464:
1117:
1471:'s 1988 report estimated the committed dose 1 km away to be 20 μSv/a for older plants or 1 μSv/a for newer plants with improved fly ash capture, but was unable to confirm these numbers by test. When coal is burned, uranium, thorium and all the uranium daughters accumulated by disintegration – radium, radon, polonium – are released. Radioactive materials previously buried underground in coal deposits are released as fly ash or, if fly ash is captured, may be incorporated into concrete manufactured with fly ash.
1108:(or, about 100–300 neutrons per square meter per second). The flux is dependent on geomagnetic latitude, with a maximum near the magnetic poles. At solar minimums, due to lower solar magnetic field shielding, the flux is about twice as high vs the solar maximum. It also dramatically increases during solar flares. In the vicinity of larger heavier objects, e.g. buildings or ships, the neutron flux measures higher; this is known as "cosmic ray induced neutron signature", or "ship effect" as it was first detected with ships at sea.
1224:
1150:
1130:
4469:
4433:
805:
4493:
4445:
1087:
observed in few places only, a protective and adaptive effect is suggested by at least one study whose authors nonetheless caution that data from Ramsar are not yet sufficiently strong to relax existing regulatory dose limits. However, the recent statistical analyses discussed that there is no correlation between the risk of negative health effects and elevated level of natural background radiation.
4481:
521:"Exposure to radiation from natural sources is an inescapable feature of everyday life in both working and public environments. This exposure is in most cases of little or no concern to society, but in certain situations the introduction of health protection measures needs to be considered, for example when working with uranium and thorium ores and other Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material (
1552:. The former is usually more compact and affordable and reacts to several radiation types, while the latter is more complex and can detect specific radiation energies and types. Readings indicate radiation levels from all sources including background, and real-time readings are in general unvalidated, but correlation between independent detectors increases confidence in measured levels.
4457:
444:
98:
introduced and specified source. This is important where radiation measurements are taken of a specified radiation source, where the existing background may affect this measurement. An example would be measurement of radioactive contamination in a gamma radiation background, which could increase the total reading above that expected from the contamination alone.
1512:. Heavy smoking results in a radiation dose of 160 mSv/year to localized spots at the bifurcations of segmental bronchi in the lungs from the decay of polonium-210. This dose is not readily comparable to the radiation protection limits, since the latter deal with whole body doses, while the dose from smoking is delivered to a very small portion of the body.
685:
residents to high concentrations. The widespread construction of well insulated and sealed homes in the northern industrialized world has led to radon becoming the primary source of background radiation in some localities in northern North
America and Europe. Basement sealing and suction ventilation reduce exposure. Some building materials, for example
673:. Concentrations over 500 times the world average have been found inside buildings in Scandinavia, the United States, Iran, and the Czech Republic. Radon is a decay product of uranium, which is relatively common in the Earth's crust, but more concentrated in ore-bearing rocks scattered around the world. Radon seeps out of these
1208:
variations in the total dose to individual workers is not known. This can be a significant confounding factor in assessing radiation exposure effects in a population of workers who may have significantly different natural background and medical radiation doses. This is most significant when the occupational doses are very low.
984:(C), (half-life 5,730 years). Excluding internal contamination by external radioactive material, these two are the largest components of internal radiation exposure from biologically functional components of the human body. About 4,000 nuclei of K decay per second, and a similar number of C. The energy of
2215:
1543:
Regular
Radiation measurement is carried out at multiple levels. Government agencies compile radiation readings as part of environmental monitoring mandates, often making the readings available to the public and sometimes in near-real-time. Collaborative groups and private individuals may also make
1495:
delivers an effective dose to the whole body ranging from 1 to 20 mSv (100 to 2000 mrem). The average
American receives about 3 mSv of diagnostic medical dose per year; countries with the lowest levels of health care receive almost none. Radiation treatment for various diseases also accounts for
1107:
Most of the natural neutron background is a product of cosmic rays interacting with the atmosphere. The neutron energy peaks at around 1 MeV and rapidly drops above. At sea level, the production of neutrons is about 20 neutrons per second per kilogram of material interacting with the cosmic rays
1524:
refers to the measured value from any incidental sources that affect an instrument when a specific radiation source sample is being measured. This background contribution, which is established as a stable value by multiple measurements, usually before and after sample measurement, is subtracted from
1207:
for occupational doses includes radiation that is not measured by radiation dose instruments in potential occupational exposure conditions. This includes both offsite "natural background radiation" and any medical radiation doses. This value is not typically measured or known from surveys, such that
97:
as "Dose or the dose rate (or an observed measure related to the dose or dose rate) attributable to all sources other than the one(s) specified. A distinction is thus made between the dose which is already in a location, which is defined here as being "background", and the dose due to a deliberately
947:
atoms. These cosmogenic nuclides eventually reach the Earth's surface and can be incorporated into living organisms. The production of these nuclides varies slightly with short-term variations in solar cosmic ray flux, but is considered practically constant over long scales of thousands to millions
1963:
Fornalski, K. W.; Adams, R.; Allison, W.; Corrice, L. E.; Cuttler, J. M.; Davey, Ch.; Dobrzyński, L.; Esposito, V. J.; Feinendegen, L. E.; Gomez, L. S.; Lewis, P.; Mahn, J.; Miller, M. L.; Pennington, Ch. W.; Sacks, B.; Sutou, S.; Welsh, J. S. (2015). "The assumption of radon-induced cancer risk".
1074:
recommended limit for exposure to the public from artificial sources. They additionally receive a substantial internal dose from radon. Record radiation levels were found in a house where the effective dose due to ambient radiation fields was 131 mSv (13.1 rem) per year, and the internal
684:
Although radon is naturally occurring, exposure can be enhanced or diminished by human activity, notably house construction. A poorly sealed dwelling floor, or poor basement ventilation, in an otherwise well insulated house can result in the accumulation of radon within the dwelling, exposing its
2705:
Our preliminary studies seem to indicate the presence of adaptive response in the cells of some Ramsar residents, but we do not claim to have seen hormetic effects in any of those studied. Given the apparent lack of ill effects among observed populations of these high dose rate areas, these data
1263:
Total doses from the
Fukushima I accidents were between 1 and 15 mSv for the inhabitants of the affected areas. Thyroid doses for children were below 50 mSv. 167 cleanup workers received doses above 100 mSv, with 6 of them receiving more than 250 mSv (the Japanese exposure limit for emergency
1086:
Epidemiological studies are underway to identify health effects associated with the high radiation levels in Ramsar. It is much too early to draw unambiguous statistically significant conclusions. While so far support for beneficial effects of chronic radiation (like longer lifespan) has been
1539:
used for surface contamination monitoring. In an elevated gamma background the scintillator material will be affected by the background gamma, which will add to the reading obtained from any contamination which is being monitored. In extreme cases it will make the instrument unusable as the
1488:. This medical component can range much higher, with an average of 3 mSv per year across the USA population. Other human contributors include smoking, air travel, radioactive building materials, historical nuclear weapons testing, nuclear power accidents and nuclear industry operation.
1047:. This rate would convert to 0.8 Gy/a for year-round continuous exposure, but in fact the levels vary seasonally and are much lower in the nearest residences. The record measurement has not been duplicated and is omitted from UNSCEAR's latest reports. Nearby tourist beaches in
2021:
2219:
876:
crews and frequent passengers, who spend many hours per year in this environment. During their flights airline crews typically get an additional occupational dose between 2.2 mSv (220 mrem) per year and 2.19 mSv/year, according to various studies.
1007:
The global average internal dose from radionuclides other than radon and its decay products is 0.29 mSv/a, of which 0.17 mSv/a comes from K, 0.12 mSv/a comes from the uranium and thorium series, and 12 μSv/a comes from C.
790:, a radon decay product. The atmospheric background varies greatly with wind direction and meteorological conditions. Radon also can be released from the ground in bursts and then form "radon clouds" capable of traveling tens of kilometers.
636:
The level over the sea and other large bodies of water tends to be about a tenth of the terrestrial background. Conversely, coastal areas (and areas by the side of fresh water) may have an additional contribution from dispersed sediment.
2706:
suggest that current dose limits may be overly conservative. However, the available data do not seem sufficient to cause national or international advisory bodies to change their current conservative radiation protection recommendations;
1540:
background swamps the lower level of radiation from the contamination. In such instruments the background can be continually monitored in the "Ready" state, and subtracted from any reading obtained when being used in "Measuring" mode.
1165:. The New Zealand curve is representative for the Southern Hemisphere, the Austrian curve is representative for the Northern Hemisphere. Atmospheric nuclear weapon tests almost doubled the concentration of C in the Northern Hemisphere.
1293:
at the same compound – released substantial radioactivity into the environment. The
Windscale fire resulted in thyroid doses of 5–20 mSv for adults and 10–60 mSv for children. The doses from the accidents at Mayak are unknown.
1177:; some of this material is dispersed worldwide. The increase in background radiation due to these tests peaked in 1963 at about 0.15 mSv per year worldwide, or about 7% of average background dose from all sources. The
510:. In Europe, average natural background exposure by country ranges from under 2 mSv (200 mrem) annually in the United Kingdom to more than 7 mSv (700 mrem) annually for some groups of people in Finland.
