735:
associated with the overweight and obese categories of BMI among non-smokers. In an analysis of 1.46 million individuals, restriction to never-smoking participants greatly reduced the mortality estimates in the underweight group, as well as strengthening the estimates in the overweight and obese groups. This study concluded that, for non-Hispanic white adults who have never smoked, the BMI range of 20.0 to 24.9 was associated with the lowest mortality rates. A similar 2016 study found that, of the BMI ranges studied (which ranged from 18.5 to >30), the "normal" 18.5–22.4 BMI range combined with healthy eating, high levels of physical activity, not smoking, and no more than moderate alcohol consumption was associated with the lowest risk of premature death.
739:
Terminally ill individuals often undergo weight loss before death, and classifying those individuals as lean greatly inflates the mortality rate in the normal and underweight categories of BMI, while lowering the risk in the higher BMI categories. Studies that employ strategies to reduce reverse causation such as excluding sick individuals at baseline and introducing time lag to exclude deaths at the beginning of follow-up have yielded estimates of increased risk for body mass indices above 25 kg/m.
769:
patients don't get cardiovascular disease at all up until later in life. In fact, the obese have shorter lifespans because they get cardiovascular disease at an early age and have to live a longer proportion of their life with it. This also shows a misunderstanding regarding the paradox: While survival rate once sick is indeed higher for those with obesity than for those few non-obese that have cardiovascular disease, people without obesity usually do not get cardiovascular disease in the first place.
765:
obesity is the collider, the outcome is cardiovascular disease, and the unmeasured variables are environmental and genetic factors – given that obesity and cardiovascular disorders are often associated with each other, medical professionals may be reluctant to consider both other causes of cardiovascular disease or other causes of protection against said diseases.
684:). Similar findings have been made in other types of heart disease. Among people with heart disease, those with class I obesity do not have greater rates of further heart problems than people of normal weight. In people with greater degrees of obesity, however, risk of further events is increased. Even after
768:
A study from 2018 found that the reason why overweight or obese patients supposedly live longer with cardiovascular disease than people of normal weight is simply because overweight / obese patients get cardiovascular disease at an earlier age, meaning while they survive more years with it, non-obese
2160:
Berrington de
Gonzalez A, Hartge P, Cerhan JR, Flint AJ, Hannan L, MacInnis RJ, Moore SC, Tobias GS, Anton-Culver H, Freeman LB, Beeson WL, Clipp SL, English DR, Folsom AR, Freedman DM, Giles G, Hakansson N, Henderson KD, Hoffman-Bolton J, Hoppin JA, Koenig KL, Lee IM, Linet MS, Park Y, Pocobelli G,
1323:
Padwal, R; McAlister, F A; McMurray, J J V; Cowie, M R; Rich, M; Pocock, S; Swedberg, K; Maggioni, A; Gamble, G; Ariti, C; Earle, N; Whalley, G; Poppe, K K; Doughty, R N; Bayes-Genis, A (31 October 2013). "The obesity paradox in heart failure patients with preserved versus reduced ejection fraction:
738:
Another concern is reverse causation due to illness-induced weight loss. That is, it may not be low BMI that is causing death (and thereby making obesity seem protective) but rather imminent death causing low BMI. Indeed, unintentional weight loss is an extremely significant predictor of mortality.
679:
While obese people have twice the risk of developing heart failure compared to individuals with a normal BMI, once a person experiences heart failure, those with a BMI between 30.0 and 34.9 had lower mortality than those with a normal BMI. This has been attributed to the fact that people often lose
1698:
Romero-Corral, Abel; Montori, Victor M; Somers, Virend K; Korinek, Josef; Thomas, Randal J; Allison, Thomas G; Mookadam, Farouk; Lopez-Jimenez, Francisco (2006). "Association of bodyweight with total mortality and with cardiovascular events in coronary artery disease: A systematic review of cohort
1564:
Veronese, N; Cereda, E; Solmi, M; Fowler, SA; Manzato, E; Maggi, S; Manu, P; Abe, E; Hayashi, K; Allard, JP; Arendt, BM; Beck, A; Chan, M; Audrey, YJ; Lin, WY; Hsu, HS; Lin, CC; Diekmann, R; Kimyagarov, S; Miller, M; Cameron, ID; Pitkälä, KH; Lee, J; Woo, J; Nakamura, K; Smiley, D; Umpierrez, G;
793:
have proposed that a paradox does not actually exist, as people can be healthy at a range of sizes. As one study puts it, "There is no 'obesity paradox' to explain, if we accept the premise that varying ideal weight ranges apply to individuals over different stages of the life span, accordingly
764:
bias, which commonly emerges when one restricts or stratifies on a factor (the "collider") that is caused by both the exposure (or its descendants) of an unmeasured variable and the outcome (or its ancestors / risk factors). In the example of the obesity-cardiovascular disease relationship, the
1879:
Diercks, Deborah B.; Roe, Matthew T.; Mulgund, Jyotsna; Pollack, Charles V.; Kirk, J. Douglas; Gibler, W. Brian; Ohman, E. Magnus; Smith, Sidney C.; et al. (2006). "The obesity paradox in non–ST-segment elevation acute coronary syndromes: Results from the Can Rapid risk stratification of
734:
has been noted by several researchers, although others have suggested that smoking does not account for the observed patterns. Since smokers, who are subject to higher mortality rates, also tend to be leaner, inadequate adjustment for smoking would lead to underestimations of the risk ratios
745:
Critics of the paradox have also argued that studies supporting its existence almost always use BMI as the only measure of obesity. However, because BMI is an imperfect method of measuring obesity, critics argue that studies using other measures of obesity in addition to BMI, such as
688:, no increase in mortality is seen in the overweight and obese. One study found that the improved survival could be explained by the more aggressive treatment obese people receive after a cardiac event. Another found that if one takes into account COPD in those with
636:
and protein energy wasting in advanced CKD seems to a large extent to account for this paradoxical association between traditional risk factors and CV outcomes in this patient population." Other research has proposed that the paradox also may be explained by
2212:
Veronese, Nicola; Li, Yanping; Manson, JoAnn E; Willett, Walter C; Fontana, Luigi; Hu, Frank B. (2016) "Combined associations of body weight and lifestyle factors with all cause and cause specific mortality in men and women: prospective cohort study",
584:
and cancer. Explanations for the paradox range from excess weight being protective to the statistical association being caused by methodological flaws such as confounding, detection bias, reverse causality, or selection bias.
1367:
Wang, L; Liu, W; He, X; Chen, Y; Lu, J; Liu, K; Cao, K; Yin, P (4 September 2015). "Association of overweight and obesity with patient mortality after acute myocardial infarction: A meta-analysis of prospective studies".
696:
as a preventative health measure – weight-cycling (a repeated pattern of losing and then regaining weight) is more common in obese people, and has health effects commonly assumed to be caused by obesity, such as
1880:
Unstable angina patients
Suppress ADverse outcomes with Early implementation of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Guidelines Quality Improvement Initiative".
816:(Low birth-weight babies born to smokers have a lower mortality than low birth-weight babies born to non-smokers, because other causes of low birth-weight are more harmful than smoking.)
2560:
Dixon, J.B.; Egger, G.J.; Finkelstein, E.A.; Kral, J.G.; Lambert, G.W. (January 2015). "'Obesity paradox' misunderstands the biology of optimal weight throughout the life cycle".
2607:
Carnethon, Mercedes R.; De Chavez, Peter John D.; Biggs, Mary L.; Lewis, Cora E.; Pankow, James S.; Bertoni, Alain G.; Golden, Sherita H.; Liu, Kiang; et al. (2012-08-12).
1103:
Naghavi, Morteza; Falk, Erling; Hecht, Harvey S.; Shah, Prediman K.; Shape Task Force (2006). "The First SHAPE (Screening for Heart Attack
Prevention and Education) Guideline".
742:
The obesity paradox may therefore result from people becoming lean due to smoking, sedentary lifestyles, and unhealthy diets – all factors which also negatively impact health.
1199:"The association between obesity and mortality in the elderly differs by serum concentrations of persistent organic pollutants: a possible explanation for the obesity paradox"
2410:
Banack, Hailey R.; Kaufman, Jay S. (May 2014). "The obesity paradox: Understanding the effect of obesity on mortality among individuals with cardiovascular disease".
580:
is the finding in some studies of a lower mortality rate for overweight or obese people within certain subpopulations. The paradox has been observed in people with
1565:
Rondanelli, M; Sund-Levander, M; Valentini, L; Schindler, K; Törmä, J; Volpato, S; Zuliani, G; Wong, M; Lok, K; Kane, JM; Sergi, G; Correll, CU (November 2015).
1238:
Schmidt, Darren S.; Salahudeen, Abdulla K. (2007). "CARDIOVASCULAR AND SURVIVAL PARADOXES IN DIALYSIS PATIENTS: Obesity-Survival
Paradox-Still a Controversy?".
781:
has promoted the hypothesis and funded researchers who agree with the hypothesis, which has raised questions about what research the company supports and why.
2118:"Impact of Smoking and Preexisting Illness on Estimates of the Fractions of Deaths Associated with Underweight, Overweight, and Obesity in the US Population"
2324:
Chrysant, Steven G.; Chrysant, George S. (January 2013). "New insights into the true nature of the obesity paradox and the lower cardiovascular risk".
