995:,” thus violating their rights. Additionally, the court found that "persons relocated to Rwanda may be at risk of detention and treatment not following international standards should they express dissatisfaction or protest at their conditions after arrival.” Once in Rwanda, migrants might not be able to seek legal recourse as Rwanda operates outside the jurisdiction of the ECtHR, and there is an "absence of any legally enforceable mechanism for the applicant’s return to the United Kingdom in the event of a successful merits challenge before the domestic courts." In November 2023, the
40:
502:. But the U.S. government, and later also Canada, refused to allow the ship to dock and refused to accept any passengers. With conditions on the ship deteriorating and seemingly nowhere else to go, the ship returned to Europe, where approximately thirty percent of those passengers were later murdered in the Holocaust. Switzerland refused entry to nearly 20,000 French Jews who sought asylum there after the
556:) and interpretations of various international treaties in the 1980s, the European Commission on Human Rights shifted preference away from preserving state sovereignty and towards protecting persons who might be refouled. This interpretation permitted no abridgments of non-refoulement protections, even if the state was concerned a refugee may be a terrorist or pose other immediate threats to the state.
893:(Italy's former interior minister) allegedly breached its obligation of non-refoulement by refusing to rescue 93 migrants fleeing Libya and consequently organising a "privatised push-back", that is sending back migrants using merchant ships as proxy; which in this case resulted in the migrants being returned to the port of
795:
to permit them to remain permanently, only an obligation not to send them back to a region in which they face likely danger. Refugee relocation agreements between countries must ensure they are not sent back by the new host country. The new host country does not have to be party to the 1951 Convention, however.
794:
This approach involves international systems designed to process the asylum claim in the country in which a person initially seeks asylum and redistribute them among other countries. This approach relies on the logic that
Article 33 does not include language requiring states receiving asylum seekers
648:
2. "The benefit of the present provision may not, however, be claimed by a refugee whom there are reasonable grounds for regarding as a danger to the security of the country in which he is, or who, having been convicted by a final judgment of a particularly serious crime, constitutes a danger to the
801:
This approach is not an interpretation of
Article 33, but a way around it. It combines the strict and collectivist approaches. States using this approach establish non-sovereign areas within their borders, primarily at travel hubs. Asylum seekers presenting themselves at such areas are then sent to
787:
This interpretation holds that only certain refugees are legally entitled to non-refoulement protection. If the country receiving an asylum seeker does not find that their "life or freedom would be threatened" by refoulement, this interpretation holds that they can be legitimately returned to their
532:
Non-refoulement presents an inherent conflict with state sovereignty, as it infringes on a state's right to exercise control over its own borders and those who reside within them. In legal proceedings immediately following World War II, non-refoulement was viewed as a distinct right, which could be
836:
in 1994 have been alleged to have violated the non-refoulement principle. During the height of the crisis, when the refugee flows rose to the level of a "mass exodus", the
Tanzanian government closed its borders to a group of more than 50,000 Rwandan refugees fleeing genocidal violence. In 1996,
772:
Though the principle of non-refoulement is a non-negotiable aspect of international law, states have interpreted
Article 33 of the 1951 Convention in various ways, and they have constructed their legal responses to asylum seeker in corresponding manners. The four most common interpretations are:
719:
No one seeking asylum in accordance with these
Principles should, except for overriding reasons of national security or safeguarding the populations, be subjected to measures such as rejection at the frontier, return or expulsion which would result in compelling him to return to or remain in a
614:
contained the first mention of non-refoulement in international law, and prevented party states from expelling legally-residing refugees or turning away refugees at the borders of their home countries. This treaty was ratified by only a few states and gained little traction in international
683:
2. For the purpose of determining whether there are such grounds, the competent authorities shall take into account all relevant considerations including, where applicable, the existence in the State concerned of a consistent pattern of gross, flagrant or mass violations of human rights.
762:
Any asylum-seeker must be able to lodge an application at the frontier. The application may then be examined to establish, prior to the decision on admission, whether it is manifestly unfounded. However, where there is a host third country, there may be exceptions to the principle of
1845:
International legal standards for the protection from refoulement - a legal analysis of the prohibitions on refoulement contained in the
Refugee Convention, the European Convention on Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the Convention against
568:
is the most effective method of dispatching refugees thought to present a credible threat. While recent treaties typically include specific obligations that prevent refoulement under essentially any circumstances, the interest of national security has led individual states and the
780:
This interpretation holds that non-refoulement laws only apply to asylum seekers who have physically entered a state's borders. States using this interpretation often enact policies and procedures designed to block asylum seekers from reaching their
506:. The Swiss argued the "boat is full" with respect to refugees during the War, and they were not obligated under existing law to accept French Jews for resettlement. As a result the Jews were forced to return to France, where most were killed.
