223:
were sent into aerospace compared to their earth-bound counterparts. The effect of space flight on seeds depends on their species and variety. For example, space-bred wheat saw a large growth in seed germination in compared to its Earth-bound control, but space-bred rice had no visible advantage compared to its control. For the varieties that were positively mutated by space flight, their growth potential exceeded that of not only their Earth-grown counterparts, but also their irradiated counterparts on Earth. Compared to traditional mutagenic techniques, space-bred mutations have greater efficacy in that they experience positive effects on their first generation of mutation, whereas irradiated crops often see no advantageous mutations in their first generations. Though multiple experiments have shown the positive effects of space flight on seed mutation, there is no clear connection as to what aspect of aerospace has produced such advantageous mutations. There is much speculation around cosmic radiation being the source of chromosomal aberrations, but so far, there has been no concrete evidence of such connection. Though China's space-breeding program has been shown to be very successful, the program requires a large budget and technological support that many other countries are either unwilling or unable to provide, meaning this program is unfeasible outside of China. Due to such restraints, scientists have been trying to replicate space condition on Earth in order to promote the same expedient space-born mutations on Earth. One such replication is a
2052:, Prepared by the GM Science Review panel (July 2003). Chairman Professor Sir David King, Chief Scientific Advisor to the UK Government, P 9: "...it is necessary to produce about 100 GM plants to obtain one that has the desirable characters for its use as a basis of a new GM crop variety. ... Most of these so-called conventional plant breeding methods (such as gene transfer by pollination, mutation breeding, cell selection and induced polyploidy) have a substantially greater discard rate. Mutation breeding, for instance, involves the production of unpredictable and undirected genetic changes and many thousands, even millions, of undesirable plants are discarded in order to identify plants with suitable qualities for further breeding."
202:β to study double-stranded breaks in plant DNA began in the mid-nineties. These breaks in DNA, otherwise known as DSBs, were found to be the source of much chromosomal damage in eukaryotes, causing mutations in plant varieties. REs induce a result on plant DNA similar to that of ionizing radiation or radiomimetic chemicals. Blunt ended breaks in the DNA, unlike sticky ended breaks, were found to produce more variations in chromosomal damage, making them the more useful type of break for mutation breeding. While the connection of REs to chromosomal aberrations is mostly limited to research on mammalian DNA, success in mammalian studies caused scientists to conduct more studies of RE-induced chromosomal and DNA damage on barley
624:
369:
1118:
453:
546:
227:-free space (MF), which produces an area with a weaker magnetic field than that of Earth. MF treatment produced mutagenic results, and has been used to cultivate new mutant varieties of rice and alfalfa. Other replications of space conditions include irradiation of seeds by a heavy 7 Li-ion beam or mixed high-energy particles. These space-bred varieties are already being introduced to the public. In 2011, during the National Lotus Flowers Exhibition in China, a mutant lotus, called the "Outer Space Sun", was shown at the flower show.
680:
289:
experimentation, it was revealed that there was a greater variety of mutation in irradiated pollen rather than irradiated dry seeds. Pollen treated with 46Gy of gamma radiation showed an increase in grain size overall and other useful variations. Typically, the length of each grain was longer after the crossing of irradiated parent rice plants. The rice progeny also exhibited a less chalky visage, improving on the appearance of the parent rice plants. This technique was used to develop two new
1093:
425:
566:
495:
513:
467:
1067:
955:
725:
933:
1196:
481:
1045:
318:
barley, pears, peas, cotton, peppermint, sunflowers, peanuts, grapefruit, sesame, bananas, cassava and sorghum." In Canada crops generated by mutation breeding face the same regulations and testing as crops obtained by genetic engineering. Mutagenic varieties tend to be made freely available for plant breeding, in contrast to many commercial plant varieties or germplasm that increasingly have restrictions on their use such as
794:
703:
772:
439:
293:, Jiaohezaozhan and Jiafuzhan, in China. Along with facilitating the creation of these two rice cultivars, the irradiation of mature rice pollen has produced roughly two hundred mutant rice lines. Each of these lines produce rice grains of both a higher quality and larger size. The mutations produced by this technique vary with each generation, meaning further breeding of these mutated plants could produce new mutations.
595:
1005:
178:(EMS) is the most popular because of its effectiveness and ease of handling, especially its detoxification through hydrolysis for disposal. Nitroso compounds are the other alkylating agents widely used, but they are light-sensitive and more precautions need to be taken because of their higher volatility. EMS has become a commonly used mutagen for developing large numbers of mutants for screening such as in developing
750:
411:
878:
904:
820:
397:
383:
71:. One of the ideas was to bombard plants with radiation and produce lots of mutations, some of which, it was hoped, would lead to plants that bore more heavily or were disease or cold-resistant or just had unusual colors. The experiments were mostly conducted in giant gamma gardens on the grounds of national laboratories in the US but also in Europe and countries of the [then-]USSR.
297:, gamma radiation is used on solely adult plants, and not on pollen. The irradiation of mature pollen allows mutant plants to grow without being in direct contact with gamma radiation. This discovery is in contrast to what was previously believed about gamma radiation: that it could only elicit mutations in plants and not pollen.
222:
in space. China has been experimenting with this theory by sending seeds into space, testing to see if space flights will cause genetic mutations. Since 1987, China has cultivated 66 mutant varieties from space through their space-breeding program. Chromosomal aberrations greatly increased when seeds
352:
Several organic food and seed companies promote and sell certified organic products that were developed using both chemical and nuclear mutagenesis. Several certified organic brands, whose companies support strict labeling or outright bans on GMO-crops, market their use of branded wheat and other
2061:
The
Canadian regulatory system is based on whether a product has novel features regardless of method of origin. In other words, a product is regulated as genetically modified if it carries some trait not previously found in the species whether it was generated using mutation breeding or genetic
259:
films and irradiated for roughly two minutes. Mutation frequencies are notably higher for ion beam radiation compared to electron radiation, and the mutation spectrum is broader for ion beam radiation compared to gamma ray radiation. The broader mutation spectrum was revealed through the largely
54:
reported in 2014 that over 1,000 mutant varieties of major staple crops were being grown worldwide, it is unclear how many of these varieties are currently used in agriculture or horticulture around the world, as these seeds are not always identified or labeled as having a mutagenic provenance.