1283:"Meta-analysis of the relation of body mass index to all-cause and cardiovascular mortality and hospitalization in patients with chronic heart failure"
2396:
1411:
Niedziela, J; Hudzik, B; Niedziela, N; Gąsior, M; Gierlotka, M; Wasilewski, J; Myrda, K; Lekston, A; Poloński, L; Rozentryt, P (November 2014).
2392:
605:
563:
1567:"Inverse relationship between body mass index and mortality in older nursing home residents: a meta-analysis of 19,538 elderly subjects"
1832:"Body Mass Index and Mortality Among Adults Undergoing Cardiac Surgery: A Nationwide Study With a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis"
2505:
1281:
Sharma, A; Lavie, CJ; Borer, JS; Vallakati, A; Goel, S; Lopez-Jimenez, F; Arbab-Zadeh, A; Mukherjee, D; Lazar, JM (15 May 2015).
1742:
Oreopoulos, Antigone; Padwal, Raj; Kalantar-Zadeh, Kamyar; Fonarow, Gregg C.; Norris, Colleen M.; McAlister, Finlay A. (2008).
2077:"Commentary: selection bias as an explanation for the obesity paradox: just because it's possible doesn't mean it's plausible"
1830:
Mariscalco, G; Wozniak, MJ; Dawson, AG; Serraino, GF; Porter, R; Nath, M; Klersy, C; Kumar, T; Murphy, GJ (28 February 2017).
648:
The obesity paradox (excluding the cholesterol paradox) was first described in 1999 in overweight and obese people undergoing
665:
794:
allowing us to abandon the rigid biologically implausible concept of a single 'ideal weight' (for height) or weight range."
2650:
Florez, Hermes; Castillo-Florez, Sumaya (2012). "Beyond the
Obesity Paradox in Diabetes: Fitness, Fatness, and Mortality".
1789:
Oreopoulos, Antigone; Padwal, Raj; Norris, Colleen M; Mullen, John C; Pretorius, Victor; Kalantar-Zadeh, Kamyar (2008).
1460:
Cao, Chao; Wang, Ran; Wang, Jianmiao; Bunjhoo, Hansvin; Xu, Yongjian; Xiong, Weining; Simpson, Colin (24 August 2012).
147:
2368:
104:
2363:. Greenland, Sander, 1951–, Lash, Timothy L. (3rd edition, thoroughly revised and updated ed.). Philadelphia.
761:
2277:"Body-mass index and cause-specific mortality in 900 000 adults: collaborative analyses of 57 prospective studies"
556:
332:
685:
520:
153:
2161:
Schatzkin A, Sesso HD, Weiderpass E, Willcox BJ, Wolk A, Zeleniuch-Jacquotte A, Willett WC, Thun MJ (2010).
310:
2455:"Association of Body Mass Index With Lifetime Risk of Cardiovascular Disease and Compression of Morbidity"
906:"Association of All-Cause Mortality With Overweight and Obesity Using Standard Body Mass Index Categories"
1056:"Reverse epidemiology of conventional cardiovascular risk factors in patients with chronic heart failure"
505:
757:
One probable methodological explanation for the obesity paradox in regards to cardiovascular disease is
2028:"Obesity Paradox: Conditioning on Disease Enhances Biases in Estimating the Mortality Risks of Obesity"
628:
The mechanism responsible for this reversed association is unknown, but it has been theorized that, in
549:
23:
1520:
2703:
2218:
1791:"Effect of Obesity on Short- and Long-term Mortality Postcoronary Revascularization: A Meta-analysis"
731:
689:
128:
2533:
1663:
Habbu, Amit; Lakkis, Nasser M.; Dokainish, Hisham (2006). "The
Obesity Paradox: Fact or Fiction?".
1180:"Article: Vascular disease and chronic renal failure: new insights (abstract) - January 2010 - NJM"
824:
813:
525:
1282:
1179:
758:
692:, the benefit of obesity no longer exists. The obesity paradox is also relevant in discussion of
661:
485:
392:
80:
49:
629:
614:
581:
479:
1197:
Hong, N-S; Kim, K-S; Lee, I-K; Lind, P M; Lind, L; Jacobs, D R; Lee, D-H (27 September 2011).
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657:
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510:
385:
261:
221:
2534:"The obesity paradox: Why Coke is promoting a theory that being fat won't hurt your health"
1473:
599:
495:
447:
181:
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8:
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1521:"Obesity and pulmonary embolism: The mounting evidence of risk and the mortality paradox"
1462:"Body Mass Index and Mortality in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: A Meta-Analysis"
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327:
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216:
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138:
2506:"The obesity paradox debunked: People with extra pounds do not live longer, study shows"
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1004:"Reverse epidemiology of cardiovascular risk factors in maintenance dialysis patients"
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Kalantar-Zadeh, Kamyar; Block, Gladys; Humphreys, Michael H.; Kopple, Joel D. (2003).
