3519:
2008:) are fixed independently of the analog bandwidth because each pixel is digitized, transmitted, and stored as a discrete value. Digital cameras, recorders, and displays must be selected so that the resolution is identical from camera to display. However, in analog systems, the resolution of the camera, recorder, cabling, amplifiers, transmitters, receivers, and display may all be independent and the overall system resolution is governed by the bandwidth of the lowest performing component.
32:
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2442:
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2012:
the sampling be done in a fixed time (outlined below), so more pixels per line becomes a requirement for more voltage changes per unit time, i.e. higher frequency. Since such signals are typically band-limited by cables, amplifiers, recorders, transmitters, and receivers, the band-limitation on the analog signal acts as an effective
798:" that two points whose angular separation is equal to the Airy disk radius to first null can be considered to be resolved. It can be seen that the greater the diameter of the lens or its aperture, the greater the resolution. Astronomical telescopes have increasingly large lenses so they can 'see' ever finer detail in the stars.
1928:
3510:
for placing the chart at a distance 26 times the focal length of the imaging lens used. The bars above and to the left are in sequence, separated by approximately the square root of two (12, 17, 24, etc.), while the bars below and to the left have the same separation but a different starting point (14, 20, 28, etc.)
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Two adjacent points in the object give rise to two diffraction patterns. If the angular separation of the two points is significantly less than the Airy disk angular radius, then the two points cannot be resolved in the image, but if their angular separation is much greater than this, distinct images
172:
at which the points can be distinguished as individuals. Several standards are used to determine, quantitatively, whether or not the points can be distinguished. One of the methods specifies that, on the line between the center of one point and the next, the contrast between the maximum and minimum
3509:
target is a 3 bar pattern (long bars). The spatial frequency is printed alongside each triple bar set, so the limiting resolution may be determined by inspection. This frequency is normally only as marked after the chart has been reduced in size (typically 25 times). The original application called
805:
which describes the spatial (angular) variation of the light signal as a function of spatial (angular) frequency. When the image is projected onto a flat plane, such as photographic film or a solid state detector, spatial frequency is the preferred domain, but when the image is referred to the lens
457:
Also common in the microscopy literature is a formula for resolution that treats the above-mentioned concerns about contrast differently. The resolution predicted by this formula is proportional to the
Rayleigh-based formula, differing by about 20%. For estimating theoretical resolution, it may be
3601:
signal is an electronic waveform used to test analog transmission, recording, and display systems. The test pattern consists of several short periods of specific frequencies. The contrast of each may be measured by inspection and recorded, giving a plot of attenuation vs. frequency. The NTSC3.58
3378:
is 0.25 line pairs per millimeter). Each element is the 6th root of 2 smaller than the preceding element in the group (e.g. element 1 is 2^0, element 2 is 2^(-1/6), element 3 is 2(-1/3), etc.). By reading off the group and element number of the first element which cannot be resolved, the limiting
3373:
consists of a pattern of 3 bar targets. Often found covering a range of 0.25 to 228 cycles/mm. Each group consists of six elements. The group is designated by a group number (-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, etc.) which is the power to which 2 should be raised to obtain the spatial frequency of the first element
1991:
will result in lower spatial resolution. Short integration times will minimize the blur, but integration times are limited by sensor sensitivity. Furthermore, motion between frames in motion pictures will impact digital movie compression schemes (e.g. MPEG-1, MPEG-2). Finally, there are sampling
3532:
was specifically designed to be used with television systems. The gradually expanding lines near the center are marked with periodic indications of the corresponding spatial frequency. The limiting resolution may be determined by inspection. The most important measure is the limiting horizontal
3165:
is measured by determining the smallest group of bars, both vertically and horizontally, for which the correct number of bars can be seen. By calculating the contrast between the black and white areas at several different frequencies, however, points of the CTF can be determined with the contrast
2011:
In analog systems, each horizontal line is transmitted as a high-frequency analog signal. Each picture element (pixel) is therefore converted to an analog electrical value (voltage), and changes in values between pixels therefore become changes in voltage. The transmission standards require that
1948:. These are typically held to be anything longer than 1 second and shorter than 1/10,000 second. Furthermore, film requires a mechanical system to advance it through the exposure mechanism, or a moving optical system to expose it. These limit the speed at which successive frames may be exposed.
1238:
To find a theoretical MTF curve for a sensor, it is necessary to know three characteristics of the sensor: the active sensing area, the area comprising the sensing area and the interconnection and support structures ("real estate"), and the total number of those areas (the pixel count). The total
678:
The above estimates of resolution are specific to the case in which two identical very small samples that radiate incoherently in all directions. Other considerations must be taken into account if the sources radiate at different levels of intensity, are coherent, large, or radiate in non-uniform
2876:
Short exposures suffer from turbulence less than longer exposures due to the "inner" and "outer" scale turbulence; short is considered to be much less than 10 ms for visible imaging (typically, anything less than 2 ms). Inner scale turbulence arises due to the eddies in the turbulent flow, while
1230:
For resolution measurement, film manufacturers typically publish a plot of
Response (%) vs. Spatial Frequency (cycles per millimeter). The plot is derived experimentally. Solid state sensor and camera manufacturers normally publish specifications from which the user may derive a theoretical MTF
2059:, first with the image and the lens, and then, with that procedure's result and a sensor (and so on through all of the components of the system). Not only is this computationally expensive, but normally it also requires repetition of the process, for each additional object that is to be imaged.
2446:
The other method is to transform each of the components of the system into the spatial frequency domain, and then to multiply the 2-D results. A system response may be determined without reference to an object. Although this method is considerably more difficult to comprehend conceptually, it
2031:
transmission standard, each field contains 262.5 lines, and 59.94 fields are transmitted every second. Each line must therefore take 63 microseconds, 10.7 of which are for reset to the next line. Thus, the retrace rate is 15.734 kHz. For the picture to appear to have approximately the same
135:
system to resolve detail, in the object that is being imaged. An imaging system may have many individual components, including one or more lenses, and/or recording and display components. Each of these contributes (given suitable design, and adequate alignment) to the optical resolution of the
2820:
For example, in a security or air traffic control function, the display and work station must be constructed so that average humans can detect problems and direct corrective measures. Other examples are when a human is using eyes to carry out a critical task such as flying (piloting by visual
2799:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\mathbf {MTF_{sys}(\xi ,\eta )} ={}&\mathbf {MTF_{atmosphere}(\xi ,\eta )\cdot MTF_{lens}(\xi ,\eta )\cdot } \\&\mathbf {MTF_{sensor}(\xi ,\eta )\cdot MTF_{transmission}(\xi ,\eta )\cdot } \\&\mathbf {MTF_{display}(\xi ,\eta )} \end{aligned}}}
1239:
pixel count is almost always given. Sometimes the overall sensor dimensions are given, from which the real estate area can be calculated. Whether the real estate area is given or derived, if the active pixel area is not given, it may be derived from the real estate area and the
149:, which assumes an adequate level of contrast. In low-contrast systems, the resolution may be much lower than predicted by the theory outlined below. Real optical systems are complex, and practical difficulties often increase the distance between distinguishable point sources.