317:
is somewhat well documented, mutagenic plants and their role on human food systems is less well known, with one journalist writing "Though poorly known, radiation breeding has produced thousands of useful mutants and a sizable fraction of the world's crops...including varieties of rice, wheat,
242:
multiple bases from the genome. Compared to traditional sources of radiation, like gamma rays and X-rays, ion beams have been shown to cause more severe breaks in DNA that are more difficult to weave back together, causing the change in DNA to be more drastic than changes caused by traditional
288:
is used on mature rice pollen to produce parent plants used for crossing. The mutated traits in the parent plants are able to be inherited by their offspring plants. Because rice pollen has a very short lifespan, researchers had to blast gamma rays at cultured spikes from rice plants. Through
243:
irradiation. Ion beams change DNA in a manner that makes it look vastly different than its original makeup, more so than when traditional irradiation techniques are used. Most experimentation, using ion beam technology, has been conducted in Japan. Notable facilities using this technology are
45:
From 1930 to 2014 more than 3200 mutagenic plant varieties were released that have been derived either as direct mutants (70%) or from their progeny (30%). Crop plants account for 75% of released mutagenic species with the remaining 25% ornamentals or decorative plants. However, although the
169:
High rates of chromosome aberrations resulting from ionizing radiation and the accompanied detrimental effects made researchers look for alternate sources for inducing mutations. As a result, an array of chemical mutagens has been discovered. The most widely used chemical mutagens are
353:
varietal strains which were derived from mutagenic processes without any reference to this genetic manipulation. These organic products range from mutagenic barley and wheat ingredient used in organic beers to mutagenic varieties of grapefruits sold directly to consumers as organic.
1225:
In 2014, it was reported that 17 rice mutant varieties, 10 soybean, two maize and one chrysanthemum mutant varieties had been officially released to
Vietnamese farmers. 15% of rice and 50% of soybean was produced from mutant varieties.
341:, which typically involve the insertion of one or two target genes, plants developed via mutagenic processes with random, multiple and unspecific genetic changes have been discussed as a concern but are not prohibited by any nation's
264:
produced by ion beams. Flowers mutated by the ion beams exhibited a variety of colors, patterns, and shapes. Through ion beam radiation, new varieties of plants have been cultivated. These plants had the characteristics of being
309:, the use of transgenic processes is often compared and contrasted with mutagenic processes. While the abundance and variation of transgenic organisms in human food systems, and their effect on agricultural biodiversity,
273:-deficient. Ion beam technology has been used in the discovery of new genes responsible for the creation of more robust plants, but its most prevalent use is commercially for producing new flower phenotypes, like striped
206:. Due to restriction endonucleases' ability to facilitate damage in chromosomes and DNA, REs have the capability of being used as a new method of mutagenesis to promote the proliferation of mutated plant varieties.
2223:
CAB Reviews: Perspectives in
Agriculture, Veterinary Science, Nutrition and Natural Resources (CAB International); 20116 (032): 1 β 20; doi:10.1079/PAVSNNR20116032; ISSN 1749-8848; Retrieved August 6, 2014
2079:
182:
populations. Although many chemicals are mutagens, only few have been used in practical breeding as the doses need to be optimised and also because the effectiveness is not high in plants for many.
120:
on maize and barley. In the case of barley, the resulting plants were white, yellow, pale yellow and some had white stripes. In 1928, Stadler first published his findings on radiation-induced
100:. Mutation breeding is commonly used to produce traits in crops such as larger seeds, new colors, or sweeter fruits, that either cannot be found in nature or have been lost during evolution.
1557:
1085:
mutants (created with gamma rays and released in 1977-8; RD 15 is early ripening, RD6 has a valuable glutinous endosperm). Thailand is the biggest exporter of aromatic rice in the world
864:
3251:
1658:"EJPAU 2010. Zalewska M. , Miler N. , Tymoszuk A. , Drzewiecka B. , Winiecki J. RESULTS OF MUTATION BREEDING ACTIVITY ON Chrysanthemum Γ grandiflorum (Ramat.) Kitam. IN POLAND"
2131:. Plant Breeding Section, Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria. pp. 423β424.
108:
Exposing plants to radiation is sometimes called radiation breeding and is a sub class of mutagenic breeding. Radiation breeding was discovered in the 1920s when
666:
Zhefu 802 rice mutant (irradiated with gamma rays; resistant to rice blast, good yield even in poor conditions, the most planted rice variety between 1986β1994)
2086:
GAIN (Global
Agricultural Information Network) report CA12029, United States Department of Agriculture, Foreifn Agricultural Service, Retrieved 7 August 2014
2076:
850:
Pusa 408 (Ajay), Pusa 413 (Atul), Pusa 417 (Girnar), and Pusa 547 chickpea mutants (resistant to
Ascochyta blight and wilt diseases, and have high yields)
2673:
1724:"Gold nanoparticles and electromagnetic irradiation in tissue culture systems of bleeding heart: biochemical, physiological, and (cyto)genetic effects"
645:
Jiahezazhan and
Jiafuzhan rice (mutations obtained by pollen irradiation; high yield and quality, very adaptable, resistant to plant hopper and blast)
2418:
1938:
Plant
Mutation Breeding in Agriculture. CAB Reviews: Perspectives in Agriculture, Veterinary Science, Nutrition and Natural Resources. 2011 6 No 032
2125:
Rowland, G.G. (2009). "Chapter 110: The Effect of Plants With Novel Traits (PNT) Regulation on
Mutation Breeding in Canada". In Shu, Q. Y. (ed.).