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2236:"A review and meta-analysis of the effect of weight loss on all-cause mortality risk"
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1998:
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1979:"Smoking and reverse causation create an obesity paradox in cardiovascular disease"
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Flegal, Katherine M.; Graubard, Barry; Williamson, David; Gail, Mitchell (2007).
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Kalantar-Zadeh, Kamyar; Block, Gladys; Horwich, Tamara; Fonarow, Gregg C (2004).
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people has been and is controversial in the medical community for several years.
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in 2004. It is a contradiction to prevailing medical concepts of prevention of
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267:
206:
123:
2609:"Association of Weight Status With Mortality in Adults With Incident Diabetes"
2252:
2235:
1893:
1759:
1428:
955:"Association of Weight Status with Mortality in Adults with Incident Diabetes"
864:
847:
Lennon, Hannah; Sperrin, Matthew; Badrick, Ellena; Renehan, Andrew G. (2016).
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Sadiya S. Kahn; Hongyan Ning; John T. Wilkins; et al. (April 2018).
2452:
2134:
2117:
1640:
1623:
1591:
1381:
1337:
1215:
1198:
1140:"The Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease: Have We Really Made Progress?"
953:
Carnethon, Mercedes; De Chaves, Peter John; Biggs, Mary (8 August 2012).
693:
618:
432:
367:
362:
75:
70:
60:
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1807:
2159:
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287:
65:
55:
1994:
1582:
1741:
778:
475:
2222:
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weight when they have severe and chronic illness (a syndrome called
718:
The obesity paradox has been criticized on the grounds of being an
681:
422:
253:
239:
1615:
1001:
2274:
1744:"Body mass index and mortality in heart failure: A meta-analysis"
1697:
1413:"The obesity paradox in acute coronary syndrome: a meta-analysis"
1053:
904:
Flegal, Katherine; Kit, Brian; Orpana, Heather (2 January 2013).
407:
257:
45:
2163:"Body-mass index and mortality among 1.46 million white adults"
1829:
500:
1928:"Weight science: evaluating the evidence for a paradigm shift"
1410:
593:
The terminology "reverse epidemiology" was first proposed by
282:
2606:
2234:
Harrington, Mary; Gibson, Sigrid; Cottrell, Richard (2009).
2115:
1788:
1322:
846:
297:
1915:"Obesity Paradox" in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
2559:
1563:
1280:
2233:
1878:
952:
2649:
645:
chemicals that would otherwise be toxic to the body.
1662:
1102:
754:, render the existence of the paradox questionable.
1925:
2074:
1459:
1518:
1237:
1049:
1047:
2680:
2323:
1519:Stein, Paul; Matta, Fadi; Goldman, Jose (2011).
652:, and has subsequently been found in those with
2326:Journal of the American Society of Hypertension
2208:
2206:
903:
632:patients, "The common occurrence of persistent
1196:
1044:
2409:
2025:
1366:
1324:a meta-analysis of individual patient data".
1060:Journal of the American College of Cardiology
606:Journal of the American College of Cardiology
557:
2531:
2503:
2203:
1919:
2395:) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1231:
959:Journal of the American Medical Association
910:Journal of the American Medical Association
2391:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2275:Prospective Studies Collaboration (2009).
564:
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2133:
2092:
2051:
2002:
1953:
1943:
1847:
1806:
1656:
1639:
1621:
1590:
1495:
1485:
1436:
1214:
1155:
1071:
1019:
978:
929:
880:
849:"The Obesity Paradox in Cancer: a Review"
2155:
2153:
2026:Preston, Samuel; Stokes, Andrew (2014).
842:
840:
2268:
1624:"Obesity and the risk of heart failure"
1137:
621:of heart disease in otherwise healthy,
2681:
1976:
1131:
1096:
2150:
837:
666:chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
784:
772:
2167:The New England Journal of Medicine
13:
2600:
2504:Karen Kaplan (February 28, 2018).
2403:
2358:
1665:The American Journal of Cardiology
1290:The American Journal of Cardiology
1117:10.1097/01.hpc.0000249784.29151.54
148:Epidemiology of metabolic syndrome
14:
2715:
2532:Julia Belluz (October 20, 2015).
1849:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.116.022840
1622:Kenchaiah, Satish (Aug 1, 2002).
2562:International Journal of Obesity
2122:American Journal of Epidemiology
1417:European Journal of Epidemiology
1370:International Journal of Obesity
1326:International Journal of Obesity
1252:10.1111/j.1525-139X.2007.00349.x
1203:International Journal of Obesity
1021:10.1046/j.1523-1755.2003.00803.x
2553:
2525:
2497:
2446:
2352:
2317:
2227:
2109:
2068:
2019:
1970:
1908:
1872:
1823:
1782:
1735:
1691:
1628:New England Journal of Medicine
1557:
1512:
1453:
1404:
1360:
1316:
1274:
1105:Critical Pathways in Cardiology
705:, and cardiovascular diseases.