2008:
975:
Two of the essential elements that make up the human body, namely potassium and carbon, have radioactive isotopes that add significantly to our background radiation dose. An average human contains about 17 milligrams of
1251:
Total doses from the
Chernobyl accident ranged from 10 to 50 mSv over 20 years for the inhabitants of the affected areas, with most of the dose received in the first years after the disaster, and over 100 mSv for
1235:
as incidents typically do not release any additional radioactive substances into the environment. Large releases of radioactivity from nuclear reactors are extremely rare. To the present day, there were two major
995:
of 40 days. This means there are about 3700 beta particles per second produced by the decay of C. However, a C atom is in the genetic information of about half the cells, while potassium is not a component of
1817:
1120:
Displays showing ambient radiation fields of 0.120–0.130 μSv/h (1.05–1.14 mSv/a) in a nuclear power plant. This reading includes natural background from cosmic and terrestrial sources.
2315:
Nair, MK; Nambi, KS; Amma, NS; Gangadharan, P; Jayalekshmi, P; Jayadevan, S; Cherian, V; Reghuram, KN (1999). "Population study in the high natural background radiation area in Kerala, India".
3850:
2423:
1468:
736:
586:
Many shorter half-life (and thus more intensely radioactive) isotopes have not decayed out of the terrestrial environment because of their on-going natural production. Examples of these are
712:
radioactive nuclides. These radioactive particles are inhaled and remain lodged in the lungs, causing continued exposure. Radon is thus assumed to be the second leading cause of
808:
Estimate of the maximum dose of radiation received at an altitude of 12 km 20 January 2005, following a violent solar flare. The doses are expressed in microsieverts per hour.
2574:
Hendry, Jolyon H; Simon, Steven L; Wojcik, Andrzej; Sohrabi, Mehdi; Burkart, Werner; Cardis, Elisabeth; Laurier, Dominique; Tirmarche, Margot; Hayata, Isamu (1 June 2009).
1532:
definition of background as being "Dose or dose rate (or an observed measure related to the dose or dose rate) attributable to all sources other than the one(s) specified.
3830:
868:
in the United States (at 1650 meters elevation) receives a cosmic ray dose roughly twice that of a location at sea level. This radiation is much more intense in the upper
583:(half-life 1.25 billion years) is only at about 8% of original activity. But during the time that humans have existed the amount of radiation has decreased very little.
1467:
estimated that coal-fired power plants of that time may contribute a whole-body committed dose of 19 μSv/a to their immediate neighbours in a radius of 500 m. The
1231:
Under normal circumstances, nuclear reactors release small amounts of radioactive gases, which cause small radiation exposures to the public. Events classified on the
1535:
The same issue occurs with radiation protection instruments, where a reading from an instrument may be affected by the background radiation. An example of this is a
1227:
Radiation level in a range of situations, from normal activities up to the nuclear accidents. Each step up the scale indicates a tenfold increase in radiation level.
860:. The immediate dose from cosmic radiation is largely from muons, neutrons, and electrons, and this dose varies in different parts of the world based largely on the
812:
The Earth and all living things on it are constantly bombarded by radiation from outer space. This radiation primarily consists of positively charged ions from
506:) per year. In some developed countries, like the US and Japan, artificial exposure is, on average, greater than the natural exposure, due to greater access to
720:, and accounts for 15,000 to 22,000 cancer deaths per year in the US alone. However, the discussion about the opposite experimental results is still going on.
2519:
1095:
Background radiation doses in the immediate vicinity of particles of high atomic number materials, within the human body, have a small enhancement due to the
1855:
1825:
1924:
3835:
1066:, primarily due to the use of local naturally radioactive limestone as a building material. The 1000 most exposed residents receive an average external
1059:. To convert to Sieverts (Sv) a radiation weighting factor is required; these weighting factors vary from 1 (beta & gamma) to 20 (alpha particles).
2454:
2068:
731:, United States may hold the record for the most radioactive dwellings in the world. International radiation protection organizations estimate that a
571:
since the formation of the Earth, because there is no significant amount currently transported to the Earth. Thus, the present activity on Earth from
2575:
101:
However, if no radiation source is specified as being of concern, then the total radiation dose measurement at a location is generally called the
1181:
of 1963 prohibited above-ground tests, thus by the year 2000 the worldwide dose from these tests has decreased to only 0.005 mSv per year.
1173:. Some of this contamination is local, rendering the immediate surroundings highly radioactive, while some of it is carried longer distances as
912:, this background radiation is much more intense, and represents a considerable obstacle to potential future long term human exploration of the
3840:
3557:
1052:
1083:
was 72 mSv (7.2 rem) per year. This unique case is over 80 times higher than the world average natural human exposure to radiation.
1016:
Some areas have greater dosage than the country-wide averages. In the world in general, exceptionally high natural background locales include
669:). Radon is unevenly distributed and varies with weather, such that much higher doses apply to many areas of the world, where it represents a
4350:
3716:
3530:
1327:
1307:
3330:
470:
used by early researchers first detected cosmic rays and other background radiation. They can be used to visualize the background radiation
3013:
1310:, and other U.S. and international agencies, require that licensees limit radiation exposure to individual members of the public to 1
4335:
3157:
963:
created by nuclear reactions of high energy particles and gamma rays. At higher altitudes there is also the contribution of continuous
459:(0.82 mSv/a) This is very close to the world average background radiation of 0.87 mSv/a from cosmic and terrestrial sources.
3183:
3131:
3388:
62:
2847:
1039:
The highest level of purely natural radiation ever recorded on the Earth's surface was 90 μGy/h on a
Brazilian black beach (
2923:
2374:
4304:
2816:
2299:
3881:
3496:
3460:
3290:
2959:
2536:
2281:
1918:
1769:
1731:
1277:: In addition to the civilian accidents described above, several accidents at early nuclear weapons facilities – such as the
486:
from radioactive materials that remain outside the body and from cosmic radiation from space. The worldwide average natural
4330:
4299:
4244:
3492:
1638:
1200:
recommends limiting occupational radiation exposure to 50 mSv (5 rem) per year, and 100 mSv (10 rem) in 5 years.
724:
1800:
1575:
List of international near-real-time collaborative/private measurement sites, employing primarily Geiger-Muller detectors:
1215:
conference in 2002, it was recommended that occupational doses below 1–2 mSv per year do not warrant regulatory scrutiny.
904:
which accumulates cosmic rays and results from the Earth's magnetic field. Outside low Earth orbit, as experienced by the
3963:
3845:
2689:
2244:
1759:
677:
into the atmosphere or into ground water or infiltrates into buildings. It can be inhaled into the lungs, along with its
3513:
1491:
A typical chest x-ray delivers 20 μSv (2 mrem) of effective dose. A dental x-ray delivers a dose of 5 to 10 μSv. A
708:
Radiation exposure from radon is indirect. Radon has a short half-life (4 days) and decays into other solid particulate
498:) per year. This is four times the worldwide average artificial radiation exposure, which in 2008 amounted to about 0.6
4279:
3825:
3550:
3428:
1529:
514:
94:
3434:
2190:
2165:
2062:
1695:
1232:
1000:. The decay of a C atom inside DNA in one person happens about 50 times per second, changing a carbon atom to one of
17:
2093:
4345:
2542:
2010:
Indoor Radon
Concentration Data: Its Geographic and Geologic Distribution, an Example from the Capital District, NY
2396:
Zhang, SP (2010). "Mechanism study of adaptive response in high background radiation area of
Yangjiang in China".
1847:
3866:
2901:
Sources and
Effects of Ionizing Radiation - UNSCEAR 2000 Report to the General Assembly, with Scientific Annexes
1903:
1330:
life-cycle assessment, nearly all sources of energy result in some level of occupational and public exposure to
463:
3648:
2455:"Gamma dose rates and distribution of natural radionuclides in sand beaches – Ilha Grande, Southeastern Brazil"
1609:
1116:
3039:
567:
are intensely radioactive but occur in low concentrations. Most of these sources have been decreasing, due to
478:, rocks, water, air, and vegetation, from which it is inhaled and ingested into the body. In addition to this
4513:
4411:
3931:
3876:
3871:
3543:
3110:
1464:
1303:
1248:– which caused substantial contamination. The Chernobyl accident was the only one to cause immediate deaths.
1245:
2047:
633:
the same peak for atmospheric radon). Potassium-40 is detectable directly via its 1461 keV gamma peak.
2493:
53:
Background radiation originates from a variety of sources, both natural and artificial. These include both
4523:
4167:
1886:
1654:
1649:
889:
535:
58:
31:
2769:"Enhancement of natural background gamma-radiation dose around uranium microparticles in the human body"
2624:
543:, for the purpose of the table above, only includes sources that remain external to the body. The major
4423:
4399:
4254:
4227:
3919:
3658:
2144:
2122:
1268:
1169:
Frequent above-ground nuclear explosions between the 1940s and 1960s scattered a substantial amount of
3254:
2898:
2422:
1901:
1719:
1568:
4437:
4284:
4137:
3605:
1170:
2988:
1545:
1544:
real-time readings available to the public. Instruments used for radiation measurement include the
959:
The cosmic radiation at sea level usually manifests as 511 keV gamma rays from annihilation of
4222:
4132:
3996:
3915:
3902:
3897:
3521:
2720:"Cancer Mortality Among People Living in Areas With Various Levels of Natural Background Radiation"
1556:
List of near-real-time government radiation measurement sites, employing multiple instrument types:
1257:
1067:
901:
487:
2949:
2576:"Human exposure to high natural background radiation: what can it teach us about radiation risks?"
