones, that scholars are unaware of.

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instrument. Greek music, in turn, had a strong influence on Roman music, especially after the Roman conquest of the Greek mainland in 168 BCE; the musical theory inherited by the Romans led to the eight principal modes of

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and priests. Extant clay tablets often record information on student activities in edubbas, and indicate that their examinations included questions on differentiating and identifying instruments, singing technique, and

2362:"represents every special moment in life, from sorrow, sadness, joy and all combinations of emotions ... It’s a huge national pride when I feel that through this great instrument, I represent Iraq’s cultural history." 1585: 1120:. These silver pipes are the oldest known wind instrument, predating a set of Egyptian reed pipes by five hundred years. Similar pipes made of gold, silver, and bronze are described in texts from the same city. 1222:) was a representation of an animal's body, such as a cow, bull, calf, donkey, or stag. Archaeologist Leonard Woolley suggested that the animal head depicted on the front of the lyre indicated the instrument's 1183:. The Mesopotamian harp originated from the warrior's bow, perhaps by the addition of a gourd as a resonator, and became the ancestor to the lyre and other stringed instruments. Strings may have been made with 405:

yielded up their goods and treasure to these martial pipings, and gold, silver, lapis lazuli, gums, spices, war-chariots, horses, cattle and slaves pour into the Assyrian capital to the tempo of their military.

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composed by Shulgi around 2070 BCE articulates Sumerian technical terms such as ‘tuning up’ (ZI.ZI), ‘tuning down’ (ŠÚ.ŠÚ), ‘tightening’ (GÍD.I), ‘loosening’ (TU.LU), and the term ‘adjust the frets’ (SI.AK).

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were made and a drum was put into place. The bronze images were then put inside the drum, incantations were whispered into the bull's ears, a hymn was sung accompanied by an oboe, and the bull was sacrificed.

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Contracts for the employment of musicians in temples survive and reveal that a large number of singers were used in the ritual performances. While the exact nature of these performances may never be known,

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Efforts have been made in modern Iraq to preserve the musical culture of Mesopotamia. In the 1970s, during an ideological shift among the Ba'th party toward preservation of pre-Arab cultural heritage, the

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played a role here, since an unplayed Ninigizibara would still murmur in response to the music of others. Was this seen as evidence that the instrument was indeed alive, had its own voice, and was itself

1911: 569:), although not much is known about these instruments. There are hundreds of individual named musicians, such as the gala musician Ur-Utu, who are known from administrative documents. In some cases, 293:, god of music and wisdom. Various parts of the bull were burned with a torch during the ritual. Twelve linens were placed on the ground, and a bronze image of a god was placed on top of each linen. 5547:

Studies in ancient Near Eastern world view and society : presented to Marten Stol on the occasion of his 65th birthday,10 November 2005, and his retirement from the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam

1899:, and Greece together formed what musicologist Claire Polin called a "musical province in which free intercourse created understanding in musical exchange". Musicologist Peter van der Merwe writes: 2496:

Greek numerology-mysticism has roots in Mesopotamia. This included the Greek fascination with the number seven, especially in supernatural contexts, including in the mythology surrounding the

494:, where young musicians may have been purposefully blinded. The fact that Mesopotamians connected blindness with musicianship is expressed in literature. Gabbay writes: “In the Sumerian myth 413:

lists genres of secular music including "work songs, nursery songs, dance music, tavern music, music for entertaining at feasts, and epics sung with instrumental accompaniment." Vibrant wall

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dating to the 5th millennium BCE provides the earliest evidence of music culture in Mesopotamia; depictions of music and musicians appear in the 4th millennium BCE; and later, in the city of

594:” details how Gilgamesh offered gifts to the gods on behalf of his wives and children, but also on behalf of his musicians. Musicians sometimes accompanied royalty to their graves. In the 5587:. Vol. 2: Papers from the 1st Symposium of the International Study Group on Music Archaeology, Monastery Michaelstein, Blankenburg, Sachsen–Anhalt, Germany, May 18–24, 1988. Rahden: 725:. Shulgi seemed to enjoy playing all instruments except the reed pipe, which he believed brought sadness to the spirit, whereas music should bring joy and cheer. Shulgi generously funded 1764:

is a limit not to be exceeded in the alternating process. Hence the alternation is interrupted on the 4th string (the Ea-string) and gives way to a succession of two descending fourths;

2260:, where they retained their strong association with animals. The first lutes appeared in Mesopotamia in 2300 BCE; 1,000 years later lutes would become the favored instrument in Persia. 789:). Some of her works had themes related to her father's accomplishments, while others are autobiographical—she speaks in the first person at least once. Her poems were quite popular in 1401:

a graceful boat-shaped instrument with gold knobs upon the eleven-stringed posts. The body terminated in a golden calf's head with lapis lazuli hair and beard, shell and lapis eyes, a

773:, the texts for which survive. Her work was prolific and also well documented; as many as fifty copies of some of her hymnal works have survived, but none of her music. She authored 1565:

only strings plucked are the fifth, eighth, tenth, fifteenth, and eighteenth of the set. If the instruments, as it is likely to suppose, were tuned to a pentatonic scale – say on

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lutes preserve many features of Mesopotamian instruments. Mesopotamian harps diffused as far west as the Mediterranean and as far east as Asia. Ancient Mesopotamian influence in

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As to structure, the hymns are frequently divided into songs of varying lengths separated from each other by brief antiphonal responses; others consist of a number of four-line

433:; depictions of musical instruments accompany them. Secular music was comforting to the Mesopotamian people: one incantation tells of a homesick scribe who was stuck and ill in 2161:

asymmetrical West Semitic lyres are replaced with Hellenistic instruments. Musical terms also appear in connection with religious practices. The Sumerian logogram for ‘gala’ (

1245:) dating to 3100 BCE that depicts a female figure with a long-necked instrument sitting at the back of a boat in a musician's posture. Two seals in the British Museum from the 779:, a short (153 line) poem in which she may allude to her own songwriting at a critical moment in the work. She is the likely author of a hymn entitled the ‘Myth of Inanna and 1517:, show "a rich variety in both content and structure", and fall into two groups, hymns for the king, and hymns for gods. Kramer details some elements of hymnal organization: 741:

galas. Dada organized musical events, looking after both the instruments and related entertainment, including handling a bear cub. He and his family owned residences in both

518: 360:. While the musical instruments of war varied from culture to culture, the intention of the music was the same — to “carry terror to the hearts of the foe.” Martens writes: 1513:

Although the music for most hymns is lost, their surviving texts provide insight as to how the compositions were organized. These compositions, according to Assyriologist

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history, playing important roles in both religious and secular contexts. Mesopotamia is of particular interest to scholars because evidence from the region—which includes

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seal (Louvre) showing the same. A comparison of these depictions reveals that lutes were held in different postures during different time periods, possibly affecting the

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Some rituals involved the instruments themselves, deified, and capable of receiving animal sacrifices as gods. In a ritual closely associated with a drum described in an

5532: 765:, Enheduanna was simultaneously a princess, priestess, and poetess who wrote a cycle of hymns to the temples of Sumer and Akkad, including devotional hymns for the gods 793:

and her hymnal organization likely influenced many generations of composers. She is referred to by name in a hymn to Dumuzi, attesting to her popularity in the region.

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The Music of the Most Ancient Nations, Particularly of the Assyrians, Egyptians, and Hebrews: With Special Reference to Recent Discoveries in Western Asia and in Egypt

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findings have identified the homes and family histories of these musicians, revealing their high status in society. Gala musicians were associated with the god Enki.

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they then made their way into Northern Europe. From Egypt the same instruments spread south and westward into black Africa, where some of them survive to this day.

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Krispijn, Theo J. H. (2008). "Music and Healing for Someone Far Away from Home HS 1556, A Remarkable Ur III Incantation, Revisited". In Van der Spek, Bert (ed.).

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suggested that in Mesopotamian thought, numbers represented a sacred force and that the seven notes of their heptatonic scales were symbolically linked to the

1429:, and there are two scraper instruments dating to 1500 BCE in the Teheran Archaeological Museum. There is a large, elaborately decorated Assyrian bell in the 9483: 1937:, or from the west by nomadic people of the semidesert plains of Syria. It appeared in Mesopotamia about the same time as a similar instrument in Egypt, the 2193:

were typically men; furthermore, there was no Hatti counterpart to Ištar — the two types of priests were involved in the worship of two distinct pantheons.

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It is more accurate to describe both these texts as "modulation" texts. Essentially, they are instructions that tell a musician how he or she can change a

939:, associated with law and justice, including ‘Let me live by His Word’, ‘Just Judge’, and ‘Decision of Sky and Earth’. Other named instrument-gods include 7665:

Michalowski, Piotr (2010). "Learning Music: Schooling, Apprenticeship, and Gender in Early Mesopotamia". In Pruzsinszky, Regine; Shehata, Dahlia (eds.).

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Dorf, Samuel (2020). "Ancient Mesopotamian Music, the Politics of Reconstruction, and Extreme Early Music". In Barolsky, Daniel; Epstein, Louis (eds.).

8415: 967:', suggesting that this instrument was “an intermediary between the earthly king and his divine counterpart.” During the rituals associated with these 6946: 6467: 1903:

The harps, lyres, lutes, and pipes of Mesopotamia spread into Egypt, and later into Greece, and, mainly through the Greek influence, to Rome. Via the

6410: 5577: 122:, particularly the "Hymn to Nikkal", represent the oldest known substantially complete notated music. Modern scholars have attempted to recreate the 2187:

were both musicians and priests, they were not identical. The Sumerian gala priests were often associated with a third gender category, whereas the

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Ziegler, Nele (2010). "Teachers and Students. Conveying Musical Knowledge in the Kingdom of Mari". In Pruzsinszky, Regine; Shehata, Dahlia (eds.).

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designers and musicians of the Iraqi Fashion House presented "a historical show inspired by the civilizations of Sumer, Akkad, Babylon, Assyria,

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Dumbrill, Richard J. (2010). "Evidence and Inference in Texts of Theory in the Ancient Near East". In Dumbrill, Richard; Finkel, Irving (eds.).

7753: 1393:. UC Berkeley professor Robert R. Brown made three playable replicas of Puabi's harp, one of which is held in the British Museum. Musicologist 1076:

Almost no wind instruments survive, but there is ample evidence of their use in artistic depictions and literature. Wind instruments included

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Plaque with musician playing a lute, Isin-Larsa period, 2000-1600 BCE. Ischali, baked clay. Oriental Institute Museum, University of Chicago.

855:, or unvocalized logograms that show the category of a noun, inform the reader whether the object in question is, for example, made of wood ( 1381:

At Ur, an especially ornate harp was found in the grave of Queen Puabi. Whereas the largest of the lyres had a register similar to a modern

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Proceedings of the International Conference of Near Eastern Archaeomusicology (ICONEA 2008), The British Museum, London, December 4–6, 2008

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Proceedings of the International Conference of Near Eastern Archaeomusicology (ICONEA 2008), The British Museum, London, December 4–6, 2008

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Proceedings of the International Conference of Near Eastern Archaeomusicology (ICONEA 2008), The British Museum, London, December 4–6, 2008

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from these works, although there is no consensus on exactly how the music would have sounded. The Mesopotamians had an elaborate system of

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Proceedings of the 2011 International Conference of Near-Eastern Archaeomusicology (Senate House, University of London, 1-3 December 2011)

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was probably similar to the "pungently nasal sound" of the narrow-bore reed pipes. He suggests that ancient Mesopotamian singing included

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The Gold Lyre of Ur now held in the Iraq Museum is a partial reconstruction; the original was destroyed in the looting that followed the

583: 2153:, Nippur, and Erech. These musical centers became famous in the western world and attracted the attention of the Greeks, including the 1469: 971:, the lines between priest, musician, instrument, god, and king were blurred, and within this context, the Mesopotamians believed the 483:

chanting with instrumental parts, which the musicologist Charles Plummeridge notes "must have required expert tuition and direction."

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as dissonant and called it ‘impure’. Marcelle Duchesne-Guillemin lists the four rules that governed the tuning of these instruments:

91:. Its use in secular occasions included festivals, warfare, and funerals—among all classes of society. Mesopotamians sang and played 8466: 7815: 1433:. At one time there was a bone whistle recovered from Nimrud, which produced three distinct pitches, but it was subsequently lost. 9667: 1767:

3. the first tuning gesture starts on the group of strings after which the mode is named and which is characterized by having the

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Mesopotamian music had a strong influence in ancient Greece. The practice of deifying string instruments was sometimes echoed in

6369: 1272:) showing a shepherd playing a lute; a relief from Nippur (Iraq Museum) showing a figure holding a lute in the right hand and a 9123: 9117: 1645:" to another. The method of modulation is essentially cyclical. One can proceed either via successive tightening of "unclear" 7774: 7737: 7674: 7634: 7601: 7582: 7522: 6973: 6494: 6209: 5894: 5843: 5820: 5732: 5701: 5603: 5554: 5521: 5474: 5410: 5376: 5357: 5338: 2256:

secular and more complex setting. Bull-headed lyres also show a heritage; they first flourished in Mesopotamia but spread to

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The destruction of these antiquities during the war sparked widespread international condemnation. In a 2016 event held in

250:, respectively). In some depictions of religious festivals, musicians were accompanied by dancers, jugglers, and acrobats. 6832:

Mirelman, Sam (2009). "New Developments in the social history of music and musicians in ancient Iraq, Syria, and Turkey".

9458: 8157: 7808: 887:) used for gods. Furthermore, these instruments’ names appear in written lists of gods. Franklin writes, "These were not 349: 7667:

Musiker und Tradierung: Studien zur Rolle von Musikern bei der Verschriftlichung und Tradierung von literarischen Werken

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Musiker und Tradierung: Studien zur Rolle von Musikern bei der Verschriftlichung und Tradierung von literarischen Werken

9135: 7612: 5871: 5804: 998: 877:, é). The proper names of certain Mesopotamian musical instruments are always accompanied by the divine determinative ( 7504:

Collon, Dominique (2010). "Playing in Concert in the Ancient Near East". In Dumbrill, Richard; Finkel, Irving (eds.).

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Krispijn, Theo J. H. (2010). "Musical Ensembles in Ancient Mesopotamia". In Dumbrill, Richard; Finkel, Irving (eds.).

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gods." The Mesopotamians made various offerings to these instruments, such as animal sacrifices, spices, and jewelry.

7884: 7249: 6575: 5758: 5439: 8661: 6389: 2207:

By the third millennium BCE, music and musicians were depicted in a large number of Egyptian texts. Starting in the

9517: 8548: 1502:('lower'), the numerals are more mysterious. It is unclear whether the numeral is meant to represent a tone in the 6868: 8803: 8577: 5946: 471:

compositions. Other tablets include information on how to play musical instruments. Sumerian texts indicate that

7730:

Ancient musical instruments of Western Asia in the Department of Western Asiatic Antiquities, the British Museum

906:, whose identity is disputed but which may have been a string instrument or a drum. During his reign in Lagash ( 613:

of ancient Mesopotamian musicians is debated. Some sources indicate that gala priests, for example, were either

9198: 9183: 9165: 9141: 9046: 8871: 8461: 8445: 6834: 6195: 5635: 2311:. The modern Western seven-note scales are nearly identical to those used by the Mesopotamians and the Greeks. 1049: 5485: 1925:, may have originated in Mesopotamia, or it may have been introduced from surrounding regions, such as by the 134:. Music in Mesopotamia influenced, and was influenced by, music in neighboring cultures of antiquity based in 9052: 9013: 8927: 8798: 8487: 180: 84: 9823: 9537: 9512: 9448: 9212: 8497: 8232: 6513: 6078: 5693: 5152: 5140: 3488: 3486: 1790:. For example, an Akkadian language mathematical text contains references to musical strings. Musicologist 1774:

4. the tuning ends on the tritone. In order to change to the next scale, the tritone is inflected to reach

1426: 1145: 1045: 5614: 2264:

songs continue to be performed in Iran today. Persia, in turn, influenced the Greeks, Arabs, and Indians.

458:, Mesopotamian schools taught music. Active by the 3rd millennium BCE, these schools—known in Sumerian as 340:

which represented a distinct genre of music, nevertheless shared features in common with religious music.