1672:
1222:
A common problem among non-technicians is the use of the number of pixels on the detector to describe the resolution. If all sensors were the same size, this would be acceptable. Since they are not, the use of the number of pixels can be misleading. For example, a
1992:
schemes that require real or apparent motion inside the camera (scanning mirrors, rolling shutters) that may result in incorrect rendering of image motion. Therefore, sensor sensitivity and other time-related factors will have a direct impact on spatial resolution.
1657:
1951:
CCD and CMOS are the modern preferences for video sensors. CCD is speed-limited by the rate at which the charge can be moved from one site to another. CMOS has the advantage of having individually addressable cells, and this has led to its advantage in the
905:
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Resolution depends on the distance between two distinguishable radiating points. The sections below describe the theoretical estimates of resolution, but the real values may differ. The results below are based on mathematical models of
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This 5 bar resolution test chart is often used for evaluation of microfilm systems and scanners. It is convenient for a 1:1 range (typically covering 1-18 cycles/mm) and is marked directly in cycles/mm. Details can be found in ISO-3334.
1967:
used. For example, the P46 phosphor has a decay time of less than 2 microseconds, while the P43 decay time is on the order of 2-3 milliseconds. The P43 is therefore unusable at frame rates above 1000 frames per second (frame/s). See
3379:
resolution may be determined by inspection. The complex numbering system and use of a look-up chart can be avoided by use of an improved but not standardized layout chart, which labels the bars and spaces directly in cycles/mm using
2437:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\mathbf {Image(x,y)} ={}&\mathbf {Object(x,y)*PSF_{atmosphere}(x,y)*} \\&\mathbf {PSF_{lens}(x,y)*PSF_{sensor}(x,y)*} \\&\mathbf {PSF_{transmission}(x,y)*PSF_{display}(x,y)} \end{aligned}}}
528:
1080:
3243:
411:
is often used to avoid the difficulty of measuring the Airy disc. This, combined with the rastered illumination pattern, results in better resolution, but it is still proportional to the
Rayleigh-based formula given above.
2036:), it should be able to display 228 cycles per line, requiring a bandwidth of 4.28 MHz. If the line (sensor) width is known, this may be converted directly into cycles per millimeter, the unit of spatial resolution.
1464:
function corresponding to the active area. That last function serves as an overall envelope to the MTF function; so long as the number of pixels is much greater than one, then the active area size dominates the MTF.
990:
1473:
2884:. However, since atmospheric turbulence is normally the limiting factor for visible systems looking through long atmospheric paths, most systems are turbulence-limited. Corrections can be made by using
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3359:
2054:
There are two methods by which to determine "system resolution" (in the sense that omits the eye, or other final reception of the optical information). The first is to perform a series of two-dimensional
1295:
453:
2458:
2067:
1677:
3325:
When using other methods, including the interferogram, sinusoid, and the edge in the ISO 12233 target, it is possible to compute the entire MTF curve. The response to the edge is similar to a
1462:
1424:
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755:
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Only the very highest quality lenses have diffraction-limited resolution, however, and normally the quality of the lens limits its ability to resolve detail. This ability is expressed by the
3589:
The interferogram used to measure film resolution can be synthesized on personal computers and used to generate a pattern for measuring optical resolution. See especially Kodak MTF curves.
173:
intensity be at least 26% lower than the maximum. This corresponds to the overlap of one Airy disk on the first dark ring in the other. This standard for separation is also known as the
809:
1923:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\mathbf {MTF_{sensor}} (\xi ,\eta )&={\mathcal {FF}}(\mathbf {S} (x,y))\\&=\cdot \operatorname {sinc} (a\cdot \xi ,b\cdot \eta )\end{aligned}}}
535:
182:
2893:
3337:
An interferogram created between two coherent light sources may be used for at least two resolution-related purposes. The first is to determine the quality of a lens system (see
3565:. They are offset from the vertical by 5 degrees so that the edges will be sampled in many different phases, which allow estimation of the spatial frequency response beyond the
461:
394:
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target was developed for digital camera applications, since modern digital camera spatial resolution may exceed the limitations of the older targets. It includes several
1114:
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according to the procedure outlined below. A few may also publish MTF curves, while others (especially intensifier manufacturers) will publish the response (%) at the
607:
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319:
297:
367:
3143:
1197:
Spatial resolution is typically expressed in line pairs per millimeter (lppmm), lines (of resolution, mostly for analog video), contrast vs. cycles/mm, or MTF (the
3073:
713:
such that it forms a diffraction pattern in the image, which has a central spot and surrounding bright rings, separated by dark nulls; this pattern is known as an
345:
277:
170:
2046:
Note that a "discernible line" forms one half of a cycle (a cycle requires a dark and a light line), so "228 cycles" and "456 lines" are equivalent measures.
996:
3764:
Fried, David L. (1966), "Optical resolution through a randomly inhomogeneous medium for very long and very short exposures.", J. Opt. Soc. Amer. 56:1372-9
3169:
1135:
In imaging systems, the phase component is typically not captured by the sensor. Thus, the important measure with respect to imaging systems is the MTF.
3602:
multiburst pattern consists of 500 kHz, 1 MHz, 2 MHz, 3 MHz, and 3.58 MHz blocks. 3.58 MHz is important because it is the
3558:
1982:. They also have a decay time, so the pyroelectric system temporal response will be a bandpass, while the other detectors discussed will be a lowpass.
2877:
outer scale turbulence arises from large air mass flow. These masses typically move slowly, and so are reduced by decreasing the integration period.
1937:
An imaging system running at 24 frames per second is essentially a discrete sampling system that samples a 2D area. The same limitations described by
3388:
3308:
When the system can no longer resolve the bars, the black and white areas have the same value, so
Contrast = 0. At very low spatial frequencies,
2043:
colour encoding) transmit frames less often (50 Hz), but the frame contains more lines and is wider, so bandwidth requirements are similar.
1246:
1163:
2873:
Turbulence scales with wavelength at approximately a 6/5 power. Thus, seeing is better at infrared wavelengths than at visible wavelengths.
913:
415:
1227:
camera of 20-micrometre-square pixels will have worse resolution than a 1-megapixel camera with 8-micrometre pixels, all else being equal.
3695:
532:
When a condenser is used to illuminate the sample, the shape of the pencil of light emanating from the condenser must also be included.
724:
3857:
1944:
All sensors have a characteristic time response. Film is limited at both the short resolution and the long resolution extremes by
2828:
of the human eye at its optical centre (the fovea) is less than 1 arc minute per line pair, reducing rapidly away from the fovea.
1205:
of the spatial sampling function. Smaller pixels result in wider MTF curves and thus better detection of higher frequency energy.