377:") any person to any country in which their "life or freedom would be threatened" on account of "race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion". The only exception to non-refoulement according to
751:
and
Article 4(5) of the 1981 Inter-American Convention on Extradition, the principle of non-refoulement also applies to extradition cases in which the person believes they will be tried or biased based specifically on one of the protected
446:, of 28 October 1933 was ratified by nine States, including France and (with a caveat) the United Kingdom. It was by virtue of this Convention that the principle of non-refoulement acquired the status of international treaty law.
674:
592:
has been a common practice by the US government in particular, raising the question of whether
Article 33 requires a refugee to be within a country or simply within the power of a country to trigger the right against
1392:
Jastram, Kate; Achiron, Marilyn (2001). Refugee
Protection: A Guide to International Refugee Law. Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), 2001.
587:
One of the grey areas of law that is most hotly debated within signatory circles is the interpretation of
Article 33 of the 1951 Convention. Interdiction of potential refugee transporting vessels on the
1626:
680:
1. No State Party shall expel, return ("refouler") or extradite a person to another State where there are substantial grounds for believing that he would be in danger of being subjected to torture.
730:
1251:
Lynch, Timothy E., Refugees, Refoulement, and Freedom of Movement: Asylum Seekers' Right to Admission and Territorial Asylum, Georgetown Immigration Law Review, Vol. 36, No. 1, 2021, p. 74-75.
852:
government has been accused by the UNHCR, as well as more than 50 Australian legal scholars, of violating the principle of non-refoulement by returning 41 Tamil and Singhalese refugees to the
625:
1. No Contracting State shall expel or return ('refouler') a refugee in any manner whatsoever to the frontiers of territories where his life or freedom would be threatened on account of his
600:
A prohibition of rejection at the border would imply a right of entry for any asylum seeker, which explains the reluctance for some states to endorse non-rejection at the border.
1121:
Coleman, Nils. "Non-Refoulement Revised-Renewed Review of the Status of the Principle of Non-Refoulement as Customary International Law." Eur. J. Migration & L. 5 (2003): 23.
1134:"Limitations of the Customary International Principle of Non-refoulement on Non-party States: Thailand Repatriates the Remaining Hmong-Lao Regardless of International Norms"
611:
443:
802:
another country to have their asylum claims processed. As with traditional collectivism, the asylum seeker cannot be sent to a country in which they face likely danger.
544:, this linkage rendered the prohibition on refoulement absolute and challenged the legality of refoulement for the purposes of state security. Through court cases (see
1735:
1072:
Trevisanut, Dr. Seline (September 1, 2014). "International Law and Practice: The Principle of Non-Refoulement And the De-Territorialization of Border Control at Sea".
931:
nationals, despite a court order temporarily halting the repatriation amid concerns the group could be at risk if they were returned to military-ruled Myanmar.
871:(Cth). That Act provides that "for the purposes of removal from Australia of an unlawful non-citizen, Australia's non-refoulement obligations are irrelevant".
822:, on 12 June 1979, is considered to be a classic example of refoulement. The refugees were forced at gunpoint across the border and down a steep slope into a
689:
494:, where the passengers expected to find refuge. However, Cuba admitted only twenty-eight passengers and refused to admit the rest. The ship then set sail for
1274:
Padmanabhan, Vijay M. (October 1, 2011). "To Transfer or not to Transfer: Identifying and Protecting Relevant Human Rights Interests in Non-Refoulement".
1330:
564:
Following terror attacks in the United States and Europe, states have renewed calls for permitting refoulement in the interest of national security, as
912:, on claims that they had committed murder. The move was condemned by human rights activists as the two would likely face execution upon their return.
422:(jus cogens) of international law, where non-refoulement must always be applied without any adjustment for any purpose or under any circumstances (
999:
ruled that the policy is illegal under UK domestic law and international obligations because the policy continues to violate non-refoulement.
711:
667:
619:
577:
409:
378:
366:
699:) and with this convention non-refoulement to countries with risk of torture and inhumane treatment is considered an absolute right as well.
1882:
1543:
1562:
Sixth periodic report submitted by Australia under article 19 of the Convention pursuant to the optional reporting procedure, due in 2018
663:
449:
The principle of non-refoulement is important because of its role in an international collective memory of the failure of nations during
1843:
1487:
Rodolfo Marques, Non-refoulement under the Inter-American Human Rights System, London: RLI Working Paper Series, 6 March 2017, pp. 58-69
742:
establishes danger to an asylum seeker's "right to life or personal freedom" as the threshold for non-refoulement among American states.