9605: 9522: 9468: 9331: 9029: 8748: 8723: 8717: 8640: 8553: 8435: 8430: 8365: 8041: 261:

was placed opposite a statue of that city's deity, Eštar. Singers sat to the right of the instrument, an

7349: 6553:. Berkeley: Bit Enki Publications, 1976. Includes LP record, Bit Enki Records BTNK 101, reissued as CD. 3483: 2298:. Like the Mesopotamians, the Greeks connected music to the planets. In the Pythagorean doctrine of the 1464:, and others. Experts agree on some points, for example, the name of each string of the instrument, its 9793: 9761: 9756: 9532: 8754: 8558: 8167: 7626: 7272: 7055: 6843: 6431:

Kilmer, Anne Draffkorn (1974). "The Cult Song with Music from Ancient Ugarit: Another Interpretation".

5330: 1269: 1116:, and some scholars claim that ancient Mesopotamians did not have a single-reeded instrument such as a 9177: 7652:

Krispijn, Theo J. H. (1990). "Beiträge zur altorientalischen Musikforschung. 1. Šulgi und die Musik".

1600:, (2) that different orchestra members played different parts, and (3) that musicians knew how to use 8242: 8057: 7454: 6204: 5402: 1880: 1775: 1206:

Musicians play the Mesopotamian dulcimer, a string instrument with many modern names and derivatives.

838: 746:

that he was an exceptional example, and that most gala musicians would have held more mundane roles.

523: 7134:"Imaging and imagining the Cosmos: A Creative Ideal and Meme Defined by Form, Feeling, and Function" 4743: 1268:) depicting bow-legged figures playing three-stringed lutes while apes watch; a relief from Nippur ( 9453: 8991: 8742: 8197: 7839: 5985: 1482:, which contains an interpretation of Hurrian Hymn No. 6 on piano accompanied by a full orchestra. 1341: 1277: 8650: 7475: 7433: 7391: 7308: 4527: 4525: 1456:, a collection of music inscribed in cuneiform on clay tablets excavated from the ancient city of 9766: 9689: 9542: 9076: 9064: 8937: 8836: 8507: 8440: 8334: 8187: 8105: 8100: 7685: 7517:(1st ed.). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. 6957: 6478: 6408:

Kilmer, Anne Draffkorn (April 1971). "The Discovery of an Ancient Mesopotamian Theory of Music".

5593: 5585:

Music Archaeology of Early Metal Ages, Studien zur Musikarchäologie: Studies in Music Archaeology

2926: 2924: 2922: 2920: 2657: 2655: 1976: 7412: 7370: 7288: 9828: 9650: 9598: 9297: 8909: 8711: 8705: 8613:

with various additional/alternate self-identifications, such as Syriacs, Arameans, or Chaldeans

8538: 8390: 8149: 4522: 2299: 1330: 1109: 192:(also Enki), deity of music, wears a horned helmet and holds a cup from which water overflows. 112: 87:

and some instruments themselves were regarded as minor deities and given proper names, such as

53: 8813: 6965: 6928: 6904: 6486: 2917: 2652: 2625: 2240: 2171:, where the word also designated a musician-priest—a type of drummer—and was pronounced as in 2076:

The dulcimer spread throughout the world, its variants and derivatives known in Persia as the

1883:

to the southeast, and also with Mesopotamia to the north. For much of ancient history, Egypt,

377:, Asia danced to the tune of the Assyrian war-pipes, and blood flowed where they sounded. The 9694: 8921: 8897: 8207: 6991: 6762: 6558: 6147: 5724: 4648: 1441: 1041: 980: 527: 209: 193: 92: 5673: 5469:. Sources from the Ancient Near East. Vol. 2. Malibu, California: Undena Publications. 806: 805:

Clay tablet recording the names of 23 types of musical instruments. Sumer, 26th C. BCE. The

257:

offers a picture of how the musicians were situated within the temple. An instrument called

226:

BCE), when music was performed as part of a religious ceremony, the practitioners, known in

9704: 9504: 9490: 9438: 9413: 9403: 9393: 9388: 9383: 9147: 8385: 7864: 7328: 7268: 4561: 2859: 2857: 2855: 2853: 2208: 1461: 1446: 1305: 595: 8672: 6982: 6503: 4301: 3803: 3728: 3522: 8: 9655: 9579: 9463: 9433: 9428: 9423: 9408: 9326: 9088: 8997: 8915: 8903: 8851: 8846: 8686: 8666: 8625: 8512: 8420: 8395: 8202: 8177: 7573:; Mirabdolbaghi, Zia, eds. (1991). "A Contemporary Master's Lesson From Dariush Safvat". 6999: 6099: 5712: 5386: 2613: 2273: 951:). Furthermore, some kings inserted their names into the proper name of the instrument; 668: 410: 161:

to make wedge-shaped impressions in wet clay, and the tablets would be baked. Using this

147: 6511:

Kilmer, Anne Draffkorn; Tinney, Steve (1996). "Old Babylonian Music Instruction Texts".

6115:

Duchesne-Guillemin, Marcelle (February 1981). "Music in Ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt".

5633:

Lucas, Christopher J. (Autumn 1979). "The Scribal Tablet-House in Ancient Mesopotamia".

2850: 2358:

player and teacher in Baghdad, notes a new interest in the instrument. He says that the

2320: 1092:, made of wood, animal horn, bone, metal, and reed. A short horn instrument used by the 9478: 9398: 9319: 9292: 9009: 8635: 8502: 8471: 8370: 8217: 8134: 7747: 7620: 7549: 7229: 7212: 7198: 7190: 7161: 7153: 7120: 7103: 7072: 7041: 7016: 6952: 6932: 6924: 6891: 6855: 6820: 6812: 6779: 6748: 6740: 6707: 6674: 6641: 6633: 6600: 6538: 6530: 6473: 6440: 6419: 6356: 6335: 6306: 6298: 6269: 6244: 6227: 6134: 6103: 6095: 6051: 6043: 6010: 6002: 5971: 5963: 5932: 5778: 5660: 5652: 5453: 5445: 5421: 1690: 1514: 1478: 1002: 306: 69: 7101:

West, Martin (1994). "The Babylonian Musical Notation and the Hurrian Melodic Texts".

5326:

Art of the First Cities: The Third Millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus

1025:

inflections associated with a nasal timbre; Mesopotamian singers also made use of the

9780: 9473: 9443: 9270: 9221: 9207: 9058: 8861: 8492: 8349: 8344: 8329: 8264: 8182: 8139: 7859: 7854: 7733: 7705: 7670: 7640: 7630: 7597: 7578: 7518: 7202: 7165: 7089: 7020: 6969: 6936: 6895: 6824: 6752: 6645: 6542: 6490: 6310: 6167: 6117: 6107: 6076:

Crickmore, Leon (2012). "A musicological interpretation of the Akkadian term SIḪPU".

6055: 6014: 5975: 5890: 5839: 5816: 5754: 5728: 5697: 5664: 5599: 5550: 5517: 5502: 5470: 5457: 5449: 5435: 5406: 5394: 5372: 5353: 5334: 4483: 2085: 1722: 1130: 1105: 1085: 286: 227: 100: 5944:

Cheng, Jack (July 2009). "A Review of Early Dynastic III Music: Man's Animal Call".

1627:

Two surviving tablets give instructions for tuning string instruments. According to

1472:. Nevertheless, each interpretation yields different music. In 2009 Syrian composer 80:

for ‘harp’ and ‘musician’ are present among the earliest known examples of writing.

9740: 9735: 9672: 9418: 9003: 8856: 8828: 8734: 8697: 8405: 8400: 8304: 8299: 8294: 8284: 8279: 8269: 8085: 7942: 7927: 7911: 7906: 7901: 7879: 7697: 7541: 7221: 7182: 7145: 7112: 7064: 7008: 6961: 6920: 6916: 6883: 6847: 6804: 6771: 6732: 6699: 6666: 6625: 6522: 6482: 6327: 6290: 6236: 6159: 6126: 6087: 6035: 5994: 5955: 5924: 5877: 5835: 5720: 5644: 5427: 5390: 2497: 2279: 2172: 1870:

Mesopotamian music had a lasting and widespread influence on the history of music.

1815: 1795: 1617: 1605: 1597: 1487: 1465: 1362: 1223: 1022: 468: 441:; he longed “to be healed by the music of the horizontal harp with seven strings.” 65: 9356: 7532:

Duchesne-Guillemin, Marcelle (1980). "Sur la restitution de la musique hourrite".

6453: 6130: 5516:. Washington, D.C.: Center for Hellenic Studies, Trustees for Harvard University. 9346: 9171: 8961: 8955: 8818: 8793: 8773: 8600: 8339: 8314: 8309: 8289: 8237: 8227: 8222: 8212: 8192: 8162: 8114: 8110: 8080: 7718: 5812: 5772: 5687: 5369:

Learning to Pray in a Dead Language: Education and Invocation in Ancient Sumerian

5324: 2308: 2295: 2261: 2060: 2046: 2032: 2018: 2008: 1854: 1746: 1738: 1706: 1430: 1345: 956: 766: 762: 758: 599: 438: 365: 197: 131: 96: 7782: 6390:"Malek Jandali: 'I thought: what can I do? How can I help? All I have is music'" 5809:

Origins of the Popular Style: The Antecedents of Twentieth-Century Popular Music

1241:

The oldest pictorial record of lute playing is on an Uruk-period cylinder seal (

713:; he also claimed to have mastered the art of composition of genres such as the 153:

Much of what researchers know about Mesopotamian music comes from clay tablets.

9730: 9682: 9677: 9645: 9567: 9226: 9153: 9129: 9017: 8788: 8783: 8319: 7701: 7616: 7332: 7312: 7292: 6793:"Love or Death? Observations on the Role of the Gala in Ur III Ceremonial Life" 6163: 2246: 2202: 2154: 1609: 1242: 646:

composed numerous hymns. Old Babylonian, 1800-1750 BCE. British Museum, London.

373:), with which their harness was hung. From 1100 B.C. until its conquest by the 356:

As in neighboring cultures, Mesopotamian music played an important role in the

231: 34: 30: 6887: 6851: 6281:

Gurney, O. R. (1968). "An Old Babylonian Treatise on the Tuning of the Harp".

6091: 5967: 5928: 2282:, but the mythology was modified resulting in the Greek ‘lyre heroes’ such as 1631:

these tablets are better thought of in terms of re-tuning rather than tuning:

927:) and 'Lady as Exalted as Heaven', and some calendar years were named for the 9817: 9725: 9720: 9662: 9640: 9621: 9070: 8677: 8655: 8119: 7967: 7874: 7709: 7149: 7093: 6171: 1714: 1601: 1596:

From this relief, Sachs draws three conclusions: (1) that musicians used the

1503: 1473: 1453: 1285: 1026: 1010: 852: 455: 426: 242:

and the Ershemma, named after the instruments used in their performance (the

135: 119: 9336: 7644: 6688:"Sumerian Similes: A Panoramic View of Some of Man's Oldest Literary Images" 1163:

BCE. Bronze, inlaid with shell and lapis lazuli. Metropolitan Museum of Art.

29:

BCE. Music was a normal part of social life in Mesopotamia. Detail from the

9807: 9094: 8124: 7937: 7869: 7225: 5573: 2347: 2252: 1904: 1879:, home to an independent culture of its own, had connections with both the 1871: 1791: 1646: 1642: 1578: 1507: 1422: 1394: 1246: 1227: 1192: 1137:

dating to 900–700 BCE, and in a bas relief from Nineveh dating to 645 BCE.

487: 480: 374: 258: 127: 88: 22:

A depiction of a singer and a lyre player entertaining guests at a banquet

7269:"Inlay: Woman Wearing a Cylinder Seal, Playing a Flute ca. 2600–2500 B.C." 7116: 6905:"Cultural Transformations from Mesopotamia to Hatti? The Case of the GALA" 6775: 5431: 1534:, these varied with the type of musical instrument which accompanied them. 879: 873: 867: 857: 737:; in return, Sumerian poets composed hymns of glorification in his honor. 9341: 8979: 8973: 8610: 8543: 8533: 8324: 8256: 8129: 8017: 7831: 7570: 6760:

Martens, Frederick H. (1925). "The Influence of Music in World History".

6240: 5683: 2141: 2004: 2000: 1884: 1783: 1761: 1730: 1698: 1628: 1334: 1326: 1313: 1309: 1301: 1265: 1113: 1030: 614: 602:

found a girl musician lying down, harp in hand, inside the tomb of Queen

570: 491: 390: 378: 370: 270: 254: 143: 139: 108: 104: 49: 7157: 7133: 7045: 7029: 7012: 6859: 6816: 6808: 6792: 6604: 6549:

Kilmer, Anne Draffkorn, Richard L. Crocker, and Robert R. Brown (1976).

6444: 6360: 6047: 6039: 6023: 5467:

A Hurrian Musical Score from Ugarit: The Discovery of Mesopotamian Music

4133: 9699: 9307: 9302: 9100: 8075: 8070: 7194: 6744: 6678: 6637: 6592: 6534: 6339: 6302: 6006: 5936: 5912: 5768: 2220: 1553: 1180: 1018: 995: 952: 754: 643: 619: 386: 107:. Surviving artifacts include the oldest known string instruments, the 7800: 7553: 7233: 7124: 7076: 6783: 6720: 6711: 6654: 6613: 6423: 6273: 6257: 6248: 6223: 6181:"The Balaĝ Instrument and its Role in the Cult of Ancient Mesopotamia" 6138: 5656: 5350:

Learn to Read Ancient Sumerian: An Introduction for Complete Beginners

3902: 2816: 2814: 2812: 2810: 1653:

David Wulstan offers an excerpt from a small fragment of such a text:

335:, also meant ‘joy’ and ‘merriment’, well illustrated by a seal in the 9527: 9361: 9241: 9082: 9023: 8380: 8065: 7952: 7889: 6687: 6551:

Sounds from Silence: Recent Discoveries in Ancient Near Eastern Music

5130: 5128: 3764: 3638: 2251:

Like the Mesopotamians, the Persians connected music to the heavens.

2228: 1944: 1896: 1888: 1787: 1406: 1089: 830: 801: 591: 499: 414: 398: 294: 275: 262: 208:

Music played a central role in ancient Mesopotamian religion. In the

162: 77: 7186: 6736: 6670: 6629: 6526: 6331: 6294: 5998: 4733: 4731: 4573: 4447: 3781: 3779: 3703: 3701: 3699: 3674: 3672: 3659: 3657: 3655: 3653: 2737: 2735: 2733: 2731: 2729: 1862: 9312: 9285: 9258: 9246: 9231: 8985: 8932: 8517: 8172: 8095: 8090: 7997: 7982: 7977: 7932: 7545: 7173:

Wulstan, David (Autumn 1968). "The Tuning of the Babylonian Harp".

7068: 6703: 5959: 5648: 3854: 2807: 2327: 2224: 2216: 2168: 2125: 2109: 2093: 1934: 1930: 1926: 1892: 1768: 1281: 1273: 1117: 1093: 837:. While much is known about Mesopotamian instruments, musicologist 780: 750: 623: 394: 382: 357: 265:

sat to its left, and female musicians stood behind the instrument.

8569: 6064: 5164: 5125: 5113: 4985: 4667: 4665: 4663: 3336: 2346:, dating from past to the present day.” Performances of a modern 1693:. The seven heptatonic scales (and their Greek equivalents) were: 1560:

court orchestra as it welcomes the Assyrian conqueror in 650 BCE:

1202: 586:

conquered a city, they would spare the musicians and send them to

289:

text, a bull was brought to the temple and offerings were made to

9574: 8967: 8889: 8769: 8274: 8002: 7992: 7957: 7947: 6614:"Death and Nether World According to the Sumerian Literary Texts" 6593:"Love, Hate, and Fear: Psychological Aspects of Sumerian Culture" 4767: 4755: 4728: 3776: 3696: 3669: 3650: 2726: 2474: 2339: 2287: 2283: 1835: 1807: 1750: 1526: 1522: 1317: 1053: 1014: 790: 634: 587: 531: 430: 345: 322: 154: 61: 9590: 6721:"The Weeping Goddess: Sumerian Prototypes of the Mater Dolorosa" 6454:"The Musical Instruments from Ur and Ancient Mesopotamian Music" 5855:

New Oxford History of Music Volume I: Ancient and Oriental Music

5299: 4808: 1612:

scale. They had the concept of musical intervals, including the

1573: 9547: 9351: 9280: 9253: 9236: 8022: 7972: 7894: 7769: 7053:

Turnbull, Harvey (1972). "The Origin of the Long-Necked Lute".