1640:
2407:
Lipavsky, J. Petr, J. and
HradeckΓ‘, D, (2002) "Production Process in Old and Modern Spring Barley Varieties" Die Bodenkultur, 53 (1) 2, Page 19
255:
Accelerator
Research Facility, and various other Japanese institutions. During the process of ion beam radiation, seeds are wedged between two
2166:
310:
1683:"Nuclear DNA content as an indicator of inflorescence colour stability of in vitro propagated solid and chimera mutants of chrysanthemum"
2643:
2607:
1472:
M.K. Maluszynsk; K. Nichterlein; L. van Zanten; B.S. Ahloowalia (2000). "Officially released mutant varieties β the FAO/IAEA Database".
349:
state that there is no scientific justification for regulating genetic engineered crops while not doing so for mutation breeding crops.
314:
2544:
Forster, B. P. (2001). "Mutation genetics of salt tolerance in barley: An assessment of Golden Promise and other semi-dwarf mutants".
2527:
3107:
2291:. Vienna, Austria: Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, International Atomic Energy Agency: 33β38.
2208:
2173:, National Organic Standards Board GMO ad hoc Subcommittee paper, U.S. Agricultural Marketing Service, published February 6, 2013.
531:(mutant created with X-rays; high fat content and yield, 80% of groundnuts grown in Argentina in the 1980s was Colorado Irradiado)
306:
1804:"Ovaries of Chrysanthemum Irradiated with High-Energy Photons and High-Energy Electrons Can Regenerate Plants with Novel Traits"
3234:
2136:
3056:
2630:
in Induced Plant Mutations in the Genomics Era, FAO of the UN, Rome, Pp 341β345, Web page version retrieved 25 October 2013
2096:
McHugen, Alan (September 14, 2000). "Chapter 1: Hors-d'oeuvres and entrees/What is genetic modification? What are GMOs?".
3159:
2699:
2463:
2332:
2109:
327:
51:
2580:
2296:
1221:
mutants (developed using gamma rays to grow three crops a year, tolerance to heat and cold and resistance to disease)
47:
3006:
1164:(X-ray radiation; high yielding mutant β also the Gratiot and Sea-way bean varieties were cross-bred from Sanilac)
3186:
2737:
1879:
1404:
947:
Shwewartun rice mutant (created by irradiating IR5 rice to give better yield, grain quality and earlier maturity)
2289:
Induced Plant Mutations in the Genomics Era. Proceedings of an International Joint FAO/IAEA Symposium, 2008 2009
1037:
mutant (developed for growing in the Andean highlands with high yield, high quality flour and tolerance to hail)
3171:
1341:
1271:
3023:
1844:
3166:
2946:
2373:
Ahloowalia, B. S.; Maluszynski, M. (2001). "Production Process in Old and Modern Spring Barley Varieties".
346:
2220:
1950:"Restriction Endonucleases as a Tool for In Vivo Induction of Chromosomal and DNA Damage in Barley Genome"
1935:
1764:
124:
in plants. During the period 1930β2024, radiation-induced mutant varieties were developed primarily using
3176:
3122:
3090:
3051:
2430:
3073:
3044:
1888:
1350:
1280:
338:
248:
2049:
3209:
3115:
3078:
2897:
2822:
2797:
1637:
2163:
538:
mutant (herbicide resistance and good yield; also grown in Bolivia, Brazil, Costa Rica and Paraguay)
3181:
3068:
3013:
191:
2628:
Current Status and Research Directions of Induced Mutation Application to Seeds Program in Vietnam
1167:
Stadler wheat (high yield mutant with resistance to loose smut and leaf rust and earlier maturity)
3134:
3129:
3102:
3085:
3030:
3018:
3001:
1592:
1110:
barley (semi-dwarf, salt tolerant mutant created with gamma rays) Is used to make beer and whisky
3383:
3291:
3144:
3139:
2860:
1723:
1682:
175:
113:
81:
2614:
Joint FAO/IAEAProgramme, Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, Retrieved 25 October 2013
2534:
Joint FAO/IAEAProgramme, Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, Retrieved 25 October 2013
42:. Plants created using mutagenesis are sometimes called mutagenic plants or mutagenic seeds.
3296:
3244:
3224:
3154:
3097:
2941:
2931:
2919:
2877:
2855:
2812:
2650:
Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, Retrieved 31 July 2014
2640:
2604:
2126:
1411:
Joint FAO/IAEA Division of Nuclear Techniques in Food and Agriculture, Retrieved 31 July 2014
342:
331:
2627:
3393:
3266:
3229:
2936:
2902:
2892:
2664:
2524:
2509:
Nuclear Institute for Agriculture and Biology, Faisalabad, Pakistan, Retrieved 16 May 2013
1359:
1336:
1289:
1266:
997:
mutant (created with 200Gy of radiation; early maturing, high yield, resistant to disease)
925:
Most rice varieties grown in Japan have the sd1 mutant allele from the Reimei rice variety
361:
As of 2011 the percentage of all mutagenic varieties released globally, by country, were:
8:
3219:
2983:
2887:
2882:
2730:
2151:
1610:
1571:
1525:
1471:
1143:
Luther and Pennrad barley (high yield mutant varieties; Pennrad also resistant to winter)
239:
171:
2185:
1897:
1870:
1802:
Miler, Natalia; Jedrzejczyk, Iwona; Jakubowski, Seweryn; Winiecki, Janusz (2021-06-01).
1657:
1337:"Genetic Engineering and Editing of Plants: An Analysis of New and Persisting Questions"
139:; and seeds have been sent into orbit in order to expose them to more cosmic radiation.
2914:
2865:
2850:
2817:
2766:
2561:
2390:
2063:
2028:
Wang, H.; Qiu, S.; Zheng, J.; Jiang, L.; Huang, H.; Huang, Y. (2009). Shu, Q.Y. (ed.).