2053:. In Greenberg, Michael I.; Hamilton, Richard J.; Phillips, Scott D.; McCluskey, Gayla J. (eds.).
105:, and this is usually the case where an ambient dose rate is measured for environmental purposes.
4162:
3956:
3693:
3342:
1315:
1178:
728:
670:
503:
495:
78:
3266:
3260:
3002:
443:
4528:
4403:
4314:
3988:
3923:
3820:
3753:
3505:
1644:
1549:
1536:
1253:
1137:
doses in the continental United States resulting from all exposure routes from all atmospheric
3526:
3003:"OCCUPATIONAL RADIATION PROTECTION: PROTECTING WORKERS AGAINST EXPOSURE TO IONIZING RADIATION"
2900:
525:). These situations have become the focus of greater attention by the Agency in recent years."
4407:
4142:
3927:
3736:
1721:
924:
917:
448:
1484:
The global average human exposure to artificial radiation is 0.6 mSv/a, primarily from
1463:
which is inhaled and ingested by neighbours, and incorporated into crops. A 1978 paper from
113:
Background radiation varies with location and time, and the following table gives examples:
4518:
4264:
4152:
4109:
3748:
3741:
3566:
3270:
3256:
3198:
3073:
2590:
2324:
1949:
1889:, Center for Technology and National Security Policy, National Defense University, May 2005
1664:
1096:
992:
927:
in the atmosphere, in which secondary radiation generated by the cosmic rays combines with
829:
686:
3230:
2649:
Ghiassi-nejad, M; Mortazavi, SM; Cameron, JR; Niroomand-rad, A; Karam, PA (January 2002).
2427:
8:
4497:
4381:
4259:
4172:
3763:
3673:
3357:
3135:
2852:
Trends: A Compendium of Data on Global Change. Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center
2821:
Trends: A Compendium of Data on Global Change. Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center
2216:"Radioactive human body – Harvard University Natural Science Lecture Demonstrations"
1659:
576:
4340:
3274:
3202:
3077:
2594:
2328:
4485:
4473:
4376:
4197:
4177:
4157:
4041:
3949:
3610:
3600:
3595:
3304:
3296:
3222:
2976:
2793:
2768:
2744:
2719:
2681:
2611:
2340:
1989:
1241:
1063:
1017:
953:
936:
779:
709:
474:
Radioactive material is found throughout nature. Detectable amounts occur naturally in
43:
3501:
2855:
2651:"Very high background radiation areas of Ramsar, Iran: preliminary biological studies"
2602:
1055:
were later evaluated at 14 and 15 μGy/h. Note that the values quoted here are in
4269:
4147:
4084:
4049:
3653:
3424:
3380:
3286:
3214:
3091:
2955:
2798:
2749:
2673:
2669:
2648:
2616:
2532:
2485:
2477:
2405:
2366:
2348:
2277:
2058:
1981:
1914:
1765:
1727:
1691:
1562:
948:
of years. The constant production, incorporation into organisms and relatively short
861:
568:
3226:
2824:
2685:
2521:
Natural Radioactivity in Extreme South of Bahia, Brazil Using Gamma-Ray Spectrometry
2296:
1993:
4449:
4274:
3794:
3789:
3372:
3308:
3278:
3206:
3182:
McBride, J. P.; Moore, R. E.; Witherspoon, J. P.; Blanco, R. E. (8 December 1978).
3081:
2951:
The 2007 Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection
2788:
2780:
2739:
2731:
2665:
2606:
2598:
2469:
2332:
2101:
1973:
1619:
1290:
1142:
610:
276:
82:
54:
3468:
3417:
Radiation Exposure of the UK Population from Medical and Dental X-ray Examinations
3210:
2573:
2473:
2007:
Thomas, John J.; Thomas, Barbara R.; Overeynder, Helen M. (27–30 September 1995).
1764:. Bethesda, Md.: National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. 2009.
778:
Most of the atmospheric background is caused by radon and its decay products. The
4386:
4371:
4187:
4099:
4089:
3941:
3688:
3663:
3517:
2303:
1804:
1688:
IAEA Safety Glossary: Terminology Used in Nuclear Safety and Radiation Protection
1613:
1485:
1174:
1138:
991:
C is present in the human body at a level of about 3700 Bq (0.1 μCi) with a
717:
662:
507:
335:
worldwide average to workers only is 0.7 mSv, mostly due to radon in mines;
74:
4234:
4192:
4182:
4104:
4094:
4064:
3779:
3726:
3643:
3590:
3376:
3255:
United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (1988).
2899:
United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (2000).
2650:
1902:
United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (2006).
1797:
1720:
United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (2008).
1509:
1278:
1185:
1076:
1025:
964:
905:
897:
845:
821:
732:
2233:
1977:
1775:
666:
629:. Uranium-238 manifests as 609, 1120, and 1764 keV peaks of bismuth-214 (
4507:
4309:
4069:
4054:
3633:
3510:
2877:
2735:
2481:
2020:. Nashville, TN: American Association of Radon Scientists and Technologists.
1334:
as result of their manufacturing or operations. The following table uses man·
1223:
985:
928:
893:
694:
678:
658:
467:
3415:
956:
of ancient biological materials, such as wooden artifacts or human remains.
4461:
4289:
4249:
4114:
3758:
3678:
3615:
3218:
3095:
2802:
2784:
2753:
2677:
2620:
2489:
2409:
2352:
2269:
1985:
1962:
1950:"Radon and Cancer: Questions and Answers – National Cancer Institute (USA)"
1505:
1492:
1331:
988:
produced by K is about 10 times that from the beta particles from C decay.
977:
913:
825:
654:
626:
622:
580:
544:
266:
180:
118:
3384:
2717:
2017:
1904:"Annex E: Sources-to-effects assessment for radon in homes and workplaces"
4031:
3799:
3731:
3668:
1796:
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology of Japan
1561:
Europe and Canada: European Radiological Data Exchange Platform (EURDEP)
1282:
1158:
1149:
1056:
869:
787:
713:
614:
602:
572:
3265:. Radiation Research. Vol. 120. New York: United Nations. pp.
4079:
4026:
3683:
3535:
3300:
2344:
1154:
799:
690:
606:
3184:"Radiological impact of airborne effluents of coal and nuclear plants"
2424:
United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation
1469:
United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation
1129:
590:-226 (decay product of thorium-230 in decay chain of uranium-238) and
4366:
4239:
4074:
4021:
4011:
3972:
3721:
3638:
3585:
2518:
Vasconcelos, Danilo C.; et al. (27 September – 2 October 2009).
2276:(Revised and updated ed.). New York: ACE books. pp. 37–39.
1048:
1033:
1029:
1021:
981:
949:
940:
881:
828:. This radiation interacts with atoms in the atmosphere to create an
591:
548:
452:
184:
3282:
3086:
3061:
2336:
1606:
872:, around 10 km altitude, and is thus of particular concern for
316:
peak of 0.11 mSv in 1963 and declining since; higher near sites
4016:
4001:
3784:
1044:
1001:
960:
944:
853:
618:
356:
peak of 0.04 mSv in 1986 and declining since; higher near site
3108:
1761:
Ionizing radiation exposure of the population of the United States
1685:
1062:
The highest background radiation in an inhabited area is found in
575:
is only half as much as it originally was because of its 4.5
4294:
3815:
3698:
3158:"Life Cycle Assessment of Electricity Generation Options | UNECE"
1460:
1335:
1311:
1162:
1134:
932:
873:
857:
650:
649:, a radioactive gas that emanates from the ground. Radon and its
556:
552:
499:
491:
272:
1584:(mix of old-data detector stations and some near-real-time ones)
804:
456:
1600:
1508:, originating from the decay products of radon, which stick to
1011:
865:
841:
813:
756:
702:
645:
The biggest source of natural background radiation is airborne
595:
587:
560:
70:
2528:
1626:
681:, where they will reside for a period of time after exposure.
374:
up to 0.02 mSv near sites; excludes occupational exposure
4119:
4006:
3181:
1887:
A Primer on the Detection of Nuclear and Radiological Weapons
1286:
1080:
885:
833:
646:
564:
157:
66:
46:
present in the environment at a particular location which is
2531:. Rio de Janeiro: Associação Brasileira de Energia Nuclear.
601:
Thorium and uranium (and their daughters) primarily undergo
2718:
Dobrzyński, L.; Fornalski, K.W.; Feinendegen, L.E. (2015).
1913:. Vol. II. New York: United Nations (published 2008).
1681:
1679:
1212:
1197:
1071:
909:
880:
Similarly, cosmic rays cause higher background exposure in
849:
837:
817:
698:
674:
522:
475:
4456:
2924:"Resuming Nuclear Testing a Slap in the Face to Survivors"
884:
than in humans on the surface of Earth. Astronauts in low
3037:
1594:
1581:
1496:
some dose, both in individuals and in those around them.