4898: 4896: 4894: 4660: 2478: 2291: 2150: 1950: 1876: 1843: 1649:, or conversely via successive loosening of "unclear" dichords. 1613: 1531: 1457: 1402: 1390: 1358: 1184: 1134: 1100:. The reed pipe was played on sad occasions, such as funerals. 1097: 1077: 1057: 1006: 884: 770: 734: 650: 639: 610: 522:

Plaque with male musician playing a harp. Ischali, baked clay.

476: 463: 459: 422: 341: 336: 266: 235: 201: 158: 123: 38: 4157: 4123: 4121: 3575: 3573: 862: 64:—places it among the earliest well-documented cultures in the 9275: 9263: 9159: 8375: 8012: 8007: 7987: 5583:. In Hickmann, Ellen; Laufs, Ingo; Eichmann, Ricardo (eds.). 5212: 4248: 3396: 3326: 3324: 2470: 2343: 2331: 2117: 2101: 2089: 2081: 1962: 1823: 1539: 1409:

with inlaid edges of mosaic, red limestone, shell, and lapis.

1386: 1231: 1196: 1176: 1172: 1168: 1081: 964: 914: 742: 726: 603: 472: 418: 402: 239: 45: 5161:, Chapter 3, section on ideophonic instruments, paragraph 5. 5149:, Chapter 3, section on idiophonic instruments, paragraph 4. 4891: 4537: 3970: 3968: 3820: 3818: 3360: 3299: 3297: 7962: 4779: 4600: 4405: 4403: 4388: 4118: 3614: 3570: 3423: 2335: 2257: 2212: 1831: 1803: 1557: 1382: 1366: 1235: 1188: 1061: 834: 826: 822: 818: 810: 495: 475:

training occurred by 3000 BCE in the temple of Ningarsu in

434: 421:, and several genres of dance can be distinguished on wall 290: 279: 189: 73: 5983:

Collon, Dominique (2003). "Dance in Ancient Mesopotamia".

5241: 5239: 5224: 4857: 4855: 4842: 4840: 4838: 4825: 4823: 4798: 4796: 4794: 4706: 4704: 4420: 4418: 4108: 4106: 4043: 3919: 3917: 3471: 3372: 3348: 3321: 3309: 2977: 2893: 2783: 18: 6992:"Was Mesopotamian Tuning Diatonic? A Parsimonious Answer" 5788:

The New Grove Dictionary Of Music And Musicians 5 Ed. 2nd

5275: 5103: 5101: 5099: 5084: 4961: 4437: 4435: 4433: 4236: 4067: 4055: 4031: 3965: 3953: 3890: 3878: 3866: 3830: 3815: 3413: 3411: 3294: 3282: 3270: 3246: 3207: 3205: 3132: 3130: 3054: 3052: 3050: 3048: 3046: 3044: 3042: 3040: 2943: 2941: 2939: 2716: 2714: 2712: 2684: 2682: 2068: 2054: 2040: 2026: 2012: 1983: 1799: 1757:

1. an ascending fifth and a descending fourth are used;

1581:, a heptatonic, diatonic scale used by the Mesopotamians 936: 935:

are known to have been minor gods related to the sun-god

507: 57: 7210:

Wulstan, David (1971). "The Earliest Musical Notation".

5050: 5048: 4716: 4549: 4512: 4510: 4400: 4376: 4291: 4289: 4287: 4272: 3987: 3985: 3983: 3236: 3234: 3232: 3100: 3088: 2826: 2642: 2640: 2579: 2577: 118:

There are several surviving works of written music; the

6370:"Iraqi musicians play ancient oud to soften din of war" 5263: 5236: 5176: 5072: 5060: 4997: 4937: 4925: 4915: 4913: 4911: 4852: 4835: 4820: 4791: 4701: 4459: 4415: 4330: 4328: 4260: 4103: 4091: 4079: 4021: 4019: 4017: 4015: 4002: 4000: 3914: 3604: 3602: 3600: 3217: 2838: 2699: 2697: 2514: 730: 7266: 6347:

Güterbock, Hans (1970). "Musical Notation in Ugarit".

5689:

The Study of Ethnomusicology: Thirty-Three Discussions

5675:

Music cultures of the Pacific, the Near East, and Asia

5385: 5200: 5188: 5096: 4949: 4867: 4677: 4636: 4624: 4612: 4579: 4430: 4200: 4178: 4176: 4174: 4172: 3860: 3752: 3740: 3718: 3716: 3684: 3626: 3558: 3546: 3534: 3510: 3498: 3459: 3447: 3435: 3408: 3202: 3154: 3142: 3127: 3117: 3115: 3064: 3037: 3025: 3001: 2989: 2936: 2905: 2820: 2795: 2747: 2709: 2679: 2667: 1938: 1604:. Researchers also know that the Mesopotamians used a 1280:) showing a lute being played alongside a lyre; and a 9791: 7030:"Third International Conference on Asian Archaeology" 5287: 5045: 5033: 5021: 5009: 4590: 4588: 4507: 4495: 4471: 4284: 4224: 3980: 3842: 3258: 3229: 3190: 2637: 2601: 2574: 2562: 2469:, writes that the Egyptian Nefer glyph “combines the 902:

This was especially true of an instrument known as a

4973: 4908: 4879: 4364: 4340: 4325: 4012: 3997: 3941: 3929: 3791: 3597: 2881: 2771: 2759: 2694: 2354:

is also still played today. Bassam Salim, an expert

1385:, and the smaller silver lyre had a register like a 479:; choral performances developed into highly complex 6597:

Archaeological, Historical and Geographical Studies

6367: 5549:. Bethesda, Maryland: CDL Press. pp. 173–194. 5305: 5251: 4352: 4212: 4188: 4169: 4145: 3713: 3384: 3112: 3076: 3013: 2869: 2589: 2550: 1943:. This instrument became well known throughout the 753:in the history of music was an Akkadian priestess, 590:with the spoils. An epic tale called “The Death of 103:; instructions for playing them were discovered on 6945: 6655:"Shulgi of Ur: A Royal Hymn and a Divine Blessing" 6466: 6114: 5464: 5170: 5134: 5119: 4991: 4773: 4761: 4737: 4585: 4453: 3908: 3785: 3770: 3707: 3678: 3663: 3644: 3585: 3178: 3166: 2965: 2953: 2741: 2538: 2526: 1782:Music theory in Mesopotamia was also connected to 1226:. For example, a bull-headed lyre would be in the 7084:Vitale, Raoul (1980). "La tablette musical H-6". 6411:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 4689: 2465:Khonsura Wilson, professor of African Studies at 2350:are frequently featured on Iraqi television. The 1452:The most famous surviving works of music are the 9815: 7565:. London: Iconea Publications. pp. 105–116. 7251:A New Heroic Age in World History and Literature 6866: 6318:Gurney, O. R. (1994). "Babylonian Music Again". 5626:The story of music from antiquity to the present 5568:. London: Iconea Publications. pp. 125–150. 4671: 4534:, Chapter 3, section on harps, paragraphs 15–16. 2664:, Chapter 3, section on drums, paragraphs 19–20. 2634:, Chapter 3, section on drums, paragraphs 18–19. 166:detailed picture of Mesopotamian music culture. 6349:Revue d'assyriologie et d'archéologie orientale 1389:, Puabi's harp fell in the register of a small 1329:include the "Gold Lyre" (Iraq Museum) and the " 7508:. London: Iconea Publications. pp. 47–65. 6464: 5540:. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. 5531:Hallo, William W.; van Dijk, J. J. A. (1968). 5322: 4749: 4654: 4489: 4254: 3492: 2930: 2383:The oldest known Sumerian term for “blind” is 2162: 1994: 1974: 1956: 1920: 1679: 1667: 1658: 1636: 1538:Furthermore, an Akkadian language tablet from 1348:. Musicologist Samuel Dorf details the event: 1124: 946: 940: 922: 784: 774: 720: 714: 708: 702: 696: 690: 684: 678: 672: 577: 564: 558: 552: 546: 540: 330: 317:BCE. Nineveh, bas relief in Gypsum alabaster. 238:. There were two types of Emesal prayers, the 9606: 8585: 7816: 7783:"Flutes of Gilgamesh and Ancient Mesopotamia" 7686:"The Music of the Old Testament Reconsidered" 6869:"The Old Babylonian tuning text UET VI/3 899" 6024:"Genre, Gender, and the Sumerian Lamentation" 5829: 5803: 5713:"The Moon and Planets in Ancient Mesopotamia" 5530: 5486:"Organology and philology of an Urukean Lute" 5323:Aruz, Joan; Wallenfels, Ronald, eds. (2003). 4902: 4543: 3620: 3378: 3366: 3354: 3342: 3330: 3315: 2188: 2182: 2176: 1968: 1948: 8609:Ethno-linguistic group(s) indigenous to the 7594:Sibyllen, Musikanten, Haremsfrauen. Aufsätze 7473: 7452: 7431: 7410: 7389: 7368: 7350:"A history of world music in 15 instruments" 7347: 7326: 7306: 7286: 6867:Mirelman, Sam; Krispijn, Theo J. H. (2009). 6510: 5710: 4967: 4814: 4606: 4570:, Chapter 3, section on harps, paragraph 17. 4242: 4073: 4061: 4037: 3959: 3896: 3884: 3872: 3737:, Chapter 3, section on drums, paragraph 17. 3531:, Chapter 3, section on drums, paragraph 11. 2899: 2622:, Chapter 3, section on drums, paragraph 18. 2520: 2477:(voice of reason) to give us the concept of 1988: 8411:Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire 6943: 6790: 6460:. Vol. 40, no. 2. pp. 12–19. 6148:"Lyre Gods of the Bronze Age Musical Koine" 3812:, Chapter 3, 9th paragraph after Figure 28. 3303: 3288: 2863: 1689:this procedure was known to the Greeks as 1149:Bull's head ornament for a lyre, Sumerian, 817:Instruments of ancient Mesopotamia include 9613: 9599: 8592: 8578: 7823: 7809: 7752:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 6065:"New Light on the Babylonian Tonal System" 1525:. Not a few of the hymns weave a repeated 1108:instrument, it's unclear whether it was a 845: 757:, active around 2300 BCE. The daughter of 7613:"Music and Dance in Ancient Western Asia" 6556: 6346: 6152:Journal of Ancient Near Eastern Religions 6075: 6062: 5612: 5572: 5194: 5107: 4722: 4555: 4409: 4394: 4382: 3836: 3824: 1397:describes the richly adorned instrument: 629: 7052: 6831: 6692:Journal of the American Oriental Society 6576:"Immortal Clay: The Literature of Sumer" 6224:"The Sumerian Harp of Ur, c. 3500 B. C." 6145: 5876:. Translated by George, Andrew. London: 5678:. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. 5563: 5544: 5511: 5483: 5245: 5230: 5218: 5078: 4943: 4931: 4861: 4846: 4829: 4112: 4097: 4085: 4049: 3579: 3564: 3552: 3540: 3516: 3504: 3465: 3453: 3417: 3402: 3148: 3106: 3094: 3058: 3031: 2844: 2753: 2673: 2607: 2583: 1910: 1861: 1853: 1572: 1440: 1295: 1291: 1201: 1187:, as was done by the Egyptians, or with 1144: 931:that was deified and dedicated. Several 800: 633: 517: 305: 184: 17: 7830: 7335:. British Museum Asset Number 270640001 7209: 7172: 7086:Annales Archéologiques Arabes Syriennes 6966:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.43103 6759: 6573: 6487:10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.18485 6258:"Prisoners of War in Early Mesopotamia" 5889:. Vienna: Wiener Offene Orientalistik. 5884: 5861: 5852: 5794: 5269: 5206: 5182: 5066: 5003: 4802: 4785: 4710: 4465: 4424: 4315: 4266: 4127: 3923: 3758: 3746: 3690: 3632: 3495:, §2 "Pre- and Proto-literate periods". 3160: 3136: 3070: 3007: 2995: 2983: 2947: 2911: 2801: 2789: 2720: 2688: 2467:California State University, Long Beach 1421:BCE. Two pairs of copper clappers from 1230:register, a cow-headed lyre would be a 563:), and a sistrum or cymbals (Sumerian: 234:, sang in a dialect of Sumerian called 9816: 7669:. Wien: LIT Verlag. pp. 199–240. 7622:Civilizations of the Ancient Near East 7247: 7131: 7083: 7027: 6718: 6685: 6652: 6611: 6590: 6451: 6430: 6407: 6387: 6317: 6280: 6221: 6202: 6178: 6021: 5982: 5913:"Mesopotamian Identity in Ba'thi Iraq" 5870: 5725:10.1093/acrefore/9780190647926.013.198 5578:"Extant Silver Pipes from Ur, 2450 BC" 4955: 4873: 4683: 4642: 4630: 4618: 4516: 4501: 4477: 4441: 4358: 4307: 4295: 4278: 4230: 4163: 3991: 3848: 3797: 3608: 3477: 3276: 3264: 3252: 3240: 3223: 3196: 3184: 3172: 2971: 2832: 2777: 2765: 2646: 2595: 2556: 2145:prominent in Persian classical music. 1033:was the goddess of singing in unison. 269:acts were performed during these sung 9594: 8573: 7804: 7248:Kramer, Samuel Noah (20 April 1946). 6902: 6559:"The Earliest Music in Ancient Egypt" 5943: 5910: 5797:Iran: A Primary Source Cultural Guide 5785: 5767: 5748: 5682: 5632: 5619:. Encyclopaedia Iranica (online ed.). 5500: 5465:Duchesne-Guillemin, Marcelle (1984). 5366: 5347: 5293: 5281: 5158: 5146: 5090: 5054: 5039: 5027: 5015: 4979: 4919: 4885: 4567: 4531: 4311: 4139: 4025: 4006: 3974: 3947: 3935: 3809: 3734: 3722: 3528: 3441: 3429: 3390: 3211: 3121: 3082: 3019: 2887: 2875: 2703: 2661: 2631: 2619: 2568: 2544: 2532: 2241:Music of Iran § Earliest records 1234:, and a calf-headed lyre would be an 895:of some sort divinized cult-objects 278:laments the destruction of her city, 7577:. Washington D.C.: Mage Publishers. 7254:(Speech). University of Pennsylvania 7100: 6989: 6255: 5671: 5623: 5419: 5257: 4695: 4594: 4580:Burkholder, Grout & Palisca 2014 4370: 4346: 4334: 4319: 4218: 4206: 4194: 4182: 4151: 3591: 2959: 2821:Burkholder, Grout & Palisca 2014 2064: 2050: 2036: 2022: 1955:, and is comparable to the Sumerian 1556:describes a relief that depicts the 921:such as 'Great Dragon of the Land' ( 8599: 6477:. Revised by Sam Mirelman. Oxford: 6368:Hurriyet Daily News (7 July 2015). 5799:. New York: Rosen Publishing Group. 1405:-studded collar, a spacious wooden 486:In the 18th century BCE, a nascent 13: 7496: 5857:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 5774:The History of Musical Instruments 4752:, §8 "Theory and practice", table. 1506:, the number of times to repeat a 1445:Hurrian Hymn No. 6 interpreted by 1353:left the remains in a parking lot. 14: 9840: 9620: 7762: 7348:British Museum d (5 April 2018). 7028:Thomas, Winifred Smeaton (1970). 6557:Köpp-Junk, Heidi (January 2018). 6262:Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 2140:; in Britain, North America, and 1436: 1276:in the left; a relief from Uruk ( 9801: 9573: 9561: 9518:Assyrian Democratic Organisation 8671: 8660: 8649: 8549:Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary 8040: 7768: 7132:Wilson, Khonsura A. (May 2011). 2490: 2484: 2459: 2453: 2447: 2441: 2435: 2429: 2423: 2417: 2411: 2405: 1771:between its highest two notes; 1749:). The Babylonians regarded the 1210:The body of the lyre (Sumerian: 1044:in ancient Mesopotamia included 975:played itself. Franklin writes: 513: 169: 7690:Palestine Exploration Quarterly 7611:Kilmer, Anne Draffkorn (1995). 6452:Kilmer, Anne Draffkorn (1998). 5947:Journal of Near Eastern Studies 5911:Baram, Amatzia (October 1983). 5426:. Lever Press. pp. 31–59. 2399: 2393: 2377: 2321:Music of Iraq § Modern era 1993:) is derived from the Akkadian 1546: 729:'s two major edubbas, those of 310:Musicians of the Assyrian army 83:Music played a central role in 68:. The discovery of a bone wind 9184:Genocide of Christians by ISIL 9047:Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia 8106:Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) 8101:Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA) 7592:Ellermeier, Friedrich (1970). 6929:10.5615/jcunestud.69.2017.0109 6921:10.5615/jcunestud.69.2017.0109 6835:Yearbook for Traditional Music 6205:"Music in Ancient Mesopotamia" 6196:Hebrew University of Jerusalem 6146:Franklin, John Curtis (2006). 5832:Prophets, Worship and Theodicy 5751:Music of the Ancient Near East 5711:Ossendrijver, Mathieu (2020). 5636:History of Education Quarterly 2314: 1866:Mesopotamia—Indus trade routes 1858:Mesopotamia—Egypt trade routes 1641:instrument's tuning from one " 1096:was a precursor to the Jewish 796: 1: 8928:Ancient Mesopotamian religion 8488:Ancient Mesopotamian religion 7885:Tigris–Euphrates river system 7596:. Herzberg am Harz: Jungfer. 7513:de Schauensee, Maude (2002). 7309:"Circular ivory box or pyxis" 6944:Plummeridge, Charles (2001). 6574:Kramer, Samuel Noah (1946b). 6131:10.1080/00438243.1981.9979803 5717:Oxford Research Encyclopedias 2933:, §5 "Old Babylonian period". 2365: 1675:You adjust strings II and IX 1415: 1257: 1250: 1157: 1150: 1036: 907: 661: 654: 329:The Akkadian word for music, 311: 220: 213: 181:Ancient Mesopotamian religion 23: 9538:Syriac Union Party (Lebanon) 9513:Assyrian Democratic Movement 7720:Ancient Middle Eastern Lyres 7267:Metropolitan Museum of Art. 6983:UK public library membership 6909:Journal of Cuneiform Studies 6797:Journal of Cuneiform Studies 6719:Kramer, Samuel Noah (1983). 6686:Kramer, Samuel Noah (1969). 6653:Kramer, Samuel Noah (1967). 6612:Kramer, Samuel Noah (1960). 6591:Kramer, Samuel Noah (1958). 6514:Journal of Cuneiform Studies 6504:UK public library membership 6222:Galpin, F. W. (April 1929). 6203:Gabbay, Uri (October 2015). 6079:Journal of Cuneiform Studies 6028:Journal of Cuneiform Studies 5830:van der Woude, A.S. (2022). 5749:Polin, Claire C.J. (1974) . 5694:University of Illinois Press 4672:Mirelman & Krispijn 2009 2507: 2189: 2183: 2177: 2163: 2069: 2055: 2041: 2027: 2013: 1995: 1963: 1957: 1939: 1921: 1849: 1680: 1668: 1659: 1637: 1414:whistle from Uruk dating to 1167:String instruments included 1125: 1123:The word “flute” (Akkadian: 963:named 'Ishbi-Erra trusts in 947: 941: 923: 785: 775: 721: 715: 709: 703: 697: 691: 685: 679: 673: 578: 565: 559: 553: 547: 541: 462:—were chiefly for educating 449: 444: 331: 174: 7: 9523:Assyrian Universal Alliance 8749:Assyrian Church of the East 8724:Assyrian Pentecostal Church 8718:Assyrian Evangelical Church 8641:Terms for Syriac Christians 8554:Chicago Assyrian Dictionary 8436:Egypt-Mesopotamia relations 8431:Indus-Mesopotamia relations 6791:Michalowski, Piotr (2006). 6659:The Jewish Quarterly Review 6022:Cooper, Jerrold S. (2006). 5719:. Oxford University Press. 5692:(3rd ed.). Champaign: 5371:. Digital Hammurabi Press. 5352:. Digital Hammurabi Press. 4657:, §4 "Neo-Sumerian period". 2011:culture can be seen in the 1989: 1975: 1969: 1949: 10: 9845: 9533:Syriac Union Party (Syria) 8755:Ancient Church of the East 8559:Chicago Hittite Dictionary 7702:10.1179/peq.1992.124.2.124 7273:Metropolitan Museum of Art 7056:The Galpin Society Journal 6844:Cambridge University Press 6725:The Biblical Archaeologist 6471:. In Mirelman, Sam (ed.). 