Negative resistance

2637: 7663: 7654: 11318: 1133: 6986: 6974: 10972: 10938: 4644: 9731: 2573: 7775: 2261: 3749: 3735: 2869: 2860: 8673: 1526: 1398: 8664: 9686:. In addition, in modern high frequency oscillators, transistors are increasingly used as one-port negative resistance devices like diodes. At microwave frequencies, transistors with certain loads applied to one port can become unstable due to internal feedback and show negative resistance at the other port. So high frequency transistor oscillators are designed by applying a reactive load to one port to give the transistor negative resistance, and connecting the other port across a resonator to make a negative resistance oscillator as described below. 4616: 9712: 7672: 5378: 2003: 9700: 3164: 3982: 330: 22: 10552: 10606: 10480: 9544: 3973: 1655: 11652: 453: 12747:, which were used for lighting during the 19th century. In 1881 Alfred Niaudet had observed that the voltage across arc electrodes decreased temporarily as the arc current increased, but many researchers thought this was a secondary effect due to temperature. The term "negative resistance" was applied by some to this effect, but the term was controversial because it was known that the resistance of a passive device could not be negative. Beginning in 1895 2532: 11666: 1058: 301: 1857: 2562:. These devices have no internal power source and in general work by converting external DC power from their port to time varying (AC) power, so they require a DC bias current applied to the port in addition to the signal. To add to the confusion, some authors call these "active" devices, since they can amplify. This category also includes a few three-terminal devices, such as the unijunction transistor. They are covered in the 3409:. Whether or not this quantity is referred to as "resistance" when negative is a matter of convention. The absolute resistance of power sources is negative, but this is not to be regarded as "resistance" in the same sense as positive resistances. The negative static resistance of a power source is a rather abstract and not very useful quantity, because it varies with the load. Due to 12699:– is a circuit with one unstable state and one stable state. When in its stable state a pulse is applied to the input, the output switches to its other state and remains in it for a period of time dependent on the time constant of the RC circuit, then switches back to the stable state. Thus the monostable can be used as a timer or delay element. 3865:" type): In this type, the dual of the VCNR, the voltage is a single valued function of the current, but the current is a multivalued function of the voltage. In the most common type, with one negative resistance region, the graph is a curve shaped like the letter "S". Devices with this type of negative resistance include the 9511:

inductance in which the impedance has a reverse dependence on frequency ω; decreasing instead of increasing like a real inductance Similarly a negative inductance acts like a capacitance that has an impedance which increases with frequency. Negative capacitances and inductances are "non-Foster" circuits which violate

19332: 12989:, TRAPATT diode, and others. In 1969 Kurokawa derived conditions for stability in negative resistance circuits. Currently negative differential resistance diode oscillators are the most widely used sources of microwave energy, and many new negative resistance devices have been discovered in recent decades. 10600:

axis) If the positive and negative resistances are equal, the net resistance is zero, so the damping is zero. The diode adds just enough energy to compensate for energy lost in the tuned circuit and load, so oscillations in the circuit, once started, will continue at a constant amplitude. This is the

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One way in which the different types of resistance can be distinguished is in the directions of current and electric power between a circuit and an electronic component. The illustrations below, with a rectangle representing the component attached to a circuit, summarize how the different types work:

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The negative differential resistance region cannot include the origin, because it would then be able to amplify a signal with no applied DC bias current, producing AC power with no power input. The device also dissipates some power as heat, equal to the difference between the DC power in and the AC

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requires that negative static resistances have a source of power. The power may come from an internal source which converts some other form of energy to electric power as in a battery or generator, or from a separate connection to an external power supply circuit as in an amplifying device like a

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with a DC source to bias the device into its negative resistance region and provide power. A resonator such as an LC circuit is "almost" an oscillator; it can store oscillating electrical energy, but because all resonators have internal resistance or other losses, the oscillations are damped and

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curve is not a straight line, so it does not obey Ohm's law. Resistance can still be defined, but the resistance is not constant; it varies with the voltage or current through the device. The resistance of such a nonlinear device can be defined in two ways, which are equal for ohmic resistances:

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In this video Prof. Horowitz demonstrates that negative static resistance actually exists. He has a black box with two terminals, labelled "−10 kilohms" and shows with ordinary test equipment that it acts like a linear negative resistor (active resistor) with a resistance of −10 KΩ: a positive

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There is also another way of looking at them. In a negative capacitance the current will be 180° opposite in phase to the current in a positive capacitance. Instead of leading the voltage by 90° it will lag the voltage by 90°, as in an inductor. Therefore, a negative capacitance acts like an

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curve is confined to the 1st and 3rd quadrants of the graph, and passes through the origin. This requirement means (excluding some asymptotic cases) that the region(s) of negative resistance must be limited, and surrounded by regions of positive resistance, and cannot include the origin.

28:, a device with negative differential resistance. In operation, an increase in current through the fluorescent tube causes a drop in voltage across it. If the tube were connected directly to the power line, the falling tube voltage would cause more and more current to flow, causing it to 19154: 16243: 2842:. A number of new experimental negative differential resistance materials and devices have been discovered in recent years. The physical processes which cause negative resistance are diverse, and each type of device has its own negative resistance characteristics, specified by its 11707:

to port 2, and the output circuit is attached to port 3. The input signal is passed from port 1 to the diode at port 2, but the outgoing "reflected" amplified signal from the diode is routed to port 3, so there is little coupling from output to input. The characteristic impedance

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to be the "average" resistance over the cycle. As the amplitude of the sine wave exceeds the width of the negative resistance region and the voltage swing extends into regions of the curve with positive differential resistance, the average negative differential resistance

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In a passive device, the AC power produced comes from the input DC bias current, the device absorbs DC power, some of which is converted to AC power by the nonlinearity of the device, amplifying the applied signal. Therefore, the output power is limited by the bias power

12628:. This is a characteristic of all NR amplifiers, contrasting with the behavior of two-port amplifiers, which generally have limited gain but are often unconditionally stable. In practice the gain is limited by the backward "leakage" coupling between circulator ports. 11743:

is to present the correct impedance to the diode to set the gain. At radio frequencies NR diodes are not pure resistive loads and have reactance, so a second purpose of the filter is to cancel the diode reactance with a conjugate reactance to prevent standing waves.

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and therefore the phase difference between current and voltage may differ from 180° and may vary with frequency. As long as the real component of the impedance is negative (phase angle between 90° and 270°), the device will have negative resistance and can amplify.

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linear oscillator circuits have negative resistance although in most feedback oscillators the tuned circuit is an integral part of the feedback network, so the circuit does not have negative resistance at all frequencies but only near the oscillation frequency.

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this is called an "active resistor". Although this type is sometimes referred to as "linear", "absolute", "ideal", or "pure" negative resistance to distinguish it from "passive" negative differential resistances, in electronics it is more often simply called

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axis or right half plane (RHP), respectively. In contrast, a linear circuit has a single equilibrium point that may be stable or unstable. The equilibrium points are determined by the DC bias circuit, and their stability is determined by the AC impedance

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current through it, and when connected in a voltage divider with an ordinary resistor the output of the divider is greater than the input, it can amplify. At the end he opens the box and shows it contains an op-amp negative impedance converter circuit and

9145:. The input port of the circuit is connected into another circuit as if it was a component. An NIC can cancel undesired positive resistance in another circuit, for example they were originally developed to cancel resistance in telephone cables, serving as 13065:

region is considered the "stable" one. This article uses the former "linear" definition, the earliest one, which is found in the Abraham, Bangert, Dorf, Golio, and Tellegen sources. The latter "switching circuit" definition is found in the Kumar and Taub

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greater than its open-circuit voltage will reverse the direction of current flow, making its static resistance positive so it consumes power. Similarly, applying a voltage to the negative impedance converter below greater than its power supply voltage

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of the current. In the most common type there is only one negative resistance region, and the graph is a curve shaped generally like the letter "N". As the voltage is increased, the current increases (positive resistance) until it reaches a maximum

2256:, so AC power flows out of the device into the circuit. The device consumes DC power, some of which is converted to AC signal power which can be delivered to a load in the external circuit, enabling the device to amplify the AC signal applied to it. 297:. Unlike most positive resistances, negative resistance varies depending on the voltage or current applied to the device, and negative resistance devices can only have negative resistance over a limited portion of their voltage or current range. 11699:(connectors) which transfers a signal applied to one port to the next in only one direction, port 1 to port 2, 2 to 3, and 3 to 1. In the reflection amplifier diagram the input signal is applied to port 1, a biased VCNR negative resistance diode 3576: 1649:

flowing from the circuit into the component is defined to be positive, while power flowing from the component into the circuit is negative. This applies to both DC and AC current. The diagram shows the directions for positive values of the

2528:. It is not possible for a device to have negative differential resistance without a power source, and these devices can be divided into two categories depending on whether they get their power from an internal source or from their port: 1289: 3621:

curve will eventually turn and enter the 1st and 3rd quadrants. Thus the range of the curve having negative static resistance is limited, confined to a region around the origin. For example, applying a voltage to a generator or battery

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across an arc and the negative resistance excited oscillations in the tuned circuit, producing a musical tone from the arc. To demonstrate his invention Duddell wired several tuned circuits to an arc and played a tune on it. Duddell's

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for feedback oscillators; they are necessary but not sufficient, so there are some circuits that satisfy the equations but do not oscillate. Kurokawa also derived more complicated sufficient conditions, which are often used instead.

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For alternating current power to be available in a circuit which has externally applied only continuous voltages, the average power consumption during a cycle must be negative...which demands the introduction of negative resistance

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by George Crisson and others, which made transcontinental telephone service possible. Transistor NICs, pioneered by Linvill in 1953, initiated a great increase in interest in NICs and many new circuits and applications developed.

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Considered as one-port devices, these circuits function similarly to the passive negative differential resistance components above, and like them can be used to make one-port amplifiers and oscillators with the advantages that:

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The negative impedance converter originated from work by Marius Latour around 1920. He was also one of the first to report negative capacitance and inductance. A decade later, vacuum tube NICs were developed as telephone line

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A circuit cannot have negative static resistance (be active) over an infinite voltage or current range, because it would have to be able to produce infinite power. Any active circuit or device with a finite power source is

14492: 12679:– a circuit with two unstable states, in which the output periodically switches back and forth between the states. The time it remains in each state is determined by the time constant of an RC circuit. Therefore, it is a 12119: 10648:: (poles in right half plane) If the negative resistance is greater than the positive resistance, damping is negative, so oscillations will grow exponentially in energy and amplitude. This is the condition during startup. 3889:

Most devices have a single negative resistance region. However devices with multiple separate negative resistance regions can also be fabricated. These can have more than two stable states, and are of interest for use in

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in left half plane) If the diode's negative resistance is less than the positive resistance of the tuned circuit, the damping is positive. Any oscillations in the circuit will lose energy as heat in the resistance

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In a normal voltage divider, the resistance of each branch is less than the resistance of the whole, so the output voltage is less than the input. Here, due to the negative resistance, the total AC resistance

4380: 1603: 1125: 12915:. They noticed that when junctions were biased with a DC voltage to improve their sensitivity as radio detectors, they would sometimes break into spontaneous oscillations. However the effect was not pursued. 9349: 1729:

have the same sign. Therefore, from the passive sign convention above, conventional current (flow of positive charge) is through the device from the positive to the negative terminal, in the direction of the

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curve of linear or "ohmic" resistance, the common type of resistance encountered in electrical circuits. The current is proportional to the voltage, so both the static and differential resistance is positive

7704:. Applying a large enough voltage or current of either polarity to the port moves the device into its nonlinear region where saturation of the amplifier causes the differential resistance to become positive 5776: 769:

Differential resistance is only relevant to time-varying currents. Points on the curve where the slope is negative (declining to the right), meaning an increase in voltage causes a decrease in current, have

9504: 8168: 17594: 6574: 10926:, the swing extends further into the nonlinear part of the curve, the clipping distortion of the output sine wave is more severe, and the frequency will be increasingly dependent on the supply voltage. 9506:

A circuit having negative capacitance or inductance can be used to cancel unwanted positive capacitance or inductance in another circuit. NIC circuits were used to cancel reactance on telephone cables.

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The "reflected" (output) signal has larger amplitude than the incident; the device has "reflection gain". The reflection coefficient is determined by the AC impedance of the negative resistance device,

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Negative resistance oscillator circuits can be divided into two types, which are used with the two types of negative differential resistance – voltage controlled (VCNR), and current controlled (CCNR)

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decay to zero. The negative resistance cancels the positive resistance of the resonator, creating in effect a lossless resonator, in which spontaneous continuous oscillations occur at the resonator's

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As above, the equality gives the condition for steady oscillation, while the inequality is required during startup to provide excess negative resistance. The above conditions are analogous to the

1518: 767: 549: 15436: 11622:, the outgoing amplified signal has to leave the device by the same terminals as the incoming signal enters it. Without some way of separating the two signals, a negative resistance amplifier is 11202: 6765: 6382: 5917: 12123: 18866: 11900: 8499: 5252: 1715: 12731:

Some instances of neurons display regions of negative slope conductances (RNSC) in voltage-clamp experiments. The negative resistance here is implied were one to consider the neuron a typical

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adds a constant voltage (bias) across the diode so it operates in its negative resistance range, and provides power to amplify the signal. Suppose the negative resistance at the bias point is

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to save space, consisting of a spiral conductor fabricated on chip. These have high losses and low Q, so to create high Q tuned circuits their Q is increased by applying negative resistance.

4916: 4857: 12790:, a student of Ayrton at London Central Technical College, brought Thomson's arc oscillator to public attention. Due to its negative resistance, the current through an arc was unstable, and 10722:

At large amplitudes the circuit is nonlinear, so the linear analysis above does not strictly apply and differential resistance is undefined; but the circuit can be understood by considering

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operate at this point. Practical oscillators actually start in the unstable region below, with poles in the RHP, but as the amplitude increases the oscillations become nonlinear, and due to

3344: 11865: 11626:; it amplifies in both directions, so it suffers from sensitivity to load impedance and feedback problems. To separate the input and output signals, many negative resistance amplifiers use 11591: 10646: 10520: 4695:

The diagrams illustrate how a biased negative differential resistance device can increase the power of a signal applied to it, amplifying it, although it only has two terminals. Due to the

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have opposite signs. This means current is forced to flow from the negative to the positive terminal. The charges gain potential energy, so power flows out of the device into the circuit:

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The filter has only reactive components and so does not absorb any power itself, so power is passed between the diode and the ports without loss. The input signal power to the diode is

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can also be created, so feedback circuits can be used to create "active" linear circuit elements, resistors, capacitors, and inductors, with negative values. They are widely used in

3095: 16260:, Appendix B. This derives a slightly more complicated circuit where the two voltage divider resistors are different to allow scaling, but it reduces to the text circuit by setting 13783: 9428: 9265: 5457: 5418: 4432: 3407: 2983: 208: 8348:

they can be linear circuit elements; if operation is confined to the straight segment of the curve near the origin the voltage is proportional to the current, so they do not cause

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curve of arcs, established that the curve had regions of negative slope, igniting controversy. Frith and Rodgers in 1896 with the support of the Ayrtons introduced the concept of

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For steady-state oscillation the equal sign applies. During startup the inequality applies, because the circuit must have excess negative resistance for oscillations to start.

5490: 2673: 2467: 1322: 160: 12763:, and it was slowly accepted that arcs had negative differential resistance. In recognition of her research, Hertha Ayrton became the first woman voted for induction into the 12378: 11364: 11257: 9527:

over a broad range of frequencies, rather than just a single frequency as with current networks. This would allow the creation of small compact antennas that would have broad

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curve can have voltage-controlled ("N" type) or current-controlled ("S" type) negative resistance, depending on whether the feedback loop is connected in "shunt" or "series".

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MacLean, Jason N.; Schmidt, Brian J. (September 2001). "Voltage-Sensitivity of Motoneuron NMDA Receptor Channels Is Modulated by Serotonin in the Neonatal Rat Spinal Cord".

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By the early 20th century, although the physical causes of negative resistance were not understood, engineers knew it could generate oscillations and had begun to apply it.

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curve of an ohmic resistance is a straight line through the origin with positive slope. The resistance is the ratio of voltage to current, the inverse slope of the line (in

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to start spontaneous oscillations, which grow exponentially. However, the oscillations cannot grow forever; the nonlinearity of the diode eventually limits the amplitude.

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of the external circuit. However, because of the different shapes of the curves, the condition for stability is different for VCNR and CCNR types of negative resistance:

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first realized in 1892 that if the damping resistance in a resonant circuit could be made zero or negative, it would produce continuous oscillations. In the same year

5002: 4966: 4939: 3453:". This property means if a large enough external voltage or current of either polarity is applied to it, its static resistance becomes positive and it consumes power 2254: 2231: 2158: 2135: 17921: 10837: 10809: 10789: 8194: 7763: 7487: 7430: 5628: 3061: 8224: 4014: 3372: 1471: 1445: 1187: 15998: 12981:

oscillators. Its invention set off a search for other negative resistance semiconductor devices for use as microwave oscillators, resulting in the discovery of the

12606: 12015: 11895: 11733: 10717: 8050: 7255: 7224: 7197: 7065: 6166: 5605: 5575: 4560: 4533: 4506: 4199: 4139: 4107: 2611:. Since these circuits produce net power from their port, they must have an internal DC power source, or else a separate connection to an external power supply. In 14476: 10336: 9996: 16950: 10811:

becomes less negative and eventually turns positive. Therefore, the oscillations will stabilize at the amplitude at which the damping becomes zero, which is when

4459: 4042: 122: 9963: 9143: 8237: 12626: 10924: 10904: 10880: 10860: 10761: 10740: 10545: 10472: 10452: 9940: 9825: 9805: 9217: 9197: 9175: 9055: 9035: 9015: 8858: 8838: 8070: 4600: 4580: 4479: 4282: 4262: 4075: 1955: 1935: 1850: 1830: 1810: 612: 592: 435: 403: 383: 18184: 15333: 14562: 14255: 14182: 14843: 12713:– is a circuit with two stable states. A pulse at the input switches the circuit to its other state. Therefore, bistables can be used as memory circuits, and 8863: 8642:

behavior can be considered quasi-periodic or nonperiodic oscillators, and like all oscillators require a negative resistance in the circuit to provide power.

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Practical oscillators are designed in region (3) above, with net negative resistance, to get oscillations started. A widely used rule of thumb is to make

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curve, including the negative resistance region, lies in the 1st and 3rd quadrant of the plane so the device has positive static resistance. Examples are

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electronic components. In a nonlinear device, two types of resistance can be defined: 'static' or 'absolute resistance', the ratio of voltage to current

15429: 6025:, a graphical aide widely used in the design of high frequency circuits, negative differential resistance corresponds to points outside the unit circle 5106: 4291: 1546: 16965: 9270: 8646:, a simple nonlinear circuit widely used as the standard example of a chaotic system, requires a nonlinear active resistor component, sometimes called 2110:. But the current (rate of charge flow) decreases as the voltage increases. So when a time-varying (AC) voltage is applied in addition to a DC voltage 18858: 17230: 17112: 17015: 14057: 5704: 2587:

of the positive terminal, the opposite of an ordinary resistor, over a limited range, Unlike in the above devices, the downward-sloping region of the

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Because they are nonlinear, negative resistance devices have a more complicated behavior than the positive "ohmic" resistances usually encountered in

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The negative resistance oscillator model is not limited to one-port devices like diodes but can also be applied to feedback oscillator circuits with

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if the load line crosses the I-V curve of the NR device at one point, the circuit is stable, while in nonlinear switching circuits that operate by

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However this term is never used in practice, because the term "resistance" is only applied to passive components. Static resistance determines the

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moving the load line to the right, causes a large decrease in current through the diode and thus a large increase in the voltage across the diode

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must be done on the charges by some source of energy in the device, to make them move toward the positive terminal against the electric field, so

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and P. O. Pederson increased the frequency into the radio range by operating the arc in a hydrogen atmosphere in a magnetic field, inventing the

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curve passes through the origin, so it lies in the 2nd and 4th quadrants of the plane, meaning the device sources power. Amplifying devices like

18392: 15068: 10120: 7861: 2583:(fig. 4): Circuits can be designed in which a positive voltage applied to the terminals will cause a proportional "negative" current; a current 10967:. The resonant circuit has high impedance only at its resonant frequency, so the circuit will be unstable and oscillate only at that frequency. 3649: 3214: 14400:...since resistance is always positive...the resultant power must also always be positive. ... means that the resistor always absorbs power. 13096: 8322:

of the positive terminal, the opposite of an ordinary resistor. For example, connecting a battery to the terminals would cause the battery to

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In other words, no material can conduct electric current better than a "perfect" conductor with zero resistance. For a passive device to have

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Occasionally ordinary power sources are referred to as "negative resistances" (fig. 3 above). Although the "static" or "absolute" resistance

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must be done on the charges by some power source in the device to make them move in this direction against the force of the electric field.

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due to their small junction size, diodes can function at higher frequencies, and tunnel diode oscillators proved able to produce power at

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which separates the negative resistance part, the active device, from the positive resistance part, the resonant circuit and output load

18995: 18801: 18485: 15838: 13852: 13644: 7788: 2697:). Therefore, these devices cannot function as one-port amplifiers or have the other capabilities of negative differential resistances. 1071: 18166: 14364: 13186: 2739: 697:

of the voltage with respect to the current; the ratio of a small change in voltage to the corresponding change in current, the inverse

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In some of these graphs, the curve is reflected in the vertical axis so the negative resistance region appears to have positive slope.

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on the device, and electric power flows from the circuit into the device, where it is converted to heat or some other form of energy

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the value 180° must hold... The volt-ampere characteristic of such a resistance will therefore be linear, with a negative slope...

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The reason that the output signal can leave a negative resistance through the same port that the input signal enters is that from

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Most oscillators are more complicated than the Gunn diode example, since both the active device and the load may have reactance (

3199:) to flow out of a device into the circuit, charge must flow through the device in the direction of increasing potential energy, 2881:

converts electric power to heat, warming its surroundings. But a negative static resistance cannot function like this in reverse

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of the current flows in the reverse direction. The static resistance is positive so the current flows from positive to negative:

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is less than one. During operation the waves are reflected back and forth in a round trip so the circuit will oscillate only if

2017: 19066: 16202: 11610:, particularly at microwave frequencies, but not as commonly as oscillators. Because negative resistance devices have only one 17839: 17646: 17522:

Podell, A.F.; Cristal, E.G. (May 1971). "Negative-Impedance Converters (NIC) for VHF Through Microwave Circuit Applications".

14692: 11039: 3912: 2542:(fig. 2 above): These are the most well-known type of "negative resistances"; passive two-terminal components whose intrinsic 320:. While a positive resistance consumes power from current passing through it, a negative resistance produces power. 16229:

Definitions 6 & 7, fig. 27, and Theorem 10 for precise definitions of what this condition means for the circuit solution.

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are extremely low noise NR amplifiers that are also implemented as reflection amplifiers; they are used in applications like

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function poorly at these frequencies. Microwave diodes are used in low- to medium-power oscillators for applications such as

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In circuit theory these are called "active resistors". Applying a voltage across the terminals causes a proportional current

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The larger this is, the larger the potential AC output for a given DC bias current, and therefore the greater the efficiency

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current flows out of the positive terminal, so electric power flows out of the device into the circuit. For example at point

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This source calls negative differential resistances "passive resistors" and negative static resistances "active resistors".

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is connected across the input of a positive feedback amplifier like that above, the negative differential input resistance

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that cannot be realized with positive circuit elements. Examples of circuits with this type of negative resistance are the

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In semiconductor physics, it is known that if a two-terminal device shows negative differential resistance it can amplify.

13297: 13049:" have become somewhat confused over the years, and are used in the opposite sense by some authors. The reason is that in 11133: 8734:

and the op amp constitute a negative feedback non-inverting amplifier with gain of 2. The output voltage of the op-amp is

5850: 5607:, which travels away from the device. A negative differential resistance in a circuit can amplify if the magnitude of its 16543: 15110: 13870: 5095:

amplifying device such as a transistor or op amp, the amplified signal leaves the device through the same two terminals (

3203:(positive charge) must move from the negative to the positive terminal. So the direction of the instantaneous current is 1045:

It can be seen that the conductance has the same sign as its corresponding resistance: a negative resistance will have a

19435: 17089: 16459: 15948: 15907:, . An expanded version of this article with graphs and an extensive list of new negative resistance devices appears in 8459: 5178: 1669: 19504: 19479: 19326: 19148: 18743: 18651: 18605: 18548: 18513: 18479: 18315: 18288: 18257: 18230: 18160: 18130: 17978: 17951: 17915: 17820: 17772: 17683: 17588: 17505: 17478: 17345: 17240: 17152: 17122: 16975: 16944: 16917: 16886: 16855: 16825: 16794: 16763: 16723: 16433: 16330: 16177: 16147: 16091: 15848: 15781: 15744: 15717: 15690: 15659: 15625: 15569: 15537: 15503: 15476: 15327: 15286: 15214: 15177: 15028: 14972: 14924: 14853: 14801: 14628: 14592: 14556: 14525: 14486: 14452: 14415: 14374: 14195: 13959: 13880: 13846: 13808: 13777: 13695: 13597: 13563: 13527: 13489: 13307: 13263: 13215: 13180: 13106: 12794:

would often produce hissing, humming, or even howling noises. In 1899, investigating this effect, Duddell connected an

8538:

A tuned circuit connected to a negative resistance which cancels some but not all of its parasitic loss resistance (so

7742:

the static resistance becomes positive and the device consumes power. The negative resistance depends on the loop gain

6496: 6171: 5547:

theory, the AC voltage or current at the terminals of a component can be divided into two oppositely moving waves, the

362: 16934: 15586: 11326: 18196: 16471: 13747: 13349:. Technical Report No. RADC-TR-68-356. Rome Air Development Center, US Air Force Systems Command: 5–8. Archived from 12764: 12666:

or memory cell can be built with a single active device, whereas the standard logic circuit for these functions, the

11627: 11311:

is zero. This means the magnitude of the negative and positive resistances must be equal, and the reactances must be

6714:{\displaystyle Y_{L}+Y_{N}=G_{L}+G_{N}={\frac {1}{R_{L}}}+{\frac {1}{R_{N}}}={\frac {1}{R_{L}}}+{\frac {1}{-r}}>0} 19238: 19172: 14201: 10982:

CCNR ("S" type) devices, in contrast, require a high impedance bias and are stable for load impedances greater than

10613: 10487: 3102: 1871: 14546: 10302:{\displaystyle \alpha ={\frac {r-R}{2L}}\quad \omega ={\sqrt {{\frac {1}{LC}}-\left({\frac {r-R}{2L}}\right)^{2}}}} 8626:

in 1912 and later in "Q multipliers". It is widely used in active filters. For example, RF integrated circuits use

11369: 5782: 405:

across it. Most materials, including the ordinary (positive) resistances encountered in electrical circuits, obey

11430:

travelling in the opposite direction, toward the resonator part. The reflection coefficient of the active device

10886:

curve, the output waveform will be nearly sinusoidal and the frequency will be most stable. In circuits in which

7300:, with an energy storage device like a capacitor or inductor the circuit can become unstable to make a nonlinear 5500: 5083:

With the proper external circuit, the device can increase the AC signal power delivered to a load, serving as an

234:

frequencies. Most microwave energy is produced with negative differential resistance devices. They can also have

19018: 13965: 7954: 7001: 17878: 15408: 14227: 14126: 11689: 11594: 7778:

An example of an amplifier with positive feedback that has negative resistance at its input. The input current

2546:

curve has a downward "kink", causing the current to decrease with increasing voltage over a limited range. The

2520:, increasing the power of a time-varying signal applied to their port (terminals), or excite oscillations in a 18641: 10559: 2992: 629: 19563: 19558: 11488: 11433: 9528: 9512: 8607: 3067: 17279: 16244:"A framework for teaching nonlinear op-amp circuits to junior undergraduate electrical engineering students" 12292:{\displaystyle |\Gamma |^{2}=\left|{R_{N}+jX_{N}-(R_{1}+jX_{1}) \over R_{N}+jX_{N}+R_{1}+jX_{1}}\right|^{2}} 9394: 9231: 5423: 5384: 3379: 2955: 812:. Devices of this type can amplify signals, and are what is usually meant by the term "negative resistance". 173: 19568: 19516: 17012: 12862:

from the plate, reducing the plate current. Under certain conditions increasing the plate voltage causes a

12004:{\displaystyle G_{\text{P}}={P_{\text{out}} \over P_{\text{in}}}={V_{R}^{2} \over V_{I}^{2}}=|\Gamma |^{2}} 8704: 8379: 3870: 3153: 2902: 2886: 2644:

has negative static resistance (red) over its normal operating range, but positive differential resistance.

14623:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 350, fig. 36, p. 351, fig. 37a, p. 352 fig. 38c, p. 327, fig. 14c. 14023: 12670:, requires two active devices (transistors). Three switching circuits built with negative resistances are 10997:. The series LC circuit has low impedance only at its resonant frequency and so will only oscillate there. 4204: 3905:(PVR), the ratio of the current at the top of the negative resistance region to the current at the bottom 3207:

of the positive terminal. This is opposite to the direction of current in a passive device defined by the

2484: 1361: 780: 18966: 16035: 9966: 7067:

is the DC bias supply voltage and R is the resistance of the supply. The possible DC operating point(s) (

6826: 4767: 4704: 3721:(having peaks and troughs) with regions of negative slope representing negative differential resistance. 2735: 17264: 10948:

Since VCNR ("N" type) devices require a low impedance bias and are stable for load impedances less than

9781:: large-signal load line. When the current swing approaches the edges of the negative resistance region 8009:

In addition to the passive devices with intrinsic negative differential resistance above, circuits with

15376: 14891: 14437:

Since the energy absorbed by a (static) resistance is always positive, resistances are passive devices.

14342: 12912: 10547:

and die away exponentially to zero, as in an ordinary tuned circuit. So the circuit does not oscillate.

6868:

for which the circuit is stable are determined by a graphical technique using "stability circles" on a

5462: 3168: 2651: 2445: 1296: 131: 42:(AC resistance) to the circuit to counteract the negative resistance of the tube, limiting the current. 11207: 10952:, the ideal oscillator circuit for this device has the form shown at top right, with a voltage source 8079: 6168:

is single-valued. Therefore, stability is determined by the poles of the circuit's impedance equation:

2636: 18377: 16060: 15060: 12904: 12775: 11692: 10345: 9221:, negative capacitances and inductances can also be synthesized. A negative capacitance will have an 8525:

work. This negative resistance model is an alternate way of analyzing feedback oscillator operation.