1652:
1045:
654:
581:
1133:
1018:
385:, which applies only to those who can prove a well-grounded fear of political persecution, non-refoulement refers to the generic
529:
for its indiscriminate targeting of civilians, many of whom had never been Soviet citizens, fleeing Russia near the end of WW2.
720:
territory if there is a well-founded fear of persecution endangering his life, physical integrity or liberty in that territory.
1694:
1154:
940:
310:
714:'s (then known as the Asian-African Legal Consultative Committee) 1996 Principles Concerning Treatment of Refugees states:
1574:
1475:
Cambridge University Press, The Scope and Content of the Principle of Non-Refoulement: Opinion, June 2003, available at:
996:
988:
815:
739:
537:
381:
are "reasonable grounds" of "danger to the security of the country" or "danger to the community of that country". Unlike
748:
622:. Article 33 contains the following two paragraphs that define the prohibition of the expulsion or return of a refugee:
1828:
JUDGMENT R (on the application of AAA (Syria) and others) (Respondents/Cross Appellants) United Kingdom Supreme Court
1398:
1302:
161:
1883:
Vladislava Stoyanova, "The Principle of Non-Refoulement and the Right of Asylum Seekers to Enter State Territory."
1710:
956:
491:
263:
1669:
1529:
1497:
Council Resolution of 20 June 1995 on minimum guarantees for asylum procedures [Official Journal C 274, 19.09.1996
991:
because once in Rwanda, migrants “would not have access to fair and efficient procedures for the determination of
533:
abridged under certain circumstances, such as those spelled out in Article 33, Section 2 of the 1951 Convention.
1381:
980:
473:
1345:
726:
477:
248:
1324:
1322:
1320:
1318:
1316:
1314:
1544:"Sri Lankan asylum seekers facing criminal investigation after being handed back by Australian authorities"
1496:
490:
sailed from Germany with over 900 Jewish passengers who were fleeing Nazi persecution. The ship sailed for
1901:
1311:
857:
626:
499:
405:
105:
1653:
FORENSIC OCEANOGRAPHY, THE NIVIN CASE - Migrants' resistance to Italy's strategy of privatized push-back
1435:
733:, signed in 1969, makes provisions for asylum seekers fleeing war, colonial dominance, or social unrest.
1911:
1906:
1106:
949:
110:
1736:"Supreme Court order allowing deportation of Rohingyas shows that India hasn't shed Partition baggage"
1600:
826:. Those who refused were shot by Thai soldiers. Approximately 3,000 refugees (about 7 percent) died.
303:
258:
1211:
841:
had reached an appropriate level of stability, around 500,000 refugees were returned to Rwanda from
757:
European Union Council Resolution of 20 June 1995 on minimum guarantees for asylum procedures :
1921:
869:
Migration and Maritime Powers Legislation Amendment (Resolving the Asylum Legacy Caseload) Act 2014
690:
Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, Article 3
552:
546:
1437:
1013:
677:
held that non-refoulement emanated from larger protections from torture and inhumane treatment.
522:
466:
1627:"A Saudi woman seeking asylum in Australia has been 'kidnapped' and returned home by her family"
1451:
M. Cherif Bassiouni. (Autumn 1996) "International Crimes: 'Jus Cogens' and 'Obligatio Erga Omnes
540:
recognized non-refoulement as a subsidiary of prohibitions on torture. As the ban on torture is
1926:
935:
917:
905:
54:
1120:
695:
The protection from torture and inhumane treatment is generally considered an absolute right (
864:
207:
202:
1436:
Belgium, Bulgaria, Denmark, Egypt, France, Italy, Norway, Czechoslovakia (28 October 1933).
1183:
Bruin, Rene; Wouters, Kees (2003). "Terrorism and the Non-derogability of Non-refoulement".
1684:
1442:
English translation of official French text. Web page incorrectly shows date as 18 October.
589:
296:
23:
39:
8:
968:
819:
217:
115:
64:
675:
Convention against Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment
576:
Today, the principle of non-refoulement from countries that are signatories to the 1951
573:
to seek ways around non-refoulement protections that balance security and human rights.
1234:
1089:
972:
960:
510:
431:
253:
156:
59:
618:
The principle of "non-refoulement" was officially enshrined in Article 33 of the 1951
1916:
1690:
1402:
1394:
1377:
1298:
1238:
1093:
462:
362:
197:
170:
1876:
1827:
1226:
1192:
1081:
875:
833:
503:
382:
329:
279:
227:
222:
181:
140:
434:
terror attacks in the United States as well as other terrorist attacks in Europe.
374:
1658:(Report). Forensic Architecture, Goldsmiths, University of London. December 2019.