6256:Gelb, I. J. (April 1973). 6164:10.1163/156921206780602636 5589:Verlag Marie Leidorf, GmbH 5484:Dumbrill, Richard (2011). 5403:W. W. Norton & Company 5401:(9th ed.). New York: 5399:A History of Western Music 5331:Metropolitan Museum of Art 5315: 4750:Kilmer & Mirelman 2013 4655:Kilmer & Mirelman 2013 4490:Kilmer & Mirelman 2013 4255:Aruz & Wallenfels 2003 3861:Metropolitan Museum of Art 3493:Kilmer & Mirelman 2013 2931:Kilmer & Mirelman 2013 2866:, §I "Ancient Traditions". 2318: 2271: 2244: 2238: 2200: 301: 253:Evidence from the city of 178: 48:was ubiquitous throughout 9775: 9749: 9713: 9628: 9556: 9503: 9374: 9206: 9197: 9110: 9039: 8946: 8887: 8870: 8827: 8768: 8733: 8696: 8685: 8647: 8618: 8607: 8526: 8480: 8454: 8358: 8255: 8148: 8056: 8049: 8038: 7920: 7847: 7838: 7625:. Vol. 4. New York: 6888:10.1017/S0021088900000735 6852:10.1017/S0740155800004112 6100:10.5615/jcunestud.64.0057 6092:10.5615/jcunestud.64.0057 5929:10.1080/00263208308700561 5864:Ur Excavations, Volume II 5862:Woolley, Leonard (1934). 5672:Malm, William P. (1967). 4142:, Chapter 3, paragraph 4. 3379:Hallo & van Dijk 1968 3367:Hallo & van Dijk 1968 3355:Hallo & van Dijk 1968 3343:Hallo & van Dijk 1968 3331:Hallo & van Dijk 1968 3316:Hallo & van Dijk 1968 2267: 2234: 2167:in Akkadian) appeared in 1881:Indus Valley Civilization 1140: 945:and the ‘Red-Eyed Lord’ ( 871:, lú), or is a building ( 749:Among the earliest known 524:Oriental Institute Museum 196:, 19th–17th century BCE. 9053:Muslim conquest of Syria 8743:Chaldean Catholic Church 7684:Mitchell, T. C. (1992). 7575:The Art of Persian Music 7150:10.1177/0021934710385550 7138:Journal of Black Studies 6990:Rahn, Jay (March 2022). 6063:Crickmore, Leon (2008). 5986:Near Eastern Archaeology 5811:(3rd ed.). Oxford: 5795:Spencer, Lauren (2004). 5786:Sadie, Stanley (2001) . 5534:The Exaltation of Inanna 5514:Kinyras: the divine lyre 5306:Hurriyet Daily News 2015 4607:Kilmer & Tinney 1996 2900:Kilmer & Tinney 1996 2370: 2196: 2084:influence (e.g., Egypt, 1278:Vorderasiatisches Museum 988: 701:, the “Great Lion,” the 557:), a timpani (Sumerian: 9580:Christianity portal 9543:Syriac Military Council 9142:Massacres of Diyarbekir 9077:Principality of Antioch 9030:Byzantine–Sasanian wars 8837:Assyrian folk/pop music 7627:Charles Scribner's Sons 6958:Oxford University Press 6479:Oxford University Press 5512:Franklin, John (2015). 5171:Duchesne-Guillemin 1981 5135:Duchesne-Guillemin 1981 5120:Duchesne-Guillemin 1981 4992:Duchesne-Guillemin 1981 4774:Duchesne-Guillemin 1981 4762:Duchesne-Guillemin 1984 4738:Duchesne-Guillemin 1984 4454:Duchesne-Guillemin 1984 3909:Duchesne-Guillemin 1981 3786:Duchesne-Guillemin 1981 3771:Duchesne-Guillemin 1981 3708:Duchesne-Guillemin 1981 3679:Duchesne-Guillemin 1981 3664:Duchesne-Guillemin 1981 3645:Duchesne-Guillemin 1981 2742:Duchesne-Guillemin 1981 2136:; in western Europe as 2132:; in eastern Europe as 1806:, and the five visible 1678:And the harp is now in 1071: 846:Divinity of instruments 9298:Al-Hasakah Governorate 9136:Massacres of Badr Khan 8910:Middle Assyrian Empire 8712:Syriac Catholic Church 8706:Syriac Orthodox Church 8391:Babylonian mathematics 7629:. pp. 2601–2613. 7329:"Limestone wall panel" 6465:Kilmer, Anne (2013) . 5917:Middle Eastern Studies 5853:Wellesz, Egon (1990). 5613:Lawergren, Bo (2016). 5423:Open Access Musicology 5367:Bowen, Joshua (2020). 5348:Bowen, Joshua (2019). 2300:Harmony of the Spheres 1916: 1909: 1867: 1859: 1780: 1686: 1651: 1593: 1571: 1536: 1449: 1411: 1374:from their 2014 album 1355: 1342:US invasion of Baghdad 1321: 1207: 1164: 1042:Percussive instruments 986: 959:, dedicated a deified 814: 647: 630:Specific personalities 535: 407: 326: 319:Palace of Ashurbanipal 205: 113:Bull Headed Lyre of Ur 42: 9166:Independence movement 8922:Post-imperial Assyria 8898:Early Assyrian period 7728:Rimmer, Joan (1969). 7717:Norborg, Åke (1995). 6763:The Musical Quarterly 6388:Jalabi, Raya (2013). 5873:The Epic of Gilgamesh 5450:10.3998/mpub.12063224 5432:10.3998/mpub.12063224 3345:, pp. 10, 51–52. 2245:Further information: 2181:. While the gala and 1914: 1901: 1865: 1857: 1796:seven heavenly bodies 1755: 1655: 1633: 1616:, and understood the 1576: 1562: 1519: 1510:, or something else. 1444: 1399: 1372:The Epic of Gilgamesh 1350: 1299: 1292:Surviving instruments 1205: 1148: 981:sympathetic vibration 977: 804: 637: 528:University of Chicago 521: 362: 309: 194:Old Babylonian period 188: 111:, which includes the 85:Mesopotamian religion 21: 8842:Music of Mesopotamia 8789:Chaldean Neo-Aramaic 8784:Assyrian Neo-Aramaic 8386:Babylonian astronomy 7865:Mesopotamian Marshes 7781:Goss, Clint (2012). 7777:at Wikimedia Commons 7775:Music of Mesopotamia 7534:Revue de Musicologie 7482:. The British Museum 7476:"box (?); pyxis (?)" 7461:. The British Museum 7440:. The British Museum 7419:. The British Museum 7398:. The British Museum 7377:. The British Museum 7356:. The British Museum 7226:10.1093/ml/LII.4.365 6903:Peled, Ilan (2017). 6580:The American Scholar 6433:Revue d'Assyriologie 6179:Gabbay, Uri (2014). 5805:van der Merwe, Peter 5624:Lord, Maria (2008). 5598:. pp. 121–132. 5507:. London: J. Murray. 5501:Engel, Carl (1864). 5387:Burkholder, J. Peter 1987:. The Hebrew flute ( 1891:, Syria, Babylonia, 1666:You have played the 1306:Royal Cemetery at Ur 1001:speculates that the 596:Royal Cemetery at Ur 9824:Ancient Mesopotamia 9656:Ancient Tamil music 9148:Rise of nationalism 9089:Jalayirid Sultanate 8916:Neo-Assyrian Empire 8904:Old Assyrian period 8847:Syriac sacral music 8667:Aramean-Syriac flag 8626:Assyrian continuity 8467:Destruction by ISIL 8421:Sumerian literature 8396:Akkadian literature 7832:Ancient Mesopotamia 7354:British Museum Blog 7213:Music & Letters 7117:10.1093/ml/75.2.161 7104:Music & Letters 7013:10.30535/mto.28.1.7 7000:Music Theory Online 6809:10.1086/JCS40025223 6776:10.1093/mq/XI.2.196 6458:Expedition Magazine 6374:Hurriyet Daily News 6228:Music & Letters 6040:10.1086/JCS40025222 5753:. Greenwood Press. 5494:ICONEA Publications 5284:, pp. 426–428. 5221:, p. abstract. 5093:, pp. 109–111. 4788:, pp. 246–247. 4492:, § "Introduction". 4130:, pp. 252–253. 3977:, pp. 695–696. 3911:, pp. 292–295. 3773:, pp. 290–291. 3647:, pp. 288–290. 3582:, pp. 161–162. 3279:, pp. 372–373. 3255:, pp. 374–376. 2986:, pp. 123–124. 2792:, pp. 198–200. 2274:Ancient Greek music 2227:silverware, and in 1476:released an album, 1288:of the instrument. 1270:Philadelphia Museum 999:Peter van der Merwe 669:Third Dynasty of Ur 576:The nar (Akkadian: 411:J. Peter Burkholder 148:Mediterranean coast 58:artistic depictions 9568:History portal 9010:Church of the East 8799:Bohtan Neo-Aramaic 8636:Chaldean Catholics 8503:Mesopotamian myths 7474:British Museum j. 7453:British Museum i. 7432:British Museum h. 7411:British Museum g. 7390:British Museum f. 7369:British Museum e. 7327:British Museum c. 7307:British Museum b. 7287:British Museum a. 6953:Grove Music Online 6474:Grove Music Online 6241:10.1093/ml/X.2.108 5779:Dover Publications 5395:Palisca, Claude V. 4903:van der Merwe 1989 4544:van der Woude 2022 3621:van der Merwe 1989 2835:, pp. 96–102. 1981:, and the Arabian 1917: 1868: 1860: 1691:Pythagorean tuning 1657:If the harp is in 1594: 1515:Samuel Noah Kramer 1479:Echoes from Ugarit 1450: 1427:Oriental Institute 1322: 1208: 1165: 815: 807:Schøyen Collection 648: 536: 327: 206: 130:and some level of 101:string instruments 43: 9789: 9788: 9781:Prehistoric music 9762:1st millennium BC 9757:2nd millennium BC 9588: 9587: 9499: 9498: 9215: 9193: 9192: 9160:Assyrian genocide 9059:Abbasid Caliphate 8881: 8764: 8763: 8631:Assyrian diaspora 8567: 8566: 8518:Ziggurat (Temple) 8493:Sumerian religion 8251: 8250: 8198:Middle Babylonian 8140:Kish civilization 8036: 8035: 7860:Lower Mesopotamia 7855:Upper Mesopotamia 7773:Media related to 7739:978-0-7141-1045-5 7676:978-3-643-50131-8 7636:978-0-684-19723-4 7603:978-3-921747-05-6 7584:978-0-934211-22-2 7524:978-0-924171-88-8 7515:Two lyres from Ur 6981:(subscription or 6975:978-1-56159-263-0 6502:(subscription or 6496:978-1-56159-263-0 6118:World Archaeology 5896:978-3-643-50131-8 5845:978-90-04-49459-6 5822:978-0-19-316121-4 5734:978-0-19-064792-6 5703:978-0-252-09733-1 5605:978-3-89646-637-2 5556:978-1-934309-18-6 5523:978-0-674-08830-6 5476:978-0-89003-158-2 5412:978-0-393-91829-8 5391:Grout, Donald Jay 5378:978-1-7343586-6-7 5359:978-1-7343586-0-5 5340:978-1-58839-043-1 4815:Ossendrijver 2020 4456:, pp. 9, 27. 4397:, pp. 47–49. 4281:, pp. 41–62. 4052:, pp. 67–79. 3444:, pp. 28–32. 3226:, pp. 43–44. 3214:, pp. 68–69. 2571:, pp. 70–72. 1365:meant to condemn 1131:Epic of Gilgamesh 1129:) appears in the 891:of the gods, but 761:, founder of the 653:of Ur, who ruled 584:Assyrian military 157:would use a reed 9836: 9806: 9805: 9804: 9797: 9741:Seikilos epitaph 9736:Oxyrhynchus hymn 9615: 9608: 9601: 9592: 9591: 9578: 9577: 9566: 9565: 9564: 9211: 9204: 9203: 9178:Post-Saddam Iraq 9004:Nestorian schism 8998:Christianization 8970:(132 BCE–244 CE) 8964:(247 BCE–224 CE) 8924:(609 BCE–240 CE) 8885: 8884: 8875: 8735:East Syriac Rite 8698:West Syriac Rite 8694: 8693: 8675: 8664: 8653: 8594: 8587: 8580: 8571: 8570: 8416:Sumerian cuisine 8406:Warfare in Sumer 8401:Economy of Sumer 8054: 8053: 8044: 7928:Fertile Crescent 7912:Sinjar Mountains 7907:Hamrin Mountains 7902:Zagros Mountains 7880:Taurus Mountains 7845: 7844: 7825: 7818: 7811: 7802: 7801: 7797: 7795: 7793: 7772: 7757: 7751: 7743: 7724: 7713: 7680: 7661: 7648: 7607: 7588: 7566: 7557: 7528: 7509: 7491: 7489: 7487: 7470: 7468: 7466: 7449: 7447: 7445: 7428: 7426: 7424: 7407: 7405: 7403: 7386: 7384: 7382: 7365: 7363: 7361: 7344: 7342: 7340: 7323: 7321: 7319: 7303: 7301: 7299: 7283: 7281: 7279: 7263: 7261: 7259: 7237: 7206: 7169: 7128: 7097: 7080: 7049: 7024: 6996: 6986: 6979: 6949: 6940: 6899: 6873: 6863: 6828: 6787: 6756: 6715: 6682: 6649: 6608: 6587: 6570: 6546: 6507: 6500: 6470: 6461: 6448: 6427: 6404: 6402: 6400: 6384: 6382: 6380: 6364: 6343: 6314: 6277: 6252: 6218: 6199: 6185: 6175: 6142: 6111: 6072: 6059: 6018: 5979: 5940: 5900: 5881: 5878:Penguin Classics 5867: 5858: 5849: 5836:Brill Publishers 5826: 5800: 5791: 5782: 5764: 5745: 5743: 5741: 5707: 5679: 5668: 5629: 5620: 5616:Pre-Islamic Iran 5609: 5597: 5582: 5569: 5560: 5541: 5539: 5527: 5508: 5497: 5480: 5461: 5416: 5382: 5363: 5344: 5309: 5303: 5297: 5291: 5285: 5279: 5273: 5267: 5261: 5255: 5249: 5243: 5234: 5233:, p. 56-58. 5228: 5222: 5216: 5210: 5204: 5198: 5192: 5186: 5180: 5174: 5168: 5162: 5156: 5150: 5144: 5138: 5132: 5123: 5117: 5111: 5105: 5094: 5088: 5082: 5076: 5070: 5064: 5058: 5052: 5043: 5037: 5031: 5025: 5019: 5013: 5007: 5001: 4995: 4989: 4983: 4977: 4971: 4968:British Museum d 4965: 4959: 4953: 4947: 4941: 4935: 4929: 4923: 4917: 4906: 4900: 4889: 4883: 4877: 4871: 4865: 4859: 4850: 4844: 4833: 4827: 4818: 4812: 4806: 4800: 4789: 4783: 4777: 4771: 4765: 4759: 4753: 4747: 4741: 4735: 4726: 4720: 4714: 4708: 4699: 4693: 4687: 4681: 4675: 4669: 4658: 4652: 4646: 4640: 4634: 4628: 4622: 4616: 4610: 4604: 4598: 4592: 4583: 4577: 4571: 4565: 4559: 4553: 4547: 4541: 4535: 4529: 4520: 4514: 4505: 4499: 4493: 4487: 4481: 4475: 4469: 4463: 4457: 4451: 4445: 4439: 4428: 4422: 4413: 4407: 4398: 4392: 4386: 4380: 4374: 4368: 4362: 4356: 4350: 4344: 4338: 4332: 4323: 4305: 4299: 4293: 4282: 4276: 4270: 4264: 4258: 4252: 4246: 4243:British Museum f 4240: 4234: 4228: 4222: 4216: 4210: 4209:, p. 32-34. 