997:
783:
3358:"Revised Radiation Doses for Typical X-Ray Examinations"
2314:
1726:. New York: United Nations (published 2010). p. 4.
1676:
609:, and are not easily detectable. However, many of their
392:
Industrial, security, medical, educational, and research
3040:"Health effects of the Chernobyl accident: an overview"
2766:
1588:
661:
all contribute to an average inhaled dose of 1.26
117:
Average annual human exposure to ionizing radiation in
3132:"Radiological Consequences of the 1957 Windscale Fire"
2767:
Pattison, J. E.; Hugtenburg, R. P.; Green, S. (2009).
2145:"Radiation exposure during commercial airline flights"
2123:"Radiation Exposure During Commercial Airline Flights"
2094:"Background Radiation & Other Sources of Exposure"
2055:
Occupational, industrial, and environmental toxicology
2006:
1459:
Coal plants emit radiation in the form of radioactive
1070:
of 6 mSv (600 mrem) per year, six times the
4421:
3423:. National Radiological Protection Board. p. 9.
1525:
the rate measured when the sample is being measured.
50:
due to deliberate introduction of radiation sources.
3404:(5,000 patient dose measurements from 375 hospitals)
1198:
International Commission on Radiological Protection
3971:
3109:U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (August 2009).
2452:
2142:
1885:Gary W. Philips, David J. Nagel, Timothy Coffey –
1818:"Naturally-Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORM)"
1111:
939:can be produced, but probably the most notable is
782:shows prominent peaks at 609, 1120, and 1764
337:US is mostly due to medical and aviation workers.
246:sizeable population groups receive 10–20 mSv
4505:
3262:Sources, Effects and Risks of Ionizing Radiation
3111:"Backgrounder on the Three Mile Island Accident"
297:cigarettes, air travel, building materials, etc.
108:
27:Measure of ionizing radiation in the environment
2297:Annual terrestrial radiation doses in the world
1474:
438:
3413:
3331:"Coal Combustion: Nuclear Resource or Danger?"
3059:
1897:
1895:
1124:
723:About 100,000 Bq/m of radon was found in
559:and their decay products, some of which, like
3957:
3551:
3531:United States Environmental Protection Agency
1715:
1713:
1711:
1709:
1707:
1308:United States Environmental Protection Agency
1188:has caused up to 2.4 million deaths by 2020.
3355:
2045:
1848:"Exposure to radiation from natural sources"
1012:Areas with high natural background radiation
3717:Airborne radioactive particulate monitoring
3458:
2569:
2567:
2565:
2563:
2517:
2057:(2nd ed.). St Louis, Missouri: Mosby.
2046:Upfal, Mark J.; Johnson, Christine (2003).
1892:
1810:
1686:International Atomic Energy Agency (2007).
1622:(the green circles are real-time detectors)
1569:near-real-time and laboratory data by state
727:basement in 1984. He and his neighbours in
617:is detectable via a 239 keV peak from
3964:
3950:
3558:
3544:
3502:Environmental and Background Radiation FAQ
2434:. Vol. 1. United Nations. p. 121
1704:
980:(K) and about 24 nanograms (10 g) of
451:on a hot summer day. Displayed background
3085:
2845:
2792:
2743:
2610:
2529:International Nuclear Atlantic Conference
2432:Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation
1754:
1752:
1750:
1723:Sources and effects of ionizing radiation
943:, which is produced by interactions with
63:naturally occurring radioactive materials
30:For background radiation from space, see
3565:
3038:World Health Organization (April 2006).
2560:
1881:
1879:
1877:
1875:
1873:
1222:
1191:
1148:
1128:
1115:
952:of carbon-14 are the principles used in
931:in the atmosphere to generate different
803:
462:
442:
3328:
2941:
2817:"Atmospheric δC record from Wellington"
900:of the Earth, but also suffer from the
864:and altitude. For example, the city of
93:Background radiation is defined by the
73:), as well as man-made medical X-rays,
14:
4506:
4305:Wireless electronic devices and health
2954:. ICRP publication 103. Vol. 37.
2892:
2773:Journal of the Royal Society Interface
2462:Journal of Environmental Radioactivity
2268:
1747:
1515:
529:
3945:
3882:Radiation Protection Convention, 1960
3539:
3497:Radiation Effects Research Foundation
3019:from the original on 29 November 2003
2921:
2395:
2272:(1976) . "The Explosions Within Us".
2250:from the original on 27 February 2008
2243:. Argonne National Lab. August 2005.
2195:sciencedemonstrations.fas.harvard.edu
1870:
1520:In a radiation metrology laboratory,
1297:
1102:
739:(EEC) of radon by a factor of 8 to 9
735:may be calculated by multiplying the
206:depends on soil and building material
4331:List of civilian radiation accidents
4300:Wireless device radiation and health
4295:Biological dose units and quantities
4245:Electromagnetic radiation and health
3335:Oak Ridge National Laboratory Review
2947:
2915:
1858:from the original on 9 February 2016
1639:Background radiation equivalent time
1218:
737:equilibrium equivalent concentration
701:, may emanate radon if they contain
3440:from the original on 9 October 2022
3394:from the original on 9 October 2022
2695:from the original on 9 October 2022
2074:from the original on 9 October 2022
2027:from the original on 9 October 2022
1930:from the original on 9 October 2022
793:
640:
447:The weather station outside of the
24:
4280:Radioactivity in the life sciences
3010:International Atomic Energy Agency
2583:Journal of Radiological Protection
2377:from the original on 15 April 2003
1530:International Atomic Energy Agency
832:of secondary radiation, including
621:, 511, 583 and 2614 keV from
515:International Atomic Energy Agency
95:International Atomic Energy Agency
25:
4540:
3486:
3134:. 10 October 1997. Archived from
2453:Freitas, AC; Alencar, AS (2004).
1607:http://radioactiveathome.org/map/
1499:
1321:
1233:International Nuclear Event Scale
970:
193:Terrestrial radiation from ground
4491:
4479:
4467:
4455:
4443:
4431:
3493:Background radiation description
3365:The British Journal of Radiology
2670:10.1097/00004032-200201000-00011
1090:
896:, are partially shielded by the
625:, and 911 and 969 keV from
160:, depends on indoor accumulation
3452:
3407:
3349:
3322:
3248:
3175:
3150:
3124:
3102:
3053:
3031:
2995:
2870:
2846:Levin, I.; et al. (1994).
2839:
2809:
2760:
2711:
2642:
2511:
2446:
2416:
2389:
2359:
2308:
2290:
2262:
2226:
2208:
2183:
2170:Federal Aviation Administration
2158:
2136:
2115:
2086:
2039:
2000:
1956:
1528:This is in accordance with the
1454:
1112:Artificial background radiation
908:astronauts who traveled to the
3649:Computed tomography dose index
3461:"Doses from cigarette smoking"
3060:Geoff Brumfiel (23 May 2012).
2398:Zhonghua Yu Fang Yi Xue Za Zhi
1942:
1840:
1790:
1774:. NCRP No. 160. Archived from
1563:Simple map of Gamma Dose Rates
1285:by the nuclear waste from the
13:
1:
3414:Hart, D.; Wall, B.F. (2002).
3356:Wall, B.F.; Hart, D. (1997).
3211:10.1126/science.202.4372.1045
2474:10.1016/j.jenvrad.2004.01.002
2018:International Radon Symposium
1911:Effects of Ionizing Radiation
1852:Nuclear Safety & Security
1670:
1465:Oak Ridge National Laboratory
1304:Nuclear Regulatory Commission
1246:Fukushima I nuclear accidents
166:Ingestion of food & water
109:Background dose rate examples
88:
42:is a measure of the level of
3341:(3–4): 18–19. Archived from
2922:Adams, Lilly (26 May 2020).
2166:"Radiobiology Research Team"
1824:. March 2019. Archived from
1601:http://radiationnetwork.com/
1475:Other sources of dose uptake
1256:. There were 28 deaths from
490:to humans is about 2.4
439:Natural background radiation
7:
4168:Cosmic background radiation
3062:"Fukushima's doses tallied"
2603:10.1088/0952-4746/29/2A/S03
1966:Cancer Causes & Control
1655:Flight-time equivalent dose
1650:Environmental radioactivity
1632:
1627:http://www.uradmonitor.com/
1620:http://safecast.org/tilemap
1281:, the contamination of the
1125:Atmospheric nuclear testing
1043:in Portuguese) composed of
890:International Space Station
613:are strong gamma emitters.