8432: 8334:

because they are active devices they do not require an external DC bias to provide power, and can be

6832: 6391: 6101: 2418: 1153: 17080: 14771: 13382: 10993:(which may consist of a voltage source in series with a large resistor) and series resonant circuit 5988: 3571:{\displaystyle \exists V,I:|v|>V{\text{ or }}|i|>I\Rightarrow R_{\mathrm {static} }=v/i\geq 0} 13191:

This source uses the term "absolute negative differential resistance" to refer to active resistance

12943: 12732: 12695: 9532: 8405: 7309: 6448: 6248: 4621:

An AC voltage applied to a biased NDR. Since the change in current and voltage have opposite signs

3832: 2716: 2076: 1960: 1746: 1327: 827: 694: 12335: 12301: 9873: 9846: 9643:. They are a widely used source of microwave energy, and virtually the only solid-state source of 8710: 7662: 7653: 6883: 3581: 571:

of the positive voltage terminal, opposite to the direction of current in a resistor, so from the

13587: 12751:, extending her husband William's research with a series of meticulous experiments measuring the 12709: 12663: 11274: 10523: 9735: 8595: 8502: 8364: 7556: 7289: 6954: 6921: 6774: 6082: 6028: 4696: 4055: 3761: 3208: 3035: 2941: 2827: 1636: 674: 670: 572: 32:

and destroy itself. To prevent this, fluorescent tubes are connected to the power line through a

18805:. Vol. 16 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 651–673, see pages 660-661. 18086: 16381: 14667: 12918:

The first person to exploit negative resistance diodes practically was Russian radio researcher

12858:

they can knock additional electrons out of the surface into the tube. This represents a current

12581:. It can be seen that the reflection amplifier can have unlimited gain, approaching infinity as 12551: 12518: 10372: 9751: 9354: 8226:

will be negative. The circuit acts like a "negative linear resistor" over a limited range, with

7608: 7573: 7354: 7318: 7123: 7084: 5955: 5922: 16389:

First International Symposium on Space Terahertz Technology, March 5–6, 1990, Univ. of Michigan

16018: 12950:

technology. After ten years he abandoned research into this technology (dubbed "Crystodyne" by

12703: 11413: 11317: 10655: 7715: 7560: 6568: 6442: 5608: 5381:

General (AC) model of a negative resistance circuit: a negative differential resistance device

3801: 3424: 3410: 3149: 2885:, converting ambient heat from the environment to electric power, because it would violate the 2744: 1284:{\displaystyle r_{\text{diff}}={\frac {\Delta v}{\Delta i}}={\frac {v_{2}-v_{1}}{i_{2}-i_{1}}}} 823: 357:

between two terminals of an electrical device or circuit is determined by its current–voltage (

19386: 19368: 18987: 18931: 18888: 18817: 18278: 18120: 17968: 17810: 17762: 17402: 17369: 16815: 16753: 16320: 16081: 15527: 15317: 15276: 14914: 13553: 12850:

could have negative resistance in parts of their operating ranges, due to a phenomenon called

11606:

Negative differential resistance devices such as Gunn and IMPATT diodes are also used to make

10971: 10937: 7226:

rotates the load line counterclockwise. The circuit operates in one of three possible regions

4948: 4921: 2830:

circuits with negative differential resistance can also be built with amplifying devices like

2236: 2213: 2140: 2117: 1132: 19352: 18469: 17941: 17866: 17495: 17067: 16845: 14758: 14336: 13836: 13737: 13629: 13369: 13253: 13058: 12966: 12680: 12675: 12659: 11739:, usually 50Ω, is matched to the port impedance of the circulator. The purpose of the filter 11126:

but is also nonlinear, in general declining with the amplitude of the AC oscillation current

10814: 10794: 10766: 9668: 9628: 9575: 9548: 8619: 8514: 8176: 7745: 7459: 7445: 7402: 7305: 7301: 6985: 6973: 6493:

is single-valued. Therefore, stability is determined by the poles of the admittance equation

5613: 5088: 3040: 2899:

A point of some confusion is whether ordinary resistance ("static" or "absolute" resistance,

2893:

to produce work. Therefore a negative static resistance must have some other source of power.

2682: 2641: 2604: 2260: 831: 560: 354: 313: 283: 223: 82: 19353:

Lee, Thomas H. (2004) The Design of CMOS Radio-Frequency Integrated Circuits, 2nd Ed., p. 20

18471:

The Design of Modern Microwave Oscillators for Wireless Applications:Theory and Optimization

18150: 17610:

this property was often called "resistance neutralization" in the days of vacuum tubes, see

16784: 13170: 12654:

in which the device operates nonlinearly, changing abruptly from one state to another, with

10110:{\displaystyle {\frac {d^{2}i}{dt^{2}}}+{\frac {R-r}{L}}{\frac {di}{dt}}+{\frac {1}{LC}}i=0} 9730: 9578:. In a negative resistance oscillator, a negative differential resistance device such as an 8311:, over its linear range (such amplifiers can also have more complicated negative resistance 8199: 4643: 3993: 3351: 3178:), such as a battery, is always equal to the negative of the static resistance of its load ( 1450: 1424: 19553: 19408: 17184: 16650: 16591: 15360: 13427: 12908: 12635: 12584: 11873: 11711: 11631: 10695: 10425: 9599: 9226: 8323: 8028: 7774: 7516: 7233: 7202: 7175: 7043: 6998:

The DC load line (DCL) is a straight line determined by the DC bias circuit, with equation

6822: 6567:.As above, for nonreactive circuits a sufficient condition for stability is that the total 6144: 6069:

Because it is nonlinear, a circuit with negative differential resistance can have multiple

5583: 5553: 5168: 4538: 4511: 4484: 4177: 4117: 4085: 3809: 3413:

it is always simply equal to the negative of the static resistance of the attached circuit

3275: 3200: 2986: 2784: 2705: 2622: 2572: 1640: 309: 247: 39: 18000: 16621:

requires that the phase difference between voltage and current lie between 90° and 270°...

14407:

Electrical Energy Conversion and Transport: An Interactive Computer-Based Approach, 2nd Ed

12866:

in plate current. By connecting an LC circuit to the tube Hull created an oscillator, the

11671:

8–12 GHz microwave amplifier consisting of two cascaded tunnel diode reflection amplifiers

10312: 9972: 4699:

the voltage and current at the device's terminals can be divided into a DC bias component

4649:

AC equivalent circuit of NDR attached to external circuit. The NDR acts as a dependent AC

8: 18926:

On the Driving of Electromagnetic Vibrations by Electromagnetic and Electrostatic Engines

16567: 12867: 12820: 12508:{\displaystyle G_{\text{P}}=|\Gamma |^{2}={(r+R_{1})^{2}+4X_{N}^{2} \over (r-R_{1})^{2}}} 11635: 9916: 9648: 8611: 8522: 8349: 7456:

decreases with increasing amplitude, so the oscillations stabilize at an amplitude where

7172:) is a straight line through the Q point whose slope is the differential (AC) resistance 5493: 4438: 4021: 3844: 3805: 3748: 3734: 2868: 2859: 2763: 219: 99: 77:

in which an increase of applied voltage causes a proportional increase in current due to

19412: 19275: 18791: 17188: 16595: 16571: 16108: 15364: 13431: 11018:

technique due to Kaneyuki Kurokawa. The circuit diagram is imagined to be divided by a "

10986:. The ideal oscillator circuit is like that at bottom right, with a current source bias 9945: 9125: 8672: 3642:

In a device or circuit with negative differential resistance (NDR), in some part of the

2940:) can be negative. In electronics, the term "resistance" is customarily applied only to 1525: 1397: 19113: 19038: 18945: 18696: 18615: 18558: 18439: 18068: 17422: 17200: 17196: 14299: 12851: 12828: 12611: 10909: 10889: 10865: 10845: 10842:

Gunn diodes have negative resistance in the range −5 to −25 ohms. In oscillators where

10746: 10725: 10530: 10457: 10437: 10416: 9925: 9810: 9790: 9640: 9608: 9595: 9202: 9182: 9160: 9040: 9020: 9000: 8843: 8823: 8518: 8510: 8055: 4992: 4973: 4665:. Because the current and voltage are 180° out of phase, the instantaneous AC current Δ 4585: 4565: 4464: 4267: 4247: 4060: 3882: 2820: 2686: 2551: 1940: 1920: 1835: 1815: 1795: 1740: 939:{\displaystyle G_{\mathrm {static} }={\frac {1}{R_{\mathrm {static} }}}={\frac {i}{v}}} 597: 577: 564: 420: 388: 368: 267: 259: 210:. In general, a negative differential resistance is a two-terminal component which can 59: 34: 18350: 17720: 17047:. APL/JHU CF-2524. Advanced Physics Lab, Johns Hopkins Univ.: 3, 25–27. Archived from 16500: 16067:. In this article the term "negative resistance" refers to negative static resistance. 14870: 13902: 19500: 19475: 19322: 19144: 18739: 18688: 18647: 18601: 18544: 18509: 18475: 18311: 18284: 18253: 18226: 18192: 18156: 18126: 17974: 17947: 17911: 17874: 17816: 17768: 17679: 17584: 17501: 17474: 17341: 17236: 17148: 17118: 17048: 16971: 16940: 16913: 16882: 16851: 16821: 16790: 16759: 16719: 16467: 16429: 16326: 16173: 16143: 16087: 15844: 15777: 15773: 15740: 15713: 15686: 15655: 15621: 15565: 15533: 15499: 15472: 15323: 15282: 15250: 15210: 15173: 15024: 14968: 14920: 14849: 14797: 14624: 14588: 14552: 14521: 14482: 14448: 14411: 14370: 14191: 14063: 13955: 13876: 13842: 13804: 13773: 13743: 13691: 13593: 13559: 13523: 13485: 13350: 13303: 13259: 13211: 13176: 13102: 12651: 11736: 11312: 11033: 10434:. Whether the circuit can sustain steady oscillations depends on the balance between 9524: 8663: 8643: 8375: 8109: 8022: 8013:

devices like transistors or op amps can have negative resistance at their ports. The

7534: 6070: 6061:, the boundary of the conventional chart, so special "expanded" charts must be used. 5544: 3895: 2694: 2617: 1543:. It has negative differential resistance and negative static resistance (is active): 1035:{\displaystyle g_{\mathrm {diff} }={\frac {1}{r_{\mathrm {diff} }}}={\frac {di}{dv}}} 491:) – This is the common definition of resistance; the voltage divided by the current: 279: 243: 222:

output power to amplify an AC signal applied to the same terminals. They are used in

19042: 18072: 17426: 17204: 12786:

to the electrodes of an arc, perhaps the first example of an electronic oscillator.

8386:, Deboo integrator, frequency dependent negative resistance (FDNR), and generalized 5377: 4615: 4050:

in current. The circuit operating point is the intersection between the diode curve

2002: 409:; the current through them is proportional to the voltage over a wide range. So the 19524: 19416: 19109: 19030: 18900: 18700: 18680: 18435: 18060: 18015: 17637: 17527: 17414: 17192: 16599: 16362: 15368: 15242: 14734: 14689: 14295: 13435: 12843: 12831:

could produce oscillations, and by 1912 AT&T had used them to build amplifying

12804: 11615: 11015: 10689: 9942:

is the equivalent resistance due to damping and losses in the series tuned circuit

9870:

biases it into its negative resistance region where its differential resistance is

9711: 9636: 9603: 9556: 9516: 8018: 7671: 7436:

curve. The total differential (AC) resistance of the circuit is zero (poles on the

7285: 3827:), then increases again. Devices with this type of negative resistance include the 3196: 2814: 2516:

Negative differential resistance devices have unique capabilities: they can act as

1781: 552: 294: 67: 25: 18769:, No. 3, 1881, p. 287, cited in Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th Ed., Vol. 16, p. 660 18451:

Eq. 10 is the necessary condition for oscillation, eq. 12 is sufficient condition.

17580:

An Analog Electronics Companion: Basic Circuit Design for Engineers and Scientists

15651:

Klystrons, Traveling Wave Tubes, Magnetrons, Cross-Field Amplifiers, and Gyrotrons

5175:

The maximum AC output power is limited by size of the negative resistance region (

18424:"Some Basic Characteristics of Broadband Negative Resistance Oscillator Circuits" 18391:. Electrical Engineering Dept., Indian Institute of Technology, Guwahati, India. 17850: 17337:

The Science of Radio: With Matlab and Electronics Workbench Demonstration, 2nd Ed

17311: 17283: 17093: 17019: 16064: 16022: 15440: 14895: 14733:. PhD Thesis. Electrical and Computer Engineering Dept., Univ. of Alberta: 9–10. 14696: 12855: 12803:" oscillator was limited to audio frequencies. However, in 1903 Danish engineers 12800: 12787: 12714: 12639: 9725: 9644: 9632: 9520: 8647: 8623: 8014: 7564: 5076:{\displaystyle P_{\text{AC}}=\Delta v\Delta i=r_{\text{diff}}|\Delta i|^{2}<0} 4285: 4155:

with a DC voltage or current to lie within the negative resistance region of its

3891: 3195:

at the terminals of any power source (AC or DC) is negative. For electric power (

3163: 614:

have opposite signs, representing points lying in the 2nd or 4th quadrant of the

21: 19511:, ch. 6 Account of discovery of negative resistance and its role in early radio. 18189:

Terahertz Sensing Technology: Electronic devices and advanced systems technology

16566:

The requirements for negative resistance in oscillators were first set forth by

15246: 13841:. Warsaw: Pergamon Press - PWN (Panstwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe). pp. 45–51. 10424:

of the tuned circuit, with amplitude either constant, increasing, or decreasing

9699: 7692:, generated by feedback amplifiers. These have negative differential resistance 329: 19399:

Esaki, Leo (January 1958). "New Phenomenon in Narrow Germanium p−n Junctions".

19034: 18064: 17418: 13204:

Amos, Stanley William; Amos, Roger S.; Dummer, Geoffrey William Arnold (1999).

13050: 12951: 12939: 12836: 9664: 8073: 7151: 7112: 6081:, so the circuit converges to it within some neighborhood of the point, if its 6078: 4650: 3981: 3420: 2612: 1785: 1731: 835: 666: 441: 215: 93: 18992:

Transactions of the International Electrical Congress, St. Louis, 1904, Vol. 2

18904: 18684: 18280:

Wireless Communication Systems: From RF Subsystems to 4G Enabling Technologies

17531: 16534: 16425:

Wireless Communication Systems: From RF Subsystems to 4G Enabling Technologies

16366: 15102: 12114:{\displaystyle |\Gamma |^{2}=\left|{Z_{N}-Z_{1} \over Z_{N}+Z_{1}}\right|^{2}} 11416:. The voltage waveform at the reference plane can be divided into a component 10551: 7555:

and can be switched between them with an input pulse. Switching circuits like

6293:

a sufficient condition for stability is that the total resistance is positive

3160:. Therefore, some authors state that static resistance can never be negative. 2531: 673:

devices, which consume electric power, have positive static resistance; while

85:. Under certain conditions it can increase the power of an electrical signal, 19547: 19528: 18928:, read at the January 22, 1892 meeting of the Physical Society of London, in 18796: 15766: 13057:

the same condition causes the circuit to become unstable and oscillate as an

12896: 12779: 12748: 12688: 12667: 10605: 10479: 9843:

has voltage controlled ("N" type) negative resistance and the voltage source

9543: 8591: 8371: 7441: 5630:, the ratio of the reflected wave to the incident wave, is greater than one. 2791: 2608: 2521: 287: 19420: 18423: 17614:"Resistance Neutralization: An application of thermionic amplifier circuits" 17526:. USA: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. pp. 182–183. 16212:. CAS-27 (11). US: Inst. of Electrical and Electronic Engineers: 1076–1077. 14731:"Design of Active-Based Passive Components for Radio Frequency Applications" 8650:. This is usually synthesized using a negative impedance converter circuit. 8230:

curve having a straight line segment through the origin with negative slope

3211:

so the current and voltage have opposite signs, and their ratio is negative

1856: 18786: 18692: 18597:

Infrared and Millimeter Waves: Millimeter Components and Techniques, Part 5

17172: 16847:

Discrete Oscillator Design: Linear, Nonlinear, Transient, and Noise Domains

16603: 15590: 14283: 13687:

High Speed Semiconductor Devices: Circuit aspects and fundamental behaviour

13630:"Design of an indigenized negative resistance characteristics curve tracer" 13439: 13415: 13018: 13010: 12982: 12958: 12824: 12744: 9579: 8639: 8509:

axis). Spontaneous oscillation will be excited in the tuned circuit at its

8304: 8296:{\displaystyle {\frac {\Delta v}{\Delta i}}={v \over i}=R_{\text{if}}<0} 8112:

of the feedback path, the input resistance with positive shunt feedback is

6811:

Since VCNRs are even stable with a short-circuited output, they are called

4969: 4383: 4163: 3878: 3866: 3836: 3828: 3634:

will cause the amplifier to saturate, also making its resistance positive.

2798: 2728: 2712: 2555: 406: 251: 78: 19211: 19097: 17453:

Technical Manual no. 11-685: Fundamentals of Single-Sideband Communication

16036:"Experts Scoff at Claim of Electricity Flowing With 'Negative Resistance'" 14532:

In this source "negative resistance" refers to negative static resistance.

7943:{\displaystyle R={\frac {v}{i}}={\frac {R_{1}}{1+R_{1}/R_{\text{in}}-A}}.} 4999:; AC power is produced by the device and flows into the external circuit. 1654: 13062: 12978: 12970: 12947: 12942:, 25 years before the invention of the transistor. Later he even built a 12847: 12808: 12684: 10960: 9683: 9652: 9379:. Applying a positive current to a negative capacitance will cause it to 8335: 7538: 6869: 6022: 3972: 3433: 2774: 239: 47: 16660:. Dept. of Elec. and Computer Eng., Queen's Univ., Ontario. pp. 4–9 8941:{\displaystyle i={\frac {v-v_{o}}{Z}}={\frac {v-2v}{Z}}=-{\frac {v}{Z}}} 8840:

is applied to the input, the same voltage is applied "backwards" across

5694:{\displaystyle |\Gamma |\equiv \left|{\frac {V_{R}}{V_{I}}}\right|>1} 5363:{\displaystyle P_{AC(rms)}\leq {\frac {1}{8}}(v_{2}-v_{1})(i_{1}-i_{2})} 846:. Each type of resistance defined above has a corresponding conductance 452: 250:

circuits. Examples of devices with negative differential resistance are

17524:

Microwave Symposium Digest, 1971 IEEE GMTT International 16–19 May 1971

17226: 15973:

also see editorial, "Positive evidence and negative resistance", p. 312

14366:

Non-linear and parametric circuits: principles, theory and applications

13733: 13054: 12986: 12935: 12927: 12919: 12795: 12783: 12655: 11868: 11684: 11651: 11619: 10412: 9832: 9591: 9583: 9552: 8399: 8387: 7643: 7297: 3874: 3840: 3429: 2831: 2794:

also exhibit negative differential resistance, including these devices

2722: 2592: 2559: 2525: 843: 305: 271: 255: 235: 19019:"The Dynatron – A vacuum tube possessing negative electric resistance" 18019: 16353:

Tellegen, B. d. h. (April 1972). "Stability of negative resistances".

15372: 14912: 11412:

Alternately, the condition for oscillation can be expressed using the

9563:

oscillations in the cavity, which radiate through the aperture into a

8860:, causing current to flow through it out of the input. The current is 2731:, TRAPATT diode and other diodes using the impact ionization mechanism 1635:

variables in an electrical component must be defined according to the

128:, the ratio of a change in voltage to the resulting change in current 19212:"Section 14 – Expanded Audio and Vacuum Tube Development (1917–1930)" 16391:. Ann Arbor, M: US National Radio Astronomy Observatory. p. 85. 12974: 12962: 12957:

The first widely used solid-state negative resistance device was the

12946:. However his achievements were overlooked because of the success of 12931: 12883: 12871: 11665: 11607: 9748:: negative resistance during startup while amplitude is small. Since 9672: 9656: 9624: 9620: 9587: 9564: 9560: 8342: 8171: 8010: 7293: 6090: 5084: 4174:

has voltage controlled negative differential resistance. The battery

4148: 3820:), then decreases in the region of negative resistance to a minimum ( 3718: 2849: 2809: 2803: 2770: 2750: 2469:, or both, can be negative, so there are three categories of devices 317: 300: 263: 231: 227: 211: 86: 29: 19318:

Historical Encyclopedia of Natural and Mathematical Sciences, Vol. 1

17764:

Radio Engineering for Wireless Communication and Sensor Applications

16379: 15818:(17). London: The Electrician Printing & Publishing Co.: 635–636 15400: 14334: 12922:, who in 1922 discovered negative differential resistance in biased 9122:

the input impedance acts like a linear "negative resistor" of value

8590:) will not oscillate, but the negative resistance will decrease the 8501:

this will create in effect a tuned circuit with zero AC resistance (

6953:

the different operating regions of the device can be illustrated by

3781:

Negative differential resistances can be classified into two types:

1643:

is defined to enter the positive voltage terminal; this means power

1183:

is the inverse slope of the line tangent to the graph at that point

17548:"Consider the "Deboo" integrator for unipolar noninverting designs" 15949:"On the properties of a body having a negative electric resistance" 15529:

Telecom Today: Application and Management of Information Technology

14738: 12879: 12870:. Other negative resistance tube oscillators followed, such as the 12832: 12791: 11696: 9679: 9146: 8603: 6093:

or "latch up" (converge to another point), if its poles are on the

5096: 5092: 2945: 2843: 2839: 2600: 2233:

flows through the device in the direction of increasing AC voltage

1057: 74: 16:

Property that an increasing voltage results in a decreasing current

18051:

Linvill, J.G. (1953). "Transistor Negative-Impedance Converters".

17624:(1). New York: American Institute of Electrical Engineers: 234–248 15239:

Synthesis of Analog Structures for Computational Signal Processing

15103:"Negative Resistor – Physics 123 demonstration with Paul Horowitz" 13005:

Some microwave texts use this term in a more specialized sense: a

12743:

Negative resistance was first recognized during investigations of

7849:{\displaystyle i={\frac {v-Av}{R_{1}}}+{\frac {v}{R_{\text{in}}}}} 5156:{\displaystyle |P_{\text{AC}}|\leq I_{\text{bias}}V_{\text{bias}}} 4375:{\displaystyle v_{o}={\frac {-r}{R-r}}v_{i}={\frac {r}{r-R}}v_{i}} 2675:

of active devices (power sources) can be considered negative (see

1598:{\displaystyle R={\frac {\Delta v}{\Delta i}}={\frac {v}{i}}<0} 1120:{\displaystyle R_{\text{static}}=r_{\text{diff}}={v \over i}>0} 842:) which is the conductance of a resistor with a resistance of one 92:

Negative resistance is an uncommon property which occurs in a few

19486:

How negative differential resistance devices work in oscillators.

17276: 16813: 14960: 12923: 11423:

travelling toward the negative resistance device and a component

10339: 9574:

Negative differential resistance devices are widely used to make

9344:{\displaystyle i=-C{dv \over dt}\qquad \qquad Z_{C}=-1/j\omega C} 8383: 8341:

the amount of negative resistance can be varied by adjusting the

7068: 6829:. Alternatively, in high frequency circuit design, the values of 6086: 4152: 2759: 63: 18828:(14). London: "The Electrician" Printing and Publishing Co.: 452 17512:

This source uses "negative resistance" to mean active resistance

16501:"Negative Resistance Devices: Graphical Analysis and Load Lines" 14916:

High-Speed Electronics and Optoelectronics: Devices and Circuits

13172:

Optoisolation Circuits: Nonlinearity Applications in Engineering

12658:. The advantage of using a negative resistance device is that a 11204:

is linear, depending only on frequency. The circuit equation is

9839:

illustrates how negative resistance oscillators work. The diode

6141:

In a CCNR (S-type) negative resistance, the resistance function

5771:{\displaystyle \Gamma \equiv {\frac {Z_{N}-Z_{L}}{Z_{N}+Z_{L}}}} 3901:

An intrinsic parameter used to compare different devices is the

3346:

This shows that power can flow out of a device into the circuit

3189:

However it is easily shown that the ratio of voltage to current

18790: 17873:. Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET). p. 58. 17456:. US Dept. of the Army and Dept. of the Navy. 1961. p. 93. 13255:

Industrial Electronics for Engineers, Chemists, and Technicians

12823:

in 1907 showed that oscillators must have negative resistance.

9499:{\displaystyle v=-L{di \over dt}\qquad \qquad Z_{L}=-j\omega L} 8163:{\displaystyle R_{\text{if}}={\frac {R_{\text{i}}}{1-A\beta }}} 4016:

the total resistance, the sum of the two resistances in series

3437: 2835: 2755: 2681:

section below) most ordinary power sources (AC or DC), such as

2596: 275: 18087:"Application Note 1868: Negative resistor cancels op-amp load" 17675:

The Design of CMOS Radio-Frequency Integrated Circuits, 2nd Ed

17497:

Response and stability: an introduction to the physical theory

15887:"Use nonlinear devices as linchpins to next-generation design" 14335:

Morecroft, John Harold; A. Pinto; Walter Andrew Curry (1921).

14125:. Prof. Grigory Simin, Univ. of South Carolina. Archived from 12930:) point contact junctions. He used these to build solid-state 6825:, the stability must be determined by standard tests like the 1852:

always flows from the higher potential to the lower potential.

1049:

while a positive resistance will have a positive conductance.

816:

Negative resistance, like positive resistance, is measured in

270:. In addition, circuits containing amplifying devices such as 18933:

The Scientific Writings of the late George Francis Fitzgerald

18467: 18349:. Prof. Kung's website, Multimedia University. Archived from 18148: 17719:. Prof. Kung's website, Multimedia University. Archived from 16658:

Class Notes: ELEC 483 – Microwave and RF Circuits and Systems

16380:

Kidner, C.; I. Mehdi; J. R. East; J. I. Haddad (March 1990).

14548:

DC/AC Circuits and Electronics: Principles & Applications

13948:

Introductory Electronics for Scientists and Engineers, 2nd Ed

13872:

DC/AC Circuits and Electronics: Principles & Applications

12900: 12899:

was observed around 1909 in the first point-contact junction

12631: 11897:

of the amplifier is the square of the reflection coefficient

9660: 9586:, or microwave vacuum tube is connected across an electrical 8234:. It has both negative differential resistance and is active 7273:): When the load line lies in this region, it intersects the 2949: 2779: 2708:

with negative differential resistance include these devices:

698: 282:

can have negative differential resistance. These are used in

17812:

Radio Frequency Integrated Circuits and Technologies, 2nd Ed

17086: 16814:

Bowick, Chris Bowick; John Blyler; Cheryl J. Ajluni (2008).

11014:). Modern negative resistance oscillators are designed by a 10959:

to bias the device into its negative resistance region, and

6430:

Since CCNRs are stable with no load at all, they are called

2719:

and other semiconductor diodes using the tunneling mechanism

2476:

The term "negative resistance" almost always means negative

16460:"Multistable semiconductor devices and integrated circuits" 16241: 14913:

Prasad, Sheila; Hermann Schumacher; Anand Gopinath (2009).

14888: 8052:

is the input resistance of the amplifier without feedback,

2603:

can have this type of negative resistance, and are used in

2273: 19436:""Electric bubbles" and the quest for negative resistance" 18222:

Comprehensive Dictionary of Electrical Engineering, 2nd Ed

16532: 15471:. Research & Education Assoc. pp. 1032.B–1032.D. 12811:

radio transmitter, which was widely used until the 1920s.

12650:

Negative differential resistance devices are also used in

10601:

condition during steady-state operation of the oscillator.

10189:{\displaystyle i(t)=i_{0}e^{\alpha t}\cos(\omega t+\phi )} 9965:, plus any load resistance. Analyzing the AC circuit with 9922:

prevents AC current from flowing through the bias source.

9515:. One application being researched is to create an active 8703:

A common example of an "active resistance" circuit is the

7292:

in the LHP) so the circuit is stable. Negative resistance

5087:, or excite oscillations in a resonant circuit to make an 4046:

is negative, so an increase in input voltage will cause a

2062:{\displaystyle r_{\text{diff}}=\Delta v/\Delta i\;<\;0} 18182: 18125:. John Wiley & Sons. pp. sec. 2–6, pp. 262–263. 14030:. School of Physics and Astronomy, Univ. of St. Andrews. 9776:

poles are in RHP and amplitude of oscillations increases.

8513:, sustained by the power from the amplifier. This is how 6563:. For this reason the VCNR is sometimes referred to as a 6089:(LHP), while a point is unstable, causing the circuit to 3706:{\displaystyle r_{\mathrm {diff} }={\frac {dv}{di}}<0} 3267:{\displaystyle R_{\mathrm {static} }={\frac {v}{i}}<0} 2725:

and other diodes using the transferred electron mechanism

817: 19540:

Elementary one-page introduction to negative resistance.

16464:

Advances in Electronics and Electron Physics, Vol. 34–35

16382:"Potential and limitations of resonant tunneling diodes" 16015: 15911:"Overview of Nonlinear Devices and Circuit Applications" 15201:

see "Negative resistance by means of feedback" section,

14674:. Wireless Institute of Australia, Bayswater, Victoria. 14237:. Dept. of Elect. and Computer Eng., Oregon State Univ. 12782:

built a negative resistance oscillator by connecting an

11115:{\displaystyle Z_{N}=R_{N}(I,\omega )+jX_{N}(I,\omega )} 9619:

Negative resistance oscillators are mainly used at high

6880:

For simple nonreactive negative resistance devices with

4637:, the device produces AC power rather than consuming it. 2689:, and (non positive feedback) amplifiers, have positive 337:

curve, showing the difference between static resistance

18988:"System for producing continuous electric oscillations" 17736:, Sec. 3 Negative Resistance Oscillators, pp. 9–10, 14, 17611: 17232:

Practical RF Circuit Design for Modern Wireless Systems

15319:

Analog Electronic Filters: Theory, Design and Synthesis

10474:, the positive and negative resistance in the circuit: 2203:{\displaystyle P_{\text{AC}}=\Delta v\Delta i\;<\;0} 66:

across the device's terminals results in a decrease in

19252:(7). New York: Experimenter Publishing Co.: 1167, 1287 18118: 17147:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 143. 15237:

Popa, Cosmin Radu (2012). "Active Resistor Circuits".

13414:

Suzuki, Yoshishige; Kuboda, Hitoshi (March 10, 2008).

11485:

is greater than one, while that of the resonator part

9671:

can be made with UJTs and gas-discharge lamps such as

9659:

produce higher power outputs, in such applications as

9152: 9115:{\displaystyle V_{\text{S}}/2<v<-V_{\text{S}}/2} 8583:{\displaystyle |R_{\text{if}}|\;<\;r_{\text{loss}}} 3646:

curve the current decreases as the voltage increases:

3034:

A passive device consumes electric power, so from the

2700: 1832:

periodically reverse direction, but the instantaneous

18537:

Willardson, Robert K.; Beer, Albert C., Eds. (1971).

18468:

Rohde, Ulrich L.; Ajay K. Poddar; Georg Böck (2005).