4204: 4198: 4192: 4186: 4180: 4167: 4161: 4155: 4149: 4143: 4137: 4131: 4125: 4116: 4110: 4101: 4095: 4089: 4083: 4077: 4074:British Museum i 4071: 4065: 4062:British Museum h 4059: 4053: 4047: 4041: 4038:British Museum g 4035: 4029: 4023: 4010: 4004: 3995: 3989: 3978: 3972: 3963: 3960:British Museum j 3957: 3951: 3945: 3939: 3933: 3927: 3921: 3912: 3906: 3900: 3897:British Museum c 3894: 3888: 3885:British Museum b 3882: 3876: 3873:British Museum a 3870: 3864: 3858: 3852: 3846: 3840: 3834: 3828: 3822: 3813: 3807: 3801: 3795: 3789: 3783: 3774: 3768: 3762: 3756: 3750: 3744: 3738: 3732: 3726: 3720: 3711: 3705: 3694: 3688: 3682: 3676: 3667: 3661: 3648: 3642: 3636: 3630: 3624: 3618: 3612: 3606: 3595: 3589: 3583: 3577: 3568: 3562: 3556: 3550: 3544: 3538: 3532: 3526: 3520: 3514: 3508: 3502: 3496: 3490: 3481: 3475: 3469: 3463: 3457: 3451: 3445: 3439: 3433: 3427: 3421: 3415: 3406: 3400: 3394: 3388: 3382: 3376: 3370: 3364: 3358: 3352: 3346: 3340: 3334: 3328: 3319: 3313: 3307: 3304:Michalowski 2006 3301: 3292: 3289:Michalowski 2006 3286: 3280: 3274: 3268: 3262: 3256: 3250: 3244: 3238: 3227: 3221: 3215: 3209: 3200: 3194: 3188: 3182: 3176: 3170: 3164: 3158: 3152: 3146: 3140: 3134: 3125: 3119: 3110: 3104: 3098: 3092: 3086: 3080: 3074: 3068: 3062: 3056: 3035: 3029: 3023: 3017: 3011: 3005: 2999: 2993: 2987: 2981: 2975: 2969: 2963: 2957: 2951: 2945: 2934: 2928: 2915: 2909: 2903: 2897: 2891: 2885: 2879: 2873: 2867: 2864:Plummeridge 2001 2861: 2848: 2842: 2836: 2830: 2824: 2818: 2805: 2799: 2793: 2787: 2781: 2775: 2769: 2763: 2757: 2751: 2745: 2739: 2724: 2718: 2707: 2701: 2692: 2686: 2677: 2671: 2665: 2659: 2650: 2644: 2635: 2629: 2623: 2617: 2611: 2605: 2599: 2593: 2587: 2581: 2572: 2566: 2560: 2554: 2548: 2542: 2536: 2530: 2524: 2521:British Museum e 2518: 2501: 2498:Oracle at Delphi 2494: 2488: 2482: 2463: 2457: 2451: 2445: 2439: 2433: 2427: 2421: 2415: 2409: 2403: 2397: 2391: 2381: 2280:Classical Greece 2192: 2186: 2180: 2166: 2072: 2066: 2058: 2052: 2044: 2038: 2030: 2024: 2016: 1998: 1992: 1980: 1972: 1966: 1960: 1954: 1942: 1924: 1798:, including the 1683: 1671: 1662: 1640: 1618:circle of fifths 1598:pentatonic scale 1592: 1591: 1590: 1588: 1577:An example of a 1420: 1417: 1363:Trafalgar Square 1331:Bull Headed Lyre 1262: 1259: 1255: 1252: 1162: 1159: 1155: 1152: 1128: 950: 944: 942:Nin-an-da-gal-ki 926: 912: 909: 882: 876: 870: 865:), is a person ( 860: 788: 778: 724: 718: 712: 706: 700: 694: 688: 682: 676: 666: 663: 659: 656: 598:, archaeologist 581: 568: 562: 556: 550: 544: 334: 316: 313: 225: 222: 218: 215: 66:history of music 28: 25: 9844: 9843: 9839: 9838: 9837: 9835: 9834: 9833: 9814: 9813: 9812: 9802: 9800: 9792: 9790: 9785: 9771: 9745: 9709: 9624: 9619: 9589: 9584: 9572: 9562: 9560: 9552: 9495: 9370: 9347:Mardin Province 9210: 9189: 9172:Simele massacre 9106: 9035: 9000:(1st to 3rd c.) 8982:(64 BCE–637 CE) 8976:(66 BCE–217 CE) 8962:Parthian Empire 8956:Seleucid Empire 8948: 8942: 8938:Assyrian tribes 8906:(2025–1364 BCE) 8900:(2600–2025 BCE) 8879: 8877: 8874: 8866: 8823: 8776: 8760: 8729: 8688: 8681: 8680: 8676: 8670: 8669: 8665: 8659: 8658: 8654: 8645: 8614: 8603: 8601:Assyrian people 8598: 8568: 8563: 8522: 8476: 8450: 8359:Culture/society 8354: 8247: 8243:Muslim conquest 8213:Fall of Babylon 8144: 8045: 8032: 7916: 7834: 7829: 7791: 7789: 7780: 7765: 7760: 7745: 7744: 7740: 7727: 7723:. Musikmuseets. 7716: 7683: 7677: 7664: 7651: 7637: 7617:Sasson, Jack M. 7610: 7604: 7591: 7585: 7569: 7560: 7531: 7525: 7512: 7503: 7499: 7497:Further reading 7494: 7485: 7483: 7464: 7462: 7455:"cylinder seal" 7443: 7441: 7434:"cylinder seal" 7422: 7420: 7413:"cylinder seal" 7401: 7399: 7380: 7378: 7359: 7357: 7338: 7336: 7317: 7315: 7297: 7295: 7289:"Cylinder seal" 7277: 7275: 7257: 7255: 7187:10.2307/4199852 6994: 6980: 6976: 6871: 6737:10.2307/3209643 6671:10.2307/1453503 6630:10.2307/4199669 6527:10.2307/1359769 6501: 6497: 6398: 6396: 6378: 6376: 6332:10.2307/4200387 6295:10.2307/4199853 6183: 5999:10.2307/3210911 5897: 5846: 5823: 5813:Clarendon Press 5761: 5739: 5737: 5735: 5704: 5628:. H.F. Ullmann. 5606: 5591: 5580: 5557: 5537: 5524: 5477: 5442: 5413: 5379: 5360: 5341: 5318: 5313: 5312: 5304: 5300: 5296:, pp. 428. 5292: 5288: 5280: 5276: 5268: 5264: 5256: 5252: 5244: 5237: 5229: 5225: 5217: 5213: 5205: 5201: 5193: 5189: 5181: 5177: 5169: 5165: 5157: 5153: 5145: 5141: 5133: 5126: 5118: 5114: 5106: 5097: 5089: 5085: 5077: 5073: 5065: 5061: 5053: 5046: 5038: 5034: 5026: 5022: 5014: 5010: 5002: 4998: 4990: 4986: 4978: 4974: 4966: 4962: 4954: 4950: 4942: 4938: 4930: 4926: 4918: 4909: 4901: 4892: 4884: 4880: 4872: 4868: 4860: 4853: 4845: 4836: 4828: 4821: 4813: 4809: 4801: 4792: 4784: 4780: 4772: 4768: 4760: 4756: 4748: 4744: 4736: 4729: 4721: 4717: 4709: 4702: 4694: 4690: 4682: 4678: 4670: 4661: 4653: 4649: 4641: 4637: 4629: 4625: 4617: 4613: 4605: 4601: 4593: 4586: 4578: 4574: 4566: 4562: 4554: 4550: 4542: 4538: 4530: 4523: 4515: 4508: 4500: 4496: 4488: 4484: 4476: 4472: 4464: 4460: 4452: 4448: 4440: 4431: 4423: 4416: 4408: 4401: 4393: 4389: 4381: 4377: 4369: 4365: 4357: 4353: 4345: 4341: 4333: 4326: 4318:, p. 365; 4314:, p. 295; 4306: 4302: 4294: 4285: 4277: 4273: 4265: 4261: 4253: 4249: 4241: 4237: 4229: 4225: 4217: 4213: 4205: 4201: 4193: 4189: 4181: 4170: 4162: 4158: 4150: 4146: 4138: 4134: 4126: 4119: 4111: 4104: 4096: 4092: 4084: 4080: 4072: 4068: 4060: 4056: 4048: 4044: 4036: 4032: 4024: 4013: 4005: 3998: 3990: 3981: 3973: 3966: 3958: 3954: 3946: 3942: 3934: 3930: 3922: 3915: 3907: 3903: 3895: 3891: 3883: 3879: 3871: 3867: 3859: 3855: 3847: 3843: 3835: 3831: 3823: 3816: 3808: 3804: 3796: 3792: 3784: 3777: 3769: 3765: 3757: 3753: 3745: 3741: 3733: 3729: 3721: 3714: 3706: 3697: 3689: 3685: 3677: 3670: 3662: 3651: 3643: 3639: 3631: 3627: 3619: 3615: 3607: 3598: 3590: 3586: 3578: 3571: 3563: 3559: 3551: 3547: 3539: 3535: 3527: 3523: 3515: 3511: 3503: 3499: 3491: 3484: 3476: 3472: 3464: 3460: 3452: 3448: 3440: 3436: 3428: 3424: 3416: 3409: 3401: 3397: 3389: 3385: 3377: 3373: 3369:, pp. 3–4. 3365: 3361: 3353: 3349: 3341: 3337: 3329: 3322: 3314: 3310: 3302: 3295: 3287: 3283: 3275: 3271: 3263: 3259: 3251: 3247: 3239: 3230: 3222: 3218: 3210: 3203: 3195: 3191: 3183: 3179: 3171: 3167: 3159: 3155: 3147: 3143: 3135: 3128: 3120: 3113: 3105: 3101: 3093: 3089: 3081: 3077: 3069: 3065: 3057: 3038: 3030: 3026: 3018: 3014: 3006: 3002: 2994: 2990: 2982: 2978: 2970: 2966: 2958: 2954: 2946: 2937: 2929: 2918: 2910: 2906: 2898: 2894: 2886: 2882: 2874: 2870: 2862: 2851: 2843: 2839: 2831: 2827: 2819: 2808: 2800: 2796: 2788: 2784: 2776: 2772: 2764: 2760: 2752: 2748: 2740: 2727: 2719: 2710: 2702: 2695: 2687: 2680: 2672: 2668: 2660: 2653: 2645: 2638: 2630: 2626: 2618: 2614: 2606: 2602: 2594: 2590: 2582: 2575: 2567: 2563: 2555: 2551: 2543: 2539: 2531: 2527: 2519: 2515: 2510: 2505: 2504: 2495: 2491: 2485: 2464: 2460: 2454: 2448: 2442: 2436: 2430: 2424: 2418: 2412: 2406: 2400: 2394: 2388: 2382: 2378: 2373: 2368: 2323: 2317: 2309:Gregorian chant 2276: 2270: 2249: 2243: 2237: 2205: 2199: 2080:; in places of 1999:. Contemporary 1973:, the Georgian 1852: 1834:), White Star ( 1586: 1583: 1582: 1549: 1498:('upper'), and 1439: 1418: 1346:second Iraq War 1308:. C. 2500 BCE. 1294: 1260: 1253: 1197:mother of pearl 1160: 1153: 1143: 1074: 1039: 991: 910: 878: 872: 866: 856: 848: 799: 786:in-nin me-huš-a 763:Akkadian Empire 759:Sargon of Akkad 667:BCE during the 664: 657: 632: 600:Leonard Woolley 516: 452: 447: 314: 304: 223: 216: 198:Pergamon Museum 183: 177: 172: 132:music education 62:written records 26: 12: 11: 5: 9842: 9832: 9831: 9826: 9811: 9810: 9787: 9786: 9784: 9783: 9776: 9773: 9772: 9770: 9769: 9767:1st millennium 9764: 9759: 9753: 9751: 9747: 9746: 9744: 9743: 9738: 9733: 9731:Katolophyromai 9728: 9723: 9717: 9715: 9711: 9710: 9708: 9707: 9702: 9697: 9692: 9687: 9686: 9685: 9680: 9675: 9665: 9660: 9659: 9658: 9648: 9643: 9638: 9632: 9630: 9626: 9625: 9618: 9617: 9610: 9603: 9595: 9586: 9585: 9583: 9582: 9570: 9557: 9554: 9553: 9551: 9550: 9545: 9540: 9535: 9530: 9525: 9520: 9515: 9509: 9507: 9501: 9500: 9497: 9496: 9494: 9493: 9488: 9487: 9486: 9476: 9474:United Kingdom 9471: 9466: 9461: 9456: 9451: 9446: 9441: 9436: 9431: 9426: 9421: 9416: 9411: 9406: 9401: 9396: 9391: 9386: 9380: 9378: 9372: 9371: 9369: 9368: 9367: 9366: 9365: 9364: 9359: 9354: 9344: 9339: 9334: 9324: 9323: 9322: 9317: 9316: 9315: 9310: 9305: 9290: 9289: 9288: 9283: 9278: 9268: 9267: 9266: 9261: 9256: 9251: 9250: 9249: 9244: 9239: 9234: 9227:Nineveh Plains 9218: 9216: 9201: 9195: 9194: 9191: 9190: 9188: 9187: 9181: 9175: 9169: 9163: 9157: 9154:Adana massacre 9151: 9145: 9139: 9133: 9130:Schism of 1552 9127: 9124:Ottoman Empire 9121: 9118:Safavid Empire 9114: 9112: 9108: 9107: 9105: 9104: 9098: 9092: 9086: 9080: 9074: 9068: 9065:Emirs of Mosul 9062: 9056: 9050: 9043: 9041: 9037: 9036: 9034: 9033: 9027: 9021: 9007: 9001: 8995: 8989: 8983: 8977: 8971: 8965: 8959: 8952: 8950: 8944: 8943: 8941: 8940: 8935: 8930: 8925: 8919: 8913: 8912:(1363–912 BCE) 8907: 8901: 8894: 8892: 8882: 8868: 8867: 8865: 8864: 8859: 8854: 8849: 8844: 8839: 8833: 8831: 8825: 8824: 8822: 8821: 8816: 8811: 8806: 8801: 8796: 8791: 8786: 8780: 8778: 8766: 8765: 8762: 8761: 8759: 8758: 8752: 8746: 8739: 8737: 8731: 8730: 8728: 8727: 8721: 8715: 8709: 8702: 8700: 8691: 8683: 8682: 8648: 8646: 8644: 8643: 8638: 8633: 8628: 8622: 8620: 8616: 8615: 8608: 8605: 8604: 8597: 8596: 8589: 8582: 8574: 8565: 8564: 8562: 8561: 8556: 8551: 8546: 8541: 8539:Assyriologists 8536: 8530: 8528: 8524: 8523: 8521: 8520: 8515: 8510: 8505: 8500: 8495: 8490: 8484: 8482: 8478: 8477: 8475: 8474: 8469: 8464: 8458: 8456: 8452: 8451: 8449: 8448: 8446:List of rulers 8443: 8438: 8433: 8428: 8423: 8418: 8413: 8408: 8403: 8398: 8393: 8388: 8383: 8378: 8373: 8368: 8362: 8360: 8356: 8355: 8353: 8352: 8347: 8342: 8337: 8335:Proto-Armenian 8332: 8327: 8322: 8320:Middle Persian 8317: 8312: 8307: 8302: 8297: 8292: 8287: 8282: 8277: 8272: 8267: 8261: 8259: 8253: 8252: 8249: 8248: 8246: 8245: 8240: 8235: 8230: 8225: 8220: 8215: 8210: 8208:Neo-Babylonian 8205: 8200: 8195: 8190: 8188:Old Babylonian 8185: 8180: 8175: 8170: 8165: 8160: 8158:Early Dynastic 8154: 8152: 8146: 8145: 8143: 8142: 8137: 8132: 8127: 8122: 8117: 8108: 8103: 8098: 8093: 8088: 8083: 8078: 8073: 8068: 8062: 8060: 8051: 8047: 8046: 8039: 8037: 8034: 8033: 8031: 8030: 8025: 8020: 8015: 8010: 8005: 8000: 7995: 7990: 7985: 7980: 7975: 7970: 7965: 7960: 7955: 7950: 7945: 7940: 7935: 7930: 7924: 7922: 7918: 7917: 7915: 7914: 7909: 7904: 7899: 7898: 7897: 7892: 7882: 7877: 7872: 7867: 7862: 7857: 7851: 7849: 7842: 7836: 7835: 7828: 7827: 7820: 7813: 7805: 7799: 7798: 7778: 7764: 7763:External links 7761: 7759: 7758: 7738: 7725: 7714: 7696:(2): 124–143. 7681: 7675: 7662: 7649: 7635: 7608: 7602: 7589: 7583: 7567: 7558: 7546:10.2307/928544 7529: 7523: 7510: 7500: 7498: 7495: 7493: 7492: 7480:British Museum 7471: 7459:British Museum 7450: 7438:British Museum 7429: 7417:British Museum 7408: 7396:British Museum 7387: 7375:British Museum 7366: 7345: 7333:British Museum 7324: 7313:British Museum 7304: 7293:British Museum 7284: 7264: 7244: 7243: 7239: 7238: 7220:(2): 365–382. 7207: 7181:(2): 215–228. 7170: 7144:(4): 577–592. 7129: 7111:(2): 161–179. 7098: 7081: 7069:10.2307/841337 7050: 7040:(4): 334–337. 7025: 6987: 6974: 6941: 6900: 6864: 6829: 6788: 6770:(2): 196–218. 6757: 6716: 6704:10.2307/598273 6683: 6650: 6609: 6588: 6571: 6554: 6547: 6508: 6495: 6462: 6449: 6428: 6418:(2): 131–149. 6405: 6385: 6365: 6344: 6315: 6289:(2): 229–233. 6278: 6253: 6235:(2): 108–123. 6219: 6200: 6176: 6143: 6125:(3): 287–297. 6112: 6073: 6060: 6019: 5980: 5968:10.1086/613988 5960:10.1086/613988 5954:(3): 163–178. 5941: 5923:(4): 426–455. 5907: 5906: 5902: 5901: 5895: 5882: 5868: 5859: 5850: 5844: 5827: 5821: 5801: 5792: 5783: 5765: 5759: 5746: 5733: 5708: 5702: 5680: 5669: 5649:10.2307/367648 5643:(3): 305–332. 5630: 5621: 5610: 5604: 5570: 5561: 5555: 5542: 5528: 5522: 5509: 5498: 5481: 5475: 5462: 5440: 5417: 5411: 5383: 5377: 5364: 5358: 5345: 5339: 5319: 5317: 5314: 5311: 5310: 5298: 5286: 5274: 5272:, p. 253. 5262: 5250: 5235: 5223: 5211: 5199: 5195:Lawergren 2016 5187: 5185:, p. 426. 5175: 5173:, p. 296. 5163: 5151: 5139: 5137:, p. 294. 5124: 5122:, p. 287. 5112: 5108:Köpp-Junk 2018 5095: 5083: 5071: 5069:, p. 246. 5059: 5057:, p. 707. 5044: 5042:, p. 699. 5032: 5030:, p. 697. 5020: 5018:, p. 696. 5008: 5006:, p. 424. 4996: 4994:, p. 299. 4984: 4972: 4960: 4958:, p. 582. 4948: 4936: 4924: 4907: 4890: 4878: 4876:, p. 337. 4866: 4851: 4834: 4819: 4807: 4805:, p. 247. 4790: 4778: 4766: 4754: 4742: 4727: 4723:Crickmore 2012 4715: 4713:, p. 220. 4700: 4688: 4686:, p. 101. 4676: 4659: 4647: 4645:, p. 133. 4635: 4633:, p. 134. 4623: 4621:, p. 233. 4611: 4599: 4584: 4572: 4560: 4556:Crickmore 2008 4548: 4536: 4521: 4506: 4494: 4482: 4470: 4468:, p. 288. 4458: 4446: 4444:, p. 132. 4429: 4427:, p. 321. 4414: 4410:Güterbock 1970 4399: 4395:Güterbock 1970 4387: 4383:Güterbock 1970 4375: 4373:, p. 171. 4363: 4351: 4349:, p. 162. 4339: 4337:, p. 161. 4324: 4322:, p. 161. 4310:, p. 69; 4300: 4283: 4271: 4269:, p. 241. 4259: 4247: 4235: 4223: 4211: 4199: 4187: 4168: 4166:, paragraph 3. 4156: 4144: 4132: 4117: 4102: 4090: 4078: 4066: 4054: 4042: 4030: 4011: 3996: 3979: 3964: 3952: 3940: 3928: 3926:, p. 242. 3913: 3901: 3889: 3877: 3865: 3853: 3841: 3839:, p. 123. 3837:Lawergren 2000 3829: 3827:, p. 122. 3825:Lawergren 2000 3814: 3802: 3790: 3788:, p. 291. 3775: 3763: 3761:, p. 248. 3751: 3749:, p. 230. 3739: 3727: 3712: 3710:, p. 290. 3695: 3693:, p. 239. 3683: 3681:, p. 289. 3668: 3666:, p. 288. 3649: 3637: 3635:, p. 238. 