791:
96:
3338:
68:
1212:
function; as in that case, the dominant factor is the sampling period, which is analogous to the size of the picture element (
1194:
detectors. The ability of such a detector to resolve those differences depends mostly on the size of the detecting elements.
3322:= 0 so Modulation = 1. Some modulation may be seen above the limiting resolution; these may be aliased and phase-reversed.
2024:(280 lines), and the newer ED Beta format (500 lines) is explained primarily by the difference in the recording bandwidth.
3533:
resolution, since the vertical resolution is typically determined by the applicable video standard (I/B/G/K/NTSC/NTSC-J).
1652:{\displaystyle \mathbf {S} (x,y)=\left\cdot \operatorname {rect} \left({\frac {x}{M\cdot c}},{\frac {y}{N\cdot d}}\right)}
75:
49:
2447:
becomes easier to use computationally, especially when different design iterations or imaged objects are to be tested.
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1391:
1353:
404:
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defines the number of line pairs of ocular resolution, or sensor resolution, needed to recognize or identify an item.
3818:
3804:
3790:
3776:
3759:
3745:
115:
3618:(CTF) and not the MTF. The difference arises from the subharmonics of the square waves and can be easily computed.
82:
806:
alone, angular frequency is preferred. OTF may be broken down into the magnitude and phase components as follows:
3370:
19:
This article is about optical resolution in optics. For the method, in chemistry, of separating enantiomers, see
2817:
is a limiting feature of many systems, when the goal of the system is to present data to humans for processing.
3844:
64:
53:
3341:), and the second is to project a pattern onto a sensor (especially photographic film) to measure resolution.
795:
174:
1121:
3545:
resolution target is similar to the EIA target. Resolution is measured in horizontal and vertical TV lines.
1209:
3643:
3615:
3158:
698:
3727:
Molecular
Expressions Microscopy Primer: Anatomy of the Microscope - Numerical Aperture and Resolution
3715:
1963:
have specific applications. The speed at which they can be sampled depends upon the decay rate of the
3528:
900:{\displaystyle \mathbf {OTF(\xi ,\eta )} =\mathbf {MTF(\xi ,\eta )} \cdot \mathbf {PTF(\xi ,\eta )} }
802:
1978:
respond to changes in temperature. Therefore, a static scene will not be detected, so they require
374:
1087:
668:{\displaystyle \mathrm {NA} _{\text{obj}}+\mathrm {NA} _{\text{cond}}=2\mathrm {NA} _{\text{obj}}}
403:
This formula is suitable for confocal microscopy, but is also used in traditional microscopy. In
3304:
is the normalized value of the minimum (for example, the voltage or grey value of the black area)
3275:
is the normalized value of the maximum (for example, the voltage or grey value of the white area)
3154:
A variety of measurement systems are available, and use may depend upon the system being tested.
42:
721:. The angular radius of the Airy disk (measured from the center to the first null) is given by:
595:{\displaystyle r={\frac {1.22\lambda }{\mathrm {NA} _{\text{obj}}+\mathrm {NA} _{\text{cond}}}}}
249:{\displaystyle r={\frac {1.22\lambda }{2n\sin {\theta }}}={\frac {0.61\lambda }{\mathrm {NA} }}}
89:
3280:
3251:
3045:{\displaystyle \operatorname {MTF} _{s}(\nu )=e^{-3.44\cdot (\lambda f\nu /r_{0})^{5/3}\cdot }}
1953:
1151:
3726:
3080:
304:
282:
3687:
2836:
1219:
Other factors include pixel noise, pixel cross-talk, substrate penetration, and fill factor.
1159:
408:
352:
56: in this article: "Optical resolution". Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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system; the environment in which the imaging is done often is a further important factor.
8:
3358:
3329:, and the Fourier Transform of the first difference of the step response yields the MTF.
2881:
2852:
1124:, which the limiting frequency expression above does not. The magnitude is known as the
523:{\displaystyle r={\frac {\lambda }{2n\sin {\theta }}}={\frac {\lambda }{2\mathrm {NA} }}}
1985:
If objects within the scene are in motion relative to the imaging system, the resulting
3654:
3632:
3627:
1243:, where fill factor is the ratio of the active area to the dedicated real estate area.
688:
397:
330:
262:
155:
1075:{\displaystyle \mathbf {PTF(\xi ,\eta )} =e^{-i2\cdot \pi \cdot \lambda (\xi ,\eta )}}
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to resolve detail is usually determined by the quality of the lens, but is ultimately
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3238:{\displaystyle {\text{contrast}}={\frac {C_{\max }-C_{\min }}{C_{\max }+C_{\min }}}}
3637:
3380:
3688:"Olympus FluoView Resource Center: Resolution and Contrast in Confocal Microscopy"
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2885:
2013:
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1975:
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1350:) function of the overall sensor dimension. The Fourier transform of this is a
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tubes used in night-vision devices), scanning detectors (mainly used for IR),
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requires more than just a line pair to understand what the eye is imaging.
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706:
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Resolution Target USAF 1951 for determining a scanner's optimum resolution
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2056:
2033:
1987:
1235:, or, alternatively, publish the frequency at which the response is 50%.
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347:
is the index of refraction of the media surrounding the radiating points,
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is the minimum distance between resolvable points, in the same units as
3362:
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1198:
985:{\displaystyle \mathbf {MTF(\xi ,\eta )} =|\mathbf {OTF(\xi ,\eta )} |}
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369:
is the half angle of the pencil of light that enters the objective, and
322:
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1224:
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3161:(CTF) consist of repeated bar patterns (see Discussion below). The
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function governed by the distance between pixels, convolved with a
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Some optical sensors are designed to detect spatial differences in
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710:
2016:
on the spatial resolution. The difference in resolutions between
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of the two points are formed and they can therefore be resolved.
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A system limited only by the quality of the optics is said to be
2851:. A key measure of the quality of atmospheric turbulence is the
2847:
Systems looking through long atmospheric paths may be limited by
2021:
1426:
function governed by the number of pixels, and multiplied by the
1342:) function of the active area of the pixel, bounded by a 2D rect(
1175:
132:
2870:, the result of several paths being integrated into one image.
1740:
3584:
3581:
pattern in acoustics to determine system frequency response.
3491:{\displaystyle Resolution=2^{{group}+{\frac {element-1}{6}}}}
2832:
1213:
1201:
of OTF). The MTF may be found by taking the two-dimensional
152:
The resolution of a system is based on the minimum distance
2028:
2001:
1171:
694:
325:
of light, emission wavelength, in the case of fluorescence,
1290:{\displaystyle \mathrm {FF} ={\frac {a\cdot b}{c\cdot d}}}
1116:
are spatial frequency in the x- and y-plane, respectively.
3843:
UC Santa Cruz Prof. Claire Max's lectures and notes from
2040:
2017:
2005:
2450:
The transformation to be used is the
Fourier transform.
1995:
1941:
apply to this system as to any signal sampling system.