16057: 15274: 13519:

Wireless Technologies: Circuits, Systems, and Devices

13344:"Equivalent circuits for negative resistance devices" 12614: 12587: 12554: 12521: 12381: 12338: 12304: 12126: 12018: 11903: 11876: 11813: 11753: 11714: 11546: 11491: 11436: 11372: 11329: 11277: 11210: 11136: 11042: 10980:

Negative conductance (current controlled) oscillator:

10912: 10892: 10868: 10848: 10817: 10797: 10769: 10749: 10728: 10698: 10658: 10616: 10562: 10533: 10490: 10460: 10440: 10375: 10348: 10315: 10202: 10123: 10004: 9975: 9948: 9928: 9876: 9849: 9813: 9793: 9754: 9436: 9397: 9357: 9273: 9234: 9205: 9185: 9163: 9128: 9063: 9043: 9023: 9003: 8954: 8866: 8846: 8826: 8740: 8713: 8544: 8462: 8435: 8408: 8240: 8202: 8179: 8118: 8082: 8058: 8031: 7957: 7864: 7791: 7748: 7718: 7644:

Active resistors – negative resistance from feedback

7611: 7576: 7462: 7405: 7357: 7321: 7236: 7205: 7178: 7154:, or voltage source in series with a high resistance. 7126: 7087: 7046: 7004: 6924: 6886: 6875: 6835: 6777: 6726: 6577: 6499: 6451: 6394: 6299: 6251: 6174: 6147: 6104: 6031: 5991: 5958: 5925: 5853: 5785: 5707: 5636: 5616: 5586: 5556: 5503: 5465: 5426: 5387: 5260: 5181: 5109: 5005: 4951: 4924: 4864: 4805: 4770: 4707: 4588: 4568: 4541: 4514: 4487: 4467: 4441: 4392: 4294: 4270: 4250: 4207: 4180: 4120: 4088: 4063: 4024: 3996: 3915: 3652: 3584: 3459: 3382: 3354: 3283: 3217: 3105: 3070: 3043: 2995: 2958: 2905: 2654: 2487: 2448: 2421: 2415:

In an electronic device, the differential resistance

2239: 2216: 2166: 2143: 2120: 2079: 2020: 1963: 1943: 1923: 1874: 1838: 1818: 1798: 1749: 1672: 1549: 1513:{\displaystyle R_{\text{static}}={\frac {v}{i}}<0} 1480: 1453: 1427: 1364: 1330: 1299: 1190: 1156: 1074: 956: 858: 783: 762:{\displaystyle r_{\mathrm {diff} }={\frac {dv}{di}}.} 711: 632: 600: 580: 544:{\displaystyle R_{\mathrm {static} }={\frac {v}{i}}.} 497: 423: 391: 371: 176: 134: 102: 19067:"Basic Theory of Electron-Tube Amplifiers – Part II" 18936:. London: Longmans, Green and Co. pp. 277–281. 18893:

London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine

18886: 18859:"Singing Arc: The Usefulness of Negative Resistance" 17943:

Design of High Frequency Integrated Analogue Filters

17871:

Design of High Frequency Integrated Analogue Filters

17678:. UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 641–642. 11197:{\displaystyle Z_{L}=R_{L}(\omega )+jX_{L}(\omega )} 10946:

Negative resistance (voltage controlled) oscillator:

9787:, the sine wave peaks are distorted ("clipped") and 6760:{\displaystyle {\frac {1}{R_{L}}}>{\frac {1}{r}}} 6377:{\displaystyle Z_{L}+Z_{N}=R_{L}+R_{N}=R_{L}-r>0} 5912:{\displaystyle Z_{L}(j\omega )\,=\,R_{L}\,+\,jX_{L}} 4968:, the AC current and voltage in the device are 180° 4562:

is greater than one, and increases without limit as

460:

plane, showing regions representing passive devices

18185:"Two-terminal active devices for terahertz sources" 17521: 17403:"Some recent developments of regenerative circuits" 16542:. New York: General Electric Corp. pp. 18–19. 16079: 14841: 14284:"Negative Impedances and the Twin 21-Type Repeater" 13558:. London: Royal Society of Chemistry. p. 209. 13551: 10117:Solving this equation gives a solution of the form 5847:, and the impedance of the circuit attached to it, 3768:resistance; they consume net power. Therefore, the 3637: 2564: 18600:. Vol. 14. Academic Press. pp. 133–135. 18149:Aberle, James T.; Robert Loepsinger-Romak (2007). 18093:. Maxim Integrated, Inc. website. January 31, 2003 17760: 17612:Bennett, Edward; Leo James Peters (January 1921). 16242:Muthuswamy, Bharathwaj; Joerg Mossbrucker (2010). 16109:"Confusion regarding negative resistance circuits" 15765: 14961:Deliyannis, T.; Yichuang Sun; J.K. Fidler (1998). 13481:Microwave & Wireless Communications Technology 12620: 12600: 12573: 12540: 12515:The VCNR reflection amplifier above is stable for 12507: 12367: 12317: 12291: 12113: 12003: 11889: 11859: 11799: 11727: 11585: 11532: 11477: 11401: 11358: 11303: 11251: 11196: 11114: 10918: 10898: 10874: 10854: 10831: 10803: 10783: 10755: 10734: 10711: 10680: 10640: 10586: 10539: 10514: 10466: 10446: 10403: 10361: 10330: 10301: 10188: 10109: 9990: 9957: 9934: 9907: 9862: 9819: 9799: 9768: 9498: 9422: 9371: 9343: 9259: 9211: 9191: 9169: 9137: 9114: 9049: 9029: 9009: 8989: 8940: 8852: 8832: 8812: 8726: 8582: 8494:{\displaystyle R_{\text{if}}\;=\;-r_{\text{loss}}} 8493: 8448: 8421: 8295: 8218: 8188: 8162: 8100: 8064: 8044: 7997: 7942: 7848: 7757: 7734: 7630: 7595: 7504:): In this region the load line can intersect the 7481: 7424: 7376: 7340: 7249: 7218: 7191: 7140: 7101: 7059: 7032: 6945: 6910: 6860: 6799: 6759: 6713: 6555: 6485: 6418: 6376: 6283: 6230: 6160: 6129: 6053: 6013: 5977: 5944: 5911: 5839: 5770: 5693: 5622: 5599: 5569: 5530: 5484: 5451: 5420:, connected to an external circuit represented by 5412: 5362: 5247:{\displaystyle v_{1},\;v_{2},\;i_{1},\;and\;i_{2}} 5246: 5155: 5075: 4960: 4933: 4910: 4851: 4789: 4752: 4594: 4574: 4554: 4527: 4500: 4473: 4453: 4426: 4374: 4276: 4256: 4236: 4193: 4133: 4101: 4069: 4036: 4008: 3951: 3705: 3606: 3570: 3401: 3366: 3338: 3266: 3140: 3089: 3055: 3024: 2977: 2932: 2667: 2506: 2461: 2434: 2248: 2225: 2202: 2152: 2129: 2102: 2061: 1986: 1949: 1929: 1909: 1844: 1824: 1804: 1772: 1710:{\displaystyle R_{\text{static}}\;=\;v/i\;>\;0} 1709: 1597: 1535:curve of a negative linear or "active" resistance 1512: 1465: 1439: 1383: 1345: 1316: 1283: 1169: 1119: 1034: 938: 802: 761: 657: 606: 586: 543: 429: 397: 377: 202: 154: 116: 17907:Radio Monitoring: Problems, Methods and Equipment 17864: 17013:Negative Impedances and the Twin 21-Type Repeater 15836: 14848:. UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 181–182. 13552:Shahinpoor, Mohsen; Schneider, Hans-Jörg (2008). 12332:. Assuming the filter is matched to the diode so 10309:This shows that the current through the circuit, 6556:{\displaystyle Y_{L}(j\omega )+Y_{N}(j\omega )=0} 6231:{\displaystyle Z_{L}(j\omega )+Z_{N}(j\omega )=0} 6073:(possible DC operating points), which lie on the 444:(nonohmic) devices. In a nonlinear component the 19545: 19493:Wireless: From Marconi's Black-Box to the Audion 19186:(7). New York: Experimenter Publishing Co.: 1166 18887:Frith, Julius; Charles Rodgers (November 1896). 18732:Wireless: From Marconi's Black-Box to the Audion 18508:. Tata McGraw-Hill Education. pp. 394–395. 18276: 17042:"A transistor D-C negative immittance converter" 16718:. USA: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 139–140. 16421: 16325:. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. pp. 274, 283–289. 15997:. EPRI News, Electric Power Research Institute. 15209:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 314–326. 15096: 15094: 15092: 15090: 14440: 9387:. Similarly, a negative inductance will have an 7684:curves of "active" negative resistances: N-type 7519:(poles in the RHP), while the two outer points, 4911:{\displaystyle i(t)=I_{\text{bias}}+\Delta i(t)} 4852:{\displaystyle v(t)=V_{\text{bias}}+\Delta v(t)} 3764:negative differential resistances have positive 3590: 2540:Passive negative differential resistance devices 19132: 19130: 18366:, Sec. 3 Negative Resistance Oscillators, p. 21 17363: 17361: 17235:. Vol. 2. Artech House. pp. 209–214. 15020:Electronic Devices for Analog Signal Processing 14796:. The McGraw-Hill Companies. pp. 505–506. 10763:becomes smaller, and thus the total resistance 9559:. The negative resistance of the diode excites 8990:{\displaystyle z_{\text{in}}={\frac {v}{i}}=-Z} 8653: 4461:is less than the resistance of the diode alone 3339:{\displaystyle P=iv=i^{2}R_{\mathrm {static} }} 2581:Active negative differential resistance devices 18781: 18779: 18777: 18775: 18670: 18590:Millimeter-wave Planar Circuits and Subsystems 18536: 18527: 18525: 18474:. USA: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 96–97. 17110: 16580:"Stability conditions in vacuum tube circuits" 16533:Lowry, H. R.; J. Georgis; E. Gottlieb (1961). 16203:"Dynamic Nonlinear Networks: State of the Art" 15525: 14956: 13830: 13828: 13826: 13824: 13416:"Spin-torque diode effect and its application" 13203: 11860:{\displaystyle P_{\text{out}}=V_{R}^{2}/R_{1}} 11586:{\displaystyle |\Gamma _{N}\Gamma _{L}|\geq 1} 10641:{\displaystyle r>R\Rightarrow \alpha >0} 10515:{\displaystyle r<R\Rightarrow \alpha <0} 10369:. When started from a nonzero initial current 8707:(NIC) shown in the diagram. The two resistors 7071:) occur where the DC load line intersects the 6991:CCNR (S type) load lines and stability regions 6979:VCNR (N type) load lines and stability regions 6821:For general negative resistance circuits with 4677:. Therefore it adds to the AC source current Δ 4147:A negative differential resistance device can 3141:{\displaystyle R_{\text{static}}=v/i\;<\;0} 2473:which could be called "negative resistances". 1910:{\displaystyle R_{\text{static}}=v/i\;<\;0} 677:devices, which produce electric power, do not. 437:is the independent variable) and is constant. 312:with negative differential resistance used in 19362: 19360: 18852: 18850: 18848: 18846: 18844: 18838:, also see letter by Andrew Gray on same page 18369: 18183:Haddad, G. I.; J. R. East; H. Eisele (2003). 17899: 17897: 17446: 17444: 17396: 17394: 17392: 17296: 17294: 17292: 17269:. New York: John F. Rider. pp. 101–102. 17224: 17136: 17134: 16237: 16235: 16106: 16100: 15495:Microwave Photonics: Devices and Applications 15311: 15309: 15307: 15305: 15303: 15087: 14954: 14952: 14950: 14948: 14946: 14944: 14942: 14940: 14938: 14936: 14404:Karady, George G.; Holbert, Keith E. (2013). 14403: 13731: 13547: 13545: 13543: 13541: 13539: 13247: 13017:negative resistance device (CCNR) such as an 12854:. In a vacuum tube when electrons strike the 11800:{\displaystyle P_{\text{in}}=V_{I}^{2}/R_{1}} 11682:in which the separation is accomplished by a 11657:AC equivalent circuit of reflection amplifier 11001: 8813:{\displaystyle v_{o}=v(R_{1}+R_{1})/R_{1}=2v} 8690:. It has negative differential resistance in 8315:curves that do not pass through the origin). 8307:as if it had a negative value of resistance − 7537:. So with correct biasing the circuit can be 4983:flows through the device in the direction of 3614:is the maximum power the device can produce. 2677: 1407:curve of a power source. In the 2nd quadrant 19308: 19127: 19098:"Theory of the Negative Impedance Converter" 18950:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 18646:(2 ed.). Artech House. pp. 78–81. 18635: 18633: 18631: 18620:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 18563:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 18540:Semiconductors and Semimetals, Vol. 7 Part B 18417: 18415: 18413: 18119:Hansen, Robert C.; Robert E. Collin (2011). 17804: 17802: 17800: 17798: 17796: 17794: 17792: 17790: 17788: 17756: 17754: 17752: 17750: 17748: 17746: 17744: 17742: 17358: 17106: 17104: 17102: 16536:General Electric Tunnel Diode Manual, 1st Ed 16250:. American Society for Engineering Education 15587:"KeelyNet on negative resistance - 04/07/00" 15553: 15551: 15549: 15349:"Negative Resistance as a Machine Parameter" 14517:CMOS: Circuit Design, Layout, and Simulation 14330: 14328: 14326: 14324: 14322: 14320: 14318: 14316: 13761: 13759: 13413: 13245: 13243: 13241: 13239: 13237: 13235: 13233: 13231: 13229: 13227: 13037: 13035: 13033: 13031: 13009:negative resistance device (VCNR) such as a 7541:, it will converge to one of the two points 6441:In a VCNR (N-type) negative resistance, the 5840:{\displaystyle Z_{N}(j\omega )=R_{N}+jX_{N}} 4605: 4151:an AC signal applied to it if the signal is 1142:curve with negative differential resistance 19314: 19166: 19164: 19136: 18918: 18772: 18522: 18283:. Cambridge University Press. p. 438. 18046: 18044: 17994: 17992: 17990: 17867:"Active filters using integrated inductors" 17583:. Cambridge University Press. p. 528. 17367: 17258: 17256: 17254: 17252: 17166: 17164: 17006: 17004: 17002: 16755:Nonlinear Microwave and RF Circuits, 2nd Ed 16348: 16346: 16344: 16342: 16086:. Cambridge University Press. p. 206. 15988:"Journey Down the Path of Least Resistance" 15942: 15940: 15938: 15936: 15934: 15932: 15678: 15672: 15609: 15607: 15432:Introduction to Circuit Analysis and Design 15197: 15195: 15193: 15161: 15159: 15157: 15155: 14837: 14835: 14833: 14724: 14612: 14610: 14608: 14540: 14538: 14478:Introduction to Circuit Analysis and Design 13875:. Cengage Learning. pp. 106, 110–111. 13834: 13821: 13679: 13677: 13675: 13673: 13671: 13669: 13667: 13665: 13021:is called a "negative resistance". See the 13013:is called a "negative conductance" while a 5577:, which travels toward the device, and the 5531:{\displaystyle X_{\text{L}},\;X_{\text{N}}} 3171:, the static resistance of a power source ( 555:) from the origin through the point on the 19357: 19276:"The Crystal as a Generator and Amplifier" 19173:"The Discovery of the Oscillating Crystal" 19060: 19058: 18841: 18809: 18584: 18582: 18580: 18578: 18576: 18574: 18297: 18178: 18176: 18152:Antennas With Non-Foster Matching Networks 18144: 18142: 18114: 18112: 18110: 18108: 18001:"Three Steps to Chaos: Part 1 – Evolution" 17894: 17833: 17634:and Ch. 3: "Resistance Neutralization" in 17606: 17604: 17466: 17441: 17438:. "Regeneration" means "positive feedback" 17389: 17289: 17131: 17111:Giannini, Franco; Leuzzi, Giorgio (2004). 16453: 16451: 16449: 16232: 15643: 15641: 15561:Advanced RF & Microwave Circuit Design 15315: 15300: 15275:Miano, Giovanni; Antonio Maffucci (2001). 15153: 15151: 15149: 15147: 15145: 15143: 15141: 15139: 15137: 15135: 14933: 14845:Electrical Properties of Materials, 8th Ed 14831: 14829: 14827: 14825: 14823: 14821: 14819: 14817: 14815: 14813: 14722: 14720: 14718: 14716: 14714: 14712: 14710: 14708: 14706: 14704: 14470: 14468: 14362: 14277: 14275: 14273: 14271: 14269: 14267: 14265: 14263: 14221: 14219: 14217: 14215: 14123:ELCT 569: Semiconductor Electronic Devices 14017: 14015: 14013: 14011: 14009: 14007: 14005: 13940: 13938: 13936: 13934: 13932: 13930: 13928: 13864: 13862: 13727: 13725: 13723: 13721: 13719: 13717: 13715: 13713: 13711: 13536: 13511: 13509: 13507: 13505: 13291: 13289: 13287: 13285: 13283: 13281: 13279: 13277: 13275: 13251: 13090: 13088: 13086: 13084: 13082: 10825: 10821: 10777: 10773: 10666: 10662: 9898: 9894: 9762: 9758: 9365: 9361: 8569: 8565: 8477: 8473: 7998:{\displaystyle A>1+R_{1}/R_{\text{in}}} 7134: 7130: 7095: 7091: 6939: 6935: 6901: 6897: 6409: 6405: 5517: 5233: 5223: 5209: 5195: 4780: 4730: 4673:of the terminal with positive AC voltage Δ 3134: 3130: 2944:materials and components – such as wires, 2524:to make an oscillator. They can also have 2340:Passive negative differential resistances: 2210:. This means the instantaneous AC current 2196: 2192: 2096: 2092: 2055: 2051: 1980: 1976: 1903: 1899: 1766: 1762: 1703: 1699: 1687: 1683: 1310: 1306: 19514: 19366: 19269: 19267: 19205: 19203: 19201: 18856: 18815: 18628: 18463: 18461: 18459: 18457: 18410: 18333: 18331: 18212: 18008:IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems 17903: 17785: 17739: 17639:Theory of Thermionic Vacuum Tube Circuits 17570: 17400: 17329: 17327: 17325: 17323: 17321: 17319: 17218: 17140: 17117:. John Wiley and Sons. pp. 230–233. 17099: 16689: 16687: 16685: 16683: 16681: 16679: 16677: 16675: 16562: 16560: 16558: 16556: 16494: 16492: 16490: 16314: 16312: 16310: 16210:IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems 16142:. McGraw Hill Professional. p. 391. 16137: 16131: 15801: 15799: 15797: 15557: 15546: 15521: 15519: 15517: 15515: 15460: 15458: 15456: 15454: 15452: 15450: 15448: 15054: 15052: 15050: 15048: 15046: 15044: 15042: 15040: 15012: 15010: 15008: 14908: 14906: 14904: 14793:Design of Analog CMOS Integrated Circuits 14785: 14783: 14781: 14661: 14659: 14657: 14655: 14653: 14651: 14649: 14647: 14645: 14431: 14429: 14427: 14394: 14392: 14390: 14388: 14386: 14358: 14356: 14354: 14352: 14313: 14190:. McGraw-Hill Education. pp. 49–50. 14176: 14174: 14172: 14170: 14168: 14116:"Lecture 08: Tunnel Diodes (Esaki diode)" 14109: 14107: 14105: 14103: 14101: 14099: 14051: 14049: 14003: 14001: 13999: 13997: 13995: 13993: 13991: 13989: 13987: 13985: 13896: 13894: 13892: 13765: 13756: 13623: 13621: 13619: 13617: 13615: 13613: 13224: 13028: 13022: 12977:frequencies, above the range of ordinary 12961:, invented in 1957 by Japanese physicist 8948:So the input impedance to the circuit is 7508:curve at three points. The center point ( 5895: 5891: 5880: 5876: 5372: 4995:. Therefore, the AC power dissipation is 2850:Negative static or "absolute" resistance 19467: 19348: 19346: 19344: 19342: 19161: 19089: 18979: 18724: 18722: 18720: 18718: 18716: 18714: 18712: 18710: 18664: 18639: 18421: 18375: 18303: 18218: 18041: 17987: 17808: 17703: 17701: 17699: 17697: 17695: 17576: 17487: 17467:Singh, Balwinder; Dixit, Ashish (2007). 17249: 17161: 17035: 17033: 17031: 17029: 16999: 16707: 16705: 16644: 16642: 16640: 16638: 16636: 16634: 16632: 16528: 16526: 16352: 16339: 16308: 16306: 16304: 16302: 16300: 16298: 16296: 16294: 16292: 16290: 16075: 16073: 15981: 15979: 15946: 15929: 15880: 15878: 15876: 15874: 15872: 15870: 15868: 15866: 15864: 15788:neon negative resistance glow discharge. 15736:Gaseous Electronics: Theory and Practice 15613: 15604: 15491: 15485: 15423: 15270: 15268: 15266: 15190: 15124:voltage across it causes a proportional 15107:Video lecture, Physics 123, Harvard Univ 15100: 15006: 15004: 15002: 15000: 14998: 14996: 14994: 14992: 14990: 14988: 14605: 14576: 14574: 14572: 14535: 14520:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 21.29. 14509: 14507: 14505: 14503: 14447:. Technical Publications. p. 1.12. 14166: 14164: 14162: 14160: 14158: 14156: 14154: 14152: 14150: 14148: 14097: 14095: 14093: 14091: 14089: 14087: 14085: 14083: 14081: 14079: 13800:Modern Dictionary of Electronics, 7th Ed 13683: 13662: 13581: 13579: 13577: 13575: 13515: 13420:Journal of the Physical Society of Japan 13404: 13402: 13400: 13398: 13396: 13394: 13392: 13337: 13335: 13333: 13331: 13329: 13327: 13325: 13323: 13295: 13207:Newnes Dictionary of Electronics, 4th Ed 13094: 12325:is the negative resistance of the diode 11259:so it will only oscillate (have nonzero 10587:{\displaystyle r=R\Rightarrow \alpha =0} 9729: 9689: 9542: 9057:, within the linear range of the op amp 8696:region and sources power in grey region. 8429:can cancel the positive loss resistance 7773: 7296:operate in this region. However, due to 5376: 3952:{\displaystyle {\text{PVR}}=i_{1}/i_{2}} 3162: 3025:{\displaystyle P=i^{2}R_{\text{static}}} 2635: 2571: 2530: 2269: 658:{\displaystyle R_{\text{static}}<0).} 451: 328: 299: 20: 19427: 19289:. London: Iliffe & Sons Ltd.: 2–5. 19170: 19095: 19055: 18986:Poulsen, Valdemar (12 September 1904). 18985: 18889:"On the Resistance of the Electric Arc" 18571: 18497: 18495: 18252:. London: Academic Press. p. 698. 18173: 18155:. Morgan & Claypool. pp. 1–8. 18139: 18105: 18050: 17999:Kennedy, Michael Peter (October 1993). 17998: 17935: 17933: 17931: 17767:. USA: Artech House. pp. 180–182. 17761:Räisänen, Antti V.; Arto Lehto (2003). 17667: 17665: 17663: 17661: 17659: 17601: 17539: 17515: 17493: 17262: 17170: 16963: 16957: 16839: 16837: 16747: 16745: 16743: 16741: 16739: 16737: 16735: 16457: 16446: 16195: 16193: 16161: 16159: 16080:Klein, Sanford; Gregory Nellis (2011). 15763: 15757: 15647: 15638: 15532:. Allied Publishers. pp. 144–145. 15232: 15230: 15202: 15165: 15132: 14810: 14728: 14701: 14678:from the original on September 14, 2012 14616: 14544: 14474: 14465: 14363:Kouřil, František; Vrba, Kamil (1988). 14281: 14260: 14225: 14212: 13944: 13925: 13868: 13859: 13708: 13502: 13272: 13164: 13162: 13160: 13158: 13156: 13154: 13152: 13150: 13148: 13146: 13144: 13142: 13140: 13138: 13079: 12608:approaches the point of oscillation at 12548:. while a CCNR amplifier is stable for 11641: 11533:{\displaystyle \Gamma _{L}=V_{1}/V_{2}} 11478:{\displaystyle \Gamma _{N}=V_{2}/V_{1}} 9743:: DC load line, which sets the Q point. 8393: 8005:it will have negative input resistance. 6064: 3800:" type): In this type the current is a 3090:{\displaystyle R_{\text{static}}\geq 0} 19546: 19446:(390). London: Cromwell House: 352–355 19433: 19392: 19264: 19230: 19198: 19171:Pickard, Greenleaf W. (January 1925). 19064: 18958: 18929: 18880: 18785: 18593: 18502:Das, Annapurna; Das, Sisir K. (2000). 18501: 18454: 18328: 18239: 18079: 17960: 17860: 17858: 17635: 17558:from the original on December 20, 2012 17545: 17460: 17316: 16984: 16967:An Introduction to Natural Computation 16912:(2 ed.). CRC Press. p. 179. 16850:. USA: Artech House. pp. 57, 59. 16807: 16672: 16577: 16553: 16498: 16487: 16428:. Cambridge Univ. Press. p. 438. 16373: 16115:. Physics Forums, Arizona State Univ. 15947:Thompson, Sylvanus P. (July 3, 1896). 15843:. New Age International. p. 501. 15830: 15805: 15794: 15712:. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd. p. 440. 15512: 15464: 15445: 15278:Transmission Lines and Lumped Circuits 15113:from the original on December 17, 2015 15058: 15037: 14919:. Cambridge Univ. Press. p. 388. 14901: 14842:Solymar, Laszlo; Donald Walsh (2009). 14789: 14778: 14665: 14642: 14444:Electrical And Electronics Engineering 14424: 14383: 14349: 14059:Electromagnetic Compatibility Handbook 14055: 14046: 14021: 13982: 13900: 13889: 13610: 13473: 13471: 13469: 13467: 13465: 13463: 13461: 13446:from the original on December 21, 2017 13341: 13199: 13197: 13136: 13134: 13132: 13130: 13128: 13126: 13124: 13122: 13120: 13118: 12890: 9423:{\displaystyle Z_{\text{L}}(j\omega )} 9260:{\displaystyle Z_{\text{C}}(j\omega )} 9177:in the above circuit with a capacitor 5452:{\displaystyle Z_{\text{L}}(j\omega )} 5413:{\displaystyle Z_{\text{N}}(j\omega )} 4427:{\displaystyle G_{v}={\frac {r}{r-R}}} 3990:Tunnel diode amplifier circuit. Since 3851:Current controlled negative resistance 3786:Voltage controlled negative resistance 3402:{\displaystyle R_{\text{static}}<0} 2978:{\displaystyle R_{\text{static}}<0} 203:{\displaystyle \Delta v/\Delta i<0} 19398: 19339: 19296:from the original on October 23, 2014 19273: 19236: 19209: 19010: 18964: 18818:"Correspondence: Negative Resistance" 18707: 18398:from the original on January 24, 2014 18219:Laplante, Philip A. Laplante (2005). 18029:from the original on November 5, 2013 17692: 17333: 17173:"The Transistor as a Network Element" 17026: 16932: 16926: 16868: 16782: 16776: 16711: 16702: 16648: 16629: 16523: 16511:from the original on February 4, 2013 16417: 16415: 16413: 16318: 16287: 16070: 15985: 15976: 15963:from the original on November 6, 2017 15908: 15884: 15861: 15772:. University Science Books. pp. 15398: 15392: 15281:. Academic Press. pp. 396, 397. 15263: 15016: 14985: 14868: 14862: 14580: 14569: 14513: 14500: 14410:. John Wiley and Sons. p. 3.21. 14244:from the original on 6 September 2006 14235:Lecture Notes – ECE112:Circuit Theory 14145: 14113: 14076: 13742:. USA: Artech House. pp. 27–29. 13627: 13585: 13572: 13389: 13320: 12721: 12645: 9651:energy Negative resistance microwave 7712:, and above the supply voltage rails 4082:. A small increase in input voltage, 3808:of the voltage, but the voltage is a 3443: 2933:{\displaystyle R_{\text{static}}=v/i} 2396:Positive feedback amplifiers used in: 551:It is the inverse slope of the line ( 162:. The term negative resistance means 19489: 19143:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 4. 19077:(18). New York: McGraw-Hill: 870–872 19016: 18738:. USA: MIT Press. pp. 159–165. 18728: 18543:. Academic Press. pp. 546–548. 18492: 18337: 18270: 18245: 17966: 17928: 17865:Li, Dandan; Yannis Tsividis (2002). 17707: 17656: 17277:Virtual Institute of Applied Science 17087:Defense Technical Information Center 17039: 16905: 16899: 16874: 16843: 16834: 16751: 16732: 16573:Das Problem Der Schwingungserzeugung 16466:. Academic Press. pp. 270–398. 16398:from the original on August 19, 2014 16355:International Journal of Electronics 16219:from the original on August 19, 2014 16200: 16190: 16165: 16156: 16119:from the original on August 19, 2014 16033: 16027: 15995:OutPost on the Endless Frontier blog 15732: 15726: 15685:. Infobase Publishing. p. 290. 15498:. John Wiley and Sons. p. 120. 15346: 15340: 15236: 15227: 15172:. New York: Elsevier. pp. 8–9. 15071:from the original on October 4, 2012 15059:Wilson, Marcus (November 16, 2010). 14964:Continuous-Time Active Filter Design 14584:Practical microwave electron devices 14180: 13954:. US: Addison-Wesley. pp. 4–5. 13796: 13790: 13650:from the original on August 19, 2014 13637:Active and Passive Elect. Components 13477: 13168: 12895:Negative differential resistance in 7440:axis), so it is unstable and with a 7118:CCNRs require a high impedance bias 6077:curve. An equilibrium point will be 6021:and the device will amplify. On the 4237:{\displaystyle \Delta v/\Delta i=-r} 2628: 2507:{\displaystyle r_{\text{diff}}<0} 1384:{\displaystyle r_{\text{diff}}<0} 803:{\displaystyle r_{\text{diff}}<0} 440:Negative resistance occurs in a few 62:and devices in which an increase in 19283:The Wireless World and Radio Review 19140:RF and Microwave Transmitter Design 19065:Latour, Marius (October 30, 1920). 18998:from the original on 9 October 2013 18994:. J. R. Lyon Co. pp. 963–971. 18971:. London: Ernest Benn. p. 28. 18816:Heaviside, Oliver (July 31, 1892). 18277:Du, Ke-Lin; M. N. S. Swamy (2010). 18249:The Electrical Engineering Handbook 17939: 17855: 17815:. USA: Springer. pp. 391–394. 17671: 17401:Armstrong, Edwin H. (August 1922). 17114:Non-linear Microwave Circuit Design 16909:The Electrical Engineering Handbook 16878:The Electrical Engineering Handbook 16422:Du, Ke-Lin; M. N. S. Swamy (2010). 16046:from the original on August 8, 2015 16004:from the original on April 21, 2013 15959:(10). London: Benn Bros.: 316–318. 15808:"The Mechanism of the Electric Arc" 15705: 15699: 15526:Kapoor, Virender; S. Tatke (1999). 15411:from the original on April 17, 2015 15405:Basic Car Audio Electronics website 14481:. USA: Springer. pp. 114–116. 14341:. US: John Wiley and Sons. p. 13913:from the original on March 20, 2014 13907:Online textbook Vol. 1: DC Circuits 13458: 13194: 13175:. World Scientific. pp. 8–11. 13115: 12770: 11807:The output power from the diode is 10929: 9153:Negative capacitance and inductance 8997:The circuit converts the impedance 8633: 7284:. For nonreactive circuits it is a 7079:VCNRs require a low impedance bias 4918:Since a positive change in voltage 4790:{\displaystyle \Delta v,\;\Delta i} 4753:{\displaystyle V_{bias},\;I_{bias}} 2701:List of negative resistance devices 2160:components have opposite signs, so 622:. Thus power sources formally have 73:This is in contrast to an ordinary 13: 19461: 19367:Gernsback, Hugo (September 1924). 19114:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1951.tb01368.x 19096:Merrill, J.L. Jr. (January 1951). 18865:. Institut fur Medienarchaologie. 18440:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1969.tb01158.x 17552:Electronic Design magazine website 17197:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1954.tb03734.x 16881:. Academic Press. pp. 80–81. 16758:. Artech House. pp. 542–544. 16507:. Robert Weaver personal website. 16410: 16169:Nonlinear and distributed circuits 16107:resonant.freq (November 2, 2011). 15897:from the original on June 18, 2015 15806:Ayrton, Hertha (August 16, 1901). 15654:. Artech House. pp. 489–491. 14745:from the original on June 28, 2012 14300:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1931.tb01288.x 14034:from the original on July 16, 2012 12999: 12938:, and amplifying and regenerative 12726: 12400: 12132: 12024: 11986: 11563: 11553: 11493: 11438: 11316: 10970: 10936: 10604: 10550: 10478: 9969:gives a differential equation for 8456:inherent in the tuned circuit. If 8252: 8244: 8025:applied to it can be negative. If 6876:Operating regions and applications 6037: 5997: 5708: 5642: 5617: 5049: 5025: 5019: 4952: 4925: 4893: 4834: 4781: 4771: 4219: 4208: 3668: 3665: 3662: 3659: 3542: 3539: 3536: 3533: 3530: 3527: 3460: 3330: 3327: 3324: 3321: 3318: 3315: 3239: 3236: 3233: 3230: 3227: 3224: 2738:with E-C reverse biased, known as 2240: 2217: 2186: 2180: 2144: 2121: 2045: 2034: 1567: 1559: 1331: 1300: 1215: 1207: 1001: 998: 995: 992: 972: 969: 966: 963: 915: 912: 909: 906: 903: 900: 880: 877: 874: 871: 868: 865: 727: 724: 721: 718: 519: 516: 513: 510: 507: 504: 218:power applied to its terminals to 188: 177: 146: 135: 14: 19580: 19521:AccessScience Online Encyclopedia 19274:Gabel, Victor (October 1, 1924). 19216:United States Early Radio History 19017:Hull, Albert W. (February 1918). 17546:Simons, Elliot (March 18, 2002). 16715:RF and Microwave Wireless Systems 16172:. CRC Press. pp. 1.18–1.19. 15917:. Roger L. Franz personal website 15885:Franz, Roger L. (June 24, 2010). 15840:Foundations of Electronic Devices 15564:. AuthorHouse. pp. 479–480. 14551:. Cengage Learning. p. 105. 14441:Bakshi, U.A.; V.U.Bakshi (2009). 14338:Principles of Radio Communication 14024:"Negative Resistance Oscillators" 13769:Power Electronics Design Handbook 13643:. Hindawi Publishing Corp.: 1–2. 13484:. USA: Newnes. pp. 313–314. 13342:Kaplan, Ross M. (December 1968). 12827:and Adolf Pieper discovered that 12765:Institute of Electrical Engineers 10692:in the circuit provides a signal 5485:{\displaystyle R_{\text{L}}>0} 3638:Negative differential resistance 2668:{\displaystyle R_{\text{static}}} 2462:{\displaystyle R_{\text{static}}} 2302:Negative differential resistance 2289:Positive differential resistance 1317:{\displaystyle \Delta v\;>\;0} 559:curve. In a power source, like a 385:through it for any given voltage 155:{\displaystyle \Delta v/\Delta i} 19335:from the original on 2017-11-23. 19157:from the original on 2016-09-17. 18975:from the original on 2016-03-15. 18940:from the original on 2014-07-07. 18759: 18755:from the original on 2014-08-19. 18660:from the original on 2017-12-10. 18594:Button, Kenneth J., Ed. (1985). 18488:from the original on 2017-09-21. 18422:Kurokawa, Kaneyuki (July 1969). 18324:from the original on 2016-05-15. 18266:from the original on 2016-08-19. 18191:. World Scientific. p. 45. 18169:from the original on 2017-10-17. 17924:from the original on 2017-07-19. 17829:from the original on 2016-07-31. 17781:from the original on 2017-02-25. 17652:from the original on 2016-03-04. 17597:from the original on 2017-07-12. 17384:from the original on 2017-03-20. 17354:from the original on 2017-02-25. 17273:from the original on 2014-08-19. 16953:from the original on 2017-10-11. 16895:from the original on 2016-08-19. 16864:from the original on 2017-10-11. 16803:from the original on 2017-08-03. 16772:from the original on 2017-02-25. 16549:from the original on 2013-05-12. 16442:from the original on 2017-10-31. 16186:from the original on 2017-08-24. 15986:Grant, Paul M. (July 17, 1998). 15857:from the original on 2014-09-10. 15837:Satyam, M.; K. Ramkumar (1990). 