3625: 3613: 3596: 3584: 3569: 3557: 3545: 3533: 3521: 3509: 3497: 3482: 3470: 3458: 3446: 3434: 3422: 3407: 3395: 3383: 3371: 3359: 3347: 3335: 3320: 3308: 3293: 3281: 3269: 3267:, p. 376. 3257: 3245: 3243:, p. 374. 3228: 3216: 3201: 3199:, p. 111. 3189: 3177: 3165: 3163:, p. 237. 3153: 3141: 3139:, p. 232. 3126: 3111: 3099: 3087: 3075: 3073:, p. 231. 3063: 3036: 3024: 3012: 3010:, p. 124. 3000: 2998:, p. 121. 2988: 2976: 2964: 2952: 2950:, p. 129. 2935: 2916: 2914:, p. 119. 2904: 2892: 2890:, p. 317. 2880: 2868: 2849: 2847:, p. 190. 2837: 2825: 2806: 2804:, p. 200. 2794: 2782: 2770: 2758: 2746: 2744:, p. 295. 2725: 2723:, p. 198. 2708: 2706:, p. 165. 2693: 2691:, p. 236. 2678: 2666: 2651: 2649:, p. 137. 2636: 2624: 2612: 2600: 2588: 2573: 2561: 2549: 2537: 2525: 2512: 2511: 2509: 2506: 2503: 2502: 2489: 2483: 2473:(emotion) and 2458: 2452: 2446: 2440: 2434: 2428: 2422: 2416: 2410: 2404: 2398: 2392: 2386: 2375: 2374: 2372: 2369: 2367: 2364: 2319:Main article: 2316: 2313: 2272:Main article: 2269: 2266: 2247:Parthian music 2239:Main article: 2236: 2233: 2203:Music of Egypt 2201:Main article: 2198: 2195: 1967:, the Russian 1851: 1848: 1548: 1545: 1532:Book of Psalms 1438: 1437:Works of music 1435: 1293: 1290: 1243:British Museum 1214:, Babylonian: 1142: 1139: 1073: 1070: 1038: 1035: 990: 987: 924:Ušumgal-kalama 893:instantiations 853:Determinatives 847: 844: 798: 795: 631: 628: 571:archaeological 515: 512: 451: 448: 446: 443: 429:, and painted 427:cylinder seals 350:Early Dynastic 303: 300: 210:Old Babylonian 176: 173: 171: 168: 35:British Museum 31:Standard of Ur 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9841: 9830: 9829:Ancient music 9827: 9825: 9822: 9821: 9819: 9809: 9799: 9798: 9795: 9782: 9778: 9777: 9774: 9768: 9765: 9763: 9760: 9758: 9755: 9754: 9752: 9750:By millennium 9748: 9742: 9739: 9737: 9734: 9732: 9729: 9727: 9726:Hurrian songs 9724: 9722: 9721:Delphic Hymns 9719: 9718: 9716: 9712: 9706: 9703: 9701: 9698: 9696: 9693: 9691: 9688: 9684: 9681: 9679: 9676: 9674: 9671: 9670: 9669: 9666: 9664: 9661: 9657: 9654: 9653: 9652: 9649: 9647: 9644: 9642: 9639: 9637: 9634: 9633: 9631: 9627: 9623: 9622:Ancient music 9616: 9611: 9609: 9604: 9602: 9597: 9596: 9593: 9581: 9576: 9571: 9569: 9559: 9558: 9555: 9549: 9546: 9544: 9541: 9539: 9536: 9534: 9531: 9529: 9526: 9524: 9521: 9519: 9516: 9514: 9511: 9510: 9508: 9506: 9502: 9492: 9489: 9485: 9482: 9481: 9480: 9479:United States 9477: 9475: 9472: 9470: 9467: 9465: 9462: 9460: 9457: 9455: 9452: 9450: 9447: 9445: 9442: 9440: 9437: 9435: 9432: 9430: 9427: 9425: 9422: 9420: 9417: 9415: 9412: 9410: 9407: 9405: 9402: 9400: 9397: 9395: 9392: 9390: 9387: 9385: 9382: 9381: 9379: 9377: 9373: 9363: 9360: 9358: 9355: 9353: 9350: 9349: 9348: 9345: 9343: 9340: 9338: 9335: 9333: 9330: 9329: 9328: 9325: 9321: 9318: 9314: 9311: 9309: 9306: 9304: 9301: 9300: 9299: 9296: 9295: 9294: 9291: 9287: 9284: 9282: 9279: 9277: 9274: 9273: 9272: 9269: 9265: 9262: 9260: 9257: 9255: 9252: 9248: 9245: 9243: 9240: 9238: 9235: 9233: 9230: 9229: 9228: 9225: 9224: 9223: 9220: 9219: 9217: 9214: 9209: 9205: 9202: 9200: 9196: 9185: 9182: 9179: 9176: 9173: 9170: 9167: 9164: 9161: 9158: 9155: 9152: 9149: 9146: 9143: 9140: 9137: 9134: 9131: 9128: 9125: 9122: 9119: 9116: 9115: 9113: 9109: 9102: 9099: 9096: 9093: 9090: 9087: 9084: 9081: 9078: 9075: 9072: 9071:Buyid amirate 9069: 9066: 9063: 9060: 9057: 9054: 9051: 9048: 9045: 9044: 9042: 9038: 9031: 9028: 9025: 9022: 9019: 9015: 9011: 9008: 9005: 9002: 8999: 8996: 8993: 8992:Roman Assyria 8990: 8987: 8984: 8981: 8978: 8975: 8972: 8969: 8966: 8963: 8960: 8957: 8954: 8953: 8951: 8945: 8939: 8936: 8934: 8931: 8929: 8926: 8923: 8920: 8918:(911–609 BCE) 8917: 8914: 8911: 8908: 8905: 8902: 8899: 8896: 8895: 8893: 8891: 8886: 8883: 8873: 8869: 8863: 8860: 8858: 8855: 8853: 8850: 8848: 8845: 8843: 8840: 8838: 8835: 8834: 8832: 8830: 8826: 8820: 8819:Syriac script 8817: 8815: 8812: 8810: 8807: 8805: 8802: 8800: 8797: 8795: 8792: 8790: 8787: 8785: 8782: 8781: 8779: 8775: 8771: 8767: 8756: 8753: 8750: 8747: 8744: 8741: 8740: 8738: 8736: 8732: 8725: 8722: 8719: 8716: 8713: 8710: 8707: 8704: 8703: 8701: 8699: 8695: 8692: 8690: 8684: 8679: 8678:Chaldean flag 8674: 8668: 8663: 8657: 8656:Assyrian flag 8652: 8642: 8639: 8637: 8634: 8632: 8629: 8627: 8624: 8623: 8621: 8617: 8612: 8606: 8602: 8595: 8590: 8588: 8583: 8581: 8576: 8575: 8572: 8560: 8557: 8555: 8552: 8550: 8547: 8545: 8542: 8540: 8537: 8535: 8532: 8531: 8529: 8525: 8519: 8516: 8514: 8511: 8509: 8506: 8504: 8501: 8499: 8496: 8494: 8491: 8489: 8486: 8485: 8483: 8479: 8473: 8470: 8468: 8465: 8463: 8460: 8459: 8457: 8453: 8447: 8444: 8442: 8439: 8437: 8434: 8432: 8429: 8427: 8424: 8422: 8419: 8417: 8414: 8412: 8409: 8407: 8404: 8402: 8399: 8397: 8394: 8392: 8389: 8387: 8384: 8382: 8379: 8377: 8374: 8372: 8369: 8367: 8364: 8363: 8361: 8357: 8351: 8348: 8346: 8343: 8341: 8338: 8336: 8333: 8331: 8328: 8326: 8323: 8321: 8318: 8316: 8313: 8311: 8308: 8306: 8303: 8301: 8298: 8296: 8293: 8291: 8288: 8286: 8283: 8281: 8278: 8276: 8273: 8271: 8268: 8266: 8263: 8262: 8260: 8258: 8254: 8244: 8241: 8239: 8236: 8234: 8231: 8229: 8226: 8224: 8221: 8219: 8216: 8214: 8211: 8209: 8206: 8204: 8201: 8199: 8196: 8194: 8191: 8189: 8186: 8184: 8181: 8179: 8176: 8174: 8171: 8169: 8166: 8164: 8161: 8159: 8156: 8155: 8153: 8151: 8147: 8141: 8138: 8136: 8133: 8131: 8128: 8126: 8123: 8121: 8118: 8116: 8112: 8109: 8107: 8104: 8102: 8099: 8097: 8094: 8092: 8089: 8087: 8084: 8082: 8079: 8077: 8074: 8072: 8069: 8067: 8064: 8063: 8061: 8059: 8055: 8052: 8048: 8043: 8029: 8026: 8024: 8021: 8019: 8016: 8014: 8011: 8009: 8006: 8004: 8001: 7999: 7996: 7994: 7991: 7989: 7986: 7984: 7981: 7979: 7976: 7974: 7971: 7969: 7966: 7964: 7961: 7959: 7956: 7954: 7951: 7949: 7946: 7944: 7941: 7939: 7936: 7934: 7931: 7929: 7926: 7925: 7923: 7919: 7913: 7910: 7908: 7905: 7903: 7900: 7896: 7893: 7891: 7888: 7887: 7886: 7883: 7881: 7878: 7876: 7875:Syrian Desert 7873: 7871: 7868: 7866: 7863: 7861: 7858: 7856: 7853: 7852: 7850: 7846: 7843: 7841: 7837: 7833: 7826: 7821: 7819: 7814: 7812: 7807: 7806: 7803: 7788: 7784: 7779: 7776: 7771: 7767: 7766: 7755: 7749: 7741: 7735: 7731: 7726: 7722: 7721: 7715: 7711: 7707: 7703: 7699: 7695: 7691: 7687: 7682: 7678: 7672: 7668: 7663: 7659: 7655: 7650: 7646: 7642: 7638: 7632: 7628: 7624: 7623: 7618: 7614: 7609: 7605: 7599: 7595: 7590: 7586: 7580: 7576: 7572: 7568: 7564: 7559: 7555: 7551: 7547: 7543: 7539: 7535: 7530: 7526: 7520: 7516: 7511: 7507: 7502: 7501: 7481: 7477: 7472: 7460: 7456: 7451: 7439: 7435: 7430: 7418: 7414: 7409: 7397: 7393: 7388: 7376: 7372: 7367: 7355: 7351: 7346: 7334: 7330: 7325: 7314: 7310: 7305: 7294: 7290: 7285: 7274: 7270: 7265: 7253: 7252: 7246: 7245: 7241: 7240: 7235: 7231: 7227: 7223: 7219: 7215: 7214: 7208: 7204: 7200: 7196: 7192: 7188: 7184: 7180: 7176: 7171: 7167: 7163: 7159: 7155: 7151: 7147: 7143: 7139: 7135: 7130: 7126: 7122: 7118: 7114: 7110: 7106: 7105: 7099: 7095: 7091: 7087: 7082: 7078: 7074: 7070: 7066: 7062: 7058: 7057: 7051: 7047: 7043: 7039: 7035: 7031: 7026: 7022: 7018: 7014: 7010: 7006: 7002: 7001: 6993: 6988: 6984: 6977: 6971: 6967: 6963: 6959: 6955: 6954: 6948: 6942: 6938: 6934: 6930: 6926: 6922: 6918: 6914: 6910: 6906: 6901: 6897: 6893: 6889: 6885: 6881: 6877: 6870: 6865: 6861: 6857: 6853: 6849: 6845: 6841: 6837: 6836: 6830: 6826: 6822: 6818: 6814: 6810: 6806: 6802: 6798: 6794: 6789: 6785: 6781: 6777: 6773: 6769: 6765: 6764: 6758: 6754: 6750: 6746: 6742: 6738: 6734: 6730: 6726: 6722: 6717: 6713: 6709: 6705: 6701: 6697: 6693: 6689: 6684: 6680: 6676: 6672: 6668: 6664: 6660: 6656: 6651: 6647: 6643: 6639: 6635: 6631: 6627: 6623: 6619: 6615: 6610: 6606: 6602: 6598: 6594: 6589: 6585: 6581: 6577: 6572: 6568: 6564: 6560: 6555: 6552: 6548: 6544: 6540: 6536: 6532: 6528: 6524: 6520: 6516: 6515: 6509: 6505: 6498: 6492: 6488: 6484: 6480: 6476: 6475: 6469: 6468:"Mesopotamia" 6463: 6459: 6455: 6450: 6446: 6442: 6438: 6434: 6429: 6425: 6421: 6417: 6413: 6412: 6406: 6395: 6391: 6386: 6375: 6371: 6366: 6362: 6358: 6354: 6350: 6345: 6341: 6337: 6333: 6329: 6325: 6321: 6316: 6312: 6308: 6304: 6300: 6296: 6292: 6288: 6284: 6279: 6275: 6271: 6267: 6263: 6259: 6254: 6250: 6246: 6242: 6238: 6234: 6230: 6229: 6225: 6220: 6216: 6212: 6211: 6206: 6201: 6197: 6193: 6189: 6182: 6177: 6173: 6169: 6165: 6161: 6157: 6153: 6149: 6144: 6140: 6136: 6132: 6128: 6124: 6120: 6119: 6113: 6109: 6105: 6101: 6097: 6093: 6089: 6085: 6081: 6080: 6074: 6070: 6066: 6061: 6057: 6053: 6049: 6045: 6041: 6037: 6033: 6029: 6025: 6020: 6016: 6012: 6008: 6004: 6000: 5996: 5993:(3): 96–102. 5992: 5988: 5987: 5981: 5977: 5973: 5969: 5965: 5961: 5957: 5953: 5949: 5948: 5942: 5938: 5934: 5930: 5926: 5922: 5918: 5914: 5909: 5908: 5904: 5903: 5898: 5892: 5888: 5883: 5879: 5875: 5874: 5869: 5865: 5860: 5856: 5851: 5847: 5841: 5837: 5833: 5828: 5824: 5818: 5814: 5810: 5806: 5802: 5798: 5793: 5789: 5784: 5780: 5776: 5775: 5770: 5766: 5762: 5760:0-8371-5796-X 5756: 5752: 5747: 5736: 5730: 5726: 5722: 5718: 5714: 5709: 5705: 5699: 5695: 5691: 5690: 5685: 5681: 5677: 5676: 5670: 5666: 5662: 5658: 5654: 5650: 5646: 5642: 5638: 5637: 5631: 5627: 5622: 5618: 5617: 5611: 5607: 5601: 5595: 5590: 5586: 5579: 5575: 5574:Lawergren, Bo 5571: 5567: 5562: 5558: 5552: 5548: 5543: 5536: 5535: 5529: 5525: 5519: 5515: 5510: 5506: 5505: 5499: 5495: 5491: 5487: 5482: 5478: 5472: 5468: 5463: 5459: 5455: 5451: 5447: 5443: 5441:9781643150215 5437: 5433: 5429: 5425: 5424: 5418: 5414: 5408: 5404: 5400: 5396: 5392: 5388: 5384: 5380: 5374: 5370: 5365: 5361: 5355: 5351: 5346: 5342: 5336: 5332: 5328: 5327: 5321: 5320: 5307: 5302: 5295: 5290: 5283: 5278: 5271: 5266: 5260:, p. 11. 5259: 5254: 5248:, p. 40. 5247: 5246:Franklin 2006 5242: 5240: 5232: 5231:Franklin 2006 5227: 5220: 5219:Franklin 2006 5215: 5209:, p. 87. 5208: 5203: 5196: 5191: 5184: 5179: 5172: 5167: 5160: 5155: 5148: 5143: 5136: 5131: 5129: 5121: 5116: 5109: 5104: 5102: 5100: 5092: 5087: 5081:, p. 45. 5080: 5079:Franklin 2006 5075: 5068: 5063: 5056: 5051: 5049: 5041: 5036: 5029: 5024: 5017: 5012: 5005: 5000: 4993: 4988: 4982:, p. 17. 4981: 4976: 4969: 4964: 4957: 4952: 4946:, p. 63. 4945: 4944:Turnbull 1972 4940: 4934:, p. 58. 4933: 4932:Turnbull 1972 4928: 4922:, p. 20. 4921: 4916: 4914: 4912: 4905:, p. 10. 4904: 4899: 4897: 4895: 4888:, p. 36. 4887: 4882: 4875: 4870: 4864:, p. 46. 4863: 4862:Franklin 2006 4858: 4856: 4849:, p. 41. 4848: 4847:Franklin 2006 4843: 4841: 4839: 4832:, p. 83. 4831: 4830:Franklin 2015 4826: 4824: 4816: 4811: 4804: 4799: 4797: 4795: 4787: 4782: 4776:, p. 13. 4775: 4770: 4764:, p. 11. 4763: 4758: 4751: 4746: 4740:, p. 13. 4739: 4734: 4732: 4725:, p. 57. 4724: 4719: 4712: 4707: 4705: 4697: 4692: 4685: 4680: 4674:, p. 43. 4673: 4668: 4666: 4664: 4656: 4651: 4644: 4639: 4632: 4627: 4620: 4615: 4609:, p. 56. 4608: 4603: 4596: 4591: 4589: 4581: 4576: 4569: 4564: 4558:, p. 11. 4557: 4552: 4546:, p. 96. 4545: 4540: 4533: 4528: 4526: 4519:, p. 14. 4518: 4513: 4511: 4504:, p. 13. 4503: 4498: 4491: 4486: 4480:, p. 68. 4479: 4474: 4467: 4462: 4455: 4450: 4443: 4438: 4436: 4434: 4426: 4421: 4419: 4412:, p. 50. 4411: 4406: 4404: 4396: 4391: 4385:, p. 48. 4384: 4379: 4372: 4367: 4360: 4355: 4348: 4343: 4336: 4331: 4329: 4321: 4317: 4313: 4309: 4304: 4298:, p. 70. 4297: 4292: 4290: 4288: 4280: 4275: 4268: 4263: 4257:, p. 33. 4256: 4251: 4244: 4239: 4233:, p. 16. 4232: 4227: 4221:, p. 39. 4220: 4215: 4208: 4203: 4197:, p. 38. 4196: 4191: 4185:, p. 34. 4184: 4179: 4177: 4175: 4173: 4165: 4160: 4154:, p. 37. 4153: 4148: 4141: 4136: 4129: 4124: 4122: 4115:, p. 62. 4114: 4113:Turnbull 1972 4109: 4107: 4100:, p. 61. 4099: 4098:Turnbull 1972 4094: 4088:, p. 60. 4087: 4086:Turnbull 1972 4082: 4075: 4070: 4063: 4058: 4051: 4050:Dumbrill 2011 4046: 4039: 4034: 4028:, p. 19. 4027: 4022: 4020: 4018: 4016: 4009:, p. 18. 4008: 4003: 4001: 3994:, p. 12. 3993: 3988: 3986: 3984: 3976: 3971: 3969: 3961: 3956: 3950:, p. 30. 3949: 3944: 3938:, p. 17. 3937: 3932: 3925: 3920: 3918: 3910: 3905: 3898: 3893: 3886: 3881: 3874: 3869: 3862: 3857: 3851:, p. 68. 3850: 3845: 3838: 3833: 3826: 3821: 3819: 3811: 3806: 3799: 3794: 3787: 3782: 3780: 3772: 3767: 3760: 3755: 3748: 3743: 3736: 3731: 3725:, p. 16. 3724: 3719: 3717: 3709: 3704: 3702: 3700: 3692: 3687: 3680: 3675: 3673: 3665: 3660: 3658: 3656: 3654: 3646: 3641: 3634: 3629: 3623:, p. 11. 3622: 3617: 3611:, p. 15. 3610: 3605: 3603: 3601: 3594:, p. 58. 3593: 3588: 3581: 3580:Franklin 2015 3576: 3574: 3567:, p. 72. 3566: 3565:Franklin 2015 3561: 3555:, p. 78. 3554: 3553:Franklin 2015 3549: 3543:, p. 68. 3542: 3541:Franklin 2015 3537: 3530: 3525: 3519:, p. 60. 3518: 3517:Franklin 2015 3513: 3507:, p. 61. 