1208:
This is analogous to taking the
Fourier transform of a
2859:. A path which is temporally coherent is known as an
448:{\displaystyle r={\frac {0.4\lambda }{\mathrm {NA} }}}
3840:
website - includes several downloadable test patterns
3614:
Using a bar target that the resulting measure is the
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2039:
B/G/I/K television system signals (usually used with
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1432:
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In
Gaskill's notation, the sensing area is a 2D comb(
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177:. In symbols, the distance is defined as follows:
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3797:The Infrared and Electro-optical Systems Handbook
3716:Properties of Microscope Objectives | MicroscopyU
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1457:{\displaystyle \operatorname {sinc} (\xi ,\eta )}
1419:{\displaystyle \operatorname {sinc} (\xi ,\eta )}
1381:{\displaystyle \operatorname {comb} (\xi ,\eta )}
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750:{\displaystyle \theta =1.22{\frac {\lambda }{D}}}
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3202:
3189:
2000:The spatial resolution of digital systems (e.g.
3677:
3149:
1932:
1330:) function of the distance between pixels (the
3752:Introduction to Fourier Optics (Third Edition)
3738:Linear Systems, Fourier Transforms, and Optics
1145:
16:Ability of an imaging system to resolve detail
3769:Digital Television Fundamentals (2nd edition)
2821:reference), driving a vehicle, and so forth.
3809:Roggemann, Michael and Welsh, Byron (1996),
3767:Robin, Michael, and Poulin, Michael (2000),
1301:the active area of the pixel has dimensions
407:, the full-width half-maximum (FWHM) of the
3860:- on lens and sensor resolution interaction
3795:Accetta, J. S. and Shumaker, D. L. (1993),
3536:
3344:
3115:is a constant (1 for far-field propagation)
3783:Modern Optical Engineering (Third Edition)
3585:Monotonically increasing sinusoid patterns
2842:
709:in the object diffracts through the lens
116:Learn how and when to remove this message
3517:
3357:
2032:horizontal and vertical resolution (see
3651:, a pattern used for resolution testing
3572:
3866:
3825:Wave Propagation in a Turbulent Medium
3577:The idea is analogous to the use of a
2020:(240 discernible lines per scanline),
1128:and the phase portion is known as the
1996:Analog bandwidth effect on resolution
1311:the pixel real estate has dimensions
764:is the angular resolution in radians,
604:In a properly configured microscope,
139:
3754:, Roberts & Company Publishers.
3561:for the purpose of computing MTF by
2808:
2049:
717:, and the central bright lobe as an
54:adding citations to reliable sources
25:
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1972:for links to phosphor information.
1969:
39:This article: "Optical resolution"
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1126:Modulation Transfer Function (MTF)
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405:confocal laser-scanned microscopes
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3698:from the original on July 5, 2004
1138:Phase is critically important to
3522:EIA 1956 video resolution target
3514:EIA 1956 video resolution target
3371:USAF 1951 resolution test target
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2866:Large apertures may suffer from
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2525:
2522:
2519:
2515:
2511:
2508:
2490:
2479:
2476:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2462:
2423:
2420:
2417:
2409:
2406:
2403:
2400:
2397:
2394:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2380:
2377:
2371:
2368:
2365:
2357:
2354:
2351:
2348:
2345:
2342:
2339:
2336:
2333:
2330:
2327:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2313:
2303:
2297:
2294:
2291:
2283:
2280:
2277:
2274:
2271:
2268:
2264:
2260:
2257:
2254:
2248:
2245:
2242:
2234:
2231:
2228:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2214:
2204:
2198:
2195:
2192:
2184:
2181:
2178:
2175:
2172:
2169:
2166:
2163:
2160:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2146:
2143:
2137:
2134:
2131:
2125:
2122:
2119:
2116:
2113:
2110:
2095:
2092:
2089:
2083:
2080:
2077:
2074:
2071:
1749:
1707:
1704:
1701:
1698:
1695:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1681:
1478:
1016:
1007:
1004:
1001:
967:
958:
955:
952:
933:
924:
921:
918:
887:
878:
875:
872:
858:
849:
846:
843:
829:
820:
817:
814:
794:defined the somewhat arbitrary "
30:
3858:Do Sensors “Outresolve” Lenses?
3850:George Ou's re-creation of the
2888:or post-processing techniques.
785:of the lens aperture in meters.
41:needs additional citations for
3720:
3709:
3037:
3020:
2999:
2984:
2964:
2936:
2916:
2910:
1913:
1889:
1877:
1874:
1850:
1838:
1829:
1817:
1805:
1793:
1790:
1781:
1768:
1765:
1753:
1745:
1725:
1713:
1494:
1482:
1451:
1439:
1413:
1401:
1375:
1363:
1166:, and infrared detectors like
1103:
1091:
1067:
1055:
978:
947:
1:
3785:, McGraw-Hill Professional.
3771:, McGraw-Hill Professional.
3670:
3609:
3592:
1130:Phase Transfer Function (PTF)
389:{\displaystyle \mathrm {NA} }
3150:Measuring optical resolution
1933:Sensor resolution (temporal)
1334:), convolved with a 2D rect(
1109:{\displaystyle (\xi ,\eta )}
131:describes the ability of an
7:
3854:from a high-resolution scan
3750:Goodman, Joseph W. (2004),
3644:Minimum resolvable contrast
3621:
1146:Sensor resolution (spatial)
10:
3890:
3811:Imaging Through Turbulence
3616:contrast transfer function
3606:frequency for NTSC video.
3159:Contrast Transfer Function
3145:is Fried's seeing diameter
1959:Vidicons, Plumbicons, and
686:
18:
3781:Smith, Warren J. (2000),
3736:Gaskill, Jack D. (1978),
3529:EIA 1956 resolution chart
3297:{\displaystyle C_{\min }}
3268:{\displaystyle C_{\max }}
1142:and holographic systems.
803:Optical Transfer Function
3823:Tatarski, V. I. (1961),
3537:IEEE Std 208-1995 target
3345:NBS 1010a/ ISO #2 target
3157:Typical test charts for
3109:is the aperture diameter
3090:{\displaystyle \lambda }
3075:is the spatial frequency
314:{\displaystyle \lambda }
292:{\displaystyle \lambda }
3740:, Wiley-Interscience.