1537:10.1016/j.thromres.2011.10.019
1190:
1172:
995:
946:
897:
713:
588:
521:Social determinants of obesity
1:
2359:J., Rothman, Kenneth (2008).
2293:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60318-4
2075:Glymour; Vittinghoff (2014).
1713:10.1016/S0140-6736(06)69251-9
1677:10.1016/j.amjcard.2006.04.039
1302:10.1016/j.amjcard.2015.02.024
830:
708:
154:Metabolically healthy obesity
2472:10.1001/jamacardio.2018.0022
2094:10.1097/EDE.0000000000000013
2044:10.1097/EDE.0000000000000075
1926:Bacon L, Aphramor L (2011).
1487:10.1371/journal.pone.0043892
777:It has also been noted that
311:Obesity-associated morbidity
7:
2424:10.1016/j.ypmed.2014.02.003
797:
506:Obesity and the environment
10:
2720:
2338:10.1016/j.jash.2012.11.008
1073:10.1016/j.jacc.2003.11.039
2253:10.1017/S0954422409990035
1894:10.1016/j.ahj.2005.09.024
1760:10.1016/j.ahj.2008.02.014
1429:10.1007/s10654-014-9961-9
865:10.1007/s11912-016-0539-4
690:peripheral artery disease
129:Classification of obesity
922:10.1001/jama.2012.113905
853:Current Oncology Reports
825:Social stigma of obesity
814:Low birth-weight paradox
730:. Strong confounding by
526:Social stigma of obesity
1977:Stokes, Andrew (2015).
1157:10.1377/hlthaff.26.1.49
1138:Pearson, T. A. (2007).
662:acute coronary syndrome
486:Fat acceptance movement
393:Anti-obesity medication
81:Gestational weight gain
2664:10.1001/jama.2012.9776
2625:10.1001/jama.2012.9282
1945:10.1186/1475-2891-10-9
1882:American Heart Journal
1748:American Heart Journal
971:10.1001/jama.2012.9282
686:cardiac bypass surgery
630:chronic kidney disease
619:prophylactic treatment
615:cardiovascular disease
582:cardiovascular disease
2179:10.1056/NEJMoa1000367
728:observational studies
658:myocardial infarction
595:Kamyar Kalantar-Zadeh
511:Obesity and sexuality
386:Management of obesity
262:Binge eating disorder
222:Waist-to-height ratio
1641:10.1056/NEJMoa020245
1382:10.1038/ijo.2015.176
1338:10.1038/ijo.2013.203
1240:Seminars in Dialysis
1216:10.1038/ijo.2011.187
1008:Kidney International
600:Kidney International
496:Health at Every Size
448:Weight loss coaching
182:Body adiposity index
2574:10.1038/ijo.2014.59
2412:Preventive Medicine
2361:Modern epidemiology
2287:(9669): 1083–1096.
1808:10.1038/oby.2007.36
1525:Thrombosis Research
1478:2012PLoSO...743892C
748:waist circumference
670:pulmonary embolisms
603:in 2003 and in the
516:Sedentary lifestyle
328:Fatty liver disease
292:Starvation response
192:Body fat percentage
139:Genetics of obesity
2135:10.1093/aje/kwm152
752:waist to hip ratio
703:insulin resistance
617:; however, active
353:Obesity and cancer
234:Related conditions
144:Metabolic syndrome
16:Medical hypothesis
2511:Los Angeles Times
1995:10.1002/oby.21239
1932:Nutrition Journal
1583:10.1111/obr.12309
785:Weight relativism
773:Ties to Coca-Cola
574:
573:
403:Bariatric surgery
212:Relative Fat Mass
101:Childhood obesity
91:Weight management
32:Human body weight
2711:
2704:Health paradoxes
2675:
2646:
2636:
2619:(8): 9000–9001.
2594:
2593:
2557:
2551:
2550:
2548:
2546:
2529:
2523:
2522:
2520:
2518:
2501:
2495:
2494:
2484:
2474:
2450:
2444:
2443:
2407:
2401:
2400:
2390:
2382:
2356:
2350:
2349:
2321:
2315:
2314:
2304:
2272:
2266:
2265:
2255:
2231:
2225:
2210:
2201:
2200:
2190:
2157:
2148:
2147:
2137:
2113:
2107:
2106:
2096:
2072:
2066:
2065:
2055:
2023:
2017:
2016:
2006:
1974:
1968:
1967:
1957:
1947:
1923:
1917:
1912:
1906:
1905:
1876:
1870:
1869:
1851:
1827:
1821:
1820:
1810:
1786:
1780:
1779:
1739:
1733:
1732:
1707:(9536): 666–78.