1918:
1529:
1449:
1422:
1380:
1310:
3388:
3214:
2459:
2328:
2292:
2132:
2105:
2098:
1910:
1902:
1825:
1784:
1745:
1722:
Kulus, Dariusz; Tymoszuk, Alicja; Jedrzejczyk, Iwona; Winiecki, Janusz (2022-06-01).
1704:
1509:
1454:
1384:
1372:
1364:
1302:
1294:
1182:
1151:
838:
80:
There are different kinds of mutagenic breeding such as using chemical mutagens like
2761:
2565:
2394:
1922:
1533:
1314:
2978:
2973:
2953:
2827:
2553:
2382:
1892:
1815:
1776:
1735:
1694:
1521:
1444:
1434:
1354:
1284:
1265:
Chen, Kunling; Wang, Yanpeng; Zhang, Rui; Zhang, Huawei; Gao, Caixia (2019-04-29).
1235:
294:
219:
136:
85:
2030:"Generation of New Rice Cultivars from Mature Pollen Treated with Gamma-Radiation"
2029:
2007:
1971:
1949:
1780:
837:
MA-9 cotton β the world's first mutant cotton, released in 1948 (X-ray radiation;
616:
GINES rice mutant (created using proton radiation; grows well in salty conditions)
3301:
3239:
3037:
2842:
2647:
2611:
2531:
2170:
2083:
1644:
1593:"New Citrus Variety Released by UC Riverside is Very Sweet, Juicy and Low-seeded"
1408:
1030:"kiwicha" mutant (high quality grain and exported as a certified organic product)
558:
Amaroo rice mutant variety (60β70% of rice grown in Australia was Amaroo in 2001)
285:
2197:
1970:
Liu, L.X.; Guo, H.J.; Zhao, L.S.; Wang, J.; Zhao, S.R. (2009). Shu, Q.Y. (ed.).
3347:
3327:
2993:
2958:
2924:
2723:
2694:
1740:
1699:
1107:
1098:
685:
290:
224:
214:
The ability of plants to develop and thrive is dependent on conditions such as
158:
2557:
2480:
2386:
1992:
3377:
3362:
3061:
2968:
2963:
2188:, By Nina V. Fedoroff and Nancy Marie Brow, pg. 17, Joseph Henry Press, 2004.
1906:
1829:
1820:
1803:
1788:
1765:"Microwave treatment can induce chrysanthemum phenotypic and genetic changes"
1749:
1708:
1368:
1298:
1123:
764:
High oleic sunflowers (covering more than 50 % of the sunflower acreage)
458:
274:
150:
109:
68:
1214:
mutants (increased yield, improved quality, resistance to disease and pests)
3149:
2870:
2782:
1914:
1458:
1376:
1306:
1082:
652:
319:
215:
983:
mutant (created with 150Gy of gamma rays; high yielding, blight resistant)
859:
Tau-1, MUM 2, BM 4, LGG 407, LGG 450, Co4, Dhauli (TT9E) and Pant moong-1
3306:
3271:
2907:
2807:
2525:
Improved barley varieties β Feeding people from the equator to the arctic
2421:[Genetic Improvement of Durum Wheat in Casaccia. The Creso Case]
2348:
2281:
1869:
Xu, Liangsheng; Li, Guoqing; Jiang, Daohong; Chen, Weidong (2018-08-25).
1439:
670:
430:
270:
266:
142:
121:
93:
38:
in order to generate mutants with desirable traits to be bred with other
3357:
2792:
2787:
2715:
2186:
Mendel in the Kitchen: A Scientist's View of Genetically Modified Foods
1267:"CRISPR/Cas Genome Editing and Precision Plant Breeding in Agriculture"
1178:
1171:
1147:
1137:
739:
Balder J barley mutant (better drought resistance, yield and sprouting)
571:
500:
2506:
1401:
3311:
3286:
3276:
3261:
2419:"Il miglioramento genetico del grano duro in Casaccia. Il caso CRESO"
1240:
1161:
860:
584:
551:
518:
261:
154:
129:
125:
89:
67:
After WWII, there was a concerted effort to find 'peaceful' uses for
39:
31:
27:
2039:– via Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
2017:– via Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
1981:– via Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
1959:– via Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
128:(64%) and X-rays (22%), although other sources of radiation such as
3352:
3342:
3337:
3281:
3256:
2832:
2750:
1072:
1059:
Albeely banana mutant (better quality, high yield and better stand)
1027:
987:
980:
960:
472:
235:
1801:
990:
mutant (short height, uniform and early maturing, high seed yield)
132:
or high-energy photons and high-energy electrons can be applied.
3332:
3204:
1218:
1201:
938:
809:
777:
730:
639:
486:
444:
179:
1721:
1681:
Miler, Natalia; Kulus, Dariusz; Sliwinska, Elwira (2020-11-01).
1972:"Achievements and Perspectives of Crop Space Breeding in China"
1034:
1020:
994:
973:
755:
692:
610:
528:
416:
323:
256:
203:
97:
35:
2746:
1050:
909:
893:
883:
854:
825:
799:
708:
629:
402:
388:
374:
280:
252:
244:
117:
2507:
NIAB β Plant Breeding & Genetics Division, Achievements
2323:
Shu, Qing-Yao (2012). Forster, B. P.; Nakagawa, H. (eds.).
1993:"Mutant Lotus Bred in Space on Display in Chongqing, China"
1211:
1133:
1010:
919:
845:
600:
535:
199:
195:
1423:"Are Mutations in Genetically Modified Plants Dangerous?"
1330:
1328:
1326:
1324:
896:(especially Creso mutant, created with thermal neutrons)
2154:, by William J. Broad, New York Times, August 28, 2007.
2688:
2282:"The role of induced mutations in world food security"
1638:
Atomic Gardens: Public Perceptions & Public Policy
1321:
1260:
1258:
1256:
2372:
1335:
Mackelprang, Rebecca; Lemaux, Peggy G. (2020-04-29).