2857:Fried's seeing diameter
1158:, solid-state devices (
362:{\displaystyle \theta }
3523:
3492:
3366:
3298:
3269:
3239:
3139:
3091:
3069:
3046:
2843:Atmospheric resolution
2800:
2438:
1976:Pyroelectric detectors
1954:high speed photography
1924:
1653:
1458:
1420:
1382:
1291:
1152:electromagnetic energy
1110:
1076:
986:
901:
751:
705:. Light coming from a
669:
596:
524:
449:
390:
363:
341:
315:
293:
273:
250:
166:
3521:
3493:
3361:
3299:
3270:
3240:
3140:
3138:{\displaystyle r_{0}}
3092:
3070:
3047:
2801:
2439:
1970:§ External links
1946:reciprocity breakdown
1925:
1661:where the sensor has
1654:
1459:
1421:
1383:
1292:
1120:The OTF accounts for
1111:
1077:
987:
902:
752:
687:Further information:
670:
597:
525:
450:
409:point spread function
391:
364:
342:
316:
294:
274:
251:
167:
3573:Random test patterns
3389:
3281:
3252:
3170:
3122:
3081:
3068:{\displaystyle \nu }
3059:
2894:
2454:
2063:
1673:
1474:
1430:
1392:
1354:
1247:
1088:
997:
914:
810:
725:
608:
536:
462:
416:
375:
353:
331:
305:
283:
263:
183:
156:
65:"Optical resolution"
50:improve this article
3692:olympusconfocal.com
3381:OCR-A extended font
3163:limiting resolution
3103:is the focal length
2882:diffraction-limited
1468:Sampling function:
1174:), tube detectors (
774:of light in meters,
3655:Spatial resolution
3633:Display resolution
3628:Angular resolution
3559:knife-edge targets
3524:
3488:
3367:
3294:
3265:
3235:
3135:
3087:
3065:
3042:
2868:aperture averaging
2837:Johnson's criteria
2796:
2794:
2434:
2432:
1961:image intensifiers
1920:
1918:
1649:
1454:
1416:
1378:
1287:
1106:
1072:
982:
897:
796:Rayleigh criterion
747:
689:Angular resolution
665:
592:
520:
445:
398:numerical aperture
386:
359:
337:
311:
289:
269:
246:
175:Rayleigh criterion
162:
140:Lateral resolution
129:Optical resolution
3847:, Adaptive Optics
3827:, McGraw-Hill, NY
3569:of the sampling.
3567:Nyquist frequency
3563:Fourier transform
3484:
3233:
3176:
3097:is the wavelength
2809:Ocular resolution
2050:System resolution
1642:
1621:
1579:
1566:
1537:
1524:
1285:
1233:Nyquist frequency
1203:Fourier transform
1156:photographic film
1154:. These include
745:
693:The ability of a
662:
641:
623:
590:
586:
568:
518:
495:
443:
340:{\displaystyle n}
272:{\displaystyle r}
244:
221:
165:{\displaystyle r}
126:
125:
118:
100:
21:Chiral resolution
3881:
3729:
3724:
3718:
3713:
3707:
3706:
3704:
3703:
3684:
3638:Image resolution
3549:ISO 12233 target
3497:
3495:
3494:
3489:
3487:
3486:
3485:
3480:
3451:
3446:
3354:USAF 1951 target
3303:
3301:
3300:
3295:
3293:
3292:
3274:
3272:
3271:
3266:
3264:
3263:
3244:
3242:
3241:
3236:
3234:
3232:
3231:
3230:
3218:
3217:
3207:
3206:
3205:
3193:
3192:
3182:
3177:
3174:
3144:
3142:
3141:
3136:
3134:
3133:
3096:
3094:
3093:
3088:
3074:
3072:
3071:
3066:
3051:
3049:
3048:
3043:
3041:
3040:
3036:
3035:
3031:
3015:
2980:
2979:
2975:
2962:
2961:
2952:
2906:
2905:
2855:, also known as
2805:
2803:
2802:
2797:
2795:
2791:
2775:
2774:
2739:
2735:
2716:
2715:
2649:
2648:
2616:
2612:
2593:
2592:
2550:
2549:
2504:
2499:
2483:
2482:
2443:
2441:
2440:
2435:
2433:
2429:
2413:
2412:
2361:
2360:
2310:
2306:
2287:
2286:
2238:
2237:
2211:
2207:
2188:
2187:
2106:
2101:
1929:
1927:
1926:
1921:
1919:
1774:
1752:
1744:
1743:
1712:
1711:
1710:
1658:
1656:
1655:
1650:
1648:
1644:
1643:
1641:
1627:
1622:
1620:
1606:
1590:
1586:
1585:
1581:
1580:
1572:
1567:
1559:
1543:
1539:
1538:
1530:
1525:
1517:
1481:
1463:
1461:
1460:
1455:
1425:
1423:
1422:
1417:
1387:
1385:
1384:
1379:
1296:
1294:
1293:
1288:
1286:
1284:
1273:
1262:
1257:
1115:
1113:
1112:
1107:
1081:
1079:
1078:
1073:
1071:
1070:
1025:
991:
989:
988:
983:
981:
976:
950:
942:
906:
904:
903:
898:
896:
867:
838:
756:
754:
753:
748:
746:
738:
674:
672:
671:
666:
664:
663:
660:
658:
643:
642:
639:
637:
625:
624:
621:
619:
601:
599:
598:
593:
591:
589:
588:
587:
584:
582:
570:
569:
566:
564:
554:
546:
529:
527:
526:
521:
519:
517:
516:
501:
496:
494:
493:
472:
454:
452:
451:
446:
444:
442:
434:
426:
395:
393:
392:
387:
385:
368:
366:
365:
360:
346:
344:
343:
338:
320:
318:
317:
312:
298:
296:
295:
290:
278:
276:
275:
270:
255:
253:
252:
247:
245:
243:
235:
227:
222:
220:
219:
201:
193:
171:
169:
168:
163:
121:
114:
110:
107:
101:
99:
58:
34:
26:
3889:
3888:
3884:
3883:
3882:
3880:
3879:
3878:
3864:
3863:
3834:
3733:
3732:
3725:
3721:
3714:
3710:
3701:
3699:
3686:
3685:
3678:
3673:
3665:Superresolution
3624:
3612:
3595:
3587:
3575:
3551:
3539:
3516:
3503:
3501:NBS 1952 target
3452:
3450:
3430:
3429:
3425:
3390:
3387:
3386:
3356:
3347:
3335:
3321:
3314:
3288:
3284:
3282:
3279:
3278:
3259:
3255:
3253:
3250:
3249:
3226:
3222:
3213:
3209:
3208:
3201:
3197:
3188:
3184:
3183:
3181:
3173:
3171:
3168:
3167:
3152:
3129:
3125:
3123:
3120:
3119:
3082:
3079:
3078:
3060:
3057:
3056:
3027:
3023:
3019:
3011:
2971:
2967:
2963:
2957:
2953:
2948:
2926:
2922:
2901:
2897:
2895:
2892:
2891:
2886:adaptive optics
2853:seeing diameter
2845:
2811:
2793:
2792:
2752:
2748:
2741:
2737:
2736:
2678:
2674:
2629:
2625:
2618:
2614:
2613:
2579:
2575:
2518:
2514:
2507:
2505:
2503:
2472:
2468:
2461:
2457:
2455:
2452:
2451:
2431:
2430:
2390:
2386:
2323:
2319:
2312:
2308:
2307:
2267:
2263:
2224:
2220:
2213:
2209:
2208:
2156:
2152:
2109:
2107:
2105:
2070:
2066:
2064:
2061:
2060:
2052:
2014:low-pass filter
1998:
1935:
1917:
1916:
1772:
1771:
1748:
1736:
1735:
1728:
1691:
1687:
1680:
1676:
1674:
1671:
1670:
1631:
1626:
1610:
1605:
1604:
1600:
1571:
1558:
1557:
1553:
1529:
1516:
1515:
1511:
1504:
1500:
1477:
1475:
1472:
1471:
1431:
1428:
1427:
1393:
1390:
1389:
1355:
1352:
1351:
1274:
1263:
1261:
1250:
1248:
1245:
1244:
1210:signal sampling
1190:detectors, and
1184:photomultiplier
1148:
1140:adaptive optics
1089:
1086:
1085:
1033:
1029:
1000:
998:
995:
994:
977:
951:
946:
917:
915:
912:
911:
871:
842:
813:
811:
808:
807:
737:
726:
723:
722:
691:
685:
683:Lens resolution
659:
651:
650:
638:
630:
629:
620:
612:
611:
609:
606:
605:
583:
575:
574:
565:
557:
556:
555:
547:
545:
537:
534:
533:
509:
505:
500:
489:
476:
471:
463:
460:
459:
435:
427:
425:
417:
414:
413:
378:
376:
373:
372:
354:
351:
350:
332:
329:
328:
306:
303:
302:
284:
281:
280:
264:
261:
260:
236:
228:
226:
215:
202:
194:
192:
184:
181:
180:
157:
154:
153:
142:
122:
111:
105:
102:
59:
57:
47:
35:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3887:
3877:
3876:
3862:
3861:
3855:
3852:EIA 1956 chart
3848:
3845:Astronomy 289C
3841:
3838:Norman Koren's
3833:
3832:External links
3830:
3829:
3828:
3821:
3813:, CRC Press.