536:Environmental radioactivity
303:Atmospheric nuclear testing
212:Cosmic radiation from space
59:environmental radioactivity
32:cosmic background radiation
10:
4545:
4397:
4255:Lasers and aviation safety
3913:
3377:10.1259/bjr.70.833.9227222
1798:"Radiation in environment"
1479:
1269:Three Mile Island accident
1267:The average dose from the
797:
533:
265:worldwide figure excludes
29:
4395:
4359:
4323:
4285:Radioactive contamination
4210:
4138:Electromagnetic radiation
4128:
4040:
3987:
3980:
3911:
3890:
3859:
3808:
3772:
3707:
3624:
3606:Radioactive contamination
3573:
3527:Radiation Dose Calculator
2098:Radiation Safety Training
1978:10.1007/s10552-015-0638-9
1822:World Nuclear Association
1171:radioactive contamination
824:derived from outside the
671:significant health hazard
4398:See also the categories
4336:1996 Costa Rica accident
3997:Acoustic radiation force
3914:See also the categories
3903:Radiation-induced cancer
3898:Acute radiation syndrome
3522:American Nuclear Society
2848:"δC record from Vermunt"
2736:10.1177/1559325815592391
2191:"Radioactive Human Body"
2143:Health Physics Society.
1258:acute radiation syndrome
1068:effective radiation dose
902:Van Allen radiation belt
4310:Radiation heat-transfer
4163:Gravitational radiation
2880:. University of Utrecht
2373:. ABC. 3 October 2002.
2241:Human Health Fact Sheet
1179:Limited Test Ban Treaty
925:elemental transmutation
923:Cosmic rays also cause
729:Boyertown, Pennsylvania
705:and are porous to gas.
79:nuclear weapons testing
4351:1990 Zaragoza accident
4346:1984 Moroccan accident
4315:Linear energy transfer
3989:Non-ionizing radiation
3754:Semiconductor detector
3710:measurement techniques
3506:Health Physics Society
3465:Health Physics Society
3329:Gabbard, Alex (1993).
2823:. 1994. Archived from
2785:10.1098/rsif.2009.0300
2048:"65 Residential Radon"
1645:Banana equivalent dose
1595:http://www.radmon.org/
1582:http://www.gmcmap.com/
1550:Scintillation detector
1537:scintillation detector
1228:
1166:
1146:
1121:
809:
482:, humans also receive
471:
460:
431:millisieverts per year
399:sub total (artificial)
4341:1987 Goiânia accident
4143:Synchrotron radiation
4133:Earth's energy budget
4115:Radioactive materials
4110:Particle accelerators
3773:Protection techniques
3737:Scintillation counter
1803:22 March 2011 at the
1612:29 March 2016 at the
1226:
1192:Occupational exposure
1152:
1132:
1119:
807:
598:-226 in said chain).
541:Terrestrial radiation
466:
449:Atomic Testing Museum
446:
322:Occupational exposure
4514:Background radiation
4412:Radiation protection
4265:Radiation protection
4153:Black-body radiation
4060:Background radiation
3975:(physics and health)
3932:Radiation protection
3749:Radiation monitoring
3742:Proportional counter
3627:quantities and units
3581:Background radiation
3567:Radiation protection
3516:15 July 2018 at the
3511:Radiation Dose Chart
3236:on 27 September 2012
2878:"Radiocarbon dating"
2858:on 23 September 2008
2323:(6 Suppl): S145–48.
2302:23 June 2007 at the
1665:Low-background steel
1589:http://www.netc.com/
1522:background radiation
1205:background radiation
1097:photoelectric effect
993:biological half-life
687:lightweight concrete
594:(a decay product of
579:year half-life, and
271:US figure is mostly
103:background radiation
40:Background radiation
4382:Radiation hardening
4324:Radiation incidents
4260:Medical radiography
4219:Radiation syndrome
4173:Cherenkov radiation
3764:Whole-body counting
3674:Mean glandular dose
3611:Radioactive sources
3345:on 5 February 2007.
3275:1989RadR..120..187K
3203:1978Sci...202.1045M
3078:2012Natur.485..423B
2595:2009JRP....29...29H
2548:on 21 February 2014
2499:on 21 February 2014
2329:1999RadR..152S.145N
1807:retrieved 2011-6-29
1660:Noise (electronics)
1599:Radiation Network:
1516:Radiation metrology
1504:Cigarettes contain
1342:
1264:response workers).
937:cosmogenic nuclides
530:Terrestrial sources
232:sub total (natural)
225:depends on altitude
122:
4524:Ionizing radiation
4438:Nuclear technology
4377:Radioactive source
4198:Radiation exposure
4178:Askaryan radiation
4158:Particle radiation
4042:Ionizing radiation
3601:Internal dosimetry
3596:Ionizing radiation
3012:. 30 August 2002.
2827:on 1 February 2014
2630:on 21 October 2013
2317:Radiation Research
1952:. 6 December 2011.
1828:on 20 January 2016
1778:on 2 February 2014
1605:Radioactive@Home:
1546:Geiger–Müller tube
1341:
1298:Nuclear fuel cycle
1289:compound, and the
1242:Chernobyl accident
1229:
1167:
1147:
1145:from 1951 to 1962.
1122:
1103:Neutron background
954:radiocarbon dating
810:
759:by a factor of 40
472:
461:
455:level is 9.8
362:Nuclear fuel cycle
343:Chernobyl accident
116:
44:ionizing radiation
4419:
4418:
4400:Radiation effects
4270:Radiation therapy
4206:
4205:
4148:Thermal radiation
4085:Neutron radiation
4050:Radioactive decay
3939:
3938:
3920:Radiation effects
3891:Radiation effects
3654:Counts per minute
3459:Dade W. Moeller.
3292:978-92-1-142143-9
3197:(4372): 1045–50.
2961:978-0-7020-3048-2
2538:978-85-99141-03-8
2283:978-1-157-09468-5
1920:978-92-1-142263-4
1771:978-0-929600-98-7
1733:978-92-1-142274-0
1452:
1451:
1219:Nuclear accidents
1141:conducted at the
1032:in Australia and
935:. Many so-called
888:, such as in the
862:geomagnetic field
611:daughter products
569:radioactive decay
484:external exposure
480:internal exposure
436:
435:
393:
375:
357:
338:
317:
298:
280:
247:
226:
207:
188:
161:
143:Inhalation of air
83:nuclear accidents
18:Natural radiation
16:(Redirected from
4536:
4496:
4495:
4494:
4484:
4483:
4482:
4472:
4471:
4470:
4460:
4459:
4448:
4447:
4446:
4436:
4435:
4434:
4427:
4360:Related articles
4275:Radiation damage
4100:Nuclear reactors
3985:
3984:
3966:
3959:
3952:
3943:
3942:
3795:Radon mitigation
3790:Potassium iodide
3708:Instruments and
3560:
3553:
3546:
3537:
3536:
3481:
3480:
3478:
3476:
3471:on 2 August 2014
3467:. Archived from
3456:
3450:
3449:
3447:
3445:
3439:
3422:
3411:
3405:
3403:
3401:
3399:
3393:
3371:(833): 437–439.
3362:
3353:
3347:
3346:
3326:
3320:
3319:
3317:
3315:
3252:
3246:
3245:
3243:
3241:
3235:
3229:. Archived from
3188:
3179:
3173:
3172:
3170:
3168:
3154:
3148:
3147:
3145:
3143:
3128:
3122:
3121:
3119:
3117:
3106:
3100:
3099:
3089:
3072:(7399): 423–24.
3057:
3051:
3050:
3048:
3046:
3035:
3029:
3028:
3026:
3024:
3018:
3007:
2999:
2993:
2992:
2986:
2982:
2980:
2972:
2970:
2968:
2945:
2939:
2938:
2936:
2934:
2919:
2913:
2912:
2910:
2908:
2896:
2890:
2889:
2887:
2885:
2874:
2868:
2867:
2865:
2863:
2854:. Archived from
2843:
2837:
2836:
2834:
2832:
2813:
2807:
2806:
2796:
2764:
2758:
2757:
2747:
2715:
2709:
2708:
2702:
2700:
2694:
2655:
2646:
2640:
2639:
2637:
2635:
2629:
2623:. Archived from
2614:
2580:
2571:
2558:
2557:
2555:
2553:
2547:
2541:. Archived from
2526:
2515:
2509:
2508:
2506:
2504:
2498:
2492:. Archived from
2459:
2450:
2444:
2443:
2441:
2439:
2420:
2414:
2413:
2393:
2387:
2386:
2384:
2382:
2363:
2357:
2356:
2312:
2306:
2294:
2288:
2287:
2266:
2260:
2259:
2257:
2255:
2249:
2238:
2230:
2224:
2223:
2222:on 12 June 2015.