853:
798:
Collectivist, with laws preventing asylum seekers from reaching sovereign borders
696:
642:
418:
232:
212:
125:
100:
80:
1862:
Académie de Droit International de La Haye / Hague Academy of International Law
920:
who remain on its soil under a 1986 agreement with the North Korean government.
1758:"What is the UK's plan to send asylum seekers to Rwanda and how many could go?"
1757:
1530:
http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/53220/ben-barber/feeding-refugees-or-war
1476:
1438:
Convention of 28 October, 1933 relating to the International Status of Refugees
992:
890:
580:, the 1967 Protocol Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, or the 1984
570:
1230:
1085:
1895:
1295:
Operation Keelhaul; The Story of Forced Repatriation from 1944 to the Present
513:, millions of refugees and prisoners from former Russia and the contemporary
481:
413:
166:
1418:
Goodwin-Gill, Guy S. (2014). "The International Law of Refugee Protection".
472:
During the war, several states had forcibly returned or denied admission to
1783:
1331:"Non-Refoulement: The Search for a Consistent Interpretation of Article 33"
879:
638:
565:
514:
486:
458:
450:
90:
1196:
1853:
1043:
964:
945:
909:
901:
883:
634:
386:
370:
176:
135:
95:
85:
31:
584:
depends on the interpretation of the Article 33 of the 1951 Convention.
1807:
1512:
731:
Convention Governing the Specific Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa
423:
353:
655:
Convention and Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees, Article 33
897:
in Libya, where they were beaten, tortured and in some cases killed.
849:
823:
526:
1733:
924:
894:
829:
811:
630:
454:
408:, where it applies even to states that are not parties to the 1951
398:
390:
1601:"Saudi woman seeking asylum in Australia returned to Saudi Arabia"
928:
495:
284:
130:
521:
from the Soviet government. The action nowadays is considered a
1155:
Jean Allain, 2001, "The jus cogens Nature of non‐refoulement",
1008:
976:
838:
1711:"Malaysia deports 1,086 Myanmar nationals despite court order"
1374:
UNHCR and Voluntary Repatriation of Refugees: A Legal Analysis
913:
842:
518:
344:
1575:"Forcibly repatriated Saudi woman: 'My family will kill me'"
1440:(Report). League of Nations - Treaty Series 1935-1936. 3663.
1212:"On the history of the international protection of refugees"
1046:"Convention and Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees"
1420:
The Oxford Handbook of Refugee and Forced Migration Studies
612:
Convention relating to the International Status of Refugees
444:
Convention relating to the International Status of Refugees
335:
461:. Following the war, the need for international checks on
1511:. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2010, p. 175. Retrieved from
394:
1877:
Defining the parameters of the non-refoulement principle
1734:
Nizamuddin Ahmad Siddiqui; Abu Zar Ali (18 April 2021).
666:
removed geographic and temporal limitations of the 1951
517:
were forcibly returned despite evidence they would face
987:(28774/22) that the UK government’s plan violates the
430:
nature of non-refoulement was rekindled following the
341:
1670:"South Korea Deports Two from North to Likely Abuse"
347:
332:
1808:"Supreme Court rules Rwanda asylum policy unlawful"
350:
338:
1686:The Impossible State: North Korea, Past and Future
1509:Refugee Workers in the Indochina Exodus, 1975-1982
1403:http://www.ipu.org/pdf/publications/refugee_en.pdf
1269:
1267:
1265:
1263:
1261:
1259:
1257:
816:forcible repatriation of 45,000 Cambodian refugees
1689:. Internet Archive. New York: Ecco. p. 169.
1107:Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 14
1893:
1541:
1524:Barber, Ben (1997). "Feeding Refugees, or War?"
1431:
1429:
1471:
1469:
1467:
1465:
1254:
1044:United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.
453:to provide a haven to refugees fleeing certain
416:. It is debatable whether non-refoulement is a
1885:Interdisciplinary Journal of Human Rights Law,
882:with the cooperation of the government of the
1426:
1376:. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1997; p. 147.
712:Asian-African Legal Consultative Organization
668:Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees
620:Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees
578:Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees
410:Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees
379:Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees
367:Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees
304:
1859:, Oxford: Oxford UP, 2007 (prev. 1983, 1996)
1477:http://www.refworld.org/docid/470a33af0.html
1462:
1417:
1328:
1182:
1067:
1065:
1039:
1037:
1035:
1033:
979:. The policy has faced legal challenges and
1273:
1116:
1114:
664:Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees
1071:
989:European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR)
311:
297:
1062:
1030:
806:
1784:"HUDOC - European Court of Human Rights"
1567:
1111:
1481:
1338:Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law
1203:
1019:Monism and dualism in international law
1894:
1864:Le droit d'asile = The right of asylum
1778:
1776:
1774:
1422:. Oxford University Press. p. 39.