3807:
3799:, SPIE/ERIM.
3793:
3779:
3765:
3762:
3748:
3731:
3730:
3719:
3708:
3675:
3674:
3672:
3669:
3668:
3667:
3662:
3657:
3652:
3646:
3641:
3640:, in computing
3635:
3630:
3623:
3620:
3611:
3608:
3594:
3591:
3586:
3583:
3574:
3571:
3550:
3547:
3538:
3535:
3515:
3512:
3502:
3499:
3483:
3479:
3476:
3473:
3470:
3467:
3464:
3461:
3458:
3455:
3449:
3445:
3442:
3439:
3436:
3433:
3428:
3424:
3421:
3418:
3415:
3412:
3409:
3406:
3403:
3400:
3397:
3394:
3355:
3352:
3346:
3343:
3334:
3331:
3319:
3312:
3306:
3305:
3291:
3287:
3276:
3262:
3258:
3229:
3225:
3221:
3216:
3212:
3204:
3200:
3196:
3191:
3187:
3180:
3151:
3148:
3147:
3146:
3132:
3128:
3116:
3110:
3104:
3098:
3086:
3076:
3064:
3039:
3034:
3030:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3014:
3010:
3007:
3004:
3001:
2998:
2995:
2992:
2989:
2986:
2983:
2978:
2974:
2970:
2966:
2960:
2956:
2951:
2947:
2944:
2941:
2938:
2935:
2932:
2929:
2925:
2921:
2918:
2915:
2912:
2909:
2904:
2900:
2844:
2841:
2810:
2807:
2790:
2787:
2784:
2781:
2778:
2773:
2770:
2767:
2764:
2761:
2758:
2755:
2751:
2747:
2744:
2740:
2738:
2734:
2731:
2728:
2725:
2722:
2719:
2714:
2711:
2708:
2705:
2702:
2699:
2696:
2693:
2690:
2687:
2684:
2681:
2677:
2673:
2670:
2667:
2664:
2661:
2658:
2655:
2652:
2647:
2644:
2641:
2638:
2635:
2632:
2628:
2624:
2621:
2617:
2615:
2611:
2608:
2605:
2602:
2599:
2596:
2591:
2588:
2585:
2582:
2578:
2574:
2571:
2568:
2565:
2562:
2559:
2556:
2553:
2548:
2545:
2542:
2539:
2536:
2533:
2530:
2527:
2524:
2521:
2517:
2513:
2510:
2506:
2502:
2498:
2495:
2492:
2489:
2486:
2481:
2478:
2475:
2471:
2467:
2464:
2460:
2459:
2428:
2425:
2422:
2419:
2416:
2411:
2408:
2405:
2402:
2399:
2396:
2393:
2389:
2385:
2382:
2379:
2376:
2373:
2370:
2367:
2364:
2359:
2356:
2353:
2350:
2347:
2344:
2341:
2338:
2335:
2332:
2329:
2326:
2322:
2318:
2315:
2311:
2309:
2305:
2302:
2299:
2296:
2293:
2290:
2285:
2282:
2279:
2276:
2273:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2259:
2256:
2253:
2250:
2247:
2244:
2241:
2236:
2233:
2230:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2216:
2212:
2210:
2206:
2203:
2200:
2197:
2194:
2191:
2186:
2183:
2180:
2177:
2174:
2171:
2168:
2165:
2162:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2148:
2145:
2142:
2139:
2136:
2133:
2130:
2127:
2124:
2121:
2118:
2115:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2097:
2094:
2091:
2088:
2085:
2082:
2079:
2076:
2073:
2069:
2068:
2051:
2048:
1997:
1994:
1934:
1931:
1915:
1912:
1909:
1906:
1903:
1900:
1897:
1894:
1891:
1888:
1885:
1882:
1879:
1876:
1873:
1870:
1867:
1864:
1861:
1858:
1855:
1852:
1849:
1846:
1843:
1840:
1837:
1834:
1831:
1828:
1825:
1822:
1819:
1816:
1813:
1810:
1807:
1804:
1801:
1798:
1795:
1792:
1789:
1786:
1783:
1780:
1777:
1775:
1773:
1770:
1767:
1764:
1761:
1758:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1742:
1739:
1734:
1731:
1729:
1727:
1724:
1721:
1718:
1715:
1709:
1706:
1703:
1700:
1697:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1683:
1679:
1678:
1647:
1640:
1637:
1634:
1630:
1625:
1619:
1616:
1613:
1609:
1603:
1599:
1596:
1593:
1589:
1584:
1578:
1575:
1570:
1565:
1562:
1556:
1552:
1549:
1546:
1542:
1536:
1533:
1528:
1523:
1520:
1514:
1510:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1496:
1493:
1490:
1487:
1484:
1480:
1453:
1450:
1447:
1444:
1441:
1438:
1435:
1415:
1412:
1409:
1406:
1403:
1400:
1397:
1377:
1374:
1371:
1368:
1365:
1362:
1359:
1320:
1319:
1309:
1283:
1280:
1277:
1272:
1269:
1266:
1260:
1256:
1253:
1192:microbolometer
1147:
1144:
1118:
1117:
1105:
1102:
1099:
1096:
1093:
1082:
1069:
1066:
1063:
1060:
1057:
1054:
1051:
1048:
1045:
1042:
1039:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1021:
1018:
1015:
1012:
1009:
1006:
1003:
992:
980:
975:
972:
969:
966:
963:
960:
957:
954:
949:
945:
941:
938:
935:
932:
929:
926:
923:
920:
895:
892:
889:
886:
883:
880:
877:
874:
870:
866:
863:
860:
857:
854:
851:
848:
845:
841:
837:
834:
831:
828:
825:
822:
819:
816:
787:
786:
775:
765:
744:
741:
736:
733:
730:
684:
681:
657:
654:
649:
646:
636:
633:
628:
618:
615:
581:
578:
573:
563:
560:
553:
550:
544:
541:
515:
512:
508:
504:
499:
492:
488:
485:
482:
479:
475:
470:
467:
441:
438:
433:
430:
424:
421:
401:
400:
384:
381:
370:
358:
348:
336:
326:
310:
300:
288:
268:
242:
239:
234:
231:
225:
218:
214:
211:
208:
205:
200:
197:
191:
188:
161:
141:
138:
124:
123:
38:
36:
29:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3886:
3875:
3872:
3871:
3869:
3859:
3856:
3853:
3849:
3846:
3842:
3839:
3836:
3835:
3826:
3822:
3820:
3819:0-8493-3787-9
3816:
3812:
3808:
3806:
3805:0-8194-1072-1
3802:
3798:
3794:
3792:
3791:0-07-136360-2
3788:
3784:
3780:
3778:
3777:0-07-135581-2
3774:
3770:
3766:
3763:
3761:
3760:0-9747077-2-4
3757:
3753:
3749:
3747:
3746:0-471-29288-5
3743:
3739:
3735:
3734:
3728:
3723:
3717:
3712:
3697:
3693:
3689:
3683:
3681:
3676:
3666:
3663:
3661:
3658:
3656:
3653:
3650:
3647:
3645:
3642:
3639:
3636:
3634:
3631:
3629:
3626:
3625:
3619:
3617:
3607:
3605:
3600:
3590:
3582:
3580:
3570:
3568:
3564:
3560:
3556:
3546:
3544:
3543:IEEE 208-1995
3534:
3531:
3530:
3520:
3511:
3508:
3498:
3481:
3477:
3474:
3471:
3468:
3465:
3462:
3459:
3456:
3453:
3447:
3443:
3440:
3437:
3434:
3431:
3426:
3422:
3419:
3416:
3413:
3410:
3407:
3404:
3401:
3398:
3395:
3392:
3384:
3382:
3377:
3374:(e.g., group
3372:
3364:
3360:
3351:
3342:
3340:
3333:Interferogram
3330:
3328:
3327:step response
3323:
3318:
3311:
3285:
3277:
3256:
3248:
3247:
3246:
3223:
3219:
3210:
3198:
3194:
3185:
3178:
3164:
3160:
3155:
3130:
3126:
3117:
3114:
3111:
3108:
3105:
3102:
3099:
3084:
3077:
3062:
3055:
3054:
3053:
3032:
3028:
3024:
3016:
3012:
3008:
3005:
3002:
2996:
2993:
2990:
2987:
2981:
2976:
2972:
2968:
2958:
2954:
2949:
2945:
2942:
2939:
2933:
2930:
2927:
2923:
2919:
2913:
2907:
2902:
2898:
2889:
2887:
2883:
2878:
2874:
2871:
2869:
2864:
2862:
2858:
2854:
2850:
2840:
2838:
2834:
2829:
2827:
2826:visual acuity
2822:
2818:
2816:
2806:
2785:
2779:
2732:
2726:
2720:
2665:
2659:
2653:
2609:
2603:
2597:
2566:
2560:
2554:
2500:
2493:
2487:
2448:
2444:
2102:
2058:
2047:
2044:
2042:
2037:
2035:
2030:
2025:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2009:
2007:
2003:
1993:
1990:
1989:
1983:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1971:
1966:
1962:
1957:
1955:
1949:
1947:
1942:
1940:
1930:
1910:
1907:
1904:
1901:
1898:
1895:
1892:
1886:
1883:
1880:
1871:
1868:
1865:
1862:
1859:
1856:
1853:
1847:
1844:
1841:
1835:
1832:
1826:
1823:
1820:
1814:
1811:
1808:
1802:
1799:
1796:
1787:
1784:
1778:
1776:
1762:
1759:
1756:
1732:
1730:
1722:
1719:
1716:
1668:
1664:
1659:
1645:
1638:
1635:
1632:
1628:
1623:
1617:
1614:
1611:
1607:
1601:
1597:
1594:
1591:
1587:
1582:
1576:
1573:
1568:
1563:
1560:
1554:
1550:
1547:
1544:
1540:
1534:
1531:
1526:
1521:
1518:
1512:
1508:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1491:
1488:
1485:
1469:
1466:
1448:
1445:
1442:
1436:
1433:
1410:
1407:
1404:
1398:
1395:
1372:
1369:
1366:
1360:
1357:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1299:
1298:
1281:
1278:
1275:
1270:
1267:
1264:
1258:
1242:
1236:
1234:
1228:
1226:
1220:
1217:
1215:
1211:
1206:
1204:
1200:
1195:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1143:
1141:
1136:
1133:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1100:
1097:
1094:
1083:
1064:
1061:
1058:
1052:
1049:
1046:
1043:
1040:
1037:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1019:
1013:
993:
970:
964:
943:
936:
930:
910:
909:
908:
890:
884:
868:
861:
855:
839:
832:
826:
804:
799:
797:
793:
784:
780:
776:
773:
769:
766:
763:
760:
759:
758:
742:
739:
734:
731:
728:
720:
716:
712:
708:
704:
700:
696:
690:
680:
676:
647:
644:
626:
602:
571:
551:
548:
542:
539:
530:
506:
502:
497:
490:
486:
483:
480:
477:
473:
468:
465:
455:
431:
428:
422:
419:
410:
406:
399:
371:
356:
349:
334:
327:
324:
308:
301:
286:
266:
259:
258:
257:
232:
229:
223:
216:
212:
209:
206:
203:
198:
195:
189:
186:
178:
176:
159:
150:
148:
137:
134:
130:
120:
117:
109:
106:November 2009
98:
95:
91:
88:
84:
81:
77:
74:
70:
67: –
66:
62:
61:Find sources:
55:
51:
45:
44:
37:
33:
28:
27:
22:
3824:
3810:
3796:
3782:
3768:
3751:
3737:
3722:
3711:
3700:. Retrieved
3691:
3649:Siemens star
3613:
3598:
3596:
3588:
3576:
3554:
3552:
3542:
3540:
3527:
3525:
3506:
3504:
3385:
3375:
3368:
3348:
3336:
3324:
3316:
3309:
3307:
3162:
3156:
3153:
3112:
3106:
3100:
2890:
2879:
2875:
2872:
2867:
2865:
2860:
2846:
2830:
2823:
2819:
2812:
2449:
2445:
2057:convolutions
2053:
2045:
2038:
2026:
2010:
1999:
1986:
1984:
1974:
1958:
1950:
1945:
1943:
1936:
1666:
1662:
1660:
1470:
1467:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1321:
1316:
1312:
1306:
1302:
1240:
1237:
1229:
1221:
1218:
1207:
1196:
1188:pyroelectric
1164:CMOS sensors
1149:
1137:
1134:
1129:
1125:
1119:
800:
788:
778:
767:
761:
715:Airy pattern
707:point source
692:
677:
603:
531:
456:
402:
299:is specified
179:
151:
143:
128:
127:
112:
103:
93:
86:
79:
72:
60:
48:Please help
43:verification
40:
3604:chrominance
3579:white noise
2861:isoplanatic
2034:Kell factor
1988:motion blur
1241:fill factor
703:diffraction
3702:2019-12-30
3671:References
3610:Discussion
3599:multiburst
3593:Multiburst
3363:SilverFast
3166:equation.