976:
mutant (high yielding, heat tolerant, early maturing)
695:(high yield, short height mutant created with X-Rays)
2456:
Mutation Breeding: Theory and Practical Applications
1023:
mutant (developed in 1995 for growing above 3,000 m)
812:(good poundability and increased dry matter content)
2674:
National Agriculture and Food Research Organization
2008:"Establishment of Ion Beam Technology for Breeding"
1680:
1253:
2641:Successful Mutation Breeding Programmes in Vietnam
2605:Successful Mutation Breeding Programmes in Vietnam
2458:. U. K.: Cambridge University Press. p. 239.
2097:
1948:Stoilov, L.; Gecheff, K. (2009). Shu, Q.Y. (ed.).
1845:"How Radiation is Changing the Foods that You Eat"
1264:
2622:
2620:
2077:Canada β Agricultural Biotechnology Annual β 2012
2027:
1647:, Life Sciences Foundation Magazine, Spring 2012.
1334:
300:
3375:
2689:The Joint FAO/IAEA Mutant Variety Database (MVD)
2164:Discussion Document Excluded Methods Terminology
1420:
1170:Star Ruby and Rio red varieties of the Rio Star
2075:Evans, Brent and Lupescu, Mihai (15 July 2012)
1560:Bloomberg Business Week, Retrieved 31 July 2014
580:Binasail, Iratom-24 and Binadhan-6 rice mutants
2617:
2537:
1969:
1947:
717:Giza 176 and Sakha 101 high yield rice mutants
2731:
1868:
1862:
1763:Miler, Natalia; Kulus, Dariusz (2018-01-03).
1510:"Global impact of mutation-derived varieties"
63:According to garden historian Paige Johnson:
2368:
2366:
2364:
2362:
1728:Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture (PCTOC)
1687:Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture (PCTOC)
834:Co-4, Pant Mung-2, and TAP mung bean mutants
185:
2279:
2181:
2179:
2128:Induced Plant Mutations in the Genomics Era
2062:engineering (or any other method including
2037:Induced Plant Mutations in the Genomics Era
2015:Induced Plant Mutations in the Genomics Era
1979:Induced Plant Mutations in the Genomics Era
1957:Induced Plant Mutations in the Genomics Era
1552:
1550:
2823:Smart breeding (Marker-assisted selection)
2738:
2724:
2519:
2517:
2515:
2453:
1762:
1174:(created using thermal neutron techniques)
281:Mature pollen treated with gamma radiation
269:light-B resistant, disease resistant, and
2359:
2325:Plant Mutation Breeding and Biotechnology
2050:UK Government Science Review First Report
1896:
1819:
1739:
1698:
1507:
1448:
1438:
1396:
1394:
1358:
1288:
2745:
2213:
2176:
1604:
1602:
1547:
1427:Journal of Biomedicine and Biotechnology
2543:
2512:
2501:
2499:
2497:
2219:Pathirana, Ranjith (September 6, 2011)
2124:
2095:
1503:
742:Puhti and Ryhti stiff straw oat mutants
506:Notable varieties per country include:
26:", is the process of exposing seeds to
3376:
2275:
2273:
2271:
2269:
2267:
2265:
2263:
2261:
2259:
2257:
2255:
2253:
2251:
2249:
2221:Plant mutation breeding in agriculture
2005:
1875:: An Evaluation of Virulence Theories"
1501:
1499:
1497:
1495:
1493:
1491:
1489:
1487:
1485:
1483:
1421:Schouten, H. J.; Jacobsen, E. (2007).
1391:
307:debate over genetically modified foods
230:
149:has been used, for example to produce
2719:
2597:
2581:"Useful Mutants, Bred With Radiation"
2578:
2481:"Japanese pear tree named 'Osa Gold'"
2416:
2318:
2316:
2314:
2312:
2310:
2308:
2247:
2245:
2243:
2241:
2239:
2237:
2235:
2233:
2231:
2229:
1842:
1633:
1631:
1611:"Useful Mutants, Bred With Radiation"
1608:
1599:
1360:10.1146/annurev-arplant-081519-035916
1290:10.1146/annurev-arplant-050718-100049
613:mutant (excellent drought resistance)
328:genetic user restriction technologies
135:Radiation breeding may take place in
2494:
2478:
2280:Kharkwal, M. C.; Shu, Q. Y. (2008).
2006:Tanaka, A. (2009). Shu, Q.Y. (ed.).
1609:Broad, William J. (28 August 2007).
969:Basmati 370 short height rice mutant
356:
3252:Selection methods in plant breeding
2349:"Lift-off for Chinese space potato"
2322:
2152:Useful Mutants, Bred With Radiation
1898:10.1146/annurev-phyto-080417-050052
1569:
1480:
16:Process inducing mutations in seeds
13:
2700:International Atomic Energy Agency
2305:
2226:
2209:Wasatch Organic Rio Red Grapefruit
1628:
1526:10.1023/b:euph.0000014914.85465.4f
334:regimes and modes of enforcement.
14:
3405:
2665:"Institute of Radiation Breeding"
2657:
209:
190:Interest in the use of bacterial
1558:The Scariest Veggies of Them All
1556:Kaskey, Jack (21 November 2013)
1194:
1136:(short height rice induced with
1116:
1091:
1065:
1043:
1003:
953:
931:
902:
876:
865:(Yellow mosaic virus) resistance
818:
792:
770:
748:
723:
701:
678:
673:mutant (created with gamma rays)
622:
593:
564:
544:
511:
493:
479:
465:
451:
437:
423:
409:
395:
381:
367:
2677:] (in Japanese). 2013-03-13
2633:
2572:
2472:
2447:
2427:Energia, Ambiente e Innovazione
2410:
2401:
2341:
2327:. CABI Publishing. p. 17.