1292:
1209:
981:European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR)
1564:, UN Doc CAT/C/AUS/6 (28 March 2019).
1413:
1411:
1368:
1366:
1219:International Review of the Red Cross
941:Mohammad Salimullah v. Union of India
465:over refugees became apparent to the
404:Non-refoulement is generally seen as
16:Principle of international asylum law
1513:https://www.amazon.com/dp/0786445297
1185:International Journal of Refugee Law
1178:
1176:
1174:
1172:
1157:International Journal of Refugee Law
1131:
1771:
1682:
1528:, July/August 1997. Retrieved from
1329:D'Angelo, Ellen F. (January 2009).
1297:. Devin-Adair Pub. pp. 82–90.
1138:Wisconsin International Law Journal
1074:Leiden Journal of International Law
740:American Convention on Human Rights
538:European Commission on Human Rights
13:
1408:
1363:
1210:Jaeger, Gilbert (September 2001).
767:
749:European Convention on Extradition
14:
1938:
1870:
1169:
856:in June or July 2014, as part of
1857:The refugee in international law
1507:Thompson, Larry Clinton (2010).
1159:, Vol. 13, Issue 4, pp. 533-558.
603:
361:) is a fundamental principle of
328:
264:White genocide conspiracy theory
38:
1830:WLR 4433, 1 WLR 4433, UKSC 42
1821:
1800:
1750:
1727:
1703:
1676:
1662:
1645:
1619:
1593:
1554:
1542:March, Stephanie (2014-07-07).
1535:
1518:
1501:
1490:
1445:
1386:
1286:
1245:
559:
1849:, Antwerpen: Intersentia, 2009
1163:
1148:
1125:
1100:
727:Organization for African Unity
1:
1836:
1457:Law and Contemporary Problems
1024:
784:Strict, with a narrow reading
747:Per Article 3(2) of the 1957
637:, membership of a particular
249:Criticism of multiculturalism
985:N.S.K. v. the United Kingdom
369:that forbids a country from
7:
1866:, Dordrecht: Nijhoff (1990)
1560:Committee against Torture,
1132:Vang, Jerry (Summer 2014).
1002:
858:Operation Sovereign Borders
704:
649:community of that country.
500:refuge in the United States
484:. In 1939, the ocean liner
406:customary international law
10:
1943:
1852:Guy S. Goodwin-Gill &
1372:Zieck, Marjoleine (1997).
967:migrants who enter the UK
738:Article 22(8) of the 1969
582:Convention Against Torture
437:
111:Indefinite leave to remain
1231:10.1017/S1560775500119285
1086:10.1017/S0922156514000259
547:Soering v. United Kingdom
259:Opposition to immigration
1459:. Vol. 59, No. 4, p. 68.
1344:(1): 279. Archived from
1293:Julius, Epstein (1973).
950:Rohingya Muslim refugees
553:Chahal v. United Kingdom
498:in the hopes of finding
1683:Cha, Victor D. (2013).
1199:– via HeinOnline.
1014:Impediment to expulsion
504:Nazi takeover of France
467:international community
1887:Vol. 3, Issue 1, 2008.
1401:(IPU). Retrieved from
983:ruled in June 2022 in
936:Supreme Court of India
906:North Korean defectors
832:'s actions during the
807:Examples of violations
765:
722:
694:
659:
610:Article 3 of the 1933
523:human rights violation
162:Immigrant assimilation
55:Immigration by country
918:North Korean refugees
865:Australian Parliament
760:
725:Article II(3) of the
717:
678:
623:
389:of people, including
241:Opposition and reform
208:Replacement migration
203:Religious nationalism
973:“safe” third country
426:). The debate over
1672:. 13 November 2019.
1351:on 22 February 2017
1197:10.1093/ijrl/15.1.5
878:was forced back to
820:Prasat Preah Vihear
710:Article III of the
116:Migration diplomacy
65:Illegal immigration
1902:1933 introductions
1788:hudoc.echr.coe.int
1276:Fordham Law Review
961:Rwanda asylum plan
916:routinely deports
788:country of origin.
763:"non-refoulement".
536:In the 1960s, the
511:Operation Keelhaul
432:September 11, 2001
254:Immigration reform
190:Political theories
157:Social integration
60:Immigration policy
1912:League of Nations
1907:International law
1715:www.aljazeera.com
1696:978-0-06-199850-8
952:back to Myanmar.