2849:turbulence
2831:The human
1956:industry.
1122:aberration
772:wavelength
679:patterns.
458:adequate.
323:wavelength
147:Airy discs
76:newspapers
3660:Superlens
3555:ISO 12233
3475:−
3195:−
3085:λ
3063:ν
3009:ν
3003:λ
2997:⋅
2991:−
2982:⋅
2946:ν
2940:λ
2934:⋅
2928:−
2914:ν
2908:
2824:The best
2815:human eye
2786:η
2780:ξ
2733:⋅
2727:η
2721:ξ
2666:⋅
2660:η
2654:ξ
2610:⋅
2604:η
2598:ξ
2567:⋅
2561:η
2555:ξ
2494:η
2488:ξ
2378:∗
2304:∗
2255:∗
2205:∗
2144:∗
1911:η
1908:⋅
1899:ξ
1896:⋅
1887:
1881:⋅
1872:η
1869:⋅
1860:ξ
1857:⋅
1848:
1842:∗
1836:η
1833:⋅
1824:⋅
1812:ξ
1809:⋅
1800:⋅
1788:
1723:η
1717:ξ
1636:⋅
1615:⋅
1598:
1592:⋅
1551:
1545:∗
1509:
1449:η
1443:ξ
1437:
1411:η
1405:ξ
1399:
1373:η
1367:ξ
1361:
1279:⋅
1268:⋅
1225:megapixel
1180:plumbicon
1101:η
1095:ξ
1065:η
1059:ξ
1053:λ
1050:⋅
1047:π
1044:⋅
1035:−
1020:η
1014:ξ
971:η
965:ξ
937:η
931:ξ
891:η
885:ξ
869:⋅
862:η
856:ξ
833:η
827:ξ
740:λ
729:θ
719:Airy disk
552:λ
503:λ
491:θ
487:
474:λ
432:λ
357:θ
309:λ
287:λ
233:λ
217:θ
213:
199:λ
3868:Category
3696:Archived
3622:See also
3507:NBS 1952
3315:= 1 and
3175:contrast
1980:choppers
1965:phosphor
792:Rayleigh
783:diameter
711:aperture
2863:patch.
2027:In the
2022:Betamax
1939:Nyquist
1669:pixels
1199:modulus
1176:vidicon
781:is the
770:is the
699:limited
396:is the
321:is the
133:imaging
90:scholar
3874:Optics
3817:
3803:
3789:
3775:
3758:
3744:
3245:where
3052:where
1297:where
1182:, and
907:where
757:where
256:where
92:
85:
78:
71:
63:
2833:brain
1332:pitch
1214:pixel
97:JSTOR
83:books
3815:ISBN
3801:ISBN
3787:ISBN
3773:ISBN
3756:ISBN
3742:ISBN
3553:The
3541:The
3526:The
3505:The
3369:The
3339:LUPI
3118:and
2931:3.44
2813:The
2029:NTSC
2004:and
2002:HDTV
1884:sinc
1845:comb
1785:sinc
1595:rect
1548:rect
1506:comb
1434:sinc
1396:sinc
1358:comb
1172:InSb
1170:and
1168:PtSi
1084:and
777:and
735:1.22
695:lens
640:cond
585:cond
549:1.22
230:0.61
196:1.22
69:news
3320:min
3313:max
3290:min
3261:max
3228:min
3215:max
3203:min
3190:max
2899:MTF
2041:PAL
2018:VHS
2006:VGA
1216:).
1160:CCD
701:by
661:obj
622:obj
567:obj
484:sin
429:0.4
210:sin
52:by
3870::
3694:.
3690:.
3679:^
3597:A
3383:.
3376:-2
1346:,
1338:,
1326:,
1223:2-
1178:,
1162:,
1132:.
675:.
3705:.
3482:6
3478:1
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3460:e
3457:l
3454:e
3448:+
3444:p
3441:u
3438:o
3435:r
3432:g
3427:2
3423:=
3420:n
3417:o
3414:i
3411:t
3408:u
3405:l
3402:o
3399:s
3396:e
3393:R
3317:C
3310:C
3286:C
3257:C
3224:C
3220:+
3211:C
3199:C
3186:C
3179:=
3131:0
3127:r
3113:b
3107:D
3101:f
3038:]
3033:3
3029:/
3025:1
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3017:D
3013:/
3006:f
3000:(
2994:b
2988:1
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2977:3
2973:/
2969:5
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2943:f
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2924:e
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2917:)
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2783:,
2777:(
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2491:,
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2190:(
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2138:y
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2129:(
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2099:)
2096:y
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1336:x
1328:y
1324:x
1317:d
1315:Ă—
1313:c
1307:b
1305:Ă—
1303:a
1282:d
1276:c
1271:b
1265:a
1259:=
1255:F
1252:F
1104:)
1098:,
1092:(
1068:)
1062:,
1056:(
1041:2
1038:i
1031:e
1027:=
1023:)
1017:,
1011:(
1008:F
1005:T
1002:P
979:|
974:)
968:,
962:(
959:F
956:T
953:O
948:|
944:=
940:)
934:,
928:(
925:F
922:T
919:M
894:)
888:,
882:(
879:F
876:T
873:P
865:)
859:,
853:(
850:F
847:T
844:M
840:=
836:)
830:,
824:(
821:F
818:T
815:O
779:D
768:λ
762:θ
743:D
732:=
656:A
653:N
648:2
645:=
635:A
632:N
627:+
617:A
614:N
580:A
577:N
572:+
562:A
559:N
543:=
540:r
514:A
511:N
507:2
498:=
481:n
478:2
469:=
466:r
440:A
437:N
423:=
420:r
383:A
380:N
335:n
267:r
241:A
238:N
224:=
207:n
204:2
190:=
187:r
160:r
119:)
113:(
108:)
104:(
94:·
87:·
80:·
73:·
46:.
23:.
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