15753:from the original on 2015-03-22. 15668:from the original on 2014-07-28. 15634:from the original on 2017-03-31. 15617:The electronics handbook, 2nd Ed 15336:from the original on 2017-11-16. 15316:Dimopoulos, Hercules G. (2011). 15295:from the original on 2017-10-09. 15223:from the original on 2017-12-21. 15186:from the original on 2016-05-27. 14981:from the original on 2017-12-21. 14885:from the original on 2017-04-02. 14878:. US: McGraw-Hill. p. 215. 14637:from the original on 2017-12-21. 14601:from the original on 2016-04-08. 14565:from the original on 2016-04-10. 14495:from the original on 2017-12-08. 14461:from the original on 2017-12-21. 13855:from the original on 2016-04-05. 13817:from the original on 2017-12-21. 13786:from the original on 2017-12-21. 13704:from the original on 2017-12-21. 13606:from the original on 2017-12-21. 13498:from the original on 2017-07-07. 13316:from the original on 2016-05-15. 13189:from the original on 2017-12-21. 13095:Sinclair, Ian Robertson (2001). 11664: 11650: 11359:{\displaystyle R_{N}\leq -R_{L}} 11252:{\displaystyle (Z_{N}+Z_{L})I=0} 11036:of the negative resistance part 10338:, varies with time about the DC 9710: 9698: 9682:devices such as transistors and 8671: 8662: 8533: 8101:{\displaystyle \beta (j\omega )} 7670: 7661: 7652: 7432:the load line is tangent to the 6984: 6972: 4979:, the instantaneous AC current Δ 4642: 4614: 4170:is an example. The tunnel diode 3980: 3971: 3962: 3747: 3733: 3727:Negative differential resistance 2867: 2858: 2565:Negative differential resistance 2259: 2012:negative differential resistance 2001: 1855: 1653: 1524: 1396: 1131: 1056: 773:negative differential resistance 164:negative differential resistance 19369:"A Sensational Radio Invention" 18869:from the original on 2012-01-04 18382:Characteristics of Gunn Diodes" 17645:. McGraw-Hill. pp. 62–87. 17500:. CUP Archive. pp. 11–12. 17473:. Firewall Media. p. 143. 17144:Microwave Semiconductor Devices 16201:Chua, Leon O. (November 1980). 15578: 15347:Fett, G. H. (October 4, 1943). 14729:Ghadiri, Aliakbar (Fall 2011). 14690:Lloyd Butler's personal website 14668:"Negative Resistance Revisited" 14666:Butler, Lloyd (November 1995). 14228:"Calculating Power Dissipation" 13098:Sensors and transducers, 3rd Ed 12814: 11678:One widely used circuit is the 10688:. When the power is turned on, 10362:{\displaystyle I_{\text{bias}}} 10232: 9470: 9469: 9307: 9306: 8449:{\displaystyle r_{\text{loss}}} 6861:{\displaystyle Z_{L}(j\omega )} 6419:{\displaystyle R_{L}\;>\;r.} 6130:{\displaystyle Z_{L}(j\omega )} 5459:which has positive resistance, 2435:{\displaystyle r_{\text{diff}}} 1170:{\displaystyle r_{\text{diff}}} 19517:"Negative resistance circuits" 19375:. Experimenter Publishing: 291 16786:Discrete Electronic Components 15558:Radmanesh, Matthew M. (2009). 15468:The electronics problem solver 15322:. Springer. pp. 372–374. 15023:. Springer. pp. 155–156. 14587:. Academic Press. p. 60. 14184:Linear and Non Linear Circuits 14028:The Scots Guide to Electronics 13909:. All About Circuits website. 13838:Frequency of Self-Oscillations 13690:. Springer. pp. 114–117. 13252:Shanefield, Daniel J. (2001). 12493: 12473: 12441: 12421: 12405: 12396: 12216: 12187: 12137: 12128: 12029: 12020: 11991: 11982: 11573: 11548: 11271:for which the total impedance 11237: 11211: 11191: 11185: 11166: 11160: 11109: 11097: 11078: 11066: 10626: 10572: 10500: 10385: 10379: 10325: 10319: 10183: 10168: 10133: 10127: 9985: 9979: 9538: 9417: 9408: 9254: 9245: 8783: 8757: 8561: 8546: 8095: 8086: 7199:facing the device. Increasing 6855: 6846: 6544: 6535: 6519: 6510: 6219: 6210: 6194: 6185: 6124: 6115: 6041: 6033: 6014:{\displaystyle |\Gamma |>0} 6001: 5993: 5873: 5864: 5805: 5796: 5646: 5638: 5446: 5437: 5407: 5398: 5357: 5331: 5328: 5302: 5284: 5272: 5126: 5111: 5099:) as the input signal enters. 5057: 5045: 4905: 4899: 4874: 4868: 4846: 4840: 4815: 4809: 4688:, increasing the output power. 3518: 3508: 3500: 3484: 3476: 3063:. Therefore, from Joule's law 2762:vacuum tubes operating in the 1150:. The differential resistance 649: 324: 1: 19471:Practical Oscillator Handbook 19434:Ridley, B. K. (May 7, 1964). 19237:Losev, O. V. (January 1925). 18640:Linkhart, Douglas K. (2014). 18376:Kshetrimayum, Rakhesh Singh. 18340:"Lesson 9: Oscillator Design" 18338:Kung, Fabian Wai Lee (2009). 18307:Practical Oscillator Handbook 17842:Practical Oscillator Handbook 17710:"Lesson 9: Oscillator Design" 17708:Kung, Fabian Wai Lee (2009). 17368:Spangenberg, Karl R. (1948). 17303:Practical Oscillator Handbook 17171:Bangert, J. T. (March 1954). 16939:. CRC Press. pp. 53–54. 16696:The RF and Microwave Handbook 15679:Illingworth, Valerie (2009). 14967:. CRC Press. pp. 82–84. 14369:. Ellis Horwood. p. 38. 14282:Crisson, George (July 1931). 14062:. CRC Press. pp. 13–52. 13589:The RF and Microwave Handbook 13299:Practical Oscillator Handbook 13073: 11703:is attached through a filter 11601: 9705:Gunn diode oscillator circuit 9391:characteristic and impedance 8678:Negative impedance converter 8614:. Q enhancement, also called 8422:{\displaystyle R_{\text{if}}} 6486:{\displaystyle G_{N}=1/R_{N}} 6284:{\displaystyle X_{L}=X_{N}=0} 3274:This can also be proved from 2889:which requires a temperature 2403:Negative impedance converters 2103:{\displaystyle P=vi\;>\;0} 1987:{\displaystyle P=vi\;<\;0} 1773:{\displaystyle P=vi\;>\;0} 1346:{\displaystyle \Delta i<0} 19468:Gottlieb, Irving M. (1997). 19137:Grebennikov, Andrei (2011). 18930:Larmor, Joseph, Ed. (1902). 18310:. Elsevier. pp. 84–85. 18304:Gottlieb, Irving M. (1997). 17377:. McGraw-Hill. p. 721. 17340:. Springer. pp. 81–85. 17263:Krugman, Leonard M. (1954). 16820:. USA: Newnes. p. 111. 16578:Duncan, R. D. (March 1921). 16113:Electrical Engineering forum 16034:Cole, K.C. (July 10, 1998). 15733:Raju, Gorur Govinda (2005). 14872:Principles of Electron Tubes 14581:Ishii, Thomas Koryu (1990). 13835:Groszkowski, Janusz (1964). 13772:. Newnes. pp. 232–233. 13516:Iniewski, Krzysztof (2007). 13302:. Elsevier. pp. 75–76. 13296:Gottlieb, Irving M. (1997). 13258:. Elsevier. pp. 18–19. 12368:{\displaystyle X_{1}=-X_{N}} 12318:{\displaystyle R_{\text{N}}} 11402:{\displaystyle X_{N}=-X_{L}} 10428:, depending on the value of 9908:{\displaystyle dv/di\;=\;-r} 9863:{\displaystyle V_{\text{b}}} 8727:{\displaystyle R_{\text{1}}} 8705:negative impedance converter 8654:Negative impedance converter 8380:negative impedance converter 8021:of an amplifier with enough 6911:{\displaystyle R_{N}\;=\;-r} 6085:are in the left half of the 4625:, the AC power dissipation Δ 3903:peak-to-valley current ratio 3607:{\displaystyle P_{\max }=IV} 3154:second law of thermodynamics 2887:second law of thermodynamics 1792:. If AC voltage is applied, 1611: 341:and differential resistance 38:. The ballast adds positive 7: 18643:Microwave Circulator Design 18389:EC 341 Microwave Laboratory 18347:RF/Microwave Circuit Design 17946:. IET. pp. 58, 60–62. 17904:Rembovsky, Anatoly (2009). 17717:RF/Microwave Circuit Design 17266:Fundamentals of Transistors 17141:Yngvesson, Sigfrid (1991). 16248:2010 Conference Proceedings 16016:Paul Grant personal website 15614:Whitaker, Jerry C. (2005). 15247:10.1007/978-1-4614-0403-3_7 14545:Herrick, Robert J. (2003). 14475:Glisson, Tildon H. (2011). 14056:Kaiser, Kenneth L. (2004). 13869:Herrick, Robert J. (2003). 13739:Active Circuits and Systems 13628:Kumar, Umesh (April 2000). 13592:. CRC Press. p. 5.91. 12668:Eccles-Jordan multivibrator 11304:{\displaystyle Z_{N}+Z_{L}} 11130:; while the resonator part 8620:regenerative radio receiver 8594:in the circuit (moving its 7857:so the input resistance is 7605:CCNRs can be bistable when 7570:VCNRs can be bistable when 6946:{\displaystyle X_{N}\;=\;0} 6827:Nyquist stability criterion 6800:{\displaystyle R_{L}<r.} 6571:in the circuit is positive 6054:{\displaystyle |\Gamma |=1} 4288:, the AC output voltage is 3754:Current controlled (S type) 3740:Voltage controlled (N type) 3617:Therefore, the ends of the 2877:A positive static resistor 2626:. These are covered in the 2471:(fig. 2–4 above, and table) 2114:, the time-varying current 10: 19585: 19515:Snelgrove, Martin (2008). 19321:. Springer. p. 3588. 19035:10.1109/jrproc.1918.217353 18863:Zauberhafte Klangmaschinen 18857:Gethemann, Daniel (2012). 18673:Journal of Neurophysiology 18225:. CRC Press. p. 466. 18065:10.1109/JRPROC.1953.274251 17940:Sun, Yichuang Sun (2002). 17636:Peters, Leo James (1927). 17419:10.1109/jrproc.1922.219822 16970:. MIT Press. p. 143. 16789:. CUP Archive. p. 8. 16322:Pulse and Digital Circuits 15891:Electronic Design Magazine 15739:. CRC Press. p. 453. 15620:. CRC Press. p. 379. 15492:Iezekiel, Stavros (2008). 15353:Journal of Applied Physics 14869:Reich, Herbert J. (1941). 14226:Traylor, Roger L. (2008). 13522:. CRC Press. p. 488. 13101:. Newnes. pp. 69–70. 12965:. Because they have lower 12874:invented by Hull in 1920. 12738: 12574:{\displaystyle R_{1}>r} 12541:{\displaystyle R_{1}<r} 11002:Conditions for oscillation 10404:{\displaystyle i(t)=i_{0}} 9807:decreases until it equals 9769:{\displaystyle r\;<\;R} 9723: 9513:Foster's reactance theorem 9372:{\displaystyle C\;>\;0} 7631:{\displaystyle R_{L}<r} 7596:{\displaystyle R_{L}>r} 7377:{\displaystyle R_{L}>r} 7341:{\displaystyle R_{L}<r} 7141:{\displaystyle R\;>\;r} 7102:{\displaystyle R\;<\;r} 7033:{\displaystyle V=V_{S}-IR} 5978:{\displaystyle R_{L}>0} 5945:{\displaystyle R_{N}<0} 4508:is greater than the input 4284:. Using the formula for a 2773:tubes and other microwave 2678:Negative static resistance 2374: 2323: 1664:positive static resistance 693:resistance) – This is the 624:negative static resistance 81:, resulting in a positive 19315:Ben-Menahem, Ari (2009). 19210:White, Thomas H. (2021). 18968:Radio: Beam and Broadcast 18905:10.1080/14786449608620933 18685:10.1152/jn.2001.86.3.1131 17532:10.1109/GMTT.1971.1122957 16993:Nonlinear Control Systems 16964:Ballard, Dana H. (1999). 16936:Nonlinear Control Systems 16906:Dorf, Richard C. (1997). 16844:Rhea, Randall W. (2010). 16817:RF Circuit Design, 2nd Ed 16752:Maas, Stephen A. (2003). 16367:10.1080/00207217208938331 16058:Los Angeles Times website 15241:. Springer. p. 323. 13901:Haisch, Bernhard (2013). 13766:Kularatna, Nihal (1998). 12954:), and it was forgotten. 12907:, by researchers such as 12776:George Francis FitzGerald 11010:) as well as resistance ( 10961:parallel resonant circuit 10681:{\displaystyle R\;=\;r/3} 7735:{\displaystyle \pm V_{S}} 6767:so the VCNR is stable for 6384:so the CCNR is stable for 6243:For nonreactive circuits 5167:The device may also have 4606:Explanation of power gain 4481:so the AC output voltage 2357: 2306: 567:, positive current flows 417:graphs where the voltage 343:(inverse slope of line C) 339:(inverse slope of line B) 19529:10.1036/1097-8542.446710 19387:The Crystodyne Principle 18378:"Experiment 5: Study of 17910:. Springer. p. 24. 17809:Ellinger, Frank (2008). 17577:Hamilton, Scott (2007). 17040:Karp, M. A. (May 1956). 16458:Abraham, George (1974). 16138:Gibilisco, Stan (2002). 15909:Franz, Roger L. (2012). 15206:The Physics of Vibration 15169:Analog Circuits Cookbook 15067:. Science Media Center. 14620:The Physics of Vibration 14514:Baker, R. Jacob (2011). 13797:Graf, Rudolf F. (1999). 13478:Carr, Joseph J. (1997). 12992: 12944:superheterodyne receiver 12696:Monostable multivibrator 11735:of the input and output 11614:(two terminals), unlike 8618:, was first used in the 8374:because they can create 7567:operate in this region. 7452:the negative resistance 7310:monostable multivibrator 4961:{\displaystyle \Delta i} 4934:{\displaystyle \Delta v} 3833:resonant tunneling diode 3776: 2792:discharges through gases 2717:resonant tunneling diode 2442:, the static resistance 2249:{\displaystyle \Delta v} 2226:{\displaystyle \Delta i} 2153:{\displaystyle \Delta v} 2130:{\displaystyle \Delta i} 949:Differential conductance 58:) is a property of some 19421:10.1103/PhysRev.109.603 18802:Encyclopædia Britannica 17973:. Newnes. p. 193. 17970:Antenna Toolkit, 2nd Ed 17672:Lee, Thomas H. (2004). 17494:Pippard, A. B. (1985). 17334:Nahin, Paul J. (2001). 16651:"Microwave Oscillators" 16499:Weaver, Robert (2009). 15764:Siegman, A. E. (1986). 15648:Gilmour, A. S. (2011). 15203:Pippard, A. B. (2007). 15101:Horowitz, Paul (2004). 14790:Razavi, Behzad (2001). 14617:Pippard, A. B. (2007). 14114:Simin, Grigory (2011). 13945:Simpson, R. E. (1987). 13803:. Newnes. p. 499. 13210:. Newnes. p. 211. 12905:cat's whisker detectors 12842:In 1918 Albert Hull at 10832:{\displaystyle r\;=\;R} 10804:{\displaystyle \alpha } 10784:{\displaystyle R\;-\;r} 10411:the current oscillates 9967:Kirchhoff's Voltage Law 9614: 9037:is a resistor of value 8638:Circuits which exhibit 8326:rather than discharge. 8189:{\displaystyle A\beta } 7758:{\displaystyle A\beta } 7561:bistable multivibrators 7482:{\displaystyle r=R_{L}} 7425:{\displaystyle R_{L}=r} 5623:{\displaystyle \Gamma } 4972:. This means in the AC 4697:superposition principle 3209:passive sign convention 3056:{\displaystyle P\geq 0} 3036:passive sign convention 2334:Most passive components 1637:passive sign convention 683:Differential resistance 573:passive sign convention 126:differential resistance 19490:Hong, Sungook (2001). 19239:"Oscillating Crystals" 19218:. earlyradiohistory.us 19023:Proceedings of the IRE 18729:Hong, Sungook (2001). 18246:Chen, Wai Kai (2004). 18122:Small Antenna Handbook 18053:Proceedings of the IRE 17407:Proceedings of the IRE 17075:Cite journal requires 16875:Chen, Wai Kai (2004). 16604:10.1103/physrev.17.302 16166:Chen, Wai-Kai (2006). 15915:Sustainable Technology 15017:Rybin, Yu. K. (2011). 14766:Cite journal requires 14672:Amateur Radio magazine 13903:"Nonlinear conduction" 13440:10.1143/JPSJ.77.031002 13377:Cite journal requires 12704:Bistable multivibrator 12622: 12602: 12575: 12542: 12509: 12369: 12319: 12293: 12115: 12005: 11891: 11861: 11801: 11729: 11587: 11534: 11479: 11414:reflection coefficient 11403: 11360: 11321: 11305: 11253: 11198: 11116: 10975: 10941: 10920: 10900: 10876: 10856: 10833: 10805: 10785: 10757: 10736: 10713: 10682: 10642: 10609: 10588: 10555: 10541: 10516: 10483: 10468: 10448: 10405: 10363: 10332: 10303: 10190: 10111: 9992: 9959: 9936: 9909: 9864: 9828: 9821: 9801: 9770: 9734:Gunn diode oscillator 9669:relaxation oscillators 9627:range or above, since 9576:electronic oscillators 9571: 9500: 9424: 9373: 9345: 9261: 9213: 9193: 9171: 9139: 9116: 9051: 9031: 9011: 8991: 8942: 8854: 8834: 8814: 8728: 8602:axis), increasing its 8584: 8495: 8450: 8423: 8297: 8220: 8219:{\displaystyle R_{if}} 8190: 8164: 8102: 8066: 8046: 8006: 7999: 7944: 7850: 7759: 7736: 7632: 7597: 7483: 7444:can oscillate. Linear 7426: 7378: 7351:CCNRs are stable when 7342: 7315:VCNRs are stable when 7251: 7220: 7193: 7142: 7103: 7061: 7034: 6947: 6912: 6862: 6814:"short circuit stable" 6801: 6761: 6715: 6557: 6487: 6420: 6378: 6285: 6232: 6162: 6131: 6055: 6015: 5979: 5946: 5913: 5841: 5772: 5695: 5624: 5609:reflection coefficient 5601: 5571: 5540: 5532: 5486: 5453: 5414: 5373:Reflection coefficient 5364: 5248: 5157: 5077: 4962: 4935: 4912: 4853: 4791: 4754: 4596: 4576: 4556: 4529: 4502: 4475: 4455: 4428: 4376: 4278: 4258: 4238: 4195: 4135: 4103: 4071: 4038: 4010: 4009:{\displaystyle r>R} 3953: 3707: 3608: 3572: 3425:conservation of energy 3411:conservation of energy 3403: 3368: 3367:{\displaystyle P<0} 3340: 3268: 3186: 3150:conservation of energy 3142: 3091: 3057: 3026: 2979: 2934: 2745:unijunction transistor 2669: 2645: 2576: 2535: 2508: 2463: 2436: 2388:Most active components 2250: 2227: 2204: 2154: 2131: 2104: 2063: 1988: 1951: 1931: 1911: 1846: 1826: 1806: 1774: 1711: 1599: 1514: 1467: 1466:{\displaystyle i>0} 1441: 1440:{\displaystyle v<0} 1385: 1347: 1318: 1285: 1171: 1121: 1036: 940: 804: 763: 659: 608: 588: 545: 472: 431: 399: 379: 365:), giving the current 350: 321: 314:electronic oscillators 224:electronic oscillators 204: 156: 118: 43: 18965:Morse, A. H. (1925). 18767:La Lumiere Electrique 18505:Microwave Engineering 17967:Carr, Joseph (2001). 17554:. Penton Media, Inc. 16933:Vukic, Zoran (2003). 16783:Mazda, F. F. (1981). 16699:, pp. 7.25–7.26, 7.29 16649:Frank, Brian (2006). 16505:Bob's Electron Bunker 16319:Kumar, Anand (2004). 15709:Microwave Engineering 15399:Babin, Perry (1998). 15166:Hickman, Ian (2013). 15061:"Negative Resistance" 14497:, see footnote p. 116 14132:on September 23, 2015 13684:Beneking, H. (1994). 13555:Intelligent Materials 13059:astable multivibrator 12967:parasitic capacitance 12735:style circuit model. 12681:relaxation oscillator 12676:Astable multivibrator 12660:relaxation oscillator 12636:parametric amplifiers 12623: 12603: 12601:{\displaystyle R_{1}} 12576: 12543: 12510: 12370: 12320: 12294: 12116: 12006: 11892: 11890:{\displaystyle G_{P}} 11862: 11802: 11730: 11728:{\displaystyle Z_{0}} 11695:component with three 11588: 11535: 11480: 11404: 11361: 11320: 11306: 11254: 11199: 11122:depends on frequency 11117: 10974: 10940: 10921: 10901: 10877: 10857: 10834: 10806: 10786: 10758: 10737: 10714: 10712:{\displaystyle i_{0}} 10683: 10643: 10608: 10589: 10554: 10542: 10517: 10482: 10469: 10449: 10406: 10364: 10333: 10304: 10191: 10112: 9993: 9960: 9937: 9910: 9865: 9822: 9802: 9771: 9733: 9717:AC equivalent circuit 9690:Gunn diode oscillator 9546: 9519:which could match an 9501: 9425: 9374: 9346: 9262: 9214: 9194: 9172: 9140: 9117: 9052: 9032: 9012: 8992: 8943: 8855: 8835: 8815: 8729: 8606:so it has a narrower 8585: 8496: 8451: 8424: 8298: 8221: 8196:is greater than one, 8191: 8165: 8103: 8067: 8047: 8045:{\displaystyle R_{i}} 8000: 7945: 7851: 7777: 7760: 7737: 7633: 7598: 7497:(illustrated by line 7494:Bistable region (red) 7484: 7427: 7379: 7343: 7306:astable multivibrator 7302:relaxation oscillator 7266:(illustrated by line 7263:Stable region (green) 7252: 7250:{\displaystyle R_{L}} 7221: 7219:{\displaystyle R_{L}} 7194: 7192:{\displaystyle R_{L}} 7143: 7104: 7075:curve. For stability 7062: 7060:{\displaystyle V_{S}} 7035: 6948: 6913: 6863: 6802: 6762: 6716: 6558: 6488: 6433:"open circuit stable" 6421: 6379: 6286: 6233: 6163: 6161:{\displaystyle R_{N}} 6132: 6056: 6016: 5980: 5947: 5914: 5842: 5773: 5696: 5625: 5602: 5600:{\displaystyle V_{R}} 5572: 5570:{\displaystyle V_{I}} 5533: 5487: 5454: 5415: 5380: 5365: 5249: 5158: 5078: 4963: 4936: 4913: 4854: 4792: 4755: 4597: 4577: 4557: 4555:{\displaystyle G_{v}} 4530: 4528:{\displaystyle v_{i}} 4503: 4501:{\displaystyle v_{o}} 4476: 4456: 4429: 4377: 4279: 4259: 4239: 4196: 4194:{\displaystyle V_{b}} 4136: 4134:{\displaystyle v_{o}} 4104: 4102:{\displaystyle v_{i}} 4072: 4039: 4011: 3954: 3708: 3609: 3573: 3404: 3369: 3341: 3269: 3166: 3148:would violate either 3143: 3092: 3058: 3027: 2980: 2935: 2844:current–voltage curve 2706:Electronic components 2670: 2639: 2575: 2534: 2509: 2464: 2437: 2324:Positive resistances: 2270:Types and terminology 2251: 2228: 2205: 2155: 2132: 2105: 2064: 1989: 1952: 1932: 1912: 1847: 1827: 1807: 1775: 1712: 1600: 1515: 1468: 1442: 1386: 1348: 1319: 1286: 1172: 1122: 1037: 941: 805: 764: 660: 609: 589: 546: 456:The quadrants of the 455: 432: 400: 380: 332: 303: 242:, and so are used in 205: 157: 119: 24: 19564:Microwave technology 19559:Electronics concepts 16991:Vukic, Zoran (2003) 15893:. Penton Media Inc. 15465:Fogiel, Max (1988). 15065:Sciblog 2010 Archive 14022:Lesurf, Jim (2006). 13586:Golio, Mike (2000). 13047:short-circuit stable 13023:Stability conditions 12909:William Henry Eccles 12612: 12585: 12552: 12519: 12379: 12336: 12302: 12124: 12016: 11901: 11874: 11811: 11751: 11712: 11688:. A circulator is a 11680:reflection amplifier 11642:Reflection amplifier 11636:directional couplers 11595:Barkhausen criterion 11544: 11489: 11434: 11370: 11327: 11275: 11208: 11134: 11040: 10910: 10890: 10866: 10846: 10815: 10795: 10767: 10747: 10726: 10696: 10656: 10614: 10560: 10531: 10488: 10458: 10438: 10373: 10346: 10331:{\displaystyle i(t)} 10313: 10200: 10121: 10002: 9991:{\displaystyle i(t)} 9973: 9946: 9926: 9874: 9847: 9811: 9791: 9752: 9629:feedback oscillators 9600:dielectric resonator 9533:Chu–Harrington limit 9434: 9395: 9355: 9271: 9232: 9203: 9183: 9161: 9126: 9061: 9041: 9021: 9017:to its negative. If 9001: 8952: 8864: 8844: 8824: 8738: 8711: 8628:integrated inductors 8542: 8523:Colpitts oscillators 8515:feedback oscillators 8460: 8433: 8406: 8394:Feedback oscillators 8238: 8200: 8177: 8116: 8080: 8056: 8029: 7955: 7862: 7789: 7746: 7716: 7609: 7574: 7517:unstable equilibrium 7460: 7403: 7355: 7319: 7234: 7203: 7176: 7124: 7085: 7044: 7002: 6922: 6884: 6833: 6775: 6724: 6575: 6565:negative conductance 6497: 6449: 6392: 6297: 6249: 6172: 6145: 6102: 6065:Stability conditions 6029: 5989: 5956: 5923: 5851: 5783: 5705: 5634: 5614: 5584: 5554: 5501: 5463: 5424: 5385: 5258: 5179: 5107: 5003: 4949: 4922: 4862: 4803: 4768: 4762:and an AC component 4705: 4586: 4566: 4539: 4512: 4485: 4465: 4439: 4390: 4292: 4268: 4248: 4205: 4178: 4118: 4086: 4061: 4022: 3994: 3913: 3845:dynatron oscillators 3810:multivalued function 3794:short-circuit stable 3650: 3582: 3457: 3380: 3352: 3281: 3215: 3201:conventional current 3103: 3068: 3041: 2993: 2956: 2952:. These cannot have 2903: 2785:parametric amplifier 2652: 2605:feedback oscillators 2485: 2446: 2419: 2400:Feedback oscillators 2237: 2214: 2164: 2141: 2118: 2077: 2018: 1961: 1941: 1921: 1872: 1836: 1816: 1796: 1780:so the charges lose 1747: 1670: 1641:conventional current 1547: 1478: 1451: 1425: 1362: 1328: 1297: 1188: 1154: 1072: 1047:negative conductance 954: 856: 834:. It is measured in 781: 709: 630: 598: 578: 495: 421: 389: 369: 363:characteristic curve 310:semiconductor device 174: 132: 100: 19569:Physical quantities 19413:1958PhRv..109..603E 19102:Bell System Tech. J 18428:Bell System Tech. J 17618:Journal of the AIEE 17189:1954ITED....1....7B 17177:Bell System Tech. J 16712:Chang, Kai (2000). 16596:1921PhRv...17..302D 16568:Heinrich Barkhausen 16140:Physics Demystified 15706:Rao, R. S. (2012). 15365:1943JAP....14..674F 14288:Bell System Tech. J 14181:Chua, Leon (2000). 13432:2008JPSJ...77c1002S 13169:Aluf, Ofer (2012). 13043:open-circuit stable 12891:Solid state devices 12868:dynatron oscillator 12829:mercury vapor lamps 12821:Heinrich Barkhausen 12470: 11975: 11960: 11841: 11781: 11263:) at the frequency 9641:satellite receivers 9383:; its voltage will 8350:harmonic distortion 7277:curve at one point 4991:, as it would in a 4535:. The voltage gain 4454:{\displaystyle r-R} 4037:{\displaystyle R-r} 3907:(see graphs, above) 3883:gas discharge tubes 3859:open-circuit stable 3806:continuous function 2821:gas discharge tubes 2552:gas-discharge tubes 2518:one-port amplifiers 2350:Gas-discharge tubes 485:absolute resistance 464:and active devices 260:gas discharge tubes 117:{\displaystyle v/i} 60:electrical circuits 52:negative resistance 19499:. USA: MIT Press. 17849:2016-05-15 at the 17470:Analog Electronics 17310:2016-05-15 at the 17282:2014-12-23 at the 17092:2009-03-16 at the 17054:on August 19, 2014 17018:2013-12-16 at the 16284:curve is the same. 16063:2013-08-02 at the 16021:2013-07-22 at the 15439:2016-04-13 at the 15401:"Output Impedance" 14894:2015-03-24 at the 14887:on Peter Millet's 14695:2014-08-19 at the 13356:on August 19, 2014 13015:current controlled 13007:voltage controlled 12852:secondary emission 12722:Other applications 12683:, and can produce 12652:switching circuits 12646:Switching circuits 12618: 12598: 12571: 12538: 12505: 12456: 12365: 12315: 12289: 12111: 12001: 11961: 11946: 11887: 11857: 11827: 11797: 11767: 11737:transmission lines 11725: 11583: 11530: 11475: 11399: 11356: 11322: 11301: 11249: 11194: 11112: 10976: 10942: 10916: 10896: 10872: 10852: 10829: 10801: 10781: 10753: 10732: 10709: 10678: 10638: 10610: 10584: 10556: 10537: 10512: 10484: 10464: 10444: 10417:resonant frequency 10401: 10359: 10328: 10299: 10186: 10107: 9988: 9958:{\displaystyle LC} 9955: 9932: 9905: 9860: 9837:(circuit diagrams) 9829: 9817: 9797: 9766: 9667:. Lower frequency 9609:resonant frequency 9572: 9496: 9420: 9369: 9341: 9257: 9209: 9189: 9167: 9138:{\displaystyle -R} 9135: 9112: 9047: 9027: 9007: 8987: 8938: 8850: 8830: 8810: 8724: 8580: 8511:resonant frequency 8491: 8446: 8419: 8376:transfer functions 8293: 8216: 8186: 8160: 8098: 8062: 8042: 8007: 7995: 7940: 7846: 7755: 7732: 7700:and produce power 7628: 7593: 7479: 7450:eventual passivity 7422: 7374: 7338: 7286:stable equilibrium 7247: 7216: 7189: 7158:The AC load line ( 7138: 7099: 7057: 7030: 6943: 6908: 6858: 6797: 6757: 6711: 6553: 6483: 6416: 6374: 6281: 6228: 6158: 6127: 6071:equilibrium points 6051: 6011: 5975: 5942: 5909: 5837: 5768: 5691: 5620: 5597: 5567: 5541: 5528: 5482: 5449: 5410: 5360: 5244: 5153: 5073: 4974:equivalent circuit 4958: 4945:change in current 4931: 4908: 4849: 4787: 4750: 4592: 4572: 4552: 4525: 4498: 4471: 4451: 4424: 4372: 4274: 4264:must be less than 4254: 4234: 4191: 4131: 4099: 4067: 4034: 4006: 3949: 3703: 3604: 3568: 3451:eventually passive 3444:Eventual passivity 3399: 3364: 3336: 3264: 3187: 3138: 3087: 3053: 3022: 2975: 2930: 2693:resistance (their 2665: 2646: 2577: 2536: 2504: 2459: 2432: 2394:"Active resistors" 2246: 2223: 2200: 2150: 2127: 2100: 2059: 1984: 1947: 1927: 1907: 1842: 1822: 1802: 1770: 1707: 1595: 1510: 1463: 1437: 1381: 1343: 1314: 1281: 1167: 1117: 1032: 936: 851:Static conductance 800: 759: 705:curve at a point: 655: 604: 584: 565:electric generator 541: 481:chordal resistance 473: 427: 395: 375: 351: 322: 268:fluorescent lights 230:, particularly at 200: 152: 114: 44: 18091:Application Notes 18020:10.1109/81.246140 16280:in the text. The 16272:in the text, and 16268:in the source to 16040:Los Angeles Times 15379:on March 17, 2014 15373:10.1063/1.1714945 15256:978-1-4614-0403-3 14069:978-0-8493-2087-3 12621:{\displaystyle r} 12503: 12389: 12375:then the gain is 12312: 12277: 12099: 11976: 11939: 11936: 11926: 11911: 11821: 11761: 11034:complex impedance 10919:{\displaystyle r} 10899:{\displaystyle R} 10875:{\displaystyle r} 10855:{\displaystyle R} 10756:{\displaystyle r} 10735:{\displaystyle r} 10540:{\displaystyle R} 10467:{\displaystyle r} 10447:{\displaystyle R} 10356: 10297: 10285: 10254: 10230: 10096: 10078: 10058: 10037: 9998:, the AC current 9935:{\displaystyle R} 9857: 9820:{\displaystyle R} 9800:{\displaystyle r} 9663:transmitters and 9637:local oscillators 9525:transmission line 9467: 9405: 9304: 9242: 9212:{\displaystyle L} 9192:{\displaystyle C} 9170:{\displaystyle Z} 9101: 9071: 9050:{\displaystyle R} 9030:{\displaystyle Z} 9010:{\displaystyle Z} 8976: 8962: 8936: 8920: 8896: 8853:{\displaystyle Z} 8833:{\displaystyle v} 8721: 8577: 8557: 8488: 8470: 8443: 8416: 8390:converter (GIC). 8284: 8272: 8259: 8158: 8141: 8126: 8110:transfer function 8065:{\displaystyle A} 8023:positive feedback 7992: 7935: 7925: 7879: 7844: 7841: 7824: 7710:portion of curve) 7535:stable equilibria 6755: 6742: 6703: 6685: 6665: 6645: 5766: 5679: 5545:transmission line 5525: 5511: 5473: 5434: 5395: 5300: 5254:in graphs above) 5150: 5140: 5122: 5041: 5013: 4887: 4828: 4684:through the load 4623:(shown by colors) 4595:{\displaystyle r} 4575:{\displaystyle R} 4474:{\displaystyle r} 4422: 4360: 4329: 4277:{\displaystyle r} 4257:{\displaystyle R} 4070:{\displaystyle R} 4054:and the resistor 3919: 3896:multivalued logic 3695: 3497: 3390: 3256: 3113: 3078: 3019: 2966: 2913: 2695:source resistance 2662: 2618:positive feedback 2495: 2456: 2429: 2413: 2412: 2365: < 0 2314: > 0 2299: < 0 2286: > 0 2267: 2266: 2174: 2028: 1950:{\displaystyle i} 1930:{\displaystyle v} 1882: 1845:{\displaystyle i} 1825:{\displaystyle i} 1805:{\displaystyle v} 1680: 1587: 1574: 1502: 1488: 1372: 1279: 1222: 1198: 1164: 1109: 1095: 1082: 1030: 1007: 934: 921: 791: 754: 667:power dissipation 640: 607:{\displaystyle v} 587:{\displaystyle i} 536: 477:Static resistance 430:{\displaystyle v} 398:{\displaystyle v} 378:{\displaystyle i} 295:electric circuits 280:positive feedback 19576: 19539: 19537: 19535: 19510: 19498: 19485: 19456: 19455: 19453: 19451: 19431: 19425: 19424: 19396: 19390: 19384: 19382: 19380: 19364: 19355: 19350: 19337: 19336: 19312: 19306: 19305: 19303: 19301: 19295: 19280: 19271: 19262: 19261: 19259: 19257: 19243: 19234: 19228: 19227: 19225: 19223: 19207: 19196: 19195: 19193: 19191: 19177: 19168: 19159: 19158: 19134: 19125: 19124: 19122: 19120: 19093: 19087: 19086: 19084: 19082: 19071:Electrical World 19062: 19053: 19052: 19050: 19049: 19014: 19008: 19007: 19005: 19003: 18983: 18977: 18976: 18962: 18956: 18955: 18949: 18941: 18922: 18916: 18915: 18913: 18911: 18899:(258): 407–423. 