3506: 3505:Franklin 2015 3501: 3494: 3489: 3487: 3479: 3474: 3468:, p. 59. 3467: 3466:Franklin 2015 3462: 3456:, p. 69. 3455: 3454:Franklin 2015 3450: 3443: 3438: 3432:, Appendix G. 3431: 3426: 3420:, p. 58. 3419: 3418:Franklin 2015 3414: 3412: 3404: 3403:Franklin 2015 3399: 3393:, p. 28. 3392: 3387: 3380: 3375: 3368: 3363: 3356: 3351: 3344: 3339: 3332: 3327: 3325: 3317: 3312: 3306:, p. 50. 3305: 3300: 3298: 3291:, p. 49. 3290: 3285: 3278: 3273: 3266: 3261: 3254: 3249: 3242: 3237: 3235: 3233: 3225: 3220: 3213: 3208: 3206: 3198: 3193: 3186: 3181: 3174: 3169: 3162: 3157: 3151:, p. 16. 3150: 3149:Mirelman 2009 3145: 3138: 3133: 3131: 3124:, p. 70. 3123: 3118: 3116: 3108: 3107:Krispijn 2010 3103: 3096: 3095:Krispijn 2010 3091: 3085:, p. 15. 3084: 3079: 3072: 3067: 3061:, p. 15. 3060: 3059:Mirelman 2009 3055: 3053: 3051: 3049: 3047: 3045: 3043: 3041: 3034:, p. 13. 3033: 3032:Mirelman 2009 3028: 3022:, p. 71. 3021: 3016: 3009: 3004: 2997: 2992: 2985: 2980: 2973: 2968: 2962:, p. 87. 2961: 2956: 2949: 2944: 2942: 2940: 2932: 2927: 2925: 2923: 2921: 2913: 2908: 2902:, p. 54. 2901: 2896: 2889: 2884: 2878:, p. 20. 2877: 2872: 2865: 2860: 2858: 2856: 2854: 2846: 2845:Krispijn 2008 2841: 2834: 2829: 2822: 2817: 2815: 2813: 2811: 2803: 2798: 2791: 2786: 2780:, p. 45. 2779: 2774: 2768:, p. 44. 2767: 2762: 2756:, p. 12. 2755: 2754:Mirelman 2009 2750: 2743: 2738: 2736: 2734: 2732: 2730: 2722: 2717: 2715: 2713: 2705: 2700: 2698: 2690: 2685: 2683: 2676:, p. 63. 2675: 2674:Franklin 2015 2670: 2663: 2658: 2656: 2648: 2643: 2641: 2633: 2628: 2621: 2616: 2610:, p. 42. 2609: 2608:Franklin 2006 2604: 2598:, p. 73. 2597: 2592: 2586:, p. 14. 2585: 2584:Mirelman 2009 2580: 2578: 2570: 2565: 2559:, p. 99. 2558: 2553: 2547:, p. 73. 2546: 2541: 2535:, p. 68. 2534: 2529: 2522: 2517: 2513: 2499: 2493: 2487: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2462: 2456: 2450: 2444: 2438: 2432: 2426: 2420: 2414: 2408: 2402: 2396: 2389: 2380: 2376: 2363: 2361: 2357: 2353: 2349: 2345: 2341: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2322: 2312: 2310: 2305: 2301: 2297: 2293: 2289: 2285: 2281: 2275: 2265: 2263: 2259: 2254: 2248: 2242: 2232: 2231:manuscripts. 2230: 2226: 2222: 2218: 2214: 2210: 2204: 2194: 2191: 2185: 2179: 2174: 2170: 2165: 2158: 2156: 2152: 2146: 2143: 2139: 2135: 2131: 2127: 2123: 2119: 2115: 2111: 2107: 2104:and India as 2103: 2099: 2095: 2091: 2087: 2083: 2079: 2074: 2073:instruments. 2071: 2062: 2057: 2048: 2043: 2034: 2029: 2020: 2015: 2010: 2006: 2002: 1997: 1991: 1986: 1985: 1979: 1978: 1971: 1965: 1959: 1953: 1952: 1946: 1941: 1936: 1932: 1928: 1923: 1919:The lute, or 1913: 1908: 1906: 1900: 1898: 1894: 1890: 1886: 1882: 1878: 1873: 1864: 1856: 1847: 1845: 1841: 1837: 1833: 1829: 1825: 1821: 1817: 1813: 1809: 1805: 1801: 1797: 1793: 1789: 1785: 1779: 1777: 1772: 1770: 1765: 1763: 1758: 1754: 1752: 1748: 1744: 1740: 1736: 1732: 1728: 1724: 1720: 1716: 1712: 1708: 1704: 1700: 1696: 1692: 1685: 1682: 1676: 1673: 1670: 1664: 1661: 1654: 1650: 1648: 1644: 1639: 1632: 1630: 1625: 1621: 1619: 1615: 1611: 1607: 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890: 886: 881: 875: 869: 864: 859: 854: 843: 840: 836: 832: 828: 824: 820: 812: 808: 803: 794: 792: 787: 782: 777: 776:nin-me-sar-ra 772: 768: 764: 760: 756: 752: 747: 744: 738: 736: 732: 728: 723: 717: 711: 705: 699: 693: 687: 681: 675: 670: 652: 645: 641: 636: 627: 625: 621: 616: 612: 607: 605: 601: 597: 593: 589: 585: 580: 574: 572: 567: 561: 555: 549: 543: 533: 529: 525: 520: 514:Societal role 511: 510:instruments. 509: 503: 501: 497: 493: 489: 484: 482: 478: 474: 470: 465: 461: 457: 456:ancient Egypt 442: 440: 436: 432: 428: 424: 420: 416: 412: 409:Musicologist 406: 404: 403:Lydian Greeks 400: 396: 392: 388: 384: 380: 376: 372: 367: 361: 359: 354: 351: 347: 343: 338: 333: 324: 320: 308: 299: 296: 292: 288: 283: 281: 277: 272: 268: 264: 260: 256: 251: 249: 245: 241: 237: 233: 229: 211: 203: 199: 195: 191: 187: 182: 170:Uses of music 167: 164: 160: 156: 151: 149: 145: 141: 137: 133: 129: 125: 121: 120:Hurrian songs 116: 114: 110: 106: 102: 98: 94: 90: 86: 81: 79: 75: 71: 67: 63: 59: 55: 51: 47: 40: 36: 32: 20: 16: 9779:Preceded by 9714:Extant music 9635: 9095:Qara Qoyunlu 8958:(312–63 BCE) 8841: 8689:Christianity 8441:Royal titles 8425: 8366:Architecture 8203:Neo-Assyrian 8050:(Pre)history 7870:Persian Gulf 7790:. 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New York: 5325: 5301: 5289: 5277: 5270:Wellesz 1990 5265: 5253: 5226: 5214: 5207:Spencer 2004 5202: 5190: 5183:Wellesz 1990 5178: 5166: 5154: 5142: 5115: 5086: 5074: 5067:Wellesz 1990 5062: 5035: 5023: 5011: 5004:Wellesz 1990 4999: 4987: 4975: 4963: 4951: 4939: 4927: 4881: 4869: 4810: 4803:Wellesz 1990 4786:Wellesz 1990 4781: 4769: 4757: 4745: 4718: 4711:Wulstan 1968 4691: 4679: 4650: 4638: 4626: 4614: 4602: 4597:, p. 8. 4582:, p. 8. 4575: 4563: 4551: 4539: 4497: 4485: 4473: 4466:Wellesz 1990 4461: 4449: 4425:Kramer 1946b 4390: 4378: 4366: 4354: 4342: 4316:Wulstan 1971 4303: 4274: 4267:Wellesz 1990 4262: 4250: 4238: 4226: 4214: 4202: 4190: 4159: 4147: 4135: 4128:Woolley 1934 4093: 4081: 4069: 4057: 4045: 4033: 3955: 3943: 3931: 3924:Wellesz 1990 3904: 3892: 3880: 3868: 3856: 3844: 3832: 3805: 3800:, p. 5. 3793: 3766: 3759:Wellesz 1990 3754: 3747:Wellesz 1990 3742: 3730: 3691:Wellesz 1990 3686: 3640: 3633:Wellesz 1990 3628: 3616: 3587: 3560: 3548: 3536: 3524: 3512: 3500: 3473: 3461: 3449: 3437: 3425: 3405:, chapter 2. 3398: 3386: 3381:, p. 5. 3374: 3362: 3357:, p. 3. 3350: 3338: 3333:, p. 4. 3318:, p. 2. 3311: 3284: 3272: 3260: 3248: 3219: 3192: 3180: 3168: 3161:Wellesz 1990 3156: 3144: 3137:Wellesz 1990 3102: 3090: 3078: 3071:Wellesz 1990 3066: 3027: 3015: 3008:Ziegler 2010 3003: 2996:Ziegler 2010 2991: 2984:Ziegler 2010 2979: 2967: 2955: 2948:Ziegler 2010 2912:Ziegler 2010 2907: 2895: 2883: 2871: 2840: 2828: 2823:, p. 7. 2802:Martens 1925 2797: 2790:Martens 1925 2785: 2773: 2761: 2749: 2721:Martens 1925 2689:Wellesz 1990 2669: 2627: 2615: 2603: 2591: 2564: 2552: 2540: 2528: 2516: 2492: 2486: 2461: 2455: 2449: 2443: 2437: 2431: 2425: 2419: 2413: 2407: 2401: 2395: 2384: 2379: 2359: 2355: 2351: 2324: 2303: 2277: 2253:Bo Lawergren 2250: 2206: 2159: 2155:Pythagoreans 2147: 2137: 2133: 2129: 2121: 2113: 2105: 2097: 2077: 2075: 2005:West African 2001:East African 1982: 1961:, the Greek 1918: 1905:Roman empire 1902: 1872:Trade routes 1869: 1839: 1827: 1819: 1811: 1792:Egon Wellesz 1781: 1773: 1766: 1759: 1756: 1742: 1734: 1726: 1723:Hypophrygian 1718: 1710: 1702: 1694: 1687: 1677: 1674: 1665: 1656: 1652: 1634: 1626: 1622: 1595: 1579:Lydian scale 1566: 1563: 1550: 1547:Music theory 1537: 1520: 1512: 1499: 1495: 1494:('string'), 1491: 1484: 1477: 1462:Raoul Vitale 1451: 1447:Raoul Vitale 1412: 1400: 1395:Claire Polin 1380: 1375: 1371: 1356: 1351: 1339: 1323: 1240: 1219: 1215: 1211: 1209: 1193:lapis lazuli 1166: 1122: 1102: 1075: 1066: 1048:, scrapers, 1040: 996:musicologist 992: 978: 972: 968: 960: 957:Isin dynasty 932: 928: 918: 903: 901: 896: 892: 888: 849: 816: 748: 739: 649: 638:The goddess 608: 575: 551:, Akkadian: 537: 504: 488:music school 485: 481:responsorial 453: 408: 371:sleigh-bells 363: 355: 328: 284: 259:Ninigizibara 252: 247: 243: 232:gala priests 207: 152: 128:music theory 117: 105:clay tablets 89:Ninigizibara 82: 50:Mesopotamian 44: 15: 9636:Mesopotamia 9454:New Zealand 9449:Netherlands 9213:Settlements 9126:(1555–1917) 9103:(1453–1501) 9097:(1375–1468) 9091:(1335–1432) 9085:(1258–1335) 9079:(1098–1268) 9040:Middle ages 8980:Roman Syria 8974:Syrian Wars 8611:Middle East 8544:Hittitology 8534:Assyriology 8455:Archaeology 8325:Old Persian 8135:Jemdet Nasr 7540:(1): 5–26. 7034:Archaeology 6915:: 109–116. 6698:(1): 1–10. 6665:: 369–380. 6399:31 December 6326:: 101–106. 5777:. Mineola: 5769:Sachs, Curt 5592: [ 4956:Wilson 2011 4874:Thomas 1970 4684:Gurney 1994 4643:Kilmer 1971 4631:Kilmer 1971 4619:Gurney 1968 4517:Kilmer 1998 4502:Kilmer 1998 4478:Kramer 1958 4442:Kilmer 1971 4359:Jalabi 2013 4308:Kilmer 1974 4296:Kilmer 1974 4279:Vitale 1980 4231:Kilmer 1998 4164:Kilmer 1998 3992:Kilmer 1998 3849:George 1999 3798:Kramer 1969 3609:Kilmer 1998 3480:, abstract. 3478:Gabbay 2014 3277:Kramer 1967 3265:Kramer 1967 3253:Kramer 1967 3241:Kramer 1967 3224:Cooper 2006 3197:Galpin 1929 3185:Kramer 1960 3173:Kramer 1946 2972:Gabbay 2015 2833:Collon 2003 2778:Cooper 2006 2766:Cooper 2006 2647:Kilmer 1971 2596:Kramer 1983 2557:Collon 2003 2338:, Baghdad, 2315:Modern Iraq 2219:, on Roman 2209:New Kingdom 2142:New Zealand 1996:hal-hallatu 1784:mathematics 1629:O.R. Gurney 1425:are in the 1419: 3200 1344:during the 1335:Penn Museum 1327:Lyres of Ur 1314:Iraq Museum 1310:Iraq Museum 1266:Iraq Museum 1261: 2198 1254: 2340 1218:, Hittite: 1161: 2350 1154: 2600 1114:double reed 1031:Geshtinanna 911: 2100 797:Instruments 692:urzababîtum 665: 2046 658: 2094 615:genderfluid 490:existed in 417:illustrate 391:Phoenicians 379:Babylonians 271:lamentation 224: 1595 217: 1894 144:West Africa 109:Lyres of Ur 27: 2500 9818:Categories 9673:Achaemenid 9337:Diyarbakır 9308:Tell Tamer 9303:Al-Hasakah 9199:By country 9111:Modern era 9101:Aq Qoyunlu 9073:(945–1055) 9067:(905–1383) 9061:(750–1258) 8876:(including 8852:Folk dance 8508:Divination 8218:Achaemenid 8183:Isin-Larsa 8076:Trialetian 8071:Mousterian 8058:Prehistory 7787:Flutopedia 7732:. London. 7486:9 February 7465:6 February 7444:6 February 7423:4 February 7402:4 February 7381:2 February 7360:30 January 6956:. Oxford: 6586:: 314–326. 6379:30 January 5834:. Leiden: 5740:31 January 5294:Baram 1983 5282:Baram 1983 5159:Sachs 2012 5147:Sachs 2012 5091:Peled 2017 5055:Sadie 2001 5040:Sadie 2001 5028:Sadie 2001 5016:Sadie 2001 4980:Polin 1974 4920:Polin 1974 4886:Polin 1974 4817:, Summary. 4568:Sachs 2012 4532:Sachs 2012 4312:Nettl 2015 4140:Sachs 2012 4026:Polin 1974 4007:Polin 1974 3975:Sadie 2001 3948:Engel 1864 3936:Engel 1864 3810:Sachs 2012 3735:Sachs 2012 3723:Polin 1974 3529:Sachs 2012 3442:Bowen 2019 3430:Bowen 2019 3391:Engel 1864 3212:Bowen 2020 3122:Bowen 2020 3083:Polin 1974 3020:Sachs 2012 2888:Lucas 1979 2876:Bowen 2020 2704:Cheng 2009 2662:Sachs 2012 2632:Sachs 2012 2620:Sachs 2012 2569:Bowen 2020 2545:Bowen 2020 2533:Bowen 2020 2366:References 2221:sarcophagi 2106:yang-ch’in 2088:, Greece, 2003:lyres and 1893:Asia Minor 1776:consonance 1762:heptachord 1747:Mixolydian 1739:Hypolydian 1735:nīš gabarî 1707:Hypodorian 1606:heptatonic 1554:Curt Sachs 1468:, and its 1181:psalteries 1037:Percussion 1023:microtonal 1003:vocal tone 984:lamenting? 953:Ishbi-Erra 839:Carl Engel 831:reed pipes 755:Enheduanna 707:, and the 644:Enheduanna 642:, to whom 620:homosexual 387:Canaanites 315: 645 295:Sacrifices 179:See also: 146:, and the 93:percussion 78:pictograms 70:instrument 9629:By region 9528:Dawronoye 9459:Palestine 9389:Australia 9362:Tur Abdin 9242:Tel Keppe 9162:(1914–20) 9150:(19th c.) 9132:(16th c.) 9120:(1508–55) 9083:Ilkhanate 9032:(502–628) 9026:(226–651) 9024:Asoristan 8994:(116–118) 8949:antiquity 8947:Classical 8880:contexts) 8777:languages 8381:Cuneiform 8257:Languages 8066:Acheulean 7953:Babylonia 7890:Euphrates 7840:Geography 7792:18 August 7748:cite book 7710:0031-0328 7339:20 August 7318:20 August 7298:20 August 7278:20 August 7258:26 August 7203:123578623 7166:143937086 7094:0570-1554 7088:. 29–30. 7063:: 58–66. 7021:250015841 6985:required) 6947:"Schools" 6937:165067476 6896:190679777 6882:: 43–52. 6846:: 12–22. 6825:163571457 6803:: 49–61. 6753:194480905 6646:191408826 6624:: 59–68. 6599:: 66–74. 6543:163479459 6521:: 49–56. 6506:required) 6311:193198517 6172:1569-2116 6108:159903769 6086:: 57–64. 6056:163578136 6034:: 39–47. 6015:162024048 5976:161301306 5771:(2012) . 5686:(2015) . 5665:146869360 5458:229208136 5258:Lord 2008 4696:Rahn 2022 4595:Lord 2008 4371:West 1994 4347:West 1994 4335:West 1994 4320:West 1994 4219:Dorf 2020 4207:Dorf 2020 4195:Dorf 2020 4183:Dorf 2020 4152:Dorf 2020 3592:Malm 1967 2960:Gelb 1973 2508:Citations 2385:igi-nu-du 2229:Byzantine 2190:šahtarili 2184:šahtarili 2178:šahtarili 2134:kim balon 2098:senterija 2096:) as the 2042:p(ə)laggā 1970:balalaika 1945:Near East 1889:Phoenicia 1850:Influence 1840:Kayyāmānu 1828:Ṣalbatānu 1788:astronomy 1769:half-tone 1727:nīd qabli 1672:interval 1466:intervals 1383:bass viol 1376:The Flood 1304:from the 1300:The Gold 1090:pan-pipes 751:composers 592:Gilgamesh 469:analyzing 450:Education 445:Musicians 415:paintings 399:Egyptians 389:, Syrian 366:Assyrians 276:Ninisinna 263:orchestra 175:Religious 163:cuneiform 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