643:political opinion
509:After WW2, under
463:state sovereignty
363:international law
321:
320:
198:Civic nationalism
171:Acculturation Gap
1934:
1831:
1825:
1819:
1818:
1816:
1815:
1804:
1798:
1797:
1795:
1794:
1780:
1769:
1768:
1766:
1765:
1754:
1748:
1747:
1745:
1743:
1731:
1725:
1724:
1722:
1721:
1707:
1701:
1700:
1680:
1674:
1673:
1666:
1660:
1659:
1657:
1649:
1643:
1642:
1640:
1638:
1623:
1617:
1616:
1614:
1612:
1597:
1591:
1590:
1588:
1586:
1571:
1565:
1558:
1552:
1551:
1539:
1533:
1522:
1516:
1505:
1499:
1494:
1488:
1485:
1479:
1473:
1460:
1454:
1449:
1443:
1441:
1433:
1424:
1423:
1415:
1406:
1390:
1384:
1370:
1361:
1360:
1358:
1356:
1350:
1335:
1326:
1309:
1308:
1290:
1284:
1283:
1271:
1252:
1249:
1243:
1242:
1225:(843): 727-737.
1216:
1207:
1201:
1200:
1180:
1167:
1161:
1152:
1146:
1145:
1129:
1123:
1118:
1109:
1104:
1098:
1097:
1069:
1060:
1059:
1057:
1056:
1041:
997:UK Supreme Court
963:, which aims to
876:Dina Ali Lasloom
834:Rwandan genocide
692:
657:
457:at the hands of
397:zones and other
383:political asylum
365:anchored in the
360:
359:
356:
355:
352:
349:
346:
343:
340:
337:
334:
313:
306:
299:
280:Economic migrant
228:Plurinationalism
223:Multiculturalism
182:Social exclusion
149:Social processes
141:Voluntary return
42:
19:
18:
1942:
1941:
1937:
1936:
1935:
1933:
1932:
1931:
1922:Right of asylum
1892:
1891:
1873:
1839:
1834:
1826:
1822:
1813:
1811:
1806:
1805:
1801:
1792:
1790:
1782:
1781:
1772:
1763:
1761:
1756:
1755:
1751:
1741:
1739:
1732:
1728:
1719:
1717:
1709:
1708:
1704:
1697:
1681:
1677:
1668:
1667:
1663:
1655:
1651:
1650:
1646:
1636:
1634:
1633:. 13 April 2017
1631:The Independent
1625:
1624:
1620:
1610:
1608:
1607:. 12 April 2017
1599:
1598:
1594:
1584:
1582:
1581:. 16 April 2017
1573:
1572:
1568:
1559:
1555:
1540:
1536:
1526:Foreign Affairs
1523:
1519:
1506:
1502:
1495:
1491:
1486:
1482:
1474:
1463:
1452:
1450:
1446:
1434:
1427:
1416:
1409:
1391:
1387:
1371:
1364:
1354:
1352:
1348:
1333:
1327:
1312:
1305:
1291:
1287:
1272:
1255:
1250:
1246:
1214:
1208:
1204:
1181:
1170:
1164:
1153:
1149:
1130:
1126:
1119:
1112:
1105:
1101:
1070:
1063:
1054:
1052:
1042:
1031:
1027:
1005:
927:deported 1,086
854:Sri Lankan Navy
809:
770:
768:Interpretations
707:
702:
697:Peremptory norm
693:
688:
658:
653:
606:
562:
440:
419:Peremptory norm
331:
327:
324:Non-refoulement
317:
233:Ethnocentricism
213:Social cohesion
126:Right of asylum
121:Non-refoulement
106:Externalization
101:Immigration law
81:Border security
73:History and law
17:
12:
11:
5:
1940:
1930:
1929:
1924:
1919:
1914:
1909:
1904:
1890:
1889:
1880:
1872:
1871:External links
1869:
1868:
1867:
1860:
1850:
1838:
1835:
1833:
1832:
1820:
1799:
1770:
1749:
1726:
1702:
1695:
1675:
1661:
1644:
1618:
1592:
1579:Deutsche Welle
1566:
1553:
1534:
1517:
1500:
1489:
1480:
1461:
1444:
1425:
1407:
1385:
1362:
1310:
1303:
1285:
1253:
1244:
1202:
1168:
1162:
1147:
1124:
1110:
1099:
1061:
1028:
1026:
1023:
1022:
1021:
1016:
1011:
1004:
1001:
993:refugee status
944:, allowed the
891:Matteo Salvini
808:
805:
804:
803:
799:
796:
792:
789:
785:
782:
778:
769:
766:
759:
758:
754:
753:
744:
743:
735:
734:
716:
715:
706:
703:
701:
700:
686:
671:
660:
651:
616:
607:
605:
602:
571:European Union
561:
558:
439:
436:
319:
318:
316:
315:
308:
301:
293:
290:
289:
288:
287:
282:
274:
273:
269:
268:
267:
266:
261:
256:
251:
243:
242:
238:
237:
236:
235:
230:
225:
220:
215:
210:
205:
200:
192:
191:
187:
186:
185:
184:
179:
174:
164:
159:
151:
150:
146:
145:
144:
143:
138:
133:
128:
123:
118:
113:
108:
103:
98:
93:
88:
83:
75:
74:
70:
69:
68:
67:
62:
57:
49:
48:
44:
43:
35:
34:
28:
27:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1939:
1928:
1927:Statelessness
1925:
1923:
1920:
1918:
1915:
1913:
1910:
1908:
1905:
1903:
1900:
1899:
1897:
1888:
1886:
1881:
1878:
1875:
1874:
1865:
1861:
1858:
1855:
1851:
1848:
1847:
1842:Kees Wouters
1841:
1840:
1829:
1824:
1809:
1803:
1789:
1785:
1779:
1777:
1775:
1759:
1753:
1737:
1730:
1716:
1712:
1706:
1698:
1692:
1688:
1687:
1679:
1671:
1665:
1654:
1648:
1632:
1628:
1622:
1606:
1602:
1596:
1580:
1576:
1570:
1563:
1557:
1549:
1545:
1538:
1531:
1527:
1521:
1514:
1510:
1504:
1498:
1493:
1484:
1478:
1472:
1470:
1468:
1466:
1458:
1448:
1439:
1432:
1430:
1421:
1414:
1412:
1404:
1400:
1399:92-9142-101-4
1396:
1389:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1369:
1367:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1332:
1325:
1323:
1321:
1319:
1317:
1315:
1306:
1304:9780815964070
1300:
1296:
1289:
1281:
1277:
1270:
1268:
1266:
1264:
1262:
1260:
1258:
1248:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1213:
1206:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1179:
1177:
1175:
1173:
1166:
1160:
1158:
1151:
1144:(2): 355–383.
1143:
1139:
1135:
1128:
1122:
1117:
1115:
1108:
1103:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1068:
1066:
1051:
1047:
1040:
1038:
1036:
1034:
1029:
1020:
1017:
1015:
1012:
1010:
1007:
1006:
1000:
998:
994:
990:
986:
982:
978:
974:
970:
966:
962:
959:proposed the
958:
957:UK government
955:In 2022, the
953:
951:
947:
943:
942:
937:
934:In 2021, the
932:
930:
926:
921:
919:
915:
911:
907:
904:deported two
903:
898:
896:
892:
887:
885:
881:
877:
872:
870:
866:
863:In 2014, the
861:
859:
855:
851:
846:
844:
840:
835:
831:
827:
825:
821:
817:
813:
800:
797:
793:
790:
786:
783:
779:
776:
775:
774:
764:
756:
755:
750:
746:
745:
741:
737:
736:
732:
728:
724:
723:
721:
713:
709:
708:
698:
691:
685:
681:
676:
672:
669:
665:
661:
656:
650:
646:
644:
640:
636:
632:
628:
621:
617:
613:
609:
608:
604:Relevant laws
601:
598:
596:
591:
585:
583:
579:
574:
572:
567:
557:
555:
554:
549:
548:
543:
539:
534:
530:
528:
524:
520:
516:
512:
507:
505:
501:
497:
493:
489:
488:
483:
482:the Holocaust
479:
475:
470:
468:
464:
460:
456:
452:
447:
445:
435:
433:
429:
425:
421:
420:
415:
414:1967 Protocol
411:
407:
402:
400:
396:
392:
388:
384:
380:
376:
372:
368:
364:
358:
325:
314:
309:
307:
302:
300:
295:
294:
292:
291:
286:
283:
281:
278:
277:
276:
275:
271:
270:
265:
262:
260:
257:
255:
252:
250:
247:
246:
245:
244:
240:
239:
234:
231:
229:
226:
224:
221:
219:
216:
214:
211:
209:
206:
204:
201:
199:
196:
195:
194:
193:
189:
188:
183:
180:
178:
175:
172:
168:
167:Acculturation
165:
163:
160:
158:
155:
154:
153:
152:
148:
147:
142:
139:
137:
134:
132:
129:
127:
124:
122:
119:
117:
114:
112:
109:
107:
104:
102:
99:
97:
94:
92:
89:
87:
84:
82:
79:
78:
77:
76:
72:
71:
66:
63:
61:
58:
56:
53:
52:
51:
50:
46:
45:
41:
37:
36:
33:
30:
29:
25:
21:
20:
1884:
1879:, LLM thesis
1863:
1856:
1844:
1823:
1812:. Retrieved
1810:. 2023-11-15
1802:
1791:. Retrieved
1787:
1762:. Retrieved
1760:. 2022-06-13
1752:
1740:. Retrieved
1729:
1718:. Retrieved
1714:
1705:
1685:
1678:
1664:
1647:
1635:. Retrieved
1630:
1621:
1609:. Retrieved
1604:
1595:
1583:. Retrieved
1578:
1569:
1561:
1556:
1547:
1537:
1525:
1520:
1508:
1503:
1492:
1483:
1456:
1447:
1419:
1388:
1373:
1353:. Retrieved
1346:the original
1341:
1337:
1294:
1288:
1282:(1): 73–123.