1695:
1689:
1688:
1660:
1654:
1653:
1643:
1619:
1613:
1612:
1594:
1561:
1555:
1554:
1552:
1551:
1516:
1510:
1509:
1499:
1489:
1457:
1451:
1450:
1440:
1408:
1402:
1401:
1364:
1358:
1357:
1332:(8): 1110–1114.
1320:
1314:
1313:
1287:
1278:
1272:
1271:
1235:
1229:
1228:
1218:
1209:(9): 1170–1175.
1194:
1188:
1187:
1184:www.njmonline.nl
1176:
1170:
1169:
1159:
1135:
1129:
1128:
1100:
1094:
1093:
1075:
1051:
1042:
1041:
1023:
999:
993:
992:
982:
950:
944:
943:
933:
901:
895:
894:
884:
844:
820:Katherine Flegal
566:
559:
552:
443:Weight loss camp
438:Obesity medicine
318:Arteriosclerosis
202:Corpulence index
197:Body Shape Index
164:Set point theory
134:Exercise paradox
118:Medical concepts
86:Diet (nutrition)
40:General concepts
19:
18:
2719:
2718:
2714:
2713:
2712:
2710:
2709:
2708:
2679:
2678:
2603:
2601:Further reading
2598:
2597:
2558:
2554:
2544:
2542:
2530:
2526:
2516:
2514:
2502:
2498:
2459:JAMA Cardiology
2451:
2447:
2408:
2404:
2384:
2383:
2371:
2357:
2353:
2322:
2318:
2273:
2269:
2232:
2228:
2211:
2204:
2158:
2151:
2114:
2110:
2073:
2069:
2024:
2020:
1989:(12): 2485–90.
1975:
1971:
1924:
1920:
1913:
1909:
1877:
1873:
1828:
1824:
1787:
1783:
1740:
1736:
1696:
1692:
1661:
1657:
1620:
1616:
1577:(11): 1001–15.
1571:Obesity Reviews
1562:
1558:
1549:
1547:
1517:
1513:
1458:
1454:
1409:
1405:
1365:
1361:
1321:
1317:
1296:(10): 1428–34.
1285:
1279:
1275:
1236:
1232:
1195:
1191:
1178:
1177:
1173:
1136:
1132:
1101:
1097:
1052:
1045:
1000:
996:
951:
947:
902:
898:
845:
838:
833:
809:Israeli paradox
800:
787:
775:
716:
711:
672:, and in older
611:atherosclerosis
597:in the journal
591:
578:obesity paradox
570:
541:
540:
466:
458:
457:
418:Caloric deficit
388:
378:
377:
373:Type 2 diabetes
323:Atherosclerosis
313:
303:
302:
273:Hyperthyroidism
250:Eating disorder
235:
227:
226:
217:Waist–hip ratio
187:Body mass index
177:
169:
168:
159:Obesity paradox
119:
111:
110:
41:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2717:
2707:
2706:
2701:
2696:
2691:
2677:
2676:
2658:(6): 619–620.
2647:
2602:
2599:
2596:
2595:
2552:
2524:
2496:
2465:(4): 280–287.
2445:
2402:
2369:
2351:
2316:
2267:
2226:
2202:
2173:(23): 2211–9.
2149:
2128:(8): 975–982.
2108:
2067:
2038:(3): 454–461.
2018:
1969:
1918:
1907:
1871:
1842:(9): 850–863.
1822:
1781:
1734:
1690:
1655:
1614:
1556:
1531:(6): 518–523.
1511:
1452:
1423:(11): 801–12.
1403:
1359:
1315:
1273:
1230:
1189:
1171:
1144:Health Affairs
1130:
1095:
1066:(8): 1439–44.
1043:
1014:(3): 793–808.
994:
945:
896:
835:
834:
832:
829:
828:
827:
822:
817:
811:
806:
804:French paradox
799:
796:
786:
783:
774:
771:
762:stratification
715:
712:
710:
707:
639:adipose tissue
590:
587:
572:
571:
569:
568:
561:
554:
546:
543:
542:
539:
538:
533:
531:Weight cutting
528:
523:
518:
513:
508:
503:
498:
493:
488:
483:
473:
467:
465:Social aspects
464:
463:
460:
459:
456:
455:
450:
445:
440:
435:
430:
420:
415:
405:
400:
395:
389:
384:
383:
380:
379:
376:
375:
370:
365:
360:
358:Osteoarthritis
355:
350:
345:
340:
335:
330:
325:
320:
314:
309:
308:
305:
304:
301:
300:
295:
285:
280:
275:
270:
268:Food addiction
265:
247:
236:
233:
232:
229:
228:
225:
224:
219:
214:
209:
207:Lean body mass
204:
199:
194:
189:
184:
178:
175:
174:
171:
170:
167:
166:
161:
156:
151:
141:
136:
131:
126:
124:Adipose tissue
120:
117:
116:
113:
112:
109:
108:
98:
93:
88:
83:
78:
73:
68:
63:
58:
53:
42:
39:
38:
35:
34:
28:
27:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2716:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2697:
2695:
2692:
2690:
2687:
2686:
2684:
2673:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2657:
2653:
2648:
2644:
2640:
2635:
2630:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2605:
2604:
2591:
2587:
2583:
2579:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2556:
2541:
2540:
2535:
2528:
2513:
2512:
2507:
2500:
2492:
2488:
2483:
2478:
2473:
2468:
2464:
2460:
2456:
2449:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2406:
2398:
2394:
2388:
2380:
2376:
2372:
2370:9780781755641
2366:
2362:
2355:
2347:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2320:
2312:
2308:
2303:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2271:
2263:
2259:
2254:
2249:
2246:(1): 93–108.