2218:. Archived from
2212:
2206:
2205:
2203:
2201:
2187:
2181:
2180:
2178:
2176:
2162:
2156:
2155:
2153:
2151:
2140:
2134:
2133:
2131:
2129:
2119:
2113:
2112:
2110:
2108:
2102:Miami University
2090:
2084:
2083:
2081:
2079:
2073:
2052:
2043:
2037:
2036:
2034:
2032:
2026:
2015:
2004:
1998:
1997:
1960:
1954:
1953:
1946:
1940:
1939:
1937:
1935:
1929:
1908:
1899:
1890:
1883:
1868:
1867:
1865:
1863:
1844:
1838:
1837:
1835:
1833:
1814:
1808:
1794:
1788:
1787:
1785:
1783:
1756:
1745:
1744:
1742:
1740:
1717:
1702:
1701:
1683:
1567:USA: EPA Radnet
1343:
1340:
1291:Kyshtym disaster
1240:accidents – the
1143:Nevada Test Site
794:Cosmic radiation
774:
772:
771:
768:
765:
754:
752:
751:
748:
745:
725:Stanley Watras's
641:Airborne sources
391:
373:
355:
334:
315:
296:
277:nuclear medicine
264:
245:
224:
205:
178:
155:
126:Radiation source
123:
115:
55:cosmic radiation
21:
4544:
4543:
4539:
4538:
4537:
4535:
4534:
4533:
4504:
4503:
4502:
4492:
4490:
4480:
4478:
4468:
4466:
4454:
4444:
4442:
4432:
4430:
4422:
4420:
4415:
4414:
4391:
4387:Havana syndrome
4372:Nuclear physics
4355:
4319:
4212:
4202:
4188:Unruh radiation
4124:
4105:Nuclear weapons
4090:Nuclear fission
4036:
3976:
3970:
3940:
3935:
3934:
3916:Medical physics
3907:
3886:
3855:
3804:
3768:
3709:
3703:
3664:Equivalent dose
3626:
3620:
3569:
3564:
3518:Wayback Machine
3489:
3484:
3474:
3472:
3457:
3453:
3443:
3441:
3437:
3431:
3420:
3412:
3408:
3397:
3395:
3391:
3360:
3354:
3350:
3327:
3323:
3313:
3311:
3293:
3283:10.2307/3577647
3253:
3249:
3239:
3237:
3233:
3186:
3180:
3176:
3166:
3164:
3156:
3155:
3151:
3141:
3139:
3130:
3129:
3125:
3115:
3113:
3107:
3103:
3087:10.1038/485423a
3058:
3054:
3044:
3042:
3036:
3032:
3022:
3020:
3016:
3005:
3001:
3000:
2996:
2984:
2983:
2974:
2973:
2966:
2964:
2962:
2946:
2942:
2932:
2930:
2920:
2916:
2906:
2904:
2897:
2893:
2883:
2881:
2876:
2875:
2871:
2861:
2859:
2844:
2840:
2830:
2828:
2815:
2814:
2810:
2765:
2761:
2716:
2712:
2698:
2696:
2692:
2653:
2647:
2643:
2633:
2631:
2627:
2589:(2A): A29–A42.
2578:
2572:
2561:
2551:
2549:
2545:
2539:
2524:
2516:
2512:
2502:
2500:
2496:
2457:
2451:
2447:
2437:
2435:
2421:
2417:
2394:
2390:
2380:
2378:
2367:"Extreme Slime"
2365:
2364:
2360:
2337:10.2307/3580134
2313:
2309:
2304:Wayback Machine
2295:
2291:
2284:
2274:Only A Trillion
2267:
2263:
2253:
2251:
2247:
2236:
2232:
2231:
2227:
2214:
2213:
2209:
2199:
2197:
2189:
2188:
2184:
2174:
2172:
2164:
2163:
2159:
2149:
2147:
2141:
2137:
2127:
2125:
2121:
2120:
2116:
2106:
2104:
2092:
2091:
2087:
2077:
2075:
2071:
2065:
2050:
2044:
2040:
2030:
2028:
2024:
2013:
2005:
2001:
1972:(26): 1517–18.
1961:
1957:
1948:
1947:
1943:
1933:
1931:
1927:
1921:
1906:
1900:
1893:
1884:
1871:
1861:
1859:
1846:
1845:
1841:
1831:
1829:
1816:
1815:
1811:
1805:Wayback Machine
1795:
1791:
1781:
1779:
1772:
1758:
1757:
1748:
1738:
1736:
1734:
1718:
1705:
1698:
1684:
1677:
1673:
1635:
1614:Wayback Machine
1518:
1502:
1486:medical imaging
1482:
1477:
1457:
1324:
1300:
1221:
1194:
1175:nuclear fallout
1127:
1114:
1105:
1093:
1014:
973:
846:alpha particles
802:
796:
786:, belonging to
769:
766:
763:
762:
760:
755:and the EEC of
749:
746:
743:
742:
740:
643:
547:of concern are
538:
532:
508:medical imaging
453:gamma radiation
441:
336:
270:
121:(mSv) per year
111:
91:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4542:
4532:
4531:
4526:
4521:
4516:
4501:
4500:
4488:
4476:
4464:
4452:
4440:
4417:
4416:
4396:
4393:
4392:
4390:
4389:
4384:
4379:
4374:
4369:
4363:
4361:
4357:
4356:
4354:
4353:
4348:
4343:
4338:
4333:
4327:
4325:
4321:
4320:
4318:
4317:
4312:
4307:
4302:
4297:
4292:
4287:
4282:
4277:
4272:
4267:
4262:
4257:
4252:
4247:
4242:
4237:
4235:Health physics
4232:
4231:
4230:
4225:
4216:
4214:
4208:
4207:
4204:
4203:
4201:
4200:
4195:
4193:Dark radiation
4190:
4185:
4183:Bremsstrahlung
4180:
4175:
4170:
4165:
4160:
4155:
4150:
4145:
4140:
4135:
4129:
4126:
4125:
4123:
4122:
4117:
4112:
4107:
4102:
4097:
4095:Nuclear fusion
4092:
4087:
4082:
4077:
4072:
4067:
4065:Alpha particle
4062:
4057:
4052:
4046:
4044:
4038:
4037:
4035:
4034:
4029:
4024:
4019:
4014:
4009:
4004:
3999:
3993:
3991:
3982:
3978:
3977:
3969:
3968:
3961:
3954:
3946:
3937:
3936:
3912:
3909:
3908:
3906:
3905:
3900:
3894:
3892:
3888:
3887:
3885:
3884:
3879:
3874:
3869:
3863:
3861:
3857:
3856:
3854:
3853:
3848:
3843:
3838:
3833:
3828:
3823:
3818:
3812:
3810:
3806:
3805:
3803:
3802:
3797:
3792:
3787:
3782:
3780:Lead shielding
3776:
3774:
3770:
3769:
3767:
3766:
3761:
3756:
3751:
3745:
3744:
3739:
3734:
3729:
3727:Geiger counter
3724:
3719:
3713:
3711:
3705:
3704:
3702:
3701:
3696:
3691:
3686:
3681:
3676:
3671:
3666:
3661:
3659:Effective dose
3656:
3651:
3646:
3644:Committed dose
3641:
3636:
3630:
3628:
3622:
3621:
3619:
3618:
3613:
3608:
3603:
3598:
3593:
3591:Health physics
3588:
3583:
3577:
3575:
3571:
3570:
3563:
3562:
3555:
3548:
3540:
3534:
3533:
3524:
3508:
3499:
3488:
3487:External links
3485:
3483:
3482:
3451:
3430:978-0859514682
3429:
3406:
3348:
3321:
3291:
3247:
3174:
3149:
3138:on 17 May 2013
3123:
3101:
3052:
3030:
2994:
2985:|journal=
2960:
2940:
2914:
2891:
2869:
2838:
2808:
2779:(45): 603–11.
2759:
2710:
2658:Health Physics
2641:
2559:
2537:
2510:
2445:
2415:
2388:
2358:
2307:
2289:
2282:
2261:
2225:
2207:
2182:
2157:
2135:
2114:
2085:
2063:
2038:
1999:
1955:
1941:
1919:
1891:
1869:
1839:
1809:
1789:
1770:
1746:
1732:
1703:
1696:
1674:
1672:
1669:
1668:
1667:
1662:
1657:
1652:
1647:
1642:
1634:
1631:
1630:
1629:
1625:uRad Monitor:
1623:
1616:
1603:
1597:
1591:
1585:
1572:
1571:
1565:
1517:
1514:
1510:tobacco leaves
1501:
1500:Consumer items
1498:
1481:
1478:
1476:
1473:
1456:
1453:
1450:
1449:
1446:
1444:
1440:
1439:
1436:
1434:
1430:
1429:
1426:
1424:
1420:
1419:
1416:
1413:
1409:
1408:
1405:
1402:
1398:
1397:
1394:
1391:
1387:
1386:
1383:
1380:
1376:
1375:
1372:
1369:
1368:Coal (modern)
1365:
1364:
1361:
1358:
1357:Nuclear power
1354:
1353:
1350:
1347:
1323:
1322:Energy sources
1320:
1299:
1296:
1279:Windscale fire
1271:was 0.01 mSv.