1279:
1275:
1247:
1222:
1218:
1205:
1188:
1184:
1165:
1156:
1150:
1141:
1137:
1127:
1102:
1077:
1073:
1053:. Retrieved
1049:
984:
954:
939:
933:
922:
899:
888:
880:Saudi Arabia
873:
868:
862:
847:
828:
810:
791:Collectivist
771:
761:
718:
682:
679:
647:
639:social group
624:
599:
594:
586:
575:
566:repatriation
563:
560:Contemporary
551:
545:
541:
535:
531:
515:Soviet Union
508:
487:MS St. Louis
485:
471:
459:Nazi Germany
451:World War II
448:
441:
427:
417:
403:
323:
322:
120:
91:Repatriation
1854:Jane McAdam
1738:. scroll.in
1355:21 February
1191:(1): 5–29.
946:deportation
910:North Korea
902:South Korea
884:Philippines
867:passed the
635:nationality
595:refoulement
519:persecution
478:French Jews
387:deportation
375:refoulement
272:Causes
177:Persecution
96:Deportation
86:Citizenship
32:Immigration
1896:Categories
1837:Literature
1814:2024-05-16
1793:2024-05-16
1764:2024-05-16
1742:5 November
1720:2021-07-24
1382:9041104097
1080:(3): 661.
1055:2017-03-27
1025:References
850:Australian
542:jus cogens
428:jus cogens
424:derogation
1239:145129127
1094:145445428
969:illegally
923:In 2021,
900:In 2019,
874:In 2017,
824:minefield
673:The 1984
662:The 1967
590:high seas
527:war crime
401:locales.
371:deporting
1917:Refugees
1637:13 April
1611:13 April
1585:16 April
1548:ABC News
1003:See also
925:Malaysia
908:back to
895:Misurata
889:In 2018
830:Tanzania
812:Thailand
781:borders.
752:factors.
705:Regional
687:—
652:—
631:religion
480:fleeing
455:genocide
399:disaster
391:refugees
218:Nativism
24:a series
22:Part of
1846:Torture
1605:Reuters
929:Myanmar
837:before
496:Florida
438:History
412:or its
131:Refugee
47:General
1693:
1397:
1380:
1301:
1237:
1092:
1009:Border
977:Rwanda
965:deport
839:Rwanda
777:Strict
525:and a
474:German
1656:(PDF)
1349:(PDF)
1334:(PDF)
1235:S2CID
1215:(PDF)
1090:S2CID
1050:UNHCR
971:to a
914:China
843:Zaire
393:into
1744:2021
1691:ISBN
1639:2017
1613:2017
1587:2017
1395:ISBN
1378:ISBN
1357:2017
1299:ISBN
848:The
627:race
615:law.
550:and
492:Cuba
476:and
442:The
136:Visa
1455:".
1227:doi
1193:doi
1082:doi
948:of
938:in
818:at
814:'s
729:'s
641:or
469:.
395:war
285:War
1898::
1786:.
1773:^
1713:.
1629:.
1603:.
1577:.
1546:.
1464:^
1428:^
1410:^
1365:^
1342:42
1340:.
1336:.
1313:^
1280:80
1278:.
1256:^
1233:.
1223:83
1221:.
1217:.
1189:15
1187:.
1171:^
1142:32
1140:.
1136:.
1113:^
1088:.
1078:27
1076:.
1064:^
1048:.
1032:^
975:,
886:.
860:.
845:.
645:.
633:,
629:,
597:.
373:("
354:ɒ̃
345:uː
26:on
1817:.
1796:.
1767:.
1746:.
1723:.
1699:.
1641:.
1615:.
1589:.
1550:.
1532:.
1515:.
1453:'
1405:.
1359:.
1307:.
1241:.
1229::
1195::
1096:.
1084::
1058:.
670:.
357:/
351:m
348:l
342:f
339:ˈ
336:ə
333:r
330:/
326:(
312:e
305:t
298:v
173:)
169:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