18884: 18878: 18877: 18875: 18874: 18854: 18839: 18837: 18835: 18833: 18813: 18807: 18806: 18794: 18792:"Lighting" 18783: 18770: 18763: 18757: 18756: 18754: 18737: 18726: 18705: 18704: 18679:(3): 1131–1138. 18668: 18662: 18661: 18637: 18626: 18625: 18619: 18611: 18586: 18569: 18568: 18562: 18554: 18529: 18520: 18519: 18499: 18490: 18489: 18465: 18452: 18450: 18448: 18446: 18434:(6): 1937–1955. 18419: 18408: 18407: 18405: 18403: 18397: 18386: 18373: 18367: 18365: 18363: 18361: 18355: 18344: 18335: 18326: 18325: 18301: 18295: 18294: 18274: 18268: 18267: 18243: 18237: 18236: 18216: 18210: 18209: 18207: 18205: 18180: 18171: 18170: 18146: 18137: 18136: 18116: 18103: 18102: 18100: 18098: 18083: 18077: 18076: 18048: 18039: 18038: 18036: 18034: 18028: 18005: 17996: 17985: 17984: 17964: 17958: 17957: 17937: 17926: 17925: 17901: 17892: 17891: 17889: 17887: 17862: 17853: 17837: 17831: 17830: 17806: 17783: 17782: 17758: 17737: 17735: 17733: 17731: 17726:on July 22, 2015 17725: 17714: 17705: 17690: 17689: 17669: 17654: 17653: 17651: 17644: 17633: 17631: 17629: 17608: 17599: 17598: 17574: 17568: 17567: 17565: 17563: 17543: 17537: 17535: 17519: 17513: 17511: 17491: 17485: 17484: 17464: 17458: 17457: 17448: 17439: 17437: 17435: 17433: 17398: 17387: 17385: 17383: 17376: 17365: 17356: 17355: 17331: 17314: 17298: 17287: 17274: 17260: 17247: 17246: 17225:Gilmore, Rowan; 17222: 17216: 17215: 17213: 17211: 17168: 17159: 17158: 17138: 17129: 17128: 17108: 17097: 17084: 17078: 17073: 17071: 17063: 17061: 17059: 17053: 17046: 17037: 17024: 17008: 16997: 16988: 16982: 16981: 16961: 16955: 16954: 16930: 16924: 16923: 16903: 16897: 16896: 16872: 16866: 16865: 16841: 16832: 16831: 16811: 16805: 16804: 16780: 16774: 16773: 16749: 16730: 16729: 16709: 16700: 16691: 16670: 16669: 16667: 16665: 16655: 16646: 16627: 16614: 16612: 16610: 16564: 16551: 16550: 16548: 16541: 16530: 16521: 16520: 16518: 16516: 16496: 16485: 16484: 16482: 16480: 16455: 16444: 16443: 16419: 16408: 16407: 16405: 16403: 16397: 16386: 16377: 16371: 16370: 16350: 16337: 16336: 16316: 16285: 16259: 16257: 16255: 16239: 16230: 16228: 16226: 16224: 16218: 16207: 16197: 16188: 16187: 16163: 16154: 16153: 16135: 16129: 16128: 16126: 16124: 16104: 16098: 16097: 16077: 16068: 16055: 16053: 16051: 16031: 16025: 16013: 16011: 16009: 16003: 15992: 15983: 15974: 15972: 15970: 15968: 15944: 15927: 15926: 15924: 15922: 15906: 15904: 15902: 15882: 15859: 15858: 15834: 15828: 15827: 15825: 15823: 15803: 15792: 15790: 15771: 15761: 15755: 15754: 15730: 15724: 15723: 15703: 15697: 15696: 15676: 15670: 15669: 15645: 15636: 15635: 15611: 15602: 15601: 15599: 15598: 15589:. Archived from 15582: 15576: 15575: 15555: 15544: 15543: 15523: 15510: 15509: 15489: 15483: 15482: 15462: 15443: 15427: 15421: 15420: 15418: 15416: 15396: 15390: 15388: 15386: 15384: 15375:. Archived from 15344: 15338: 15337: 15313: 15298: 15296: 15272: 15261: 15260: 15234: 15225: 15224: 15199: 15188: 15187: 15163: 15130: 15122: 15120: 15118: 15098: 15085: 15080: 15078: 15076: 15056: 15035: 15034: 15014: 14983: 14982: 14958: 14931: 14930: 14910: 14899: 14886: 14884: 14877: 14866: 14860: 14859: 14839: 14808: 14807: 14787: 14776: 14775: 14769: 14764: 14762: 14754: 14752: 14750: 14726: 14699: 14687: 14685: 14683: 14663: 14640: 14638: 14614: 14603: 14602: 14578: 14567: 14566: 14542: 14533: 14531: 14511: 14498: 14496: 14472: 14463: 14462: 14433: 14422: 14421: 14396: 14381: 14380: 14360: 14347: 14346: 14332: 14311: 14310: 14308: 14306: 14279: 14258: 14253: 14251: 14249: 14243: 14232: 14223: 14210: 14208: 14206: 14200:. Archived from 14189: 14178: 14143: 14141: 14139: 14137: 14131: 14120: 14111: 14074: 14073: 14053: 14044: 14043: 14041: 14039: 14019: 13980: 13979: 13977: 13976: 13970: 13964:. Archived from 13953: 13942: 13923: 13922: 13920: 13918: 13898: 13887: 13886: 13866: 13857: 13856: 13832: 13819: 13818: 13794: 13788: 13787: 13763: 13754: 13753: 13732:Gilmore, Rowan; 13729: 13706: 13705: 13681: 13660: 13659: 13657: 13655: 13649: 13634: 13625: 13608: 13607: 13583: 13570: 13569: 13549: 13534: 13533: 13513: 13500: 13499: 13475: 13456: 13455: 13453: 13451: 13406: 13387: 13386: 13380: 13375: 13373: 13365: 13363: 13361: 13355: 13348: 13339: 13318: 13317: 13293: 13270: 13269: 13249: 13222: 13221: 13201: 13192: 13190: 13166: 13113: 13112: 13092: 13067: 13039: 13026: 13003: 12846:discovered that 12805:Valdemar Poulsen 12771:Arc transmitters 12715:digital counters 12640:radio telescopes 12627: 12625: 12624: 12619: 12607: 12605: 12604: 12599: 12597: 12596: 12580: 12578: 12577: 12572: 12564: 12563: 12547: 12545: 12544: 12539: 12531: 12530: 12514: 12512: 12511: 12506: 12504: 12502: 12501: 12500: 12491: 12490: 12471: 12469: 12464: 12449: 12448: 12439: 12438: 12419: 12414: 12413: 12408: 12399: 12391: 12390: 12387: 12374: 12372: 12371: 12366: 12364: 12363: 12348: 12347: 12324: 12322: 12321: 12316: 12314: 12313: 12310: 12298: 12296: 12295: 12290: 12288: 12287: 12282: 12278: 12276: 12275: 12274: 12259: 12258: 12246: 12245: 12230: 12229: 12219: 12215: 12214: 12199: 12198: 12183: 12182: 12167: 12166: 12156: 12146: 12145: 12140: 12131: 12120: 12118: 12117: 12112: 12110: 12109: 12104: 12100: 12098: 12097: 12096: 12084: 12083: 12073: 12072: 12071: 12059: 12058: 12048: 12038: 12037: 12032: 12023: 12010: 12008: 12007: 12002: 12000: 11999: 11994: 11985: 11977: 11974: 11969: 11959: 11954: 11945: 11940: 11938: 11937: 11934: 11928: 11927: 11924: 11918: 11913: 11912: 11909: 11896: 11894: 11893: 11888: 11886: 11885: 11866: 11864: 11863: 11858: 11856: 11855: 11846: 11840: 11835: 11823: 11822: 11819: 11806: 11804: 11803: 11798: 11796: 11795: 11786: 11780: 11775: 11763: 11762: 11759: 11734: 11732: 11731: 11726: 11724: 11723: 11668: 11654: 11630:devices such as 11618:devices such as 11592: 11590: 11589: 11584: 11576: 11571: 11570: 11561: 11560: 11551: 11539: 11537: 11536: 11531: 11529: 11528: 11519: 11514: 11513: 11501: 11500: 11484: 11482: 11481: 11476: 11474: 11473: 11464: 11459: 11458: 11446: 11445: 11408: 11406: 11405: 11400: 11398: 11397: 11382: 11381: 11365: 11363: 11362: 11357: 11355: 11354: 11339: 11338: 11310: 11308: 11307: 11302: 11300: 11299: 11287: 11286: 11258: 11256: 11255: 11250: 11236: 11235: 11223: 11222: 11203: 11201: 11200: 11195: 11184: 11183: 11159: 11158: 11146: 11145: 11121: 11119: 11118: 11113: 11096: 11095: 11065: 11064: 11052: 11051: 11026: 11016:frequency domain 10930:Types of circuit 10925: 10923: 10922: 10917: 10905: 10903: 10902: 10897: 10881: 10879: 10878: 10873: 10861: 10859: 10858: 10853: 10838: 10836: 10835: 10830: 10810: 10808: 10807: 10802: 10791:and the damping 10790: 10788: 10787: 10782: 10762: 10760: 10759: 10754: 10741: 10739: 10738: 10733: 10718: 10716: 10715: 10710: 10708: 10707: 10690:electrical noise 10687: 10685: 10684: 10679: 10674: 10647: 10645: 10644: 10639: 10593: 10591: 10590: 10585: 10546: 10544: 10543: 10538: 10521: 10519: 10518: 10513: 10473: 10471: 10470: 10465: 10453: 10451: 10450: 10445: 10410: 10408: 10407: 10402: 10400: 10399: 10368: 10366: 10365: 10360: 10358: 10357: 10354: 10337: 10335: 10334: 10329: 10308: 10306: 10305: 10300: 10298: 10296: 10295: 10290: 10286: 10284: 10276: 10265: 10255: 10253: 10242: 10240: 10231: 10229: 10221: 10210: 10195: 10193: 10192: 10187: 10161: 10160: 10148: 10147: 10116: 10114: 10113: 10108: 10097: 10095: 10084: 10079: 10077: 10069: 10061: 10059: 10054: 10043: 10038: 10036: 10035: 10034: 10021: 10017: 10016: 10006: 9997: 9995: 9994: 9989: 9964: 9962: 9961: 9956: 9941: 9939: 9938: 9933: 9914: 9912: 9911: 9906: 9887: 9869: 9867: 9866: 9861: 9859: 9858: 9855: 9826: 9824: 9823: 9818: 9806: 9804: 9803: 9798: 9785: 9775: 9773: 9772: 9767: 9714: 9702: 9633:radar speed guns 9604:cavity resonator 9557:cavity resonator 9551:consisting of a 9531:, exceeding the 9517:matching network 9505: 9503: 9502: 9497: 9480: 9479: 9468: 9466: 9458: 9450: 9429: 9427: 9426: 9421: 9407: 9406: 9403: 9378: 9376: 9375: 9370: 9350: 9348: 9347: 9342: 9331: 9317: 9316: 9305: 9303: 9295: 9287: 9266: 9264: 9263: 9258: 9244: 9243: 9240: 9225:relation and an 9220: 9218: 9216: 9215: 9210: 9198: 9196: 9195: 9190: 9176: 9174: 9173: 9168: 9144: 9142: 9141: 9136: 9121: 9119: 9118: 9113: 9108: 9103: 9102: 9099: 9078: 9073: 9072: 9069: 9056: 9054: 9053: 9048: 9036: 9034: 9033: 9028: 9016: 9014: 9013: 9008: 8996: 8994: 8993: 8988: 8977: 8969: 8964: 8963: 8960: 8947: 8945: 8944: 8939: 8937: 8929: 8921: 8916: 8902: 8897: 8892: 8891: 8890: 8874: 8859: 8857: 8856: 8851: 8839: 8837: 8836: 8831: 8820:So if a voltage 8819: 8817: 8816: 8811: 8800: 8799: 8790: 8782: 8781: 8769: 8768: 8750: 8749: 8733: 8731: 8730: 8725: 8723: 8722: 8719: 8694: 8675: 8666: 8634:Chaotic circuits 8589: 8587: 8586: 8581: 8579: 8578: 8575: 8564: 8559: 8558: 8555: 8549: 8500: 8498: 8497: 8492: 8490: 8489: 8486: 8472: 8471: 8468: 8455: 8453: 8452: 8447: 8445: 8444: 8441: 8428: 8426: 8425: 8420: 8418: 8417: 8414: 8302: 8300: 8299: 8294: 8286: 8285: 8282: 8273: 8265: 8260: 8258: 8250: 8242: 8225: 8223: 8222: 8217: 8215: 8214: 8195: 8193: 8192: 8187: 8169: 8167: 8166: 8161: 8159: 8157: 8143: 8142: 8139: 8133: 8128: 8127: 8124: 8107: 8105: 8104: 8099: 8071: 8069: 8068: 8063: 8051: 8049: 8048: 8043: 8041: 8040: 8019:output impedance 8004: 8002: 8001: 7996: 7994: 7993: 7990: 7984: 7979: 7978: 7949: 7947: 7946: 7941: 7936: 7934: 7927: 7926: 7923: 7917: 7912: 7911: 7895: 7894: 7885: 7880: 7872: 7855: 7853: 7852: 7847: 7845: 7843: 7842: 7839: 7830: 7825: 7823: 7822: 7813: 7799: 7764: 7762: 7761: 7756: 7741: 7739: 7738: 7733: 7731: 7730: 7697: 7674: 7665: 7656: 7637: 7635: 7634: 7629: 7621: 7620: 7602: 7600: 7599: 7594: 7586: 7585: 7565:Schmitt triggers 7515:) is a point of 7495: 7488: 7486: 7485: 7480: 7478: 7477: 7431: 7429: 7428: 7423: 7415: 7414: 7383: 7381: 7380: 7375: 7367: 7366: 7347: 7345: 7344: 7339: 7331: 7330: 7264: 7256: 7254: 7253: 7248: 7246: 7245: 7225: 7223: 7222: 7217: 7215: 7214: 7198: 7196: 7195: 7190: 7188: 7187: 7149: 7147: 7145: 7144: 7139: 7110: 7108: 7106: 7105: 7100: 7066: 7064: 7063: 7058: 7056: 7055: 7039: 7037: 7036: 7031: 7020: 7019: 6988: 6976: 6952: 6950: 6949: 6944: 6934: 6933: 6917: 6915: 6914: 6909: 6896: 6895: 6867: 6865: 6864: 6859: 6845: 6844: 6806: 6804: 6803: 6798: 6787: 6786: 6766: 6764: 6763: 6758: 6756: 6748: 6743: 6741: 6740: 6728: 6720: 6718: 6717: 6712: 6704: 6702: 6691: 6686: 6684: 6683: 6671: 6666: 6664: 6663: 6651: 6646: 6644: 6643: 6631: 6626: 6625: 6613: 6612: 6600: 6599: 6587: 6586: 6562: 6560: 6559: 6554: 6534: 6533: 6509: 6508: 6492: 6490: 6489: 6484: 6482: 6481: 6472: 6461: 6460: 6425: 6423: 6422: 6417: 6404: 6403: 6383: 6381: 6380: 6375: 6361: 6360: 6348: 6347: 6335: 6334: 6322: 6321: 6309: 6308: 6292: 6290: 6288: 6287: 6282: 6274: 6273: 6261: 6260: 6237: 6235: 6234: 6229: 6209: 6208: 6184: 6183: 6167: 6165: 6164: 6159: 6157: 6156: 6136: 6134: 6133: 6128: 6114: 6113: 6060: 6058: 6057: 6052: 6044: 6036: 6020: 6018: 6017: 6012: 6004: 5996: 5984: 5982: 5981: 5976: 5968: 5967: 5951: 5949: 5948: 5943: 5935: 5934: 5918: 5916: 5915: 5910: 5908: 5907: 5890: 5889: 5863: 5862: 5846: 5844: 5843: 5838: 5836: 5835: 5820: 5819: 5795: 5794: 5777: 5775: 5774: 5769: 5767: 5765: 5764: 5763: 5751: 5750: 5740: 5739: 5738: 5726: 5725: 5715: 5700: 5698: 5697: 5692: 5684: 5680: 5678: 5677: 5668: 5667: 5658: 5649: 5641: 5629: 5627: 5626: 5621: 5606: 5604: 5603: 5598: 5596: 5595: 5576: 5574: 5573: 5568: 5566: 5565: 5539: 5537: 5535: 5534: 5529: 5527: 5526: 5523: 5513: 5512: 5509: 5492:. Both may have 5491: 5489: 5488: 5483: 5475: 5474: 5471: 5458: 5456: 5455: 5450: 5436: 5435: 5432: 5419: 5417: 5416: 5411: 5397: 5396: 5393: 5369: 5367: 5366: 5361: 5356: 5355: 5343: 5342: 5327: 5326: 5314: 5313: 5301: 5293: 5288: 5287: 5253: 5251: 5250: 5245: 5243: 5242: 5219: 5218: 5205: 5204: 5191: 5190: 5162: 5160: 5159: 5154: 5152: 5151: 5148: 5142: 5141: 5138: 5129: 5124: 5123: 5120: 5114: 5082: 5080: 5079: 5074: 5066: 5065: 5060: 5048: 5043: 5042: 5039: 5015: 5014: 5011: 4967: 4965: 4964: 4959: 4940: 4938: 4937: 4932: 4917: 4915: 4914: 4909: 4889: 4888: 4885: 4858: 4856: 4855: 4850: 4830: 4829: 4826: 4798: 4796: 4794: 4793: 4788: 4761: 4759: 4757: 4756: 4751: 4749: 4748: 4726: 4725: 4646: 4618: 4601: 4599: 4598: 4593: 4581: 4579: 4578: 4573: 4561: 4559: 4558: 4553: 4551: 4550: 4534: 4532: 4531: 4526: 4524: 4523: 4507: 4505: 4504: 4499: 4497: 4496: 4480: 4478: 4477: 4472: 4460: 4458: 4457: 4452: 4433: 4431: 4430: 4425: 4423: 4421: 4407: 4402: 4401: 4381: 4379: 4378: 4373: 4371: 4370: 4361: 4359: 4345: 4340: 4339: 4330: 4328: 4317: 4309: 4304: 4303: 4283: 4281: 4280: 4275: 4263: 4261: 4260: 4255: 4244:. For stability 4243: 4241: 4240: 4235: 4218: 4200: 4198: 4197: 4192: 4190: 4189: 4140: 4138: 4137: 4132: 4130: 4129: 4112: 4108: 4106: 4105: 4100: 4098: 4097: 4080: 4076: 4074: 4073: 4068: 4045: 4043: 4041: 4040: 4035: 4015: 4013: 4012: 4007: 3984: 3975: 3958: 3956: 3955: 3950: 3948: 3947: 3938: 3933: 3932: 3920: 3917: 3892:digital circuits 3751: 3737: 3712: 3710: 3709: 3704: 3696: 3694: 3686: 3678: 3673: 3672: 3671: 3613: 3611: 3610: 3605: 3594: 3593: 3577: 3575: 3574: 3569: 3558: 3547: 3546: 3545: 3511: 3503: 3498: 3495: 3487: 3479: 3408: 3406: 3405: 3400: 3392: 3391: 3388: 3375: 3373: 3371: 3370: 3365: 3345: 3343: 3342: 3337: 3335: 3334: 3333: 3308: 3307: 3273: 3271: 3270: 3265: 3257: 3249: 3244: 3243: 3242: 3197:potential energy 3147: 3145: 3144: 3139: 3126: 3115: 3114: 3111: 3098: 3096: 3094: 3093: 3088: 3080: 3079: 3076: 3062: 3060: 3059: 3054: 3033: 3031: 3029: 3028: 3023: 3021: 3020: 3017: 3011: 3010: 2984: 2982: 2981: 2976: 2968: 2967: 2964: 2939: 2937: 2936: 2931: 2926: 2915: 2914: 2911: 2871: 2862: 2815:fluorescent lamp 2674: 2672: 2671: 2666: 2664: 2663: 2660: 2629:Active resistors 2515: 2513: 2511: 2510: 2505: 2497: 2496: 2493: 2468: 2466: 2465: 2460: 2458: 2457: 2454: 2441: 2439: 2438: 2433: 2431: 2430: 2427: 2274: 2263: 2255: 2253: 2252: 2247: 2232: 2230: 2229: 2224: 2209: 2207: 2206: 2201: 2176: 2175: 2172: 2159: 2157: 2156: 2151: 2136: 2134: 2133: 2128: 2109: 2107: 2106: 2101: 2068: 2066: 2065: 2060: 2044: 2030: 2029: 2026: 2005: 1993: 1991: 1990: 1985: 1956: 1954: 1953: 1948: 1936: 1934: 1933: 1928: 1916: 1914: 1913: 1908: 1895: 1884: 1883: 1880: 1859: 1851: 1849: 1848: 1843: 1831: 1829: 1828: 1823: 1811: 1809: 1808: 1803: 1782:potential energy 1779: 1777: 1776: 1771: 1716: 1714: 1713: 1708: 1695: 1682: 1681: 1678: 1657: 1620: 1619: 1604: 1602: 1601: 1596: 1588: 1580: 1575: 1573: 1565: 1557: 1540: 1528: 1519: 1517: 1516: 1511: 1503: 1495: 1490: 1489: 1486: 1472: 1470: 1469: 1464: 1446: 1444: 1443: 1438: 1412: 1400: 1390: 1388: 1387: 1382: 1374: 1373: 1370: 1352: 1350: 1349: 1344: 1323: 1321: 1320: 1315: 1290: 1288: 1287: 1282: 1280: 1278: 1277: 1276: 1264: 1263: 1253: 1252: 1251: 1239: 1238: 1228: 1223: 1221: 1213: 1205: 1200: 1199: 1196: 1176: 1174: 1173: 1168: 1166: 1165: 1162: 1147: 1135: 1126: 1124: 1123: 1118: 1110: 1102: 1097: 1096: 1093: 1084: 1083: 1080: 1060: 1041: 1039: 1038: 1033: 1031: 1029: 1021: 1013: 1008: 1006: 1005: 1004: 982: 977: 976: 975: 945: 943: 942: 937: 935: 927: 922: 920: 919: 918: 890: 885: 884: 883: 811: 809: 807: 806: 801: 793: 792: 789: 768: 766: 765: 760: 755: 753: 745: 737: 732: 731: 730: 669:in a component. 664: 662: 661: 656: 642: 641: 638: 613: 611: 610: 605: 593: 591: 590: 585: 550: 548: 547: 542: 537: 529: 524: 523: 522: 469: 436: 434: 433: 428: 404: 402: 401: 396: 384: 382: 381: 376: 209: 207: 206: 201: 187: 161: 159: 158: 153: 145: 123: 121: 120: 115: 110: 68:electric current 26:Fluorescent lamp 19584: 19583: 19579: 19578: 19577: 19575: 19574: 19573: 19544: 19543: 19533: 19531: 19523:. McGraw-Hill. 19507: 19496: 19482: 19464: 19462:Further reading 19459: 19449: 19447: 19432: 19428: 19401:Physical Review 19397: 19393: 19378: 19376: 19365: 19358: 19351: 19340: 19329: 19313: 19309: 19299: 19297: 19293: 19278: 19272: 19265: 19255: 19253: 19241: 19235: 19231: 19221: 19219: 19208: 19199: 19189: 19187: 19175: 19169: 19162: 19151: 19135: 19128: 19118: 19116: 19094: 19090: 19080: 19078: 19063: 19056: 19047: 19045: 19015: 19011: 19001: 18999: 18984: 18980: 18963: 18959: 18943: 18942: 18924:G. Fitzgerald, 18923: 18919: 18909: 18907: 18885: 18881: 18872: 18870: 18855: 18842: 18831: 18829: 18822:The Electrician 18814: 18810: 18784: 18773: 18764: 18760: 18752: 18746: 18735: 18727: 18708: 18669: 18665: 18654: 18638: 18629: 18613: 18612: 18608: 18587: 18572: 18556: 18555: 18551: 18530: 18523: 18516: 18500: 18493: 18482: 18466: 18455: 18444: 18442: 18420: 18411: 18401: 18399: 18395: 18384: 18374: 18370: 18359: 18357: 18356:on May 26, 2012 18353: 18342: 18336: 18329: 18318: 18302: 18298: 18291: 18275: 18271: 18260: 18244: 18240: 18233: 18217: 18213: 18203: 18201: 18199: 18181: 18174: 18163: 18147: 18140: 18133: 18117: 18106: 18096: 18094: 18085: 18084: 18080: 18049: 18042: 18032: 18030: 18026: 18003: 17997: 17988: 17981: 17965: 17961: 17954: 17938: 17929: 17918: 17902: 17895: 17885: 17883: 17881: 17863: 17856: 17851:Wayback Machine 17840:Gottlieb 1997, 17838: 17834: 17823: 17807: 17786: 17775: 17759: 17740: 17729: 17727: 17723: 17712: 17706: 17693: 17686: 17670: 17657: 17649: 17642: 17627: 17625: 17609: 17602: 17591: 17575: 17571: 17561: 17559: 17544: 17540: 17536:on IEEE website 17520: 17516: 17508: 17492: 17488: 17481: 17465: 17461: 17450: 17449: 17442: 17431: 17429: 17399: 17390: 17381: 17374: 17366: 17359: 17348: 17332: 17317: 17312:Wayback Machine 17299: 17290: 17284:Wayback Machine 17261: 17250: 17243: 17223: 17219: 17209: 17207: 17169: 17162: 17155: 17139: 17132: 17125: 17109: 17100: 17094:Wayback Machine 17076: 17074: 17065: 17064: 17057: 17055: 17051: 17044: 17038: 17027: 17020:Wayback Machine 17010:Crisson (1931) 17009: 17000: 16989: 16985: 16978: 16962: 16958: 16947: 16931: 16927: 16920: 16904: 16900: 16889: 16873: 16869: 16858: 16842: 16835: 16828: 16812: 16808: 16797: 16781: 16777: 16766: 16750: 16733: 16726: 16710: 16703: 16692: 16673: 16663: 16661: 16653: 16647: 16630: 16608: 16606: 16584:Physical Review 16565: 16554: 16546: 16539: 16531: 16524: 16514: 16512: 16497: 16488: 16478: 16476: 16474: 16456: 16447: 16436: 16420: 16411: 16401: 16399: 16395: 16384: 16378: 16374: 16351: 16340: 16333: 16317: 16288: 16253: 16251: 16240: 16233: 16222: 16220: 16216: 16205: 16198: 16191: 16180: 16164: 16157: 16150: 16136: 16132: 16122: 16120: 16105: 16101: 16094: 16078: 16071: 16065:Wayback Machine 16049: 16047: 16042:. Los Angeles. 16032: 16028: 16023:Wayback Machine 16007: 16005: 16001: 15990: 15984: 15977: 15966: 15964: 15953:The Electrician 15945: 15930: 15920: 15918: 15900: 15898: 15883: 15862: 15851: 15835: 15831: 15821: 15819: 15812:The Electrician 15804: 15795: 15784: 15762: 15758: 15747: 15731: 15727: 15720: 15704: 15700: 15693: 15677: 15673: 15662: 15646: 15639: 15628: 15612: 15605: 15596: 15594: 15585: 15583: 15579: 15572: 15556: 15547: 15540: 15524: 15513: 15506: 15490: 15486: 15479: 15463: 15446: 15441:Wayback Machine 15428: 15424: 15414: 15412: 15397: 15393: 15382: 15380: 15359:(12): 674–678. 15345: 15341: 15330: 15314: 15301: 15289: 15273: 15264: 15257: 15235: 15228: 15217: 15200: 15191: 15180: 15164: 15133: 15116: 15114: 15099: 15088: 15074: 15072: 15057: 15038: 15031: 15015: 14986: 14975: 14959: 14934: 14927: 14911: 14902: 14896:Wayback Machine 14882: 14875: 14867: 14863: 14856: 14840: 14811: 14804: 14788: 14779: 14767: 14765: 14756: 14755: 14748: 14746: 14727: 14702: 14697:Wayback Machine 14681: 14679: 14664: 14643: 14631: 14615: 14606: 14595: 14579: 14570: 14559: 14543: 14536: 14528: 14512: 14501: 14489: 14473: 14466: 14455: 14434: 14425: 14418: 14397: 14384: 14377: 14361: 14350: 14333: 14314: 14304: 14302: 14280: 14261: 14247: 14245: 14241: 14230: 14224: 14213: 14204: 14198: 14187: 14179: 14146: 14135: 14133: 14129: 14118: 14112: 14077: 14070: 14054: 14047: 14037: 14035: 14020: 13983: 13974: 13972: 13968: 13962: 13951: 13943: 13926: 13916: 13914: 13899: 13890: 13883: 13867: 13860: 13849: 13833: 13822: 13811: 13795: 13791: 13780: 13764: 13757: 13750: 13730: 13709: 13698: 13682: 13663: 13653: 13651: 13647: 13632: 13626: 13611: 13600: 13584: 13573: 13566: 13550: 13537: 13530: 13514: 13503: 13492: 13476: 13459: 13449: 13447: 13407: 13390: 13378: 13376: 13367: 13366: 13359: 13357: 13353: 13346: 13340: 13321: 13310: 13294: 13273: 13266: 13250: 13225: 13218: 13202: 13195: 13183: 13167: 13116: 13109: 13093: 13080: 13076: 13071: 13070: 13051:linear circuits 13040: 13029: 13004: 13000: 12995: 12940:radio receivers 12893: 12856:plate electrode 12837:telephone lines 12817: 12788:William Duddell 12773: 12741: 12729: 12727:Neuronal models 12724: 12648: 12613: 12610: 12609: 12592: 12588: 12586: 12583: 12582: 12559: 12555: 12553: 12550: 12549: 12526: 12522: 12520: 12517: 12516: 12496: 12492: 12486: 12482: 12472: 12465: 12460: 12444: 12440: 12434: 12430: 12420: 12418: 12409: 12404: 12403: 12395: 12386: 12382: 12380: 12377: 12376: 12359: 12355: 12343: 12339: 12337: 12334: 12333: 12309: 12305: 12303: 12300: 12299: 12283: 12270: 12266: 12254: 12250: 12241: 12237: 12225: 12221: 12220: 12210: 12206: 12194: 12190: 12178: 12174: 12162: 12158: 12157: 12155: 12151: 12150: 12141: 12136: 12135: 12127: 12125: 12122: 12121: 12105: 12092: 12088: 12079: 12075: 12074: 12067: 12063: 12054: 12050: 12049: 12047: 12043: 12042: 12033: 12028: 12027: 12019: 12017: 12014: 12013: 11995: 11990: 11989: 11981: 11970: 11965: 11955: 11950: 11944: 11933: 11929: 11923: 11919: 11917: 11908: 11904: 11902: 11899: 11898: 11881: 11877: 11875: 11872: 11871: 11851: 11847: 11842: 11836: 11831: 11818: 11814: 11812: 11809: 11808: 11791: 11787: 11782: 11776: 11771: 11758: 11754: 11752: 11749: 11748: 11719: 11715: 11713: 11710: 11709: 11676: 11675: 11674: 11673: 11672: 11669: 11660: 11659: 11658: 11655: 11644: 11604: 11572: 11566: 11562: 11556: 11552: 11547: 11545: 11542: 11541: 11524: 11520: 11515: 11509: 11505: 11496: 11492: 11490: 11487: 11486: 11469: 11465: 11460: 11454: 11450: 11441: 11437: 11435: 11432: 11431: 11429: 11422: 11393: 11389: 11377: 11373: 11371: 11368: 11367: 11350: 11346: 11334: 11330: 11328: 11325: 11324: 11295: 11291: 11282: 11278: 11276: 11273: 11272: 11231: 11227: 11218: 11214: 11209: 11206: 11205: 11179: 11175: 11154: 11150: 11141: 11137: 11135: 11132: 11131: 11091: 11087: 11060: 11056: 11047: 11043: 11041: 11038: 11037: 11024: 11020:reference plane 11004: 10992: 10958: 10932: 10911: 10908: 10907: 10891: 10888: 10887: 10867: 10864: 10863: 10847: 10844: 10843: 10816: 10813: 10812: 10796: 10793: 10792: 10768: 10765: 10764: 10748: 10745: 10744: 10727: 10724: 10723: 10703: 10699: 10697: 10694: 10693: 10670: 10657: 10654: 10653: 10615: 10612: 10611: 10561: 10558: 10557: 10532: 10529: 10528: 10489: 10486: 10485: 10459: 10456: 10455: 10439: 10436: 10435: 10395: 10391: 10374: 10371: 10370: 10353: 10349: 10347: 10344: 10343: 10314: 10311: 10310: 10291: 10277: 10266: 10264: 10260: 10259: 10246: 10241: 10239: 10222: 10211: 10209: 10201: 10198: 10197: 10153: 10149: 10143: 10139: 10122: 10119: 10118: 10088: 10083: 10070: 10062: 10060: 10044: 10042: 10030: 10026: 10022: 10012: 10008: 10007: 10005: 10003: 10000: 9999: 9974: 9971: 9970: 9947: 9944: 9943: 9927: 9924: 9923: 9883: 9875: 9872: 9871: 9854: 9850: 9848: 9845: 9844: 9812: 9809: 9808: 9792: 9789: 9788: 9783: 9777: 9753: 9750: 9749: 9744: 9739: 9728: 9726:Gunn oscillator 9722: 9721: 9720: 9719: 9718: 9715: 9707: 9706: 9703: 9692: 9665:microwave ovens 9645:millimeter wave 9617: 9541: 9475: 9471: 9459: 9451: 9449: 9435: 9432: 9431: 9402: 9398: 9396: 9393: 9392: 9356: 9353: 9352: 9327: 9312: 9308: 9296: 9288: 9286: 9272: 9269: 9268: 9239: 9235: 9233: 9230: 9229: 9204: 9201: 9200: 9199:) or inductor ( 9184: 9181: 9180: 9178: 9162: 9159: 9158: 9155: 9127: 9124: 9123: 9104: 9098: 9094: 9074: 9068: 9064: 9062: 9059: 9058: 9042: 9039: 9038: 9022: 9019: 9018: 9002: 8999: 8998: 8968: 8959: 8955: 8953: 8950: 8949: 8928: 8903: 8901: 8886: 8882: 8875: 8873: 8865: 8862: 8861: 8845: 8842: 8841: 8825: 8822: 8821: 8795: 8791: 8786: 8777: 8773: 8764: 8760: 8745: 8741: 8739: 8736: 8735: 8718: 8714: 8712: 8709: 8708: 8701: 8700: 8699: 8698: 8697: 8692: 8676: 8668: 8667: 8656: 8636: 8624:Edwin Armstrong 8574: 8570: 8560: 8554: 8550: 8545: 8543: 8540: 8539: 8536: 8485: 8481: 8467: 8463: 8461: 8458: 8457: 8440: 8436: 8434: 8431: 8430: 8413: 8409: 8407: 8404: 8403: 8396: 8303:and thus obeys 8281: 8277: 8264: 8251: 8243: 8241: 8239: 8236: 8235: 8207: 8203: 8201: 8198: 8197: 8178: 8175: 8174: 8144: 8138: 8134: 8132: 8123: 8119: 8117: 8114: 8113: 8081: 8078: 8077: 8057: 8054: 8053: 8036: 8032: 8030: 8027: 8026: 7989: 7985: 7980: 7974: 7970: 7956: 7953: 7952: 7950: 7922: 7918: 7913: 7907: 7903: 7896: 7890: 7886: 7884: 7871: 7863: 7860: 7859: 7858: 7856: 7838: 7834: 7829: 7818: 7814: 7800: 7798: 7790: 7787: 7786: 7785: 7772: 7771: 7770: 7769: 7747: 7744: 7743: 7726: 7722: 7717: 7714: 7713: 7695: 7677: 7676: 7675: 7667: 7666: 7658: 7657: 7646: 7616: 7612: 7610: 7607: 7606: 7581: 7577: 7575: 7572: 7571: 7554: 7547: 7532: 7525: 7514: 7503: 7493: 7473: 7469: 7461: 7458: 7457: 7410: 7406: 7404: 7401: 7400: 7398: 7362: 7358: 7356: 7353: 7352: 7326: 7322: 7320: 7317: 7316: 7283: 7272: 7262: 7241: 7237: 7235: 7232: 7231: 7230:, depending on 7210: 7206: 7204: 7201: 7200: 7183: 7179: 7177: 7174: 7173: 7171: 7164: 7125: 7122: 7121: 7119: 7086: 7083: 7082: 7080: 7051: 7047: 7045: 7042: 7041: 7015: 7011: 7003: 7000: 6999: 6996: 6995: 6994: 6993: 6992: 6989: 6981: 6980: 6977: 6929: 6925: 6923: 6920: 6919: 6891: 6887: 6885: 6882: 6881: 6878: 6840: 6836: 6834: 6831: 6830: 6808: 6782: 6778: 6776: 6773: 6772: 6747: 6736: 6732: 6727: 6725: 6722: 6721: 6695: 6690: 6679: 6675: 6670: 6659: 6655: 6650: 6639: 6635: 6630: 6621: 6617: 6608: 6604: 6595: 6591: 6582: 6578: 6576: 6573: 6572: 6529: 6525: 6504: 6500: 6498: 6495: 6494: 6477: 6473: 6468: 6456: 6452: 6450: 6447: 6446: 6427: 6399: 6395: 6393: 6390: 6389: 6356: 6352: 6343: 6339: 6330: 6326: 6317: 6313: 6304: 6300: 6298: 6295: 6294: 6269: 6265: 6256: 6252: 6250: 6247: 6246: 6244: 6204: 6200: 6179: 6175: 6173: 6170: 6169: 6152: 6148: 6146: 6143: 6142: 6109: 6105: 6103: 6100: 6099: 6067: 6040: 6032: 6030: 6027: 6026: 6000: 5992: 5990: 5987: 5986: 5963: 5959: 5957: 5954: 5953: 5930: 5926: 5924: 5921: 5920: 5903: 5899: 5885: 5881: 5858: 5854: 5852: 5849: 5848: 5831: 5827: 5815: 5811: 5790: 5786: 5784: 5781: 5780: 5759: 5755: 5746: 5742: 5741: 5734: 5730: 5721: 5717: 5716: 5714: 5706: 5703: 5702: 5673: 5669: 5663: 5659: 5657: 5653: 5645: 5637: 5635: 5632: 5631: 5615: 5612: 5611: 5591: 5587: 5585: 5582: 5581: 5561: 5557: 5555: 5552: 5551: 5522: 5518: 5508: 5504: 5502: 5499: 5498: 5496: 5470: 5466: 5464: 5461: 5460: 5431: 5427: 5425: 5422: 5421: 5392: 5388: 5386: 5383: 5382: 5375: 5351: 5347: 5338: 5334: 5322: 5318: 5309: 5305: 5292: 5265: 5261: 5259: 5256: 5255: 5238: 5234: 5214: 5210: 5200: 5196: 5186: 5182: 5180: 5177: 5176: 5147: 5143: 5137: 5133: 5125: 5119: 5115: 5110: 5108: 5105: 5104: 5061: 5056: 5055: 5044: 5038: 5034: 5010: 5006: 5004: 5001: 5000: 4950: 4947: 4946: 4923: 4920: 4919: 4884: 4880: 4863: 4860: 4859: 4825: 4821: 4804: 4801: 4800: 4769: 4766: 4765: 4763: 4735: 4731: 4712: 4708: 4706: 4703: 4702: 4700: 4693: 4692: 4691: 4690: 4689: 4683: 4647: 4639: 4638: 4619: 4608: 4587: 4584: 4583: 4567: 4564: 4563: 4546: 4542: 4540: 4537: 4536: 4519: 4515: 4513: 4510: 4509: 4492: 4488: 4486: 4483: 4482: 4466: 4463: 4462: 4440: 4437: 4436: 4411: 4406: 4397: 4393: 4391: 4388: 4387: 4366: 4362: 4349: 4344: 4335: 4331: 4318: 4310: 4308: 4299: 4295: 4293: 4290: 4289: 4286:voltage divider 4269: 4266: 4265: 4249: 4246: 4245: 4214: 4206: 4203: 4202: 4185: 4181: 4179: 4176: 4175: 4145: 4144: 4143: 4142: 4125: 4121: 4119: 4116: 4115: 4110: 4093: 4089: 4087: 4084: 4083: 4078: 4062: 4059: 4058: 4023: 4020: 4019: 4017: 3995: 3992: 3991: 3987: 3986: 3985: 3977: 3976: 3965: 3943: 3939: 3934: 3928: 3924: 3916: 3914: 3911: 3910: 3826: 3819: 3779: 3759: 3758: 3757: 3756: 3755: 3752: 3743: 3742: 3741: 3738: 3729: 3728: 3687: 3679: 3677: 3658: 3657: 3653: 3651: 3648: 3647: 3640: 3633: 3589: 3585: 3583: 3580: 3579: 3554: 3526: 3525: 3521: 3507: 3499: 3494: 3483: 3475: 3458: 3455: 3454: 3446: 3387: 3383: 3381: 3378: 3377: 3376:if and only if 3353: 3350: 3349: 3347: 3314: 3313: 3309: 3303: 3299: 3282: 3279: 3278: 3248: 3223: 3222: 3218: 3216: 3213: 3212: 3184: 3177: 3122: 3110: 3106: 3104: 3101: 3100: 3075: 3071: 3069: 3066: 3065: 3064: 3042: 3039: 3038: 3016: 3012: 3006: 3002: 2994: 2991: 2990: 2989: 2963: 2959: 2957: 2954: 2953: 2922: 2910: 2906: 2904: 2901: 2900: 2897: 2896: 2895: 2894: 2874: 2873: 2872: 2864: 2863: 2852: 2736:NPN transistors 2703: 2659: 2655: 2653: 2650: 2649: 2492: 2488: 2486: 2483: 2482: 2481: 2453: 2449: 2447: 2444: 2443: 2426: 2422: 2420: 2417: 2416: 2409: 2395: 2391: 2371: 2369: 2367: 2364: 2353: 2337: 2331:Ordinary diodes 2320: 2318: 2316: 2313: 2301: 2298: 2288: 2285: 2272: 2238: 2235: 2234: 2215: 2212: 2211: 2171: 2167: 2165: 2162: 2161: 2142: 2139: 2138: 2119: 2116: 2115: 2078: 2075: 2074: 2040: 2025: 2021: 2019: 2016: 2015: 1962: 1959: 1958: 1942: 1939: 1938: 1922: 1919: 1918: 1891: 1879: 1875: 1873: 1870: 1869: 1837: 1834: 1833: 1817: 1814: 1813: 1797: 1794: 1793: 1748: 1745: 1744: 1691: 1677: 1673: 1671: 1668: 1667: 1614: 1609: 1608: 1607: 1606: 1605: 1579: 1566: 1558: 1556: 1548: 1545: 1544: 1538: 1529: 1521: 1520: 1494: 1485: 1481: 1479: 1476: 1475: 1474: 1452: 1449: 1448: 1426: 1423: 1422: 1410: 1401: 1393: 1392: 1369: 1365: 1363: 1360: 1359: 1329: 1326: 1325: 1298: 1295: 1294: 1291: 1272: 1268: 1259: 1255: 1254: 1247: 1243: 1234: 1230: 1229: 1227: 1214: 1206: 1204: 1195: 1191: 1189: 1186: 1185: 1161: 1157: 1155: 1152: 1151: 1145: 1136: 1128: 1127: 1101: 1092: 1088: 1079: 1075: 1073: 1070: 1069: 1061: 1022: 1014: 1012: 991: 990: 986: 981: 962: 961: 957: 955: 952: 951: 926: 899: 898: 894: 889: 864: 863: 859: 857: 854: 853: 788: 784: 782: 779: 778: 776: 746: 738: 736: 717: 716: 712: 710: 707: 706: 637: 633: 631: 628: 627: 620:(diagram right) 599: 596: 595: 579: 576: 575: 528: 503: 502: 498: 496: 493: 492: 467: 422: 419: 418: 390: 387: 386: 370: 367: 366: 327: 183: 175: 172: 171: 141: 133: 130: 129: 106: 101: 98: 97: 17: 12: 11: 5: 19582: 19572: 19571: 19566: 19561: 19556: 19542: 19541: 19512: 19506:978-0262082983 19505: 19487: 19481:978-0080539386 19480: 19463: 19460: 19458: 19457: 19426: 19407:(2): 603–604. 