2245:
2241:
2237:
2230:
2223:
2220:
2216:
2209:
2207:
2198:
2194:
2189:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2156:
2154:
2145:
2141:
2136:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2112:
2104:
2100:
2095:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2078:
2071:
2063:
2059:
2054:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2022:
2014:
2010:
2005:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1973:
1965:
1961:
1956:
1951:
1946:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1922:
1916:
1911:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1875:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1850:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1826:
1818:
1814:
1809:
1804:
1801:(2): 442–50.
1800:
1796:
1792:
1785:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1738:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1694:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1659:
1651:
1647:
1642:
1637:
1634:(5): 305–13.
1633:
1629:
1625:
1618:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1593:
1592:11392/2363462
1588:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1560:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1515:
1507:
1503:
1498:
1493:
1488:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1472:(8): e43892.
1471:
1467:
1463:
1456:
1448:
1444:
1439:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1407:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1363:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1319:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1291:
1284:
1277:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1253:
1249:
1246:(6): 486–92.
1245:
1241:
1234:
1226:
1222:
1217:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1193:
1185:
1181:
1175:
1167:
1163:
1158:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1134:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1111:(4): 187–90.
1110:
1106:
1099:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1074:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1050:
1048:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1022:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1005:
998:
990:
986:
981:
976:
972:
968:
965:(6): 581–90.
964:
960:
956:
949:
941:
937:
932:
927:
923:
919:
915:
911:
907:
900:
892:
888:
883:
878:
874:
870:
866:
862:
858:
854:
850:
843:
841:
836:
826:
823:
821:
818:
815:
812:
810:
807:
805:
802:
801:
795:
792:
782:
780:
770:
766:
763:
760:
755:
753:
749:
743:
740:
736:
733:
729:
725:
722:arising from
721:
706:
704:
700:
695:
691:
687:
683:
677:
675:
671:
667:
663:
659:
655:
654:heart failure
651:
646:
644:
640:
635:
631:
626:
624:
620:
616:
612:
608:
607:
602:
601:
596:
586:
583:
579:
567:
562:
560:
555:
553:
548:
547:
545:
544:
537:
534:
532:
529:
527:
524:
522:
519:
517:
514:
512:
509:
507:
504:
502:
499:
497:
494:
492:
491:Fat fetishism
489:
487:
484:
481:
477:
474:
472:
469:
468:
462:
461:
454:
451:
449:
446:
444:
441:
439:
436:
434:
431:
428:
424:
421:
419:
416:
413:
412:List of diets
409:
406:
404:
401:
399:
396:
394:
391:
390:
387:
382:
381:
374:
371:
369:
366:
364:
361:
359:
356:
354:
351:
349:
346:
344:
343:Heart disease
341:
339:
336:
334:
331:
329:
326:
324:
321:
319:
316:
315:
312:
307:
306:
299:
296:
293:
289:
286:
284:
281:
279:
276:
274:
271:
269:
266:
263:
259:
255:
251:
248:
245:
241:
238:
237:
231:
230:
223:
220:
218:
215:
213:
210:
208:
205:
203:
200:
198:
195:
193:
190:
188:
185:
183:
180:
179:
173:
172:
165:
162:
160:
157:
155:
152:
149:
145:
142:
140:
137:
135:
132:
130:
127:
125:
122:
121:
115:
114:
106:
102:
99:
97:
96:Overnutrition
94:
92:
89:
87:
84:
82:
79:
77:
74:
72:
69:
67:
64:
62:
59:
57:
54:
51:
47:
44:
43:
37:
36:
33:
30:
29:
25:
21:
20:
2689:Epidemiology
2655:
2651:
2616:
2612:
2568:(1): 82–84.
2565:
2561:
2555:
2545:December 21,
2543:. Retrieved
2537:
2527:
2517:December 21,
2515:. Retrieved
2509:
2499:
2462:
2458:
2448:
2415:
2411:
2405:
2360:
2354:
2332:(1): 85–94.