1220:
1217:
1193:
1190:
1186:global fallout
1153:Atmospheric C
1126:
1123:
1113:
1110:
1104:
1101:
1092:
1089:
1077:committed dose
1026:Karunagappalli
1013:
1010:
986:beta particles
972:
971:Food and water
969:
965:bremsstrahlung
898:magnetic field
798:Main article:
795:
792:
780:gamma spectrum
733:committed dose
679:decay products
665:(millisievert
659:decay products
642:
639:
534:Main article:
531:
528:
527:
526:
468:Cloud chambers
440:
437:
434:
433:
428:
425:
422:
419:
413:
412:
410:
407:
404:
401:
395:
394:
389:
387:
384:
381:
377:
376:
371:
368:
366:
363:
359:
358:
353:
350:
347:
344:
340:
339:
332:
329:
326:
323:
319:
318:
313:
310:
307:
304:
300:
299:
294:
292:
289:
286:
285:Consumer items
282:
281:
262:
259:
256:
253:
249:
248:
243:
240:
237:
234:
228:
227:
222:
219:
216:
213:
209:
208:
203:
200:
197:
194:
190:
189:
176:
173:
170:
167:
163:
162:
153:
150:
147:
144:
140:
139:
136:
133:
130:
127:
110:
107:
90:
87:
49:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4541:
4530:
4529:Radioactivity
4527:
4525:
4522:
4520:
4517:
4515:
4512:
4511:
4509:
4499:
4489:
4487:
4477:
4475:
4465:
4463:
4458:
4453:
4451:
4441:
4439:
4429:
4428:
4425:
4413:
4409:
4405:
4404:Radioactivity
4401:
4394:
4388:
4385:
4383:
4380:
4378:
4375:
4373:
4370:
4368:
4365:
4364:
4362:
4358:
4352:
4349:
4347:
4344:
4342:
4339:
4337:
4334:
4332:
4329:
4328:
4326:
4322:
4316:
4313:
4311:
4308:
4306:
4303:
4301:
4298:
4296:
4293:
4291:
4288:
4286:
4283:
4281:
4278:
4276:
4273:
4271:
4268:
4266:
4263:
4261:
4258:
4256:
4253:
4251:
4248:
4246:
4243:
4241:
4238:
4236:
4233:
4229:
4226:
4224:
4221:
4220:
4218:
4217:
4215:
4209:
4199:
4196:
4194:
4191:
4189:
4186:
4184:
4181:
4179:
4176:
4174:
4171:
4169:
4166:
4164:
4161:
4159:
4156:
4154:
4151:
4149:
4146:
4144:
4141:
4139:
4136:
4134:
4131:
4130:
4127:
4121:
4118:
4116:
4113:
4111:
4108:
4106:
4103:
4101:
4098:
4096:
4093:
4091:
4088:
4086:
4083:
4081:
4078:
4076:
4073:
4071:
4070:Beta particle
4068:
4066:
4063:
4061:
4058:
4056:
4055:Cluster decay
4053:
4051:
4048:
4047:
4045:
4043:
4039:
4033:
4030:
4028:
4025:
4023:
4020:
4018:
4015:
4013:
4010:
4008:
4005:
4003:
4000:
3998:
3995:
3994:
3992:
3990:
3986:
3983:
3981:Main articles
3979:
3974:
3967:
3962:
3960:
3955:
3953:
3948:
3947:
3944:
3933:
3929:
3925:
3924:Radioactivity
3921:
3917:
3910:
3904:
3901:
3899:
3896:
3895:
3893:
3889:
3883:
3880:
3878:
3875:
3873:
3870:
3868:
3865:
3864:
3862:
3858:
3852:
3849:
3847:
3844:
3842:
3839:
3837:
3834:
3832:
3829:
3827:
3824:
3822:
3819:
3817:
3814:
3813:
3811:
3809:Organisations
3807:
3801:
3798:
3796:
3793:
3791:
3788:
3786:
3783:
3781:
3778:
3777:
3775:
3771:
3765:
3762:
3760:
3757:
3755:
3752:
3750:
3747:
3746:
3743:
3740:
3738:
3735:
3733:
3730:
3728:
3725:
3723:
3720:
3718:
3715:
3714:
3712:
3706:
3700:
3697:
3695:
3692:
3690:
3687:
3685:
3682:
3680:
3677:
3675:
3672:
3670:
3667:
3665:
3662:
3660:
3657:
3655:
3652:
3650:
3647:
3645:
3642:
3640:
3637:
3635:
3634:Absorbed dose
3632:
3631:
3629:
3623:
3617:
3614:
3612:
3609:
3607:
3604:
3602:
3599:
3597:
3594:
3592:
3589:
3587:
3584:
3582:
3579:
3578:
3576:
3574:Main articles
3572:
3568:
3561:
3556:
3554:
3549:
3547:
3542:
3541:
3538:
3532:
3528:
3525:
3523:
3519:
3515:
3512:
3509:
3507:
3503:
3500:
3498:
3494:
3491:
3490:
3470:
3466:
3462:
3455:
3436:
3432:
3426:
3419:
3418:
3410:
3390:
3386:
3382:
3378:
3374:
3370:
3366:
3359:
3352:
3344:
3340:
3336:
3332:
3325:
3310:
3306:
3302:
3298:
3294:
3288:
3284:
3280:
3276:
3272:
3268:
3264:
3263:
3258:
3251:
3232:
3228:
3224:
3220:
3216:
3212:
3208:
3204:
3200:
3196:
3192:
3185:
3178:
3163:
3159:
3153:
3137:
3133:
3127:
3112:
3105:
3097:
3093:
3088:
3083:
3079:
3075:
3071:
3067:
3063:
3056:
3041:
3034:
3015:
3011:
3004:
2998:
2990:
2978:
2963:
2957:
2953:
2952:
2948:ICRP (2007).
2944:
2929:
2925:
2918:
2902:
2895:
2879:
2873:
2857:
2853:
2849:
2842:
2826:
2822:
2818:
2812:
2804:
2800:
2795:
2790:
2786:
2782:
2778:
2774:
2770:
2763:
2755:
2751:
2746:
2741:
2737:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2724:Dose-Response
2721:
2714:
2707:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2667:
2664:(1): 87–93 .
2663:
2659:
2652:
2645:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2613:
2608:
2604:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2584:
2577:
2570:
2568:
2566:
2564:
2544:
2540:
2534:
2530:
2523:
2522:
2514:
2495:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2475:
2471:
2468:(2): 211–23.
2467:
2463:
2456:
2449:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2419:
2411:
2407:
2404:(9): 815–19.
2403:
2399:
2392:
2376:
2372:
2368:
2362:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2326:
2322:
2318:
2311:
2305:
2301:
2298:
2293:
2285:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2270:Asimov, Isaac
2265:
2246:
2242:
2235:
2229:
2221:
2217:
2211:
2196:
2192:
2186:
2171:
2167:
2161:
2146:
2139:
2124:
2118:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2089:
2070:
2066:
2064:9780323013406
2060:
2056:
2049:
2042:
2023:
2019:
2012:
2011:
2003:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1959:
1951:
1945:
1926:
1922:
1916:
1912:
1905:
1898:
1896:
1888:
1882:
1880:
1878:
1876:
1874:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1843:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1813:
1806:
1802:
1799:
1793:
1777:
1773:
1767:
1763:
1762:
1755:
1753:
1751:
1735:
1729:
1725:
1724:
1716:
1714:
1712:
1710:
1708:
1699:
1697:9789201007070
1693:
1689:
1682:
1680:
1675:
1666:
1663:
1661:
1658:
1656:
1653:
1651:
1648:
1646:
1643:
1640:
1637:
1636:
1628:
1624:
1621:
1617:
1615:
1611:
1608:
1604:
1602:
1598:
1596:
1592:
1590:
1586:
1583:
1579:
1578:
1577:
1576:
1570:
1566:
1564:
1560:
1559:
1558:
1557:
1553:
1551:
1547:
1541:
1538:
1533:
1531:
1526:
1523:
1513:
1511:
1507:
1497:
1494:
1489:
1487:
1472:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1447:
1445:
1442:
1441:
1437:
1435:
1432:
1431:
1427:
1425:
1422:
1421:
1417:
1414:
1411:
1410:
1406:
1403:
1400:
1399:
1395:
1392:
1389:
1388:
1384:
1381:
1379:Coal (older)
1378:
1377:
1373:
1370:
1367:
1366:
1362:
1359:
1356:
1355:
1352:Occupational
1351:
1348:
1345:
1344:
1339:
1337:
1333:
1332:radionuclides
1329:
1319:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1295:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1270:
1265:
1261:
1259:
1255:
1249:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1234:
1225:
1216:
1214:
1209:
1206:
1201:
1199:
1189:
1187:
1182:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1151:
1144:
1140:
1139:nuclear tests
1136:
1131:
1118:
1109:
1100:
1098:
1091:Photoelectric
1088:
1084:
1082:
1078:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1060:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1037:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1009:
1005:
1003:
999:
994:
989:
987:
983:
979:
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946:
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938:
934:
930:
929:atomic nuclei
926:
921:
919:
915:
911:
907:
903:
899:
895:
894:Space Shuttle
891:
887:
883:
878:
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734:
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726:
721:
719:
715:
711:
710:radium-series
706:
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696:
695:phosphogypsum
692:
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664:
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652:
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545:radionuclides
542:
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500:millisieverts
497:
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119:millisieverts
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64:
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4498:Solar System
4408:Radiobiology
4290:Radiobiology
4250:Laser safety
4059:
3928:Radiobiology
3759:Survey meter
3679:Monitor unit
3625:Measurement
3616:Radiobiology
3580:
3473:. Retrieved
3469:the original
3464:
3454:
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3416:
3409:
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3368:
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3338:
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3261:
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3231:the original
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3033:
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3009:
2997:
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2950:
2943:
2931:. Retrieved
2928:The Equation
2927:
2917:
2907:12 September
2905:. Retrieved
2894:
2882:. Retrieved
2872:
2860:. Retrieved
2856:the original
2851:
2841:
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2825:the original
2820:
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2138:
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2117:
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2105:. Retrieved
2097:
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2009:
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1722:
1687:
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1542:
1534:
1527:
1521:
1519:
1506:polonium-210
1503:
1490:
1483:
1458:
1455:Coal burning
1423:Solar power
1390:Natural gas
1325:
1318:) per year.