2202:
2191:
2157:
2145:
2118:
2089:
2069:
2055:
2043:
2021:
1999:
1985:
1963:
1941:
1929:
1880:Annual Review of Phytopathology
1836:
1795:
1756:
1715:
1674:
1650:
870:TG24 and TG37 groundnut mutants
2669:θΎ²η ζ©ζ§ | ε½η«η η©ΆιηΊζ³δΊΊθΎ²ζ₯γ»ι£εη£ζ₯ζθ‘η·εη η©Άζ©ζ§
1585:
1563:
1465:
1414:
1342:Annual Review of Plant Biology
1272:Annual Review of Plant Biology
1210:VND 95-20, VND-99-1 and VN121
301:Comparison to other techniques
1:
2579:Broad, William (2007-08-28).
1781:10.1016/j.scienta.2017.09.047
1246:
1217:DT84, DT96, DT99 and DT 2008
347:National Academy of Sciences
164:
103:
75:
22:, sometimes referred to as "
7:
2104:. Oxford University Press.
1843:Smith, Peter (2011-04-12).
1402:Plant Breeding and Genetics
1229:
10:
3410:
2454:van Harten, A. M. (1998).
2198:Golden Promise Organic Ale
1741:10.1007/s11240-022-02236-1
1700:10.1007/s11240-020-01929-9
630:People's Republic of China
375:People's Republic of China
339:genetically modified crops
249:Japan Atomic Energy Agency
58:
3320:
3210:Marker-assisted selection
3195:
2992:
2841:
2798:Marker-assisted selection
2775:
2757:
192:restriction endonucleases
186:Restriction endonucleases
153:for the investigation of
2626:Vinh, M.Q. et al (2009)
1873:Sclerotinia sclerotiorum
1821:10.3390/agronomy11061111
1508:Ahloowali, B.S. (2004).
1474:Mutation Breeding Review
260:varied amount of flower
2558:10.1023/A:1017592618298
2387:10.1023/A:1004162323428
2100:Pandora's Picnic Basket
3292:Outbreeding depression
2429:. ENEA. Archived from
1769:Scientia Horticulturae
1081:RD15 and RD6 aromatic
648:Lumian Number 1 cotton
345:. Reports from the US
176:Ethyl methanesulfonate
114:University of Missouri
82:ethyl methanesulfonate
73:
3297:Inbreeding depression
2813:Preservation breeding
2417:Rossi, Luigi (2010).
1851:. GOOD Worldwide, Inc
660:Yangdao Number 6 rice
332:intellectual property
65:
922:(disease resistance)
2984:Designer crossbreed
2695:"Mutation breeding"
2355:. 12 February 2007.
527:Colorado Irradiado
231:Ion beam technology
194:(RE) β for example
2818:Selective breeding
2767:Lists of cultivars
2646:2013-10-29 at the
2610:2013-10-29 at the
2530:2014-08-29 at the
2169:2013-06-24 at the
2082:2013-12-15 at the
2064:selective breeding
1662:www.ejpau.media.pl
1643:2013-06-30 at the
1440:10.1155/2007/82612
1407:2018-07-27 at the
808:Tek bankye mutant
657:Tiefeng 18 soybean
24:variation breeding
3371:
3370:
3215:Natural selection
3196:Selection methods
2803:Mutation breeding
2479:Kotobuki, Kazuo.
2138:978-92-5-106324-8
1019:UNA La Molina 95
993:NIAB Masoor 2006
839:drought tolerance
663:Yangmai 156 wheat
651:Purple Orchard 3
357:Release by nation
343:organic standards
172:alkylating agents
20:Mutation breeding
3401:
2979:Captive breeding
2974:Breeding program
2954:Backyard breeder
2740:
2733:
2726:
2717:
2716:
2712:
2710:
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2019:
2018:
2012:
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1982:
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1606:
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1580:
1578:
1572:"Atomic Gardens"
1570:Johnson, Paige.
1567:
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1545:
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1478:
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1236:Atomic gardening
1200:
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906:
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882:
880:
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853:Sharbati Sonora
841:, high yielding)
824:
822:
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795:
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370:
311:ecosystem health
220:cosmic radiation
147:
146:
86:dimethyl sulfate
3409:
3408:
3404:
3403:
3402:
3400:
3399:
3398:
3374:
3373:
3372:
3367:
3316:
3302:Recessive trait
3240:selective sweep
3197:
3191:
2994:Plant cultivars
2988:
2837:
2771:
2762:Lists of breeds
2753:
2744:
2707:
2705:
2693:
2680:
2678:
2663:
2660:
2655:
2654:
2648:Wayback Machine
2638:
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2612:Wayback Machine
2602:
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2532:Wayback Machine
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2171:Wayback Machine
2162:
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2139:
2123:
2119:
2112:
2094:
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2084:Wayback Machine
2074:
2070:
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2032:
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2010:
2004:
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1991:
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1968:
1964:
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1946:
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1930:
1867:
1863:
1854:
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1796:
1761:
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1720:
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1651:
1645:Wayback Machine
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1409:Wayback Machine
1399:
1392:
1333:
1322:
1263:
1254:
1249:
1232:
1195:
1193:
1177:Todd's Mitcham
1146:Murray Mitcham
1117:
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286:Gamma radiation
283:
233:
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188:
167:
159:plant pathogens
144:
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106:
78:
61:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3407:
3397:
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3391:
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3355:
3350:
3348:Heirloom plant
3345:
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3335:
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3328:Breed registry
3324:
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3314:
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3299:
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2959:Breed standard
2956:
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2754:
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2713:
2691:
2686:
2659:
2658:External links
2656:
2653:
2652:
2632:
2616:
2596:
2585:New York Times
2571:
2552:(3): 317β328.
2536:
2511:
2493:
2471:
2465:978-0521470742
2464:
2446:
2409:
2400:
2358:
2340:
2334:978-1780640853
2333:
2304:
2297:
2225:
2212:
2201:
2190:
2175:
2156:
2144:
2137:
2117:
2111:978-0198506744
2110:
2088:
2068:
2054:
2042:
2020:
1998:
1984:
1962:
1940:
1928:
1889:Annual Reviews
1861:
1835:
1794:
1755:
1734:(3): 715β734.