2329:
2325:
2319:
2284:
2280:
2270:
2243:
2240:Nutr Res Rev
2239:
2229:
2214:
2170:
2166:
2125:
2121:
2111:
2084:
2081:Epidemiology
2080:
2070:
2035:
2032:Epidemiology
2031:
2021:
1986:
1982:
1972:
1935:
1931:
1921:
1910:
1888:(1): 140–8.
1885:
1881:
1874:
1839:
1835:
1825:
1798:
1794:
1784:
1754:(1): 13–22.
1751:
1747:
1737:
1704:
1700:
1693:
1671:(7): 944–8.
1668:
1664:
1658:
1631:
1627:
1617:
1574:
1570:
1559:
1548:. Retrieved
1528:
1524:
1514:
1469:
1465:
1455:
1420:
1416:
1406:
1376:(2): 220–8.
1373:
1369:
1362:
1329:
1325:
1318:
1293:
1289:
1276:
1243:
1239:
1233:
1206:
1202:
1192:
1183:
1174:
1150:(1): 49–60.
1147:
1143:
1133:
1108:
1104:
1098:
1063:
1059:
1011:
1007:
997:
962:
958:
948:
916:(1): 71–82.
913:
909:
899:
856:
852:
790:
788:
776:
767:
756:
744:
741:
737:
717:
699:hypertension
678:
674:nursing home
650:hemodialysis
647:
634:inflammation
627:
623:asymptomatic
604:
598:
592:
577:
575:
536:Weight class
471:Comfort food
453:Yo-yo effect
348:Hypertension
338:Gynecomastia
278:Malnutrition
176:Measurements
158:
105:Epidemiology
50:Epidemiology
1836:Circulation
714:Methodology
694:weight loss
676:residents.
589:Description
433:Liposuction
368:Sleep apnea
363:Prediabetes
76:Weight loss
71:Weight gain
61:Underweight
2694:Hypotheses
2683:Categories
2418:: 96–102.
2281:The Lancet
2087:(1): 4–6.
1701:The Lancet
1699:studies".
1550:2021-10-29
831:References
709:Criticisms
643:lipophilic
398:Bariatrics
288:Starvation
66:Body shape
56:Overweight
2432:0091-7435
2387:cite book
2379:169455558
1866:207746351
1354:205154645
873:1523-3790
859:(9): 56.
779:Coca-Cola
480:Criticism
476:Fast food
2672:22871873
2643:22871870
2582:24732145
2491:29490333
2440:24525165
2346:23321407
2311:19299006
2262:19555520
2217:, v355.
2197:21121834
2144:17670912
2103:24296924
2062:24608666
2013:26421898
1964:21261939
1902:16824844
1858:28034901
1817:18239657
1776:25332291
1768:18585492
1729:23306195
1721:16920472
1685:16996880
1650:12151467
1609:32531736
1601:26252230
1545:22078437
1506:22937118
1466:PLOS ONE
1447:25354991
1398:10216047
1390:26338077
1346:24173404
1310:25772740
1268:37354831
1260:17991192
1225:21946706
1166:17211013
1125:18340236
1090:46581648
1082:15093881
1038:25515189
1030:12631061
989:22871870
940:23280227
891:27475805
798:See also
759:collider
720:artifact
682:cachexia
668:(COPD),
641:storing
423:Exercise
254:Anorexia
240:Diabetes
24:a series
22:Part of
2699:Obesity
2634:3467944
2590:2868291
2482:5875319
2302:2662372
2188:3066051
2053:3984024
2004:4701612
1983:Obesity
1955:3041737
1795:Obesity
1497:3427325
1474:Bibcode
1438:4220102
980:3467944
931:4855514
882:4967417
732:smoking
427:outline
408:Dieting
258:Bulimia
46:Obesity
2670:
2641:
2631:
2588:
2580:
2489:
2479:
2438:
2430:
2377:
2367:
2344:
2309:
2299:
2260:
2195:
2185:
2142:
2101:
2060:
2050:
2011:
2001:
1962:
1952:
1900:
1864:
1856:
1815:
1774:
1766:
1727:
1719:
1683:
1648:
1607:
1599:
1543:
1504:
1494:
1445:
1435:
1396:
1388:
1352:
1344:
1308:
1266:
1258:
1223:
1164:
1123:
1088:
1080:
1036:
1028:
987:
977:
938:
928:
889:
879:
871:
791:et al.
789:Dixon
724:biases
501:Hunger
244:Type 1
2586:S2CID
1938:: 9.
1862:S2CID
1772:S2CID
1725:S2CID
1605:S2CID
1394:S2CID
1350:S2CID
1286:(PDF)
1264:S2CID
1086:S2CID
1034:S2CID
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