19391: 19389:", pp. 294–295 19356: 19338: 19328:978-3540688310 19327: 19307: 19263: 19229: 19197: 19160: 19150:978-0470520994 19149: 19126: 19088: 19054: 19009: 18978: 18957: 18917: 18879: 18840: 18808: 18797:Chisholm, Hugh 18771: 18758: 18745:978-0262082983 18744: 18706: 18663: 18653:978-1608075836 18652: 18627: 18607:978-0323150613 18606: 18570: 18550:978-0080863979 18549: 18521: 18515:978-0074635773 18514: 18491: 18481:978-0471727163 18480: 18453: 18409: 18368: 18327: 18317:978-0080539386 18316: 18296: 18290:978-0521114035 18289: 18269: 18259:978-0121709600 18258: 18238: 18232:978-0849330865 18231: 18211: 18197: 18172: 18162:978-1598291025 18161: 18138: 18132:978-0470890837 18131: 18104: 18078: 18059:(6): 725–729. 18040: 17986: 17980:978-0080493886 17979: 17959: 17953:978-0852969762 17952: 17927: 17917:978-0387981000 17916: 17893: 17879: 17854: 17832: 17822:978-3540693246 17821: 17784: 17774:978-1580535427 17773: 17738: 17691: 17685:978-0521835398 17684: 17655: 17600: 17590:978-0521687805 17589: 17569: 17538: 17514: 17507:978-0521266734 17506: 17486: 17480:978-8131802458 17479: 17459: 17440: 17413:(4): 244–245. 17388: 17357: 17347:978-0387951508 17346: 17315: 17301:Gottlieb 1997 17288: 17248: 17242:978-1580536745 17241: 17217: 17160: 17154:978-0792391562 17153: 17130: 17124:978-0470847015 17123: 17098: 17077:|journal= 17025: 16998: 16983: 16977:978-0262522588 16976: 16956: 16946:978-0203912652 16945: 16925: 16919:978-1420049763 16918: 16898: 16888:978-0080477480 16887: 16867: 16857:978-1608070473 16856: 16833: 16827:978-0750685184 16826: 16806: 16796:978-0521234702 16795: 16775: 16765:978-1580534840 16764: 16731: 16725:978-0471351993 16724: 16701: 16671: 16628: 16552: 16522: 16486: 16472: 16445: 16435:978-0521114035 16434: 16409: 16372: 16361:(6): 681–686. 16338: 16332:978-8120325968 16331: 16286: 16231: 16189: 16179:978-0849372766 16178: 16155: 16149:978-0071412124 16148: 16130: 16099: 16093:978-1139498180 16092: 16083:Thermodynamics 16069: 16026: 15975: 15928: 15860: 15850:978-8122402940 15849: 15829: 15793: 15783:978-0935702118 15782: 15756: 15746:978-0203025260 15745: 15725: 15719:978-8120345140 15718: 15698: 15692:978-1438109329 15691: 15671: 15661:978-1608071845 15660: 15637: 15627:978-0849318894 15626: 15603: 15577: 15571:978-1425972431 15570: 15545: 15539:978-8170239604 15538: 15511: 15505:978-0470744864 15504: 15484: 15478:978-0878915439 15477: 15444: 15430:Glisson, 2011 15422: 15391: 15339: 15329:978-9400721890 15328: 15299: 15288:978-0121897109 15287: 15262: 15255: 15226: 15216:978-0521033336 15215: 15189: 15179:978-1483105352 15178: 15131: 15086: 15036: 15030:978-9400722040 15029: 14984: 14974:978-0849325731 14973: 14932: 14926:978-0521862837 14925: 14900: 14861: 14855:978-0199565917 14854: 14809: 14803:978-7302108863 14802: 14777: 14768:|journal= 14739:10.7939/R3N88J 14700: 14641: 14630:978-0521033336 14629: 14604: 14594:978-0123747006 14593: 14568: 14558:978-0766820838 14557: 14534: 14527:978-1118038239 14526: 14499: 14488:978-9048194421 14487: 14464: 14454:978-8184316971 14453: 14423: 14417:978-1118498033 14416: 14382: 14376:978-0853126065 14375: 14348: 14312: 14294:(3): 485–487. 14259: 14211: 14207:on 2015-07-26. 14197:978-0071166508 14196: 14144: 14075: 14068: 14045: 13981: 13961:978-0205083770 13960: 13924: 13888: 13882:978-0766820838 13881: 13858: 13848:978-1483280301 13847: 13820: 13810:978-0750698665 13809: 13789: 13779:978-0750670739 13778: 13755: 13748: 13707: 13697:978-0412562204 13696: 13661: 13609: 13599:978-1420036763 13598: 13571: 13565:978-0854043354 13564: 13535: 13529:978-0849379963 13528: 13501: 13491:978-0750697071 13490: 13457: 13388: 13379:|journal= 13319: 13309:978-0080539386 13308: 13271: 13265:978-0815514671 13264: 13223: 13217:978-0750643313 13216: 13193: 13182:978-9814317009 13181: 13114: 13108:978-0750649322 13107: 13077: 13075: 13072: 13069: 13068: 13027: 12997: 12996: 12994: 12991: 12952:Hugo Gernsback 12897:semiconductors 12892: 12889: 12816: 12813: 12772: 12769: 12740: 12737: 12733:Hodgkin–Huxley 12728: 12725: 12723: 12720: 12719: 12718: 12700: 12692: 12689:triangle waves 12647: 12644: 12617: 12595: 12591: 12570: 12567: 12562: 12558: 12537: 12534: 12529: 12525: 12499: 12495: 12489: 12485: 12481: 12478: 12475: 12468: 12463: 12459: 12455: 12452: 12447: 12443: 12437: 12433: 12429: 12426: 12423: 12417: 12412: 12407: 12402: 12398: 12394: 12385: 12362: 12358: 12354: 12351: 12346: 12342: 12308: 12286: 12281: 12273: 12269: 12265: 12262: 12257: 12253: 12249: 12244: 12240: 12236: 12233: 12228: 12224: 12218: 12213: 12209: 12205: 12202: 12197: 12193: 12189: 12186: 12181: 12177: 12173: 12170: 12165: 12161: 12154: 12149: 12144: 12139: 12134: 12130: 12108: 12103: 12095: 12091: 12087: 12082: 12078: 12070: 12066: 12062: 12057: 12053: 12046: 12041: 12036: 12031: 12026: 12022: 11998: 11993: 11988: 11984: 11980: 11973: 11968: 11964: 11958: 11953: 11949: 11943: 11932: 11922: 11916: 11907: 11884: 11880: 11854: 11850: 11845: 11839: 11834: 11830: 11826: 11817: 11794: 11790: 11785: 11779: 11774: 11770: 11766: 11757: 11722: 11718: 11670: 11663: 11662: 11661: 11656: 11649: 11648: 11647: 11646: 11645: 11643: 11640: 11603: 11600: 11582: 11579: 11575: 11569: 11565: 11559: 11555: 11550: 11527: 11523: 11518: 11512: 11508: 11504: 11499: 11495: 11472: 11468: 11463: 11457: 11453: 11449: 11444: 11440: 11427: 11420: 11396: 11392: 11388: 11385: 11380: 11376: 11353: 11349: 11345: 11342: 11337: 11333: 11298: 11294: 11290: 11285: 11281: 11267:and amplitude 11248: 11245: 11242: 11239: 11234: 11230: 11226: 11221: 11217: 11213: 11193: 11190: 11187: 11182: 11178: 11174: 11171: 11168: 11165: 11162: 11157: 11153: 11149: 11144: 11140: 11111: 11108: 11105: 11102: 11099: 11094: 11090: 11086: 11083: 11080: 11077: 11074: 11071: 11068: 11063: 11059: 11055: 11050: 11046: 11003: 11000: 10999: 10998: 10990: 10969: 10968: 10956: 10931: 10928: 10915: 10895: 10871: 10851: 10828: 10824: 10820: 10800: 10780: 10776: 10772: 10752: 10731: 10706: 10702: 10677: 10673: 10669: 10665: 10661: 10650: 10649: 10637: 10634: 10631: 10628: 10625: 10622: 10619: 10602: 10583: 10580: 10577: 10574: 10571: 10568: 10565: 10548: 10536: 10511: 10508: 10505: 10502: 10499: 10496: 10493: 10463: 10443: 10398: 10394: 10390: 10387: 10384: 10381: 10378: 10352: 10327: 10324: 10321: 10318: 10294: 10289: 10283: 10280: 10275: 10272: 10269: 10263: 10258: 10252: 10249: 10245: 10238: 10235: 10228: 10225: 10220: 10217: 10214: 10208: 10205: 10185: 10182: 10179: 10176: 10173: 10170: 10167: 10164: 10159: 10156: 10152: 10146: 10142: 10138: 10135: 10132: 10129: 10126: 10106: 10103: 10100: 10094: 10091: 10087: 10082: 10076: 10073: 10068: 10065: 10057: 10053: 10050: 10047: 10041: 10033: 10029: 10025: 10020: 10015: 10011: 9987: 9984: 9981: 9978: 9954: 9951: 9931: 9904: 9901: 9897: 9893: 9890: 9886: 9882: 9879: 9853: 9816: 9796: 9765: 9761: 9757: 9724:Main article: 9716: 9709: 9708: 9704: 9697: 9696: 9695: 9694: 9693: 9691: 9688: 9616: 9613: 9596:quartz crystal 9540: 9537: 9495: 9492: 9489: 9486: 9483: 9478: 9474: 9465: 9462: 9457: 9454: 9448: 9445: 9442: 9439: 9419: 9416: 9413: 9410: 9401: 9368: 9364: 9360: 9340: 9337: 9334: 9330: 9326: 9323: 9320: 9315: 9311: 9302: 9299: 9294: 9291: 9285: 9282: 9279: 9276: 9256: 9253: 9250: 9247: 9238: 9208: 9188: 9166: 9154: 9151: 9134: 9131: 9111: 9107: 9097: 9093: 9090: 9087: 9084: 9081: 9077: 9067: 9046: 9026: 9006: 8986: 8983: 8980: 8975: 8972: 8967: 8958: 8935: 8932: 8927: 8924: 8919: 8915: 8912: 8909: 8906: 8900: 8895: 8889: 8885: 8881: 8878: 8872: 8869: 8849: 8829: 8809: 8806: 8803: 8798: 8794: 8789: 8785: 8780: 8776: 8772: 8767: 8763: 8759: 8756: 8753: 8748: 8744: 8717: 8677: 8670: 8669: 8661: 8660: 8659: 8658: 8657: 8655: 8652: 8644:Chua's circuit 8635: 8632: 8573: 8568: 8563: 8553: 8548: 8535: 8532: 8484: 8480: 8476: 8466: 8439: 8412: 8395: 8392: 8372:active filters 8354: 8353: 8346: 8339: 8292: 8289: 8280: 8276: 8271: 8268: 8263: 8257: 8254: 8249: 8246: 8213: 8210: 8206: 8185: 8182: 8156: 8153: 8150: 8147: 8137: 8131: 8122: 8097: 8094: 8091: 8088: 8085: 8074:amplifier gain 8061: 8039: 8035: 7988: 7983: 7977: 7973: 7969: 7966: 7963: 7960: 7939: 7933: 7930: 7921: 7916: 7910: 7906: 7902: 7899: 7893: 7889: 7883: 7878: 7875: 7870: 7867: 7837: 7833: 7828: 7821: 7817: 7812: 7809: 7806: 7803: 7797: 7794: 7754: 7751: 7729: 7725: 7721: 7679: 7678: 7669: 7668: 7660: 7659: 7651: 7650: 7649: 7648: 7647: 7645: 7642: 7641: 7640: 7639: 7638: 7627: 7624: 7619: 7615: 7603: 7592: 7589: 7584: 7580: 7552: 7545: 7530: 7523: 7512: 7501: 7490: 7476: 7472: 7468: 7465: 7421: 7418: 7413: 7409: 7396: 7390:Unstable point 7387: 7386: 7385: 7373: 7370: 7365: 7361: 7349: 7337: 7334: 7329: 7325: 7281: 7270: 7244: 7240: 7228:(see diagrams) 7213: 7209: 7186: 7182: 7169: 7162: 7156: 7155: 7152:current source 7137: 7133: 7129: 7116: 7113:voltage source 7098: 7094: 7090: 7054: 7050: 7029: 7026: 7023: 7018: 7014: 7010: 7007: 6990: 6983: 6982: 6978: 6971: 6970: 6969: 6968: 6967: 6942: 6938: 6932: 6928: 6907: 6904: 6900: 6894: 6890: 6877: 6874: 6857: 6854: 6851: 6848: 6843: 6839: 6819: 6818: 6796: 6793: 6790: 6785: 6781: 6770: 6769: 6768: 6754: 6751: 6746: 6739: 6735: 6731: 6710: 6707: 6701: 6698: 6694: 6689: 6682: 6678: 6674: 6669: 6662: 6658: 6654: 6649: 6642: 6638: 6634: 6629: 6624: 6620: 6616: 6611: 6607: 6603: 6598: 6594: 6590: 6585: 6581: 6552: 6549: 6546: 6543: 6540: 6537: 6532: 6528: 6524: 6521: 6518: 6515: 6512: 6507: 6503: 6480: 6476: 6471: 6467: 6464: 6459: 6455: 6438: 6437: 6415: 6412: 6408: 6402: 6398: 6387: 6386: 6385: 6373: 6370: 6367: 6364: 6359: 6355: 6351: 6346: 6342: 6338: 6333: 6329: 6325: 6320: 6316: 6312: 6307: 6303: 6280: 6277: 6272: 6268: 6264: 6259: 6255: 6240: 6239: 6227: 6224: 6221: 6218: 6215: 6212: 6207: 6203: 6199: 6196: 6193: 6190: 6187: 6182: 6178: 6155: 6151: 6126: 6123: 6120: 6117: 6112: 6108: 6066: 6063: 6050: 6047: 6043: 6039: 6035: 6010: 6007: 6003: 5999: 5995: 5974: 5971: 5966: 5962: 5941: 5938: 5933: 5929: 5906: 5902: 5898: 5894: 5888: 5884: 5879: 5875: 5872: 5869: 5866: 5861: 5857: 5834: 5830: 5826: 5823: 5818: 5814: 5810: 5807: 5804: 5801: 5798: 5793: 5789: 5762: 5758: 5754: 5749: 5745: 5737: 5733: 5729: 5724: 5720: 5713: 5710: 5690: 5687: 5683: 5676: 5672: 5666: 5662: 5656: 5652: 5648: 5644: 5640: 5619: 5594: 5590: 5579:reflected wave 5564: 5560: 5521: 5516: 5507: 5481: 5478: 5469: 5448: 5445: 5442: 5439: 5430: 5409: 5406: 5403: 5400: 5391: 5374: 5371: 5359: 5354: 5350: 5346: 5341: 5337: 5333: 5330: 5325: 5321: 5317: 5312: 5308: 5304: 5299: 5296: 5291: 5286: 5283: 5280: 5277: 5274: 5271: 5268: 5264: 5241: 5237: 5232: 5229: 5226: 5222: 5217: 5213: 5208: 5203: 5199: 5194: 5189: 5185: 5146: 5136: 5132: 5128: 5118: 5113: 5091:. Unlike in a 5072: 5069: 5064: 5059: 5054: 5051: 5047: 5037: 5033: 5030: 5027: 5024: 5021: 5018: 5009: 4987:AC potential Δ 4957: 4954: 4930: 4927: 4907: 4904: 4901: 4898: 4895: 4892: 4883: 4879: 4876: 4873: 4870: 4867: 4848: 4845: 4842: 4839: 4836: 4833: 4824: 4820: 4817: 4814: 4811: 4808: 4786: 4783: 4779: 4776: 4773: 4747: 4744: 4741: 4738: 4734: 4729: 4724: 4721: 4718: 4715: 4711: 4681: 4651:current source 4648: 4641: 4640: 4620: 4613: 4612: 4611: 4610: 4609: 4607: 4604: 4591: 4571: 4549: 4545: 4522: 4518: 4495: 4491: 4470: 4450: 4447: 4444: 4420: 4417: 4414: 4410: 4405: 4400: 4396: 4369: 4365: 4358: 4355: 4352: 4348: 4343: 4338: 4334: 4327: 4324: 4321: 4316: 4313: 4307: 4302: 4298: 4273: 4253: 4233: 4230: 4227: 4224: 4221: 4217: 4213: 4210: 4188: 4184: 4128: 4124: 4096: 4092: 4066: 4033: 4030: 4027: 4005: 4002: 3999: 3989: 3988: 3979: 3978: 3970: 3969: 3968: 3967: 3966: 3964: 3961: 3946: 3942: 3937: 3931: 3927: 3923: 3887: 3886: 3848: 3824: 3817: 3778: 3775: 3753: 3746: 3745: 3744: 3739: 3732: 3731: 3730: 3726: 3725: 3724: 3723: 3702: 3699: 3693: 3690: 3685: 3682: 3676: 3670: 3667: 3664: 3661: 3656: 3639: 3636: 3631: 3624:(graph, above) 3603: 3600: 3597: 3592: 3588: 3567: 3564: 3561: 3557: 3553: 3550: 3544: 3541: 3538: 3535: 3532: 3529: 3524: 3520: 3517: 3514: 3510: 3506: 3502: 3496: or 3493: 3490: 3486: 3482: 3478: 3474: 3471: 3468: 3465: 3462: 3445: 3442: 3398: 3395: 3386: 3363: 3360: 3357: 3332: 3329: 3326: 3323: 3320: 3317: 3312: 3306: 3302: 3298: 3295: 3292: 3289: 3286: 3263: 3260: 3255: 3252: 3247: 3241: 3238: 3235: 3232: 3229: 3226: 3221: 3182: 3175: 3137: 3133: 3129: 3125: 3121: 3118: 3109: 3086: 3083: 3074: 3052: 3049: 3046: 3015: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2998: 2974: 2971: 2962: 2929: 2925: 2921: 2918: 2909: 2876: 2875: 2866: 2865: 2857: 2856: 2855: 2854: 2853: 2851: 2848: 2824: 2823: 2817: 2812: 2807: 2801: 2788: 2787: 2782: 2777: 2767: 2753: 2748: 2742: 2732: 2726: 2720: 2702: 2699: 2658: 2634: 2633: 2632:section below. 2613:circuit theory 2609:active filters 2599:with positive 2570: 2569: 2568:section below. 2503: 2500: 2491: 2452: 2425: 2411: 2410: 2408: 2407: 2406:Active filters 2404: 2401: 2397: 2392: 2390: 2389: 2386: 2383: 2380: 2376: 2375:Power sources: 2373: 2362: 2355: 2354: 2352: 2351: 2348: 2345: 2341: 2338: 2336: 2335: 2332: 2329: 2325: 2322: 2311: 2304: 2303: 2296: 2290: 2283: 2277: 2271: 2268: 2265: 2264: 2257: 2245: 2242: 2222: 2219: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2188: 2185: 2182: 2179: 2170: 2149: 2146: 2126: 2123: 2099: 2095: 2091: 2088: 2085: 2082: 2058: 2054: 2050: 2047: 2043: 2039: 2036: 2033: 2024: 2007: 2006: 1999: 1983: 1979: 1975: 1972: 1969: 1966: 1946: 1926: 1906: 1902: 1898: 1894: 1890: 1887: 1878: 1861: 1860: 1853: 1841: 1821: 1801: 1769: 1765: 1761: 1758: 1755: 1752: 1732:electric field 1706: 1702: 1698: 1694: 1690: 1686: 1676: 1659: 1658: 1651: 1613: 1610: 1594: 1591: 1586: 1583: 1578: 1572: 1569: 1564: 1561: 1555: 1552: 1530: 1523: 1522: 1509: 1506: 1501: 1498: 1493: 1484: 1462: 1459: 1456: 1436: 1433: 1430: 1402: 1395: 1394: 1380: 1377: 1368: 1342: 1339: 1336: 1333: 1313: 1309: 1305: 1302: 1275: 1271: 1267: 1262: 1258: 1250: 1246: 1242: 1237: 1233: 1226: 1220: 1217: 1212: 1209: 1203: 1194: 1160: 1137: 1130: 1129: 1116: 1113: 1108: 1105: 1100: 1091: 1087: 1078: 1062: 1055: 1054: 1053: 1052: 1051: 1043: 1042: 1028: 1025: 1020: 1017: 1011: 1003: 1000: 997: 994: 989: 985: 980: 974: 971: 968: 965: 960: 946: 933: 930: 925: 917: 914: 911: 908: 905: 902: 897: 893: 888: 882: 879: 876: 873: 870: 867: 862: 814: 813: 799: 796: 787: 758: 752: 749: 744: 741: 735: 729: 726: 723: 720: 715: 679: 678: 654: 651: 648: 645: 636: 603: 583: 540: 535: 532: 527: 521: 518: 515: 512: 509: 506: 501: 426: 394: 374: 326: 323: 288:active filters 199: 196: 193: 190: 186: 182: 179: 151: 148: 144: 140: 137: 113: 109: 105: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 19581: 19570: 19567: 19565: 19562: 19560: 19557: 19555: 19552: 19551: 19549: 19530: 19526: 19522: 19518: 19513: 19508: 19502: 19495: 19494: 19488: 19483: 19477: 19473: 19472: 19466: 19465: 19445: 19441: 19440:New Scientist 19437: 19430: 19422: 19418: 19414: 19410: 19406: 19402: 19395: 19388: 19374: 19370: 19363: 19361: 19354: 19349: 19347: 19345: 19343: 19334: 19330: 19324: 19320: 19319: 19311: 19292: 19288: 19284: 19277: 19270: 19268: 19251: 19247: 19240: 19233: 19217: 19213: 19206: 19204: 19202: 19185: 19181: 19174: 19167: 19165: 19156: 19152: 19146: 19142: 19141: 19133: 19131: 19115: 19111: 19108:(1): 88–109. 19107: 19103: 19099: 19092: 19076: 19072: 19068: 19061: 19059: 19044: 19040: 19036: 19032: 19028: 19024: 19020: 19013: 18997: 18993: 18989: 18982: 18974: 18970: 18969: 18961: 18953: 18947: 18939: 18935: 18934: 18927: 18921: 18906: 18902: 18898: 18894: 18890: 18883: 18868: 18864: 18860: 18853: 18851: 18849: 18847: 18845: 18827: 18823: 18819: 18812: 18804: 18803: 18798: 18793: 18788: 18787:Garcke, Emile 18782: 18780: 18778: 18776: 18768: 18762: 18751: 18747: 18741: 18734: 18733: 18725: 18723: 18721: 18719: 18717: 18715: 18713: 18711: 18702: 18698: 18694: 18690: 18686: 18682: 18678: 18674: 18667: 18659: 18655: 18649: 18645: 18644: 18636: 18634: 18632: 18623: 18617: 18609: 18603: 18599: 18598: 18591: 18585: 18583: 18581: 18579: 18577: 18575: 18566: 18560: 18552: 18546: 18542: 18541: 18534: 18533:Tunnel diodes 18531:H. C. Okean, 18528: 18526: 18517: 18511: 18507: 18506: 18498: 18496: 18487: 18483: 18477: 18473: 18472: 18464: 18462: 18460: 18458: 18441: 18437: 18433: 18429: 18425: 18418: 18416: 18414: 18394: 18390: 18383: 18381: 18372: 18352: 18348: 18341: 18334: 18332: 18323: 18319: 18313: 18309: 18308: 18300: 18292: 18286: 18282: 18281: 18273: 18265: 18261: 18255: 18251: 18250: 18242: 18234: 18228: 18224: 18223: 18215: 18200: 18198:9789812796820 18194: 18190: 18186: 18179: 18177: 18168: 18164: 18158: 18154: 18153: 18145: 18143: 18134: 18128: 18124: 18123: 18115: 18113: 18111: 18109: 18092: 18088: 18082: 18074: 18070: 18066: 18062: 18058: 18054: 18047: 18045: 18025: 18021: 18017: 18013: 18009: 18002: 17995: 17993: 17991: 17982: 17976: 17972: 17971: 17963: 17955: 17949: 17945: 17944: 17936: 17934: 17932: 17923: 17919: 17913: 17909: 17908: 17900: 17898: 17882: 17876: 17872: 17868: 17861: 17859: 17852: 17848: 17845: 17843: 17836: 17828: 17824: 17818: 17814: 17813: 17805: 17803: 17801: 17799: 17797: 17795: 17793: 17791: 17789: 17780: 17776: 17770: 17766: 17765: 17757: 17755: 17753: 17751: 17749: 17747: 17745: 17743: 17722: 17718: 17711: 17704: 17702: 17700: 17698: 17696: 17687: 17681: 17677: 17676: 17668: 17666: 17664: 17662: 17660: 17648: 17641: 17640: 17623: 17619: 17615: 17607: 17605: 17596: 17592: 17586: 17582: 17581: 17573: 17557: 17553: 17549: 17542: 17533: 17529: 17525: 17518: 17509: 17503: 17499: 17498: 17490: 17482: 17476: 17472: 17471: 17463: 17455: 17454: 17447: 17445: 17428: 17424: 17420: 17416: 17412: 17408: 17404: 17397: 17395: 17393: 17380: 17373: 17372: 17364: 17362: 17353: 17349: 17343: 17339: 17338: 17330: 17328: 17326: 17324: 17322: 17320: 17313: 17309: 17306: 17305:, pp. 105–108 17304: 17297: 17295: 17293: 17285: 17281: 17278: 17275:reprinted on 17272: 17268: 17267: 17259: 17257: 17255: 17253: 17244: 17238: 17234: 17233: 17228: 17221: 17206: 17202: 17198: 17194: 17190: 17186: 17182: 17178: 17174: 17167: 17165: 17156: 17150: 17146: 17145: 17137: 17135: 17126: 17120: 17116: 17115: 17107: 17105: 17103: 17095: 17091: 17088: 17082: 17069: 17050: 17043: 17036: 17034: 17032: 17030: 17023:, pp. 488–492 17022: 17021: 17017: 17014: 17007: 17005: 17003: 16996: 16994: 16987: 16979: 16973: 16969: 16968: 16960: 16952: 16948: 16942: 16938: 16937: 16929: 16921: 16915: 16911: 16910: 16902: 16894: 16890: 16884: 16880: 16879: 16871: 16863: 16859: 16853: 16849: 16848: 16840: 16838: 16829: 16823: 16819: 16818: 16810: 16802: 16798: 16792: 16788: 16787: 16779: 16771: 16767: 16761: 16757: 16756: 16748: 16746: 16744: 16742: 16740: 16738: 16736: 16727: 16721: 16717: 16716: 16708: 16706: 16698: 16697: 16693:Golio (2000) 16690: 16688: 16686: 16684: 16682: 16680: 16678: 16676: 16664:September 22, 16659: 16652: 16645: 16643: 16641: 16639: 16637: 16635: 16633: 16625: 16622: 16619: 16605: 16601: 16597: 16593: 16589: 16585: 16581: 16576:according to 16575: 16574: 16569: 16563: 16561: 16559: 16557: 16545: 16538: 16537: 16529: 16527: 16510: 16506: 16502: 16495: 16493: 16491: 16479:September 17, 16475: 16473:9780080576992 16469: 16465: 16461: 16454: 16452: 16450: 16441: 16437: 16431: 16427: 16426: 16418: 16416: 16414: 16394: 16390: 16383: 16376: 16368: 16364: 16360: 16356: 16349: 16347: 16345: 16343: 16334: 16328: 16324: 16323: 16315: 16313: 16311: 16309: 16307: 16305: 16303: 16301: 16299: 16297: 16295: 16293: 16291: 16283: 16279: 16276:in source to 16275: 16271: 16267: 16263: 16249: 16245: 16238: 16236: 16223:September 17, 16215: 16211: 16204: 16196: 16194: 16185: 16181: 16175: 16171: 16170: 16162: 16160: 16151: 16145: 16141: 16134: 16118: 16114: 16110: 16103: 16095: 16089: 16085: 16084: 16076: 16074: 16066: 16062: 16059: 16045: 16041: 16037: 16030: 16024: 16020: 16017: 16000: 15996: 15989: 15982: 15980: 15962: 15958: 15954: 15950: 15943: 15941: 15939: 15937: 15935: 15933: 15921:September 17, 15916: 15912: 15901:September 17, 15896: 15892: 15888: 15881: 15879: 15877: 15875: 15873: 15871: 15869: 15867: 15865: 15856: 15852: 15846: 15842: 15841: 15833: 15817: 15813: 15809: 15802: 15800: 15798: 15789: 15785: 15779: 15775: 15770: 15769: 15760: 15752: 15748: 15742: 15738: 15737: 15729: 15721: 15715: 15711: 15710: 15702: 15694: 15688: 15684: 15683: 15675: 15667: 15663: 15657: 15653: 15652: 15644: 15642: 15633: 15629: 15623: 15619: 15618: 15610: 15608: 15593:on 2006-09-06 15592: 15588: 15581: 15573: 15567: 15563: 15562: 15554: 15552: 15550: 15541: 15535: 15531: 15530: 15522: 15520: 15518: 15516: 15507: 15501: 15497: 15496: 15488: 15480: 15474: 15470: 15469: 15461: 15459: 15457: 15455: 15453: 15451: 15449: 15442: 15438: 15435: 15433: 15426: 15410: 15406: 15402: 15395: 15378: 15374: 15370: 15366: 15362: 15358: 15354: 15350: 15343: 15335: 15331: 15325: 15321: 15320: 15312: 15310: 15308: 15306: 15304: 15294: 15290: 15284: 15280: 15279: 15271: 15269: 15267: 15258: 15252: 15248: 15244: 15240: 15233: 15231: 15222: 15218: 15212: 15208: 15207: 15198: 15196: 15194: 15185: 15181: 15175: 15171: 15170: 15162: 15160: 15158: 15156: 15154: 15152: 15150: 15148: 15146: 15144: 15142: 15140: 15138: 15136: 15127: 15112: 15108: 15104: 15097: 15095: 15093: 15091: 15084: 15075:September 26, 15070: 15066: 15062: 15055: 15053: 15051: 15049: 15047: 15045: 15043: 15041: 15032: 15026: 15022: 15021: 15013: 15011: 15009: 15007: 15005: 15003: 15001: 14999: 14997: 14995: 14993: 14991: 14989: 14980: 14976: 14970: 14966: 14965: 14957: 14955: 14953: 14951: 14949: 14947: 14945: 14943: 14941: 14939: 14937: 14928: 14922: 14918: 14917: 14909: 14907: 14905: 14897: 14893: 14890: 14881: 14874: 14873: 14865: 14857: 14851: 14847: 14846: 14838: 14836: 14834: 14832: 14830: 14828: 14826: 14824: 14822: 14820: 14818: 14816: 14814: 14805: 14799: 14795: 14794: 14786: 14784: 14782: 14773: 14760: 14744: 14740: 14736: 14732: 14725: 14723: 14721: 14719: 14717: 14715: 14713: 14711: 14709: 14707: 14705: 14698: 14694: 14691: 14682:September 22, 14677: 14673: 14669: 14662: 14660: 14658: 14656: 14654: 14652: 14650: 14648: 14646: 14636: 14632: 14626: 14622: 14621: 14613: 14611: 14609: 14600: 14596: 14590: 14586: 14585: 14577: 14575: 14573: 14564: 14560: 14554: 14550: 14549: 14541: 14539: 14529: 14523: 14519: 14518: 14510: 14508: 14506: 14504: 14494: 14490: 14484: 14480: 14479: 14471: 14469: 14460: 14456: 14450: 14446: 14445: 14438: 14432: 14430: 14428: 14419: 14413: 14409: 14408: 14401: 14395: 14393: 14391: 14389: 14387: 14378: 14372: 14368: 14367: 14359: 14357: 14355: 14353: 14344: 14340: 14339: 14331: 14329: 14327: 14325: 14323: 14321: 14319: 14317: 14301: 14297: 14293: 14289: 14285: 14278: 14276: 14274: 14272: 14270: 14268: 14266: 14264: 14257: 14240: 14236: 14229: 14222: 14220: 14218: 14216: 14203: 14199: 14193: 14186: 14185: 14177: 14175: 14173: 14171: 14169: 14167: 14165: 14163: 14161: 14159: 14157: 14155: 14153: 14151: 14149: 14136:September 25, 14128: 14124: 14117: 14110: 14108: 14106: 14104: 14102: 14100: 14098: 14096: 14094: 14092: 14090: 14088: 14086: 14084: 14082: 14080: 14071: 14065: 14061: 14060: 14052: 14050: 14033: 14029: 14025: 14018: 14016: 14014: 14012: 14010: 14008: 14006: 14004: 14002: 14000: 13998: 13996: 13994: 13992: 13990: 13988: 13986: 13971:on 2014-08-19 13967: 13963: 13957: 13950: 13949: 13941: 13939: 13937: 13935: 13933: 13931: 13929: 13912: 13908: 13904: 13897: 13895: 13893: 13884: 13878: 13874: 13873: 13865: 13863: 13854: 13850: 13844: 13840: 13839: 13831: 13829: 13827: 13825: 13816: 13812: 13806: 13802: 13801: 13793: 13785: 13781: 13775: 13771: 13770: 13762: 13760: 13751: 13749:9781580535229 13745: 13741: 13740: 13735: 13728: 13726: 13724: 13722: 13720: 13718: 13716: 13714: 13712: 13703: 13699: 13693: 13689: 13688: 13680: 13678: 13676: 13674: 13672: 13670: 13668: 13666: 13646: 13642: 13638: 13631: 13624: 13622: 13620: 13618: 13616: 13614: 13605: 13601: 13595: 13591: 13590: 13582: 13580: 13578: 13576: 13567: 13561: 13557: 13556: 13548: 13546: 13544: 13542: 13540: 13531: 13525: 13521: 13520: 13512: 13510: 13508: 13506: 13497: 13493: 13487: 13483: 13482: 13474: 13472: 13470: 13468: 13466: 13464: 13462: 13445: 13441: 13437: 13433: 13429: 13426:(3): 031002. 