1714:
1693:(2): 421β430.
1673:
1649:
1627:
1615:New York Times
1598:
1584:
1562:
1546:
1520:(2): 187β204.
1479:
1464:
1413:
1390:
1351:Annual Reviews
1320:
1281:Annual Reviews
1251:
1250:
1248:
1245:
1244:
1243:
1238:
1231:
1228:
1223:
1222:
1215:
1207:
1206:
1204:
1190:
1189:
1186:wilt tolerance
1175:
1168:
1165:
1158:
1155:wilt tolerance
1144:
1141:
1129:
1128:
1126:
1112:
1111:
1108:Golden Promise
1104:
1103:
1101:
1099:United Kingdom
1087:
1086:
1078:
1077:
1075:
1061:
1060:
1056:
1055:
1053:
1039:
1038:
1033:Centenario II
1031:
1024:
1016:
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1013:
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991:
984:
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686:Czech Republic
675:
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638:Henong series
635:
634:
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589:
588:
587:mutant variety
581:
577:
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539:
534:Puita INTA-CL
532:
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358:
355:
302:
299:
291:rice cultivars
282:
279:
275:chrysanthemums
238:mutate DNA by
232:
229:
225:magnetic field
211:
210:Space-breeding
208:
187:
184:
166:
163:
157:mechanisms of
137:atomic gardens
105:
102:
77:
74:
60:
57:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3406:
3395:
3392:
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3387:
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3384:Biotechnology
3382:
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3363:Tree breeding
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3187:Venus flytrap
3185:
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3008:
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2999:
2997:
2995:
2991:
2985:
2982:
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2972:
2970:
2969:Breeding pair
2967:
2965:
2964:Breeding back
2962:
2960:
2957:
2955:
2952:
2951:
2948:
2947:Water buffalo
2945:
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2843:Animal breeds
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1936:Pathirana, R.
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1124:United States
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786:Trumpf barley
785:
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459:United States
448:
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329:
326:and proposed
325:
321:
316:
312:
308:
298:
296:
295:Traditionally
292:
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110:Lewis Stadler
101:
99:
95:
91:
87:
83:
72:
70:
69:atomic energy
64:
56:
53:
49:
43:
41:
37:
33:
29:
25:
21:
3198:and genetics
3172:Sweet potato
3123:
3116:
3108:
3091:
3079:
3045:
3038:
3031:
3024:
2802:
2783:Backcrossing
2706:. Retrieved
2704:. 2016-04-13
2698:
2679:. Retrieved
2672:
2668:
2635:
2599:
2588:. Retrieved
2584:
2574:
2549:
2545:
2539:
2484:. Retrieved
2474:
2455:
2449:
2438:. Retrieved
2431:the original
2426:
2412:
2403:
2378:
2374:
2352:
2343:
2324:
2288:
2215:
2204:
2193:
2159:
2147:
2127:
2120:
2099:
2091:
2071:
2057:
2045:
2036:
2023:
2014:
2001:
1987:
1978:
1965:
1956:
1943:
1931:
1884:
1878:
1872:
1864:
1853:. Retrieved
1848:
1838:
1811:
1807:
1797:
1772:
1768:
1758:
1731:
1727:
1717:
1690:
1686:
1676:
1665:. Retrieved
1661:
1652:
1618:. Retrieved
1614:
1587:
1575:. Retrieved
1565:
1537:. Retrieved
1517:
1513:
1473:
1467:
1430:
1426:
1416:
1346:
1340:
1276:
1270:
1224:
1184:Verticillium
1183:
1153:Verticillium
1152:
676:
653:Sweet potato
505:
360:
351:
336:
320:terms of use
315:human health
304:
284:
234:
216:microgravity
213:
189:
168:
141:
134:
107:
96:to generate
79:
66:
62:
44:
23:
19:
18:
3394:Mutagenesis
3307:Sex linkage
3272:Codominance
3245:stabilizing
3225:directional
3111:(daffodils)
3025:Callistemon
2808:Outcrossing
1891:: 311β338.
1814:(6): 1111.
1775:: 223β233.
1476:(12): 1β84.
1353:: 659β687.
1283:: 667β697.
1132:Calrose 76
1083:indica rice
1026:Centenario
671:indica rice
583:Binamoog-5
431:Netherlands
271:chlorophyll
267:ultraviolet
198:and CRISPR/
145:Ultraviolet
122:mutagenesis
94:transposons
3378:Categories
3358:Rare breed
3230:disruptive
3167:Strawberry
2898:Guinea pig
2793:Inbreeding
2788:Crossbreed
2708:2021-08-08
2681:2021-08-08
2590:2013-06-19
2440:2016-11-29
2381:(2): 167.
1855:2011-07-16
1667:2024-09-12
1433:(7): 1β2.