1301:
1275:Non-civilian
1274:
1273:
1266:
1262:
1250:
1237:
1230:
1210:
1204:
1202:
1195:
1183:
1168:
1106:
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1085:
1061:
1053:Cumuruxatiba
1040:
1038:
1015:
1006:
990:
978:potassium-40
974:
958:
922:
879:
826:Solar System
811:
777:
722:
707:
697:and Italian
683:
644:
635:
630:
627:actinium-228
623:thallium-208
600:
585:
581:potassium-40
540:
539:
512:
483:
479:
473:
430:
416:
398:
267:radiotherapy
231:
181:potassium-40
156:mainly from
112:
102:
100:
92:
52:
39:
38:
36:
4519:Cosmic rays
4486:Outer space
4474:Spaceflight
4032:Ultraviolet
4027:Radio waves
3800:Respirators
3732:Ion chamber
3314:16 November
3240:15 November
2884:19 February
2730:(3): 1–10.
2699:11 November
2438:11 November
2234:"Carbon 14"
2078:28 November
2031:28 November
1433:Wind power
1412:Geothermal
1338:/GW-annum:
1283:Techa River
1254:liquidators
1159:New Zealand
1133:Per capita
1041:areia preta
1024:in Brazil,
870:troposphere
820:and larger
788:bismuth-214
714:lung cancer
615:Thorium-232
573:uranium-238
4508:Categories
4213:and health
4211:Radiation
4080:Cosmic ray
3860:Regulation
3475:24 January
3167:8 November
3142:24 January
3116:24 January
3045:24 January
3023:21 October
2634:1 December
2552:2 December
2503:2 December
2200:12 October
2175:23 January
2150:24 January
1934:2 December
1782:9 November
1739:9 November
1671:References
1618:Safecast:
1155:Bomb pulse
1036:in China.
1028:in India,
967:spectrum.
882:astronauts
830:air shower
800:Cosmic ray
691:alum shale
607:beta decay
494:(240
89:Definition
4450:Astronomy
4367:Half-life
4240:Dosimetry
4075:Gamma ray
4022:Microwave
4012:Starlight
3973:Radiation
3872:NRC (USA)
3821:HPS (USA)
3722:Dosimeter
3639:Becquerel
3586:Dosimetry
3529:from the
3520:from the
3504:from the
3495:from the
3257:"Annex A"
3162:unece.org
2987:ignored (
2977:cite book
2862:4 January
2482:0265-931X
2428:"Annex B"
1862:4 January
1832:26 August
1580:GMC map:
1203:However,
1049:Guarapari
1034:Yangjiang
1030:Arkaroola
1022:Guarapari
1020:in Iran,
982:carbon-14
961:positrons
950:half-life
941:carbon-14
854:electrons
653:, parent
592:radon-222
549:potassium
502:(60
185:carbon-14
65:(such as
4017:Sunlight
4002:Infrared
3877:ONR (UK)
3867:IRR (UK)
3846:SRP (UK)
3785:Glovebox
3689:Roentgen
3514:Archived
3435:Archived
3389:Archived
3227:41057679
3219:17777943
3096:22622542
3014:Archived
2903:(Report)
2803:19776147
2754:26674931
2690:Archived
2686:26685238
2678:11769138
2621:19454802
2490:15172728
2426:(2000).
2410:21092626
2375:Archived
2371:Catalyst
2353:10564957
2300:Archived
2245:Archived
2128:17 March
2069:Archived
2022:Archived
1994:15952263
1986:26223888
1925:Archived
1856:Archived
1854:. IAEA.
1801:Archived
1633:See also
1610:Archived
1593:Radmon:
1548:and the
1443:Biomass
1244:and the
1238:civilian
1045:monazite
1002:nitrogen
945:nitrogen
933:nuclides
858:neutrons
667:per year
651:isotopes
619:lead-212
517:states:
273:CT scans
4424:Portals
4228:chronic
3851:UNSCEAR
3816:Euratom
3699:Sievert
3385:9227222
3309:7316994
3301:3577647
3271:Bibcode
3199:Bibcode
3191:Science
3074:Bibcode
2933:16 July
2831:11 June
2794:2842777
2745:4674188
2612:4030667
2591:Bibcode
2381:2 March
2345:3580134
2325:Bibcode
2254:4 April
1493:CT scan
1480:Medical
1461:fly ash
1404:0.0003
1349:Public
1346:Source
1336:Sievert
1163:Austria
1135:thyroid
892:or the
874:airline
842:protons
814:protons
773:
761:
753:
741:
718:smoking
577:billion
557:thorium
553:uranium
252:Medical
187:, etc.)
138:Remark
75:fallout
4410:, and
3930:, and
3444:18 May
3427:
3398:18 May
3383:
3307:
3299:
3289:
3267:187–88
3225:
3217:
3094:
3066:Nature
2967:17 May
2958:
2801:
2791:
2752:
2742:
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2619:
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2061:
1992:
1984:
1917:
1768:
1730:
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1641:(BRET)
1587:Netc:
1314:(100 m
1306:, the
1211:At an
1064:Ramsar
1018:Ramsar
906:Apollo
886:orbits
866:Denver
856:, and
834:X-rays
822:nuclei
757:thoron
716:after
703:radium
657:, and
596:radium
588:radium
561:radium
365:0.0002
135:Japan
129:World
71:radium
4462:Stars
4223:acute
4120:X-ray
4007:Light
3438:(PDF)
3421:(PDF)
3392:(PDF)
3361:(PDF)
3305:S2CID
3297:JSTOR
3234:(PDF)
3223:S2CID
3187:(PDF)
3017:(PDF)
3006:(PDF)
2693:(PDF)
2682:S2CID
2654:(PDF)
2628:(PDF)
2579:(PDF)
2546:(PDF)
2525:(PDF)
2497:(PDF)
2458:(PDF)
2341:JSTOR
2248:(PDF)
2237:(PDF)
2072:(PDF)
2051:(PDF)
2025:(PDF)
2014:(PDF)
1990:S2CID
1928:(PDF)
1907:(PDF)
1448:0.01
1418:0.05
1415:1–20
1407:0.15
1396:0.02
1360:0.43
1328:UNECE
1287:Mayak
1184:This
1081:radon
1079:from
1057:Grays
850:pions
838:muons
764:nSv·m
744:nSv·m
689:with
663:mSv/a
647:radon
603:alpha
565:radon
417:Total
386:0.003
380:Other
370:0.001
346:0.002
328:0.005
325:0.005
306:0.005
158:radon
77:from
67:radon
61:from
3841:IRPA
3836:ICRP
3831:ICRU
3826:IAEA
3669:Gray
3477:2013
3446:2012
3425:ISBN
3400:2012
3381:PMID
3316:2012
3287:ISBN
3242:2012
3215:PMID
3169:2021
3144:2013
3118:2013
3092:PMID
3047:2013
3025:2022
2989:help
2969:2012
2956:ISBN
2935:2024
2909:2022
2886:2008
2864:2016
2833:2007
2799:PMID
2750:PMID
2701:2012
2674:PMID
2636:2012
2617:PMID
2554:2012
2533:ISBN
2505:2012
2486:PMID
2478:ISSN
2440:2012
2406:PMID
2383:2009
2349:PMID
2278:ISBN
2256:2011
2202:2022
2177:2022
2152:2013
2130:2011
2109:2016
2080:2012
2059:ISBN
2033:2012
1982:PMID
1936:2012
1915:ISBN
1864:2016
1834:2014
1784:2012
1766:ISBN
1741:2012
1728:ISBN
1692:ISBN
1438:0.1
1428:0.8
1401:Oil
1393:0.1
1382:1.4
1371:0.7
1363:4.5
1326:Per
1302:The
1213:IAEA
1196:The
1161:and
1072:ICRP
1051:and
918:Mars
914:Moon
910:Moon
818:iron
770:Bq·h
750:Bq·h
699:tuff
675:ores
605:and
563:and
555:and
523:NORM
513:The
504:mrem
496:mrem
488:dose
476:soil
457:μR/h
427:3.83
424:6.24
421:3.01
409:2.33
406:3.14
403:0.61
352:0.01
331:0.01
312:0.01
291:0.13
275:and
261:2.30
258:3.00
255:0.60
242:1.50
239:3.10
236:2.40
221:0.30
218:0.33
215:0.39
202:0.40
199:0.21
196:0.48
175:0.40
172:0.28
169:0.29
152:0.40
149:2.28
146:1.26
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3684:Rad
3373:doi
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3207:doi
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2789:PMC
2781:doi
2740:PMC
2732:doi
2666:doi
2607:PMC
2599:doi
2470:doi
2333:doi
2321:152
1974:doi
1385:11
1374:11
1316:rem
1312:mSv
998:DNA
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