13425: 13421: 13417: 13411: 13405: 13403: 13401: 13399: 13397: 13395: 13393: 13384: 13371: 13360:September 21, 13352: 13345: 13338: 13336: 13334: 13332: 13330: 13328: 13326: 13324: 13315: 13311: 13305: 13301: 13300: 13292: 13290: 13288: 13286: 13284: 13282: 13280: 13278: 13276: 13267: 13261: 13257: 13256: 13248: 13246: 13244: 13242: 13240: 13238: 13236: 13234: 13232: 13230: 13228: 13219: 13213: 13209: 13208: 13200: 13198: 13188: 13184: 13178: 13174: 13173: 13165: 13163: 13161: 13159: 13157: 13155: 13153: 13151: 13149: 13147: 13145: 13143: 13141: 13139: 13137: 13135: 13133: 13131: 13129: 13127: 13125: 13123: 13121: 13119: 13110: 13104: 13100: 13099: 13091: 13089: 13087: 13085: 13083: 13078: 13064: 13060: 13056: 13052: 13048: 13044: 13038: 13036: 13034: 13032: 13024: 13020: 13016: 13012: 13008: 13002: 12998: 12990: 12988: 12984: 12980: 12976: 12972: 12968: 12964: 12960: 12955: 12953: 12949: 12945: 12941: 12937: 12933: 12929: 12925: 12921: 12916: 12914: 12913:G. W. Pickard 12910: 12906: 12902: 12898: 12888: 12885: 12881: 12875: 12873: 12869: 12865: 12861: 12857: 12853: 12849: 12845: 12840: 12838: 12834: 12830: 12826: 12822: 12812: 12810: 12806: 12802: 12797: 12793: 12789: 12785: 12781: 12780:Elihu Thomson 12777: 12768: 12766: 12762: 12758: 12754: 12750: 12749:Hertha Ayrton 12746: 12745:electric arcs 12736: 12734: 12716: 12712: 12711: 12706: 12705: 12701: 12698: 12697: 12693: 12690: 12686: 12682: 12678: 12677: 12673: 12672: 12671: 12669: 12665: 12661: 12657: 12653: 12643: 12641: 12637: 12633: 12629: 12615: 12593: 12589: 12568: 12565: 12560: 12556: 12535: 12532: 12527: 12523: 12497: 12487: 12483: 12479: 12476: 12466: 12461: 12457: 12453: 12450: 12445: 12435: 12431: 12427: 12424: 12415: 12410: 12392: 12383: 12360: 12356: 12352: 12349: 12344: 12340: 12331: 12330: 12306: 12284: 12279: 12271: 12267: 12263: 12260: 12255: 12251: 12247: 12242: 12238: 12234: 12231: 12226: 12222: 12211: 12207: 12203: 12200: 12195: 12191: 12184: 12179: 12175: 12171: 12168: 12163: 12159: 12152: 12147: 12142: 12106: 12101: 12093: 12089: 12085: 12080: 12076: 12068: 12064: 12060: 12055: 12051: 12044: 12039: 12034: 12011: 11996: 11978: 11971: 11966: 11962: 11956: 11951: 11947: 11941: 11930: 11920: 11914: 11905: 11882: 11878: 11870: 11852: 11848: 11843: 11837: 11832: 11828: 11824: 11815: 11792: 11788: 11783: 11777: 11772: 11768: 11764: 11755: 11745: 11742: 11738: 11720: 11716: 11706: 11702: 11698: 11694: 11691: 11690:nonreciprocal 11687: 11686: 11681: 11667: 11653: 11639: 11637: 11633: 11629: 11628:nonreciprocal 11625: 11621: 11617: 11613: 11609: 11599: 11596: 11580: 11577: 11567: 11557: 11525: 11521: 11516: 11510: 11506: 11502: 11497: 11470: 11466: 11461: 11455: 11451: 11447: 11442: 11426: 11419: 11415: 11410: 11394: 11390: 11386: 11383: 11378: 11374: 11351: 11347: 11343: 11340: 11335: 11331: 11319: 11315: 11314: 11296: 11292: 11288: 11283: 11279: 11270: 11266: 11262: 11246: 11243: 11240: 11232: 11228: 11224: 11219: 11215: 11188: 11180: 11176: 11172: 11169: 11163: 11155: 11151: 11147: 11142: 11138: 11129: 11125: 11106: 11103: 11100: 11092: 11088: 11084: 11081: 11075: 11072: 11069: 11061: 11057: 11053: 11048: 11044: 11035: 11031: 11027: 11021: 11017: 11013: 11009: 10996: 10989: 10985: 10981: 10978: 10977: 10973: 10966: 10962: 10955: 10951: 10947: 10944: 10943: 10939: 10935: 10927: 10913: 10906:is far below 10893: 10885: 10869: 10849: 10840: 10826: 10822: 10818: 10798: 10778: 10774: 10770: 10750: 10729: 10720: 10704: 10700: 10691: 10675: 10671: 10667: 10663: 10659: 10635: 10632: 10629: 10623: 10620: 10617: 10607: 10603: 10599: 10598: 10581: 10578: 10575: 10569: 10566: 10563: 10553: 10549: 10534: 10525: 10509: 10506: 10503: 10497: 10494: 10491: 10481: 10477: 10476: 10475: 10461: 10441: 10433: 10432: 10427: 10426:exponentially 10423: 10422: 10418: 10414: 10396: 10392: 10388: 10382: 10376: 10350: 10341: 10322: 10316: 10292: 10287: 10281: 10278: 10273: 10270: 10267: 10261: 10256: 10250: 10247: 10243: 10236: 10233: 10226: 10223: 10218: 10215: 10212: 10206: 10203: 10180: 10177: 10174: 10171: 10165: 10162: 10157: 10154: 10150: 10144: 10140: 10136: 10130: 10124: 10104: 10101: 10098: 10092: 10089: 10085: 10080: 10074: 10071: 10066: 10063: 10055: 10051: 10048: 10045: 10039: 10031: 10027: 10023: 10018: 10013: 10009: 9982: 9976: 9968: 9952: 9949: 9929: 9921: 9918: 9902: 9899: 9895: 9891: 9888: 9884: 9880: 9877: 9851: 9842: 9838: 9834: 9814: 9794: 9786: 9780: 9763: 9759: 9755: 9747: 9742: 9737: 9732: 9727: 9713: 9701: 9687: 9685: 9681: 9676: 9674: 9670: 9666: 9662: 9658: 9654: 9650: 9646: 9642: 9638: 9634: 9630: 9626: 9622: 9612: 9610: 9605: 9601: 9597: 9593: 9589: 9585: 9581: 9577: 9569: 9566: 9562: 9558: 9554: 9550: 9545: 9536: 9534: 9530: 9526: 9522: 9518: 9514: 9508: 9493: 9490: 9487: 9484: 9481: 9476: 9472: 9463: 9460: 9455: 9452: 9446: 9443: 9440: 9437: 9414: 9411: 9399: 9390: 9386: 9382: 9366: 9362: 9358: 9338: 9335: 9332: 9328: 9324: 9321: 9318: 9313: 9309: 9300: 9297: 9292: 9289: 9283: 9280: 9277: 9274: 9251: 9248: 9236: 9228: 9224: 9206: 9186: 9164: 9157:By replacing 9150: 9148: 9132: 9129: 9109: 9105: 9095: 9091: 9088: 9085: 9082: 9079: 9075: 9065: 9044: 9024: 9004: 8984: 8981: 8978: 8973: 8970: 8965: 8956: 8933: 8930: 8925: 8922: 8917: 8913: 8910: 8907: 8904: 8898: 8893: 8887: 8883: 8879: 8876: 8870: 8867: 8847: 8827: 8807: 8804: 8801: 8796: 8792: 8787: 8778: 8774: 8770: 8765: 8761: 8754: 8751: 8746: 8742: 8715: 8706: 8695: 8689: 8685: 8681: 8674: 8665: 8651: 8649: 8645: 8641: 8631: 8629: 8625: 8621: 8617: 8613: 8609: 8605: 8601: 8597: 8593: 8571: 8566: 8551: 8534:Q enhancement 8531: 8528: 8524: 8520: 8516: 8512: 8508: 8504: 8482: 8478: 8474: 8464: 8437: 8410: 8401: 8391: 8389: 8385: 8381: 8377: 8373: 8369: 8366: 8361: 8359: 8351: 8347: 8344: 8340: 8337: 8333: 8332: 8331: 8327: 8325: 8321: 8316: 8314: 8310: 8306: 8290: 8287: 8278: 8274: 8269: 8266: 8261: 8255: 8247: 8233: 8229: 8211: 8208: 8204: 8183: 8180: 8173: 8154: 8151: 8148: 8145: 8135: 8129: 8120: 8111: 8092: 8089: 8083: 8075: 8059: 8037: 8033: 8024: 8020: 8016: 8012: 7986: 7981: 7975: 7971: 7967: 7964: 7961: 7958: 7937: 7931: 7928: 7919: 7914: 7908: 7904: 7900: 7897: 7891: 7887: 7881: 7876: 7873: 7868: 7865: 7835: 7831: 7826: 7819: 7815: 7810: 7807: 7804: 7801: 7795: 7792: 7783: 7782: 7776: 7767: 7752: 7749: 7727: 7723: 7719: 7711: 7709: 7703: 7702:(grey region) 7699: 7691: 7688:, and S-type 7687: 7683: 7673: 7664: 7655: 7625: 7622: 7617: 7613: 7604: 7590: 7587: 7582: 7578: 7569: 7568: 7566: 7562: 7558: 7551: 7544: 7540: 7536: 7529: 7522: 7518: 7511: 7507: 7500: 7496: 7491: 7474: 7470: 7466: 7463: 7455: 7451: 7447: 7443: 7442:tuned circuit 7439: 7435: 7419: 7416: 7411: 7407: 7395: 7391: 7388: 7371: 7368: 7363: 7359: 7350: 7335: 7332: 7327: 7323: 7314: 7313: 7311: 7307: 7303: 7299: 7295: 7291: 7287: 7280: 7276: 7269: 7265: 7260: 7259: 7258: 7242: 7238: 7229: 7211: 7207: 7184: 7180: 7168: 7161: 7153: 7135: 7131: 7127: 7117: 7114: 7096: 7092: 7088: 7078: 7077: 7076: 7074: 7070: 7052: 7048: 7027: 7024: 7021: 7016: 7012: 7008: 7005: 6987: 6975: 6966: 6964: 6960: 6956: 6940: 6936: 6930: 6926: 6905: 6902: 6898: 6892: 6888: 6873: 6871: 6852: 6849: 6841: 6837: 6828: 6824: 6816: 6815: 6810: 6809: 6807: 6794: 6791: 6788: 6783: 6779: 6752: 6749: 6744: 6737: 6733: 6729: 6708: 6705: 6699: 6696: 6692: 6687: 6680: 6676: 6672: 6667: 6660: 6656: 6652: 6647: 6640: 6636: 6632: 6627: 6622: 6618: 6614: 6609: 6605: 6601: 6596: 6592: 6588: 6583: 6579: 6570: 6566: 6550: 6547: 6541: 6538: 6530: 6526: 6522: 6516: 6513: 6505: 6501: 6478: 6474: 6469: 6465: 6462: 6457: 6453: 6444: 6440: 6439: 6435: 6434: 6429: 6428: 6426: 6413: 6410: 6406: 6400: 6396: 6371: 6368: 6365: 6362: 6357: 6353: 6349: 6344: 6340: 6336: 6331: 6327: 6323: 6318: 6314: 6310: 6305: 6301: 6278: 6275: 6270: 6266: 6262: 6257: 6253: 6242: 6241: 6225: 6222: 6216: 6213: 6205: 6201: 6197: 6191: 6188: 6180: 6176: 6153: 6149: 6140: 6139: 6138: 6121: 6118: 6110: 6106: 6096: 6092: 6088: 6084: 6080: 6076: 6072: 6062: 6048: 6045: 6024: 6008: 6005: 5972: 5969: 5964: 5960: 5939: 5936: 5931: 5927: 5904: 5900: 5896: 5892: 5886: 5882: 5877: 5870: 5867: 5859: 5855: 5832: 5828: 5824: 5821: 5816: 5812: 5808: 5802: 5799: 5791: 5787: 5760: 5756: 5752: 5747: 5743: 5735: 5731: 5727: 5722: 5718: 5711: 5688: 5685: 5681: 5674: 5670: 5664: 5660: 5654: 5650: 5610: 5592: 5588: 5580: 5562: 5558: 5550: 5549:incident wave 5546: 5519: 5514: 5505: 5495: 5479: 5476: 5467: 5443: 5440: 5428: 5404: 5401: 5389: 5379: 5370: 5352: 5348: 5344: 5339: 5335: 5323: 5319: 5315: 5310: 5306: 5297: 5294: 5289: 5281: 5278: 5275: 5269: 5266: 5262: 5239: 5235: 5230: 5227: 5224: 5220: 5215: 5211: 5206: 5201: 5197: 5192: 5187: 5183: 5173: 5170: 5165: 5144: 5134: 5130: 5116: 5100: 5098: 5094: 5090: 5086: 5070: 5067: 5062: 5052: 5035: 5031: 5028: 5022: 5016: 5007: 4998: 4994: 4990: 4986: 4982: 4978: 4975: 4971: 4955: 4944: 4928: 4902: 4896: 4890: 4881: 4877: 4871: 4865: 4843: 4837: 4831: 4822: 4818: 4812: 4806: 4784: 4777: 4774: 4745: 4742: 4739: 4736: 4732: 4727: 4722: 4719: 4716: 4713: 4709: 4698: 4687: 4680: 4676: 4672: 4668: 4664: 4660: 4656: 4652: 4645: 4636: 4632: 4628: 4624: 4617: 4603: 4589: 4569: 4547: 4543: 4520: 4516: 4493: 4489: 4468: 4448: 4445: 4442: 4418: 4415: 4412: 4408: 4403: 4398: 4394: 4385: 4367: 4363: 4356: 4353: 4350: 4346: 4341: 4336: 4332: 4325: 4322: 4319: 4314: 4311: 4305: 4300: 4296: 4287: 4271: 4251: 4231: 4228: 4225: 4222: 4215: 4211: 4186: 4182: 4173: 4169: 4168:(see diagram) 4165: 4160: 4158: 4154: 4150: 4126: 4122: 4113: 4094: 4090: 4081: 4064: 4057: 4053: 4049: 4031: 4028: 4025: 4003: 4000: 3997: 3983: 3974: 3963:Amplification 3960: 3944: 3940: 3935: 3929: 3925: 3921: 3908: 3904: 3899: 3897: 3894:to implement 3893: 3884: 3880: 3876: 3872: 3868: 3864: 3860: 3856: 3852: 3849: 3846: 3842: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3823: 3816: 3811: 3807: 3803: 3802:single valued 3799: 3795: 3791: 3787: 3784: 3783: 3782: 3774: 3771: 3767: 3763: 3750: 3736: 3722: 3720: 3716: 3700: 3697: 3691: 3688: 3683: 3680: 3674: 3654: 3645: 3635: 3630: 3625: 3620: 3615: 3601: 3598: 3595: 3586: 3565: 3562: 3559: 3555: 3551: 3548: 3522: 3515: 3512: 3504: 3491: 3488: 3480: 3472: 3469: 3466: 3463: 3452: 3441: 3439: 3435: 3431: 3426: 3422: 3418: 3416: 3412: 3396: 3393: 3384: 3361: 3358: 3355: 3310: 3304: 3300: 3296: 3293: 3290: 3287: 3284: 3277: 3261: 3258: 3253: 3250: 3245: 3219: 3210: 3206: 3202: 3198: 3194: 3193: 3181: 3174: 3170: 3165: 3161: 3159: 3155: 3151: 3135: 3131: 3127: 3123: 3119: 3116: 3107: 3084: 3081: 3072: 3050: 3047: 3044: 3037: 3013: 3007: 3003: 2999: 2996: 2988: 2972: 2969: 2960: 2951: 2947: 2943: 2927: 2923: 2919: 2916: 2907: 2892: 2888: 2884: 2880: 2870: 2861: 2847: 2845: 2841: 2837: 2833: 2829: 2826:In addition, 2822: 2818: 2816: 2813: 2811: 2808: 2805: 2802: 2800: 2797: 2796: 2795: 2793: 2786: 2783: 2781: 2778: 2776: 2772: 2768: 2765: 2761: 2757: 2754: 2752: 2749: 2746: 2743: 2741: 2737: 2733: 2730: 2727: 2724: 2721: 2718: 2714: 2711: 2710: 2709: 2707: 2698: 2696: 2692: 2688: 2684: 2680: 2679: 2656: 2643: 2638: 2631: 2630: 2625: 2624: 2619: 2614: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2579: 2578: 2574: 2567: 2566: 2561: 2557: 2556:tunnel diodes 2553: 2549: 2545: 2541: 2538: 2537: 2533: 2529: 2527: 2523: 2522:tuned circuit 2519: 2501: 2498: 2489: 2479: 2474: 2472: 2450: 2423: 2405: 2402: 2399: 2398: 2393: 2387: 2384: 2381: 2378: 2377: 2366: 2361: 2356: 2349: 2346: 2344:Tunnel diodes 2343: 2342: 2339: 2333: 2330: 2327: 2326: 2315: 2310: 2305: 2300: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2282: 2278: 2276: 2275: 2262: 2258: 2243: 2220: 2197: 2193: 2189: 2183: 2177: 2168: 2147: 2124: 2113: 2097: 2093: 2089: 2086: 2083: 2080: 2072: 2056: 2052: 2048: 2041: 2037: 2031: 2022: 2013: 2010:In a passive 2009: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1997: 1981: 1977: 1973: 1970: 1967: 1964: 1944: 1924: 1904: 1900: 1896: 1892: 1888: 1885: 1876: 1867: 1863: 1862: 1858: 1854: 1839: 1819: 1799: 1791: 1787: 1783: 1767: 1763: 1759: 1756: 1753: 1750: 1742: 1738: 1737: 1733: 1728: 1727: 1722: 1721: 1704: 1700: 1696: 1692: 1688: 1684: 1674: 1665: 1661: 1660: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1647: 1642: 1638: 1634: 1633: 1628: 1627: 1622: 1621: 1618: 1592: 1589: 1584: 1581: 1576: 1570: 1562: 1553: 1550: 1542: 1534: 1527: 1507: 1504: 1499: 1496: 1491: 1482: 1460: 1457: 1454: 1434: 1431: 1428: 1420: 1419: 1414: 1406: 1399: 1378: 1375: 1366: 1358: 1357: 1340: 1337: 1334: 1311: 1307: 1303: 1292: 1273: 1269: 1265: 1260: 1256: 1248: 1244: 1240: 1235: 1231: 1224: 1218: 1210: 1201: 1192: 1182: 1181: 1158: 1149: 1141: 1134: 1114: 1111: 1106: 1103: 1098: 1089: 1085: 1076: 1066: 1059: 1050: 1048: 1026: 1023: 1018: 1015: 1009: 987: 983: 978: 958: 950: 947: 931: 928: 923: 895: 891: 886: 860: 852: 849: 848: 847: 845: 841: 837: 833: 829: 825: 821: 819: 797: 794: 785: 775: 774: 756: 750: 747: 742: 739: 733: 713: 704: 700: 696: 692: 688: 685:(also called 684: 681: 680: 676: 672: 668: 652: 646: 643: 634: 625: 621: 617: 601: 581: 574: 570: 566: 562: 558: 554: 538: 533: 530: 525: 499: 490: 486: 482: 479:(also called 478: 475: 474: 471: 463: 459: 454: 450: 447: 443: 438: 424: 416: 412: 408: 392: 372: 364: 360: 356: 348: 344: 340: 336: 331: 319: 315: 311: 307: 302: 298: 296: 291: 289: 285: 281: 277: 273: 269: 265: 261: 257: 253: 252:tunnel diodes 249: 245: 241: 237: 233: 229: 225: 221: 217: 214:, converting 213: 197: 194: 191: 184: 180: 169: 165: 149: 142: 138: 127: 111: 107: 103: 95: 90: 88: 84: 80: 76: 71: 69: 65: 61: 57: 53: 49: 41: 37: 36: 31: 27: 23: 19: 19532:. Retrieved 19520: 19492: 19474:. Elsevier. 19470: 19450:November 15, 19448:. Retrieved 19443: 19439: 19429: 19404: 19400: 19394: 19377:. Retrieved 19372: 19317: 19310: 19298:. Retrieved 19286: 19282: 19254:. Retrieved 19249: 19245: 19232: 19220:. Retrieved 19215: 19188:. Retrieved 19183: 19179: 19139: 19117:. Retrieved 19105: 19101: 19091: 19081:December 27, 19079:. Retrieved 19074: 19070: 19046:. Retrieved 19026: 19022: 19012: 19002:22 September 19000:. Retrieved 18991: 18981: 18967: 18960: 18932: 18925: 18920: 18908:. Retrieved 18896: 18892: 18882: 18871:. Retrieved 18862: 18832:December 24, 18830:. Retrieved 18825: 18821: 18811: 18800: 18766: 18765:A. Niaudet, 18761: 18731: 18676: 18672: 18666: 18642: 18596: 18589: 18588:Chang, Kai, 18539: 18532: 18504: 18470: 18443:. Retrieved 18431: 18427: 18400:. Retrieved 18388: 18379: 18371: 18358:. Retrieved 18351:the original 18346: 18306: 18299: 18279: 18272: 18248: 18241: 18221: 18214: 18202:. Retrieved 18188: 18151: 18121: 18095:. Retrieved 18090: 18081: 18056: 18052: 18033:February 26, 18031:. Retrieved 18011: 18007: 17969: 17962: 17942: 17906: 17884:. Retrieved 17870: 17841: 17835: 17811: 17763: 17728:. Retrieved 17721:the original 17716: 17674: 17638: 17626:. Retrieved 17621: 17617: 17579: 17572: 17562:November 20, 17560:. Retrieved 17551: 17541: 17523: 17517: 17496: 17489: 17469: 17462: 17452: 17432:September 9, 17430:. Retrieved 17410: 17406: 17386:, fig. 20.20 17371:Vacuum Tubes 17370: 17336: 17302: 17265: 17231: 17220: 17208:. Retrieved 17180: 17176: 17143: 17113: 17068:cite journal 17056:. Retrieved 17049:the original 17011: 16992: 16986: 16966: 16959: 16935: 16928: 16908: 16901: 16877: 16870: 16846: 16816: 16809: 16785: 16778: 16754: 16714: 16694: 16662:. Retrieved 16657: 16623: 16620: 16616: 16607:. Retrieved 16587: 16583: 16572: 16535: 16513:. Retrieved 16504: 16477:. Retrieved 16463: 16424: 16400:. Retrieved 16388: 16375: 16358: 16354: 16321: 16281: 16277: 16273: 16269: 16265: 16261: 16252:. Retrieved 16247: 16221:. Retrieved 16209: 16168: 16139: 16133: 16121:. Retrieved 16112: 16102: 16082: 16048:. Retrieved 16039: 16029: 16006:. Retrieved 15994: 15965:. Retrieved 15956: 15952: 15919:. Retrieved 15914: 15899:. Retrieved 15890: 15839: 15832: 15820:. Retrieved 15815: 15811: 15787: 15767: 15759: 15735: 15728: 15708: 15701: 15681: 15674: 15650: 15616: 15595:. Retrieved 15591:the original 15580: 15560: 15528: 15494: 15487: 15467: 15431: 15425: 15415:December 28, 15413:. Retrieved 15404: 15394: 15381:. Retrieved 15377:the original 15356: 15352: 15342: 15318: 15277: 15238: 15205: 15168: 15125: 15117:November 20, 15115:. Retrieved 15106: 15073:. Retrieved 15064: 15019: 14963: 14915: 14871: 14864: 14844: 14792: 14759:cite journal 14747:. Retrieved 14680:. Retrieved 14671: 14619: 14583: 14547: 14516: 14477: 14443: 14436: 14406: 14399: 14365: 14337: 14303:. Retrieved 14291: 14287: 14246:. Retrieved 14234: 14202:the original 14183: 14142:, pp. 18–19, 14134:. Retrieved 14127:the original 14122: 14058: 14036:. Retrieved 14027: 13973:. Retrieved 13966:the original 13947: 13915:. Retrieved 13906: 13871: 13837: 13799: 13792: 13768: 13738: 13686: 13652:. Retrieved 13640: 13636: 13588: 13554: 13518: 13480: 13448:. Retrieved 13423: 13419: 13409: 13370:cite journal 13358:. Retrieved 13351:the original 13298: 13254: 13206: 13171: 13097: 13046: 13042: 13019:IMPATT diode 13014: 13011:tunnel diode 13006: 13001: 12983:IMPATT diode 12971:vacuum tubes 12959:tunnel diode 12956: 12917: 12894: 12876: 12863: 12859: 12848:vacuum tubes 12841: 12825:Ernst Ruhmer 12818: 12815:Vacuum tubes 12774: 12760: 12759:resistance, 12757:differential 12756: 12752: 12742: 12730: 12708: 12702: 12694: 12685:square waves 12674: 12649: 12630: 12328: 12326: 12012: 11746: 11740: 11704: 11700: 11683: 11679: 11677: 11623: 11611: 11605: 11424: 11417: 11411: 11323: 11268: 11264: 11260: 11127: 11123: 11029: 11023: 11019: 11011: 11007: 11005: 10994: 10987: 10983: 10979: 10964: 10953: 10949: 10945: 10933: 10883: 10862:is close to 10841: 10721: 10651: 10596: 10595: 10594:: (poles on 10430: 10429: 10420: 10419: 10413:sinusoidally 9919: 9840: 9836: 9830: 9782: 9778: 9745: 9740: 9677: 9653:vacuum tubes 9618: 9580:IMPATT diode 9573: 9567: 9509: 9388: 9384: 9380: 9222: 9156: 8702: 8691: 8687: 8683: 8679: 8648:Chua's diode 8637: 8627: 8622:invented by 8616:regeneration 8615: 8599: 8537: 8526: 8506: 8397: 8367: 8362: 8357: 8355: 8328: 8319: 8317: 8312: 8308: 8232:(see graphs) 8231: 8227: 8008: 7780: 7779: 7765: 7707: 7705: 7701: 7693: 7689: 7685: 7681: 7549: 7542: 7527: 7520: 7509: 7505: 7498: 7492: 7453: 7449: 7437: 7433: 7393: 7389: 7278: 7274: 7267: 7261: 7227: 7166: 7159: 7157: 7111:, such as a 7072: 6997: 6963:(see graphs) 6962: 6958: 6879: 6820: 6813: 6812: 6771: 6564: 6432: 6431: 6388: 6094: 6074: 6068: 5578: 5548: 5542: 5174: 5166: 5101: 4996: 4988: 4984: 4980: 4976: 4970:out of phase 4942: 4694: 4685: 4678: 4674: 4670: 4666: 4662: 4658: 4654: 4634: 4630: 4626: 4622: 4384:voltage gain 4171: 4167: 4164:tunnel diode 4161: 4156: 4146: 4109: 4077: 4051: 4047: 3906: 3902: 3900: 3888: 3879:electric arc 3867:IMPATT diode 3862: 3858: 3854: 3850: 3837:lambda diode 3829:tunnel diode 3821: 3814: 3797: 3793: 3789: 3785: 3780: 3769: 3765: 3760: 3719:nonmonotonic 3714: 3643: 3641: 3628: 3623: 3618: 3616: 3450: 3447: 3419: 3414: 3204: 3191: 3190: 3188: 3179: 3172: 3157: 2985:as shown by 2898: 2890: 2882: 2878: 2825: 2799:electric arc 2789: 2775:vacuum tubes 2729:IMPATT diode 2713:tunnel diode 2704: 2691:differential 2690: 2676: 2647: 2627: 2623:regeneration 2621: 2588: 2584: 2580: 2563: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2517: 2478:differential 2477: 2475: 2470: 2414: 2359: 2358: 2308: 2307: 2293: 2292: 2280: 2279: 2137:and voltage 2111: 2071:AC component 2070: 2011: 1995: 1866:power source 1865: 1789: 1739:(decreasing 1735: 1734: 1725: 1724: 1719: 1718: 1663: 1645: 1644: 1631: 1630: 1629:and current 1625: 1624: 1623:The voltage 1615: 1536: 1532: 1417: 1416: 1408: 1404: 1355: 1354: 1184: 1179: 1178: 1143: 1139: 1064: 1046: 1044: 948: 850: 839: 822: 815: 772: 771: 702: 690: 686: 682: 623: 619: 615: 568: 556: 488: 484: 480: 476: 465: 461: 457: 445: 439: 414: 410: 358: 352: 346: 342: 338: 334: 316:to generate 292: 167: 163: 125: 91: 72: 70:through it. 55: 51: 45: 33: 18: 19554:Electricity 19119:December 9, 19029:(1): 5–35. 18445:December 8, 18360:October 17, 18204:October 17, 18014:(10): 640. 17730:October 17, 17227:Besser, Les 17058:December 3, 16995:, p. 50, 54 16570:in 1907 in 16515:December 4, 16402:October 17, 16254:October 18, 16050:December 8, 16008:December 8, 15791:, fig. 1.54 15389:, abstract. 15383:December 2, 15109:. YouTube. 14305:December 4, 13734:Besser, Les 13041:The terms " 12979:vacuum tube 12948:vacuum tube 12936:oscillators 12809:Poulsen arc 12801:singing arc 11693:solid-state 11620:transistors 9835:oscillator 9831:The common 9621:frequencies 9590:such as an 9568:(not shown) 9539:Oscillators 8612:selectivity 8598:toward the 7446:oscillators 6870:Smith chart 6569:conductance 6443:conductance 6023:Smith chart 5164:power out. 4582:approaches 3434:vacuum tube 3276:Joule's law 2987:Joule's law 2832:transistors 2593:transistors 2560:Gunn diodes 2480:resistance 2385:Transistors 2347:Gunn diodes 2069:, only the 1639:; positive 1353:, at point 1177:at a point 824:Conductance 691:incremental 345:at a point 325:Definitions 284:oscillators 272:transistors 256:Gunn diodes 48:electronics 19548:Categories 19373:Radio News 19246:Radio News 19180:Radio News 19048:2012-05-06 18873:2012-04-11 18402:January 8, 18097:October 8, 17880:0852969767 17628:August 14, 17183:(2): 330. 16590:(3): 304. 16123:August 17, 15822:January 2, 15597:2006-09-08 14248:23 October 14038:August 20, 13975:2014-08-18 13074:References 13061:, and the 13055:hysteresis 12987:Gunn diode 12932:amplifiers 12928:zinc oxide 12920:Oleg Losev 12796:LC circuit 12792:arc lights 12784:LC circuit 12656:hysteresis 11869:power gain 11685:circulator 11608:amplifiers 11602:Amplifiers 9833:Gunn diode 9736:load lines 9673:neon lamps 9657:magnetrons 9592:LC circuit 9584:Gunn diode 9553:Gunn diode 9549:oscillator 8400:LC circuit 8388:immittance 8365:reactances 8336:DC coupled 8170:So if the 8011:amplifying 7557:flip-flops 7298:hysteresis 7294:amplifiers 7150:such as a 6955:load lines 5089:oscillator 4985:increasing 4653:of value Δ 3875:thyristors 3873:and other 3841:Gunn diode 3430:transistor 2891:difference 2751:thyristors 2723:Gunn diode 2687:generators 2526:hysteresis 2382:Generators 2372:net power 2321:net power 1650:variables. 838:(formerly 832:resistance 828:reciprocal 695:derivative 489:resistance 355:resistance 318:microwaves 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10894:R 10870:r 10850:R 10827:R 10823:= 10819:r 10779:r 10771:R 10751:r 10730:r 10705:0 10701:i 10676:3 10672:/ 10668:r 10664:= 10660:R 10636:0 10624:R 10618:r 10582:0 10579:= 10570:R 10567:= 10564:r 10535:R 10510:0 10498:R 10492:r 10462:r 10442:R 10431:α 10421:ω 10397:0 10393:i 10389:= 10386:) 10383:t 10380:( 10377:i 10351:I 10326:) 10323:t 10320:( 10317:i 10293:2 10288:) 10282:L 10279:2 10274:R 10268:r 10262:( 10251:C 10248:L 10244:1 10237:= 10227:L 10224:2 10219:R 10213:r 10207:= 10184:) 10178:+ 10175:t 10169:( 10158:t 10151:e 10145:0 10141:i 10137:= 10134:) 10131:t 10128:( 10125:i 10105:0 10102:= 10099:i 10093:C 10090:L 10086:1 10081:+ 10075:t 10072:d 10067:i 10064:d 10056:L 10052:r 10046:R 10040:+ 10032:2 10028:t 10024:d 10019:i 10014:2 10010:d 9986:) 9983:t 9980:( 9977:i 9953:C 9950:L 9930:R 9903:r 9896:= 9892:i 9889:d 9885:/ 9881:v 9878:d 9856:b 9852:V 9841:D 9815:R 9795:r 9764:R 9756:r 9738:. 9494:L 9488:j 9482:= 9477:L 9473:Z 9464:t 9461:d 9456:i 9453:d 9447:L 9441:= 9438:v 9418:) 9412:j 9409:( 9404:L 9400:Z 9367:0 9359:C 9339:C 9333:j 9329:/ 9325:1 9319:= 9314:C 9310:Z 9301:t 9298:d 9293:v 9290:d 9284:C 9278:= 9275:i 9255:) 9249:j 9246:( 9241:C 9237:Z 9219:) 9207:L 9187:C 9179:( 9165:Z 9133:R 9110:2 9106:/ 9100:S 9096:V 9086:v 9080:2 9076:/ 9070:S 9066:V 9045:R 9025:Z 9005:Z 8985:Z 8979:= 8974:i 8971:v 8966:= 8957:z 8934:Z 8931:v 8923:= 8918:Z 8914:v 8911:2 8905:v 8899:= 8894:Z 8888:o 8884:v 8877:v 8871:= 8868:i 8848:Z 8828:v 8808:v 8805:2 8802:= 8797:1 8793:R 8788:/ 8784:) 8779:1 8775:R 8771:+ 8766:1 8762:R 8758:( 8755:v 8752:= 8747:o 8743:v 8720:1 8716:R 8572:r 8562:| 8552:R 8547:| 8483:r 8475:= 8465:R 8438:r 8411:R 8352:. 8345:, 8338:, 8309:R 8291:0 8279:R 8275:= 8270:i 8267:v 8262:= 8256:i 8248:v 8212:f 8209:i 8205:R 8181:A 8152:A 8146:1 8140:i 8136:R 8130:= 8121:R 8096:) 8090:j 8087:( 8060:A 8038:i 8034:R 7987:R 7982:/ 7976:1 7972:R 7968:+ 7965:1 7959:A 7938:. 7932:A 7920:R 7915:/ 7909:1 7905:R 7901:+ 7898:1 7892:1 7888:R 7882:= 7877:i 7874:v 7869:= 7866:R 7836:R 7832:v 7827:+ 7820:1 7816:R 7811:v 7808:A 7802:v 7796:= 7793:i 7781:i 7768:. 7750:A 7728:S 7724:V 7706:( 7694:( 7626:r 7618:L 7614:R 7591:r 7583:L 7579:R 7559:( 7553:3 7550:Q 7546:2 7543:Q 7531:3 7528:Q 7524:2 7521:Q 7513:1 7510:Q 7502:3 7499:L 7489:. 7475:L 7471:R 7467:= 7464:r 7454:r 7420:r 7417:= 7412:L 7408:R 7397:2 7394:L 7384:. 7372:r 7364:L 7360:R 7348:. 7336:r 7328:L 7324:R 7304:( 7288:( 7282:1 7279:Q 7271:1 7268:L 7243:L 7239:R 7212:L 7208:R 7185:L 7181:R 7170:3 7167:L 7163:1 7160:L 7148:) 7136:r 7128:R 7120:( 7115:. 7109:) 7097:r 7089:R 7081:( 7053:S 7049:V 7028:R 7025:I 7017:S 7013:V 7009:= 7006:V 6941:0 6937:= 6931:N 6927:X 6906:r 6899:= 6893:N 6889:R 6856:) 6850:j 6847:( 6842:L 6838:Z 6817:. 6795:. 6792:r 6784:L 6780:R 6753:r 6750:1 6738:L 6734:R 6730:1 6709:0 6700:r 6693:1 6688:+ 6681:L 6677:R 6673:1 6668:= 6661:N 6657:R 6653:1 6648:+ 6641:L 6637:R 6633:1 6628:= 6623:N 6619:G 6615:+ 6610:L 6606:G 6602:= 6597:N 6593:Y 6589:+ 6584:L 6580:Y 6551:0 6548:= 6545:) 6539:j 6536:( 6531:N 6527:Y 6523:+ 6520:) 6514:j 6511:( 6506:L 6502:Y 6479:N 6475:R 6470:/ 6466:1 6463:= 6458:N 6454:G 6436:. 6414:. 6411:r 6401:L 6397:R 6372:0 6366:r 6358:L 6354:R 6350:= 6345:N 6341:R 6337:+ 6332:L 6328:R 6324:= 6319:N 6315:Z 6311:+ 6306:L 6302:Z 6291:) 6279:0 6276:= 6271:N 6267:X 6263:= 6258:L 6254:X 6245:( 6238:. 6226:0 6223:= 6220:) 6214:j 6211:( 6206:N 6202:Z 6198:+ 6195:) 6189:j 6186:( 6181:L 6177:Z 6154:N 6150:R 6125:) 6119:j 6116:( 6111:L 6107:Z 6049:1 6046:= 6042:| 6034:| 6009:0 6002:| 5994:| 5973:0 5965:L 5961:R 5940:0 5932:N 5928:R 5905:L 5901:X 5897:j 5893:+ 5887:L 5883:R 5878:= 5874:) 5868:j 5865:( 5860:L 5856:Z 5833:N 5829:X 5825:j 5822:+ 5817:N 5813:R 5809:= 5806:) 5800:j 5797:( 5792:N 5788:Z 5761:L 5757:Z 5753:+ 5748:N 5744:Z 5736:L 5732:Z 5723:N 5719:Z 5689:1 5682:| 5675:I 5671:V 5665:R 5661:V 5655:| 5647:| 5639:| 5593:R 5589:V 5563:I 5559:V 5538:) 5524:N 5520:X 5515:, 5510:L 5506:X 5497:( 5480:0 5472:L 5468:R 5447:) 5441:j 5438:( 5433:L 5429:Z 5408:) 5402:j 5399:( 5394:N 5390:Z 5358:) 5353:2 5349:i 5340:1 5336:i 5332:( 5329:) 5324:1 5320:v 5311:2 5307:v 5303:( 5298:8 5295:1 5285:) 5282:s 5279:m 5276:r 5273:( 5270:C 5267:A 5263:P 5240:2 5236:i 5231:d 5228:n 5225:a 5221:, 5216:1 5212:i 5207:, 5202:2 5198:v 5193:, 5188:1 5184:v 5145:V 5135:I 5127:| 5117:P 5112:| 5071:0 5063:2 5058:| 5053:i 5046:| 5036:r 5032:= 5029:i 5023:v 5017:= 5008:P 4989:v 4981:i 4956:i 4929:v 4906:) 4903:t 4900:( 4897:i 4891:+ 4882:I 4878:= 4875:) 4872:t 4869:( 4866:i 4847:) 4844:t 4841:( 4838:v 4832:+ 4823:V 4819:= 4816:) 4813:t 4810:( 4807:v 4797:) 4785:i 4778:, 4775:v 4764:( 4760:) 4746:s 4743:a 4740:i 4737:b 4733:I 4728:, 4723:s 4720:a 4717:i 4714:b 4710:V 4701:( 4686:R 4682:S 4679:i 4675:v 4667:i 4663:r 4661:/ 4659:v 4655:i 4631:i 4629:Δ 4627:v 4590:r 4570:R 4548:v 4544:G 4521:i 4517:v 4494:o 4490:v 4469:r 4449:R 4443:r 4419:R 4413:r 4409:r 4404:= 4399:v 4395:G 4368:i 4364:v 4357:R 4351:r 4347:r 4342:= 4337:i 4333:v 4326:r 4320:R 4315:r 4306:= 4301:o 4297:v 4272:r 4252:R 4232:r 4226:= 4223:i 4216:/ 4212:v 4187:b 4183:V 4141:. 4127:o 4123:v 4095:i 4091:v 4065:R 4044:) 4032:r 4026:R 4018:( 4004:R 3998:r 3945:2 3941:i 3936:/ 3930:1 3926:i 3922:= 3885:. 3863:S 3853:( 3847:. 3825:2 3822:i 3818:1 3815:i 3813:( 3798:N 3788:( 3701:0 3692:i 3689:d 3684:v 3681:d 3675:= 3669:f 3666:f 3663:i 3660:d 3655:r 3632:s 3629:V 3602:V 3599:I 3596:= 3587:P 3566:0 3560:i 3556:/ 3552:v 3549:= 3543:c 3540:i 3537:t 3534:a 3531:t 3528:s 3523:R 3516:I 3509:| 3505:i 3501:| 3492:V 3485:| 3481:v 3477:| 3473:: 3470:I 3467:, 3464:V 3449:" 3397:0 3385:R 3374:) 3362:0 3356:P 3348:( 3331:c 3328:i 3325:t 3322:a 3319:t 3316:s 3311:R 3305:2 3301:i 3297:= 3294:v 3291:i 3288:= 3285:P 3262:0 3254:i 3251:v 3246:= 3240:c 3237:i 3234:t 3231:a 3228:t 3225:s 3220:R 3183:L 3180:R 3176:S 3173:R 3136:0 3128:i 3124:/ 3120:v 3117:= 3108:R 3097:. 3085:0 3073:R 3051:0 3045:P 3032:. 3014:R 3008:2 3004:i 3000:= 2997:P 2973:0 2961:R 2928:i 2924:/ 2920:v 2917:= 2908:R 2657:R 2514:. 2502:0 2490:r 2451:R 2424:r 2360:R 2309:R 2294:r 2281:r 2244:v 2221:i 2198:0 2190:i 2184:v 2178:= 2169:P 2148:v 2125:i 2098:0 2090:i 2087:v 2084:= 2081:P 2057:0 2049:i 2042:/ 2038:v 2032:= 2023:r 1982:0 1974:i 1971:v 1968:= 1965:P 1945:i 1925:v 1905:0 1897:i 1893:/ 1889:v 1886:= 1877:R 1840:i 1820:i 1800:v 1768:0 1760:i 1757:v 1754:= 1751:P 1736:E 1726:i 1720:v 1705:0 1697:i 1693:/ 1689:v 1685:= 1675:R 1646:P 1632:i 1626:v 1593:0 1585:i 1582:v 1577:= 1571:i 1563:v 1554:= 1551:R 1541:) 1508:0 1500:i 1497:v 1492:= 1483:R 1461:0 1455:i 1435:0 1429:v 1418:P 1409:( 1391:. 1379:0 1367:r 1356:P 1341:0 1335:i 1312:0 1304:v 1274:1 1270:i 1261:2 1257:i 1249:1 1245:v 1236:2 1232:v 1225:= 1219:i 1211:v 1202:= 1193:r 1180:P 1159:r 1144:( 1115:0 1107:i 1104:v 1099:= 1090:r 1086:= 1077:R 1027:v 1024:d 1019:i 1016:d 1010:= 1002:f 999:f 996:i 993:d 988:r 984:1 979:= 973:f 970:f 967:i 964:d 959:g 932:v 929:i 924:= 916:c 913:i 910:t 907:a 904:t 901:s 896:R 892:1 887:= 881:c 878:i 875:t 872:a 869:t 866:s 861:G 810:) 798:0 786:r 777:( 757:. 751:i 748:d 743:v 740:d 734:= 728:f 725:f 722:i 719:d 714:r 653:. 650:) 647:0 635:R 626:( 602:v 582:i 539:. 534:i 531:v 526:= 520:c 517:i 514:t 511:a 508:t 505:s 500:R 470:) 466:( 425:v 393:v 373:i 349:. 198:0 192:i 185:/ 181:v 166:( 150:i 143:/ 139:v 112:i 108:/ 104:v 54:(

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Knowledge

Negative resistance

Index