1247:References
1179:Peppermint
1172:Grapefruit
1148:Peppermint
1138:gamma rays
669:26Zhaizao
572:Bangladesh
501:Bangladesh
330:and other
262:phenotypes
130:microwaves
126:gamma rays
3312:F1 hybrid
3287:Heterosis
3277:Epistasis
3267:Dominance
3262:Phenotype
3220:balancing
3177:Sweetcorn
3160:cultivars
3124:Nepenthes
3109:Narcissus
3092:Grevillea
3052:Cherimoya
2751:cultivars
2546:Euphytica
2375:Euphytica
1907:0066-4286
1830:2073-4395
1789:0304-4238
1750:1573-5044
1709:1573-5044
1514:Euphytica
1385:211049671
1369:1543-5008
1299:1543-5008
1241:Dysgenics
918:Osa Gold
861:blackgram
585:mung bean
552:Australia
529:groundnut
519:Argentina
236:Ion beams
165:Chemicals
155:virulence
151:knockouts
104:Radiation
90:radiation
76:Processes
40:cultivars
32:radiation
28:chemicals
3389:Breeding
3353:Landrace
3343:Germline
3338:Eugenics
3282:Dwarfing
3257:Genotype
3235:negative
3155:breeders
3074:Cucumber
3046:Capsicum
3039:Cannabis
3007:Japanese
2925:breeding
2908:breeding
2871:breeding
2833:Purebred
2644:Archived
2608:Archived
2566:22320510
2528:Archived
2486:20 April
2395:36088943
2353:BBC News
2167:Archived
2080:Archived
1923:49615444
1915:29958073
1808:Agronomy
1641:Archived
1620:20 April
1577:20 April
1539:20 April
1534:34494057
1459:18273413
1405:Archived
1377:32023090
1315:73471425
1307:30835493
1230:See also
1160:Sanilac
1073:Thailand
1028:Amarinth
988:mungbean
981:chickpea
972:NIAB-78
961:Pakistan
844:PNR-381
691:Diamant
491:(1.4%)
477:(1.7%)
473:Bulgaria
463:(2.4%)
449:(4.3%)
435:(5.3%)
421:(5.5%)
407:(6.7%)
393:(11.5%)
379:(15.0%)
365:(25.2%)
240:deleting
3333:Breeder
3205:Culling
3117:Nemesia
3080:Gazania
3062:hybrids
2861:Chicken
2776:Methods
2639:(2014)
2603:(2012)
2523:(2012)
2505:(2008)
1450:2218926
1400:(2014)
1219:soybean
1202:Vietnam
939:Myanmar
810:cassava
778:Germany
731:Finland
642:mutants
640:soybean
609:Maybel
487:Vietnam
445:Germany
337:Unlike
324:patents
305:In the
247:of the
204:genomes
180:TILLING
112:of the
98:mutants
59:History
36:enzymes
3182:Tomato
3130:Olives
3069:Coffee
3057:Citrus
3014:Banana
2942:Turkey
2932:Rabbit
2920:Pigeon
2878:Donkey
2856:Cattle
2828:Hybrid
2747:Breeds
2702:(IAEA)
2564:
2462:
2393:
2331:
2295:
2135:
2108:
1921:
1913:
1905:
1828:
1787:
1748:
1707:
1532:
1457:
1447:
1383:
1375:
1367:
1313:
1305:
1297:
1199:
1121:
1096:
1070:
1048:
1035:barley
1021:barley
1008:
995:lentil
986:NM-28
979:CM-72
974:cotton
958:
936:
907:
892:Durum
881:
863:(YMC,
823:
797:
775:
756:France
753:
728:
706:
693:barley
683:
627:
611:tomato
598:
569:
549:
516:
498:
484:
470:
456:
442:
428:
417:Russia
414:
400:
386:
372:
257:kapton
118:X-rays
3321:Other
3135:Onion
3103:Mango
3086:Grape
3032:Canna
3019:Basil
3002:Apple
2937:Sheep
2903:Horse
2893:Goose
2671:[
2562:S2CID
2434:(PDF)
2423:(PDF)
2391:S2CID
2285:(PDF)
2033:(PDF)
2011:(PDF)
1975:(PDF)
1953:(PDF)
1919:S2CID
1887:(1).
1530:S2CID
1381:S2CID
1349:(1).
1311:S2CID
1279:(1).
1051:Sudan
910:Japan
894:wheat
884:Italy
855:wheat
826:India
800:Ghana
709:Egypt
403:India
389:Japan
253:RIKEN
245:TIARA
116:used
34:, or
3150:Rose
3145:Rice
3140:Pear
2888:Goat
2883:Duck
2749:and
2488:2011
2460:ISBN
2329:ISBN
2293:ISBN
2133:ISBN
2106:ISBN
1911:PMID
1903:ISSN
1849:GOOD
1826:ISSN
1785:ISSN
1746:ISSN
1705:ISSN
1622:2011
1579:2011
1541:2011
1455:PMID
1431:2007
1373:PMID
1365:ISSN
1303:PMID
1295:ISSN
1212:rice
1162:bean
1134:Rice
1011:Peru
920:Pear
846:Rice
601:Cuba
536:rice
313:and
218:and
200:Cas9
196:Fok1
84:and
52:IAEA
3098:Hop
2915:Pig
2866:Dog
2851:Cat
2554:doi
2550:120
2383:doi
2379:118
1893:doi
1816:doi
1777:doi
1773:227
1736:doi
1732:149
1695:doi
1691:143
1522:doi
1518:135
1445:PMC
1435:doi
1355:doi
1285:doi
92:or
48:FAO
3380::
2697:.
2667:.
2619:^
2583:.
2560:.
2548:.
2514:^
2496:^
2425:.
2389:.
2377:.
2361:^
2351:.
2307:^
2287:.
2228:^
2178:^
2066:).
2035:.
2013:.
1977:.
1955:.
1917:.
1909:.
1901:.
1885:56
1883:.
1877:.
1847:.
1824:.
1812:11
1810:.
1806:.
1783:.
1771:.
1767:.
1744:.
1730:.
1726:.
1703:.
1689:.
1685:.
1660:.
1630:^
1613:.
1601:^
1549:^
1528:.
1516:.
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1482:^
1453:.
1443:.
1429:.
1425:.
1393:^
1379:.
1371:.
1363:.
1347:71
1345:.
1339:.
1323:^
1309:.
1301:.
1293:.
1277:70
1275:.
1269:.
1255:^
322:,
277:.
251:,
174:.
161:.
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30:,
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2725:v
2711:.
2684:.
2593:.
2568:.
2556::
2490:.
2468:.
2443:.
2397:.
2385::
2337:.
2301:.
2141:.
2114:.
1995:.
1925:.
1895::
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1858:.
1832:.
1818::
1791:.
1779::
1752:.
1738::
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1697::
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1624:.
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1581:.
1543:.
1524::
1461:.
1437::
1387:.
1357::
1317:.
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1188:)
1181:(
1157:)
1150:(
1140:)
867:)
50:/
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