417:
1847:. Cope did not go so far, seeing that evolution created a branching tree of forms, as Darwin had suggested. Each evolutionary step was however non-random: the direction was determined in advance and had a regular pattern (orthogenesis), and steps were not adaptive but part of a divine plan (theistic evolution). This left unanswered the question of why each step should occur, and Cope switched his theory to accommodate functional adaptation for each change. Still rejecting natural selection as the cause of adaptation, Cope turned to Lamarckism to provide the force guiding evolution. Finally, Cope supposed that Lamarckian use and disuse operated by causing a vitalist growth-force substance, "bathmism", to be concentrated in the areas of the body being most intensively used; in turn, it made these areas develop at the expense of the rest. Cope's complex set of beliefs thus assembled five evolutionary philosophies: recapitulationism, orthogenesis, theistic evolution, Lamarckism, and vitalism. Other palaeontologists and field naturalists continued to hold beliefs combining orthogenesis and Lamarckism until the modern synthesis in the 1930s.
207:
2144:
2230:
321:
2214:
38:
1999:
1806:
6318:
6328:
505:
2059:
262:, to merely a general trend in development due to the natural constitutional restrictions of the germinal materials, or to the physical limitations imposed by a narrow environment. In most modern statements of the theory, the idea of continuous and progressive change in one or more characters, due according to some to internal factors, according to others to external causes-evolution in a "straight line" seems to be the central idea.
22:
1920:
1861:
2036:'s 1863 illustration comparing the skeletons of apes and humans "has become an iconic and instantly recognizable visual shorthand for evolution." She calls its history extraordinary, saying that it is "one of the most intriguing, and most misleading, drawings in the modern history of science." Nobody, Tucker observes, supposes that the "monkey-to-man" sequence accurately depicts Darwinian evolution.
377:(1744â1829) himself accepted the idea, and it had a central role in his theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics, the hypothesized mechanism of which resembled the "mysterious inner force" of orthogenesis. Orthogenesis was particularly accepted by paleontologists who saw in their fossils a directional change, and in
1890:, which were non-rectilinear (richly branching) with many complications. The hypothesis was abandoned by mainstream biologists when no mechanism could be found that would account for the process, and the theory of evolution by natural selection came to prevail. The historian of biology Edward J. Larson commented that
2140:, showing a sequence of 14 walking figures ending with modern man, fitted the palaeoanthropological discoveries "not into a branching Darwinian scheme, but into the framework of the original Huxley diagram." Howell ruefully commented that the "powerful and emotional" graphic had overwhelmed his Darwinian text.
478:
saw this as a serious challenge, replying that "There must be some efficient cause for each slight individual difference", but was unable to provide a specific answer without knowledge of genetics. Further, Darwin was himself somewhat progressionist, believing for example that "Man" was "higher" than
1834:
is a case in point. Cope, a religious man, began his career denying the possibility of evolution. In the 1860s, he accepted that evolution could occur, but, influenced by
Agassiz, rejected natural selection. Cope accepted instead the theory of recapitulation of evolutionary history during the growth
499:
As all the living forms of life are the lineal descendants of those which lived long before the
Silurian epoch, we may feel certain that the ordinary succession by generation has never once been broken, and that no cataclysm has desolated the whole world. Hence we may look with some confidence to a
283:
defined progress as "systematic change in a feature belonging to all the members of a sequence in such a way that posterior members of the sequence exhibit an improvement of that feature". He argued that there are two elements in this definition, directional change and improvement according to some
4502:
With the integration of
Mendelian genetics and population genetics into evolutionary theory in the 1930s a new generation of biologists applied mathematical techniques to investigate how changes in the frequency of genes in populations combined with natural selection could produce species change.
695:
For the columns for other philosophies of evolution (i.e., combined theories including any of
Lamarckism, Mutationism, Natural selection, and Vitalism), "yes" means that person definitely supports the theory; "no" means explicit opposition to the theory; a blank means the matter is apparently not
1894:
At theoretical and philosophical levels, Lamarckism and orthogenesis seemed to solve too many problems to be dismissed out of handâyet biologists could never reliably document them happening in nature or in the laboratory. Support for both concepts evaporated rapidly once a plausible alternative
274:
Orthogenesis meant literally "straight origins", or "straight line evolution". The term varied in meaning from the overtly vitalistic and theological to the mechanical. It ranged from theories of mystical forces to mere descriptions of a general trend in development due to natural limitations of
493:
The inhabitants of each successive period in the world's history have beaten their predecessors in the race for life, and are, insofar, higher in the scale of nature; and this may account for that vague yet ill-defined sentiment, felt by many palaeontologists, that organisation on the whole has
2040:
had only one illustration, a diagram showing that random events create a process of branching evolution, a view that Tucker notes is broadly acceptable to modern biologists. But Huxley's image recalled the great chain of being, implying with the force of a visual image a "logical, evenly paced
1978:
magazine could illustrate the history of life leading progressively from mammals to dinosaurs to primates and finally man. Ruse noted that at the popular level, progress and evolution are simply synonyms, as they were in the nineteenth century, though confidence in the value of cultural and
284:
standard. Whether a directional change constitutes an improvement is not a scientific question; therefore Ayala suggested that science should focus on the question of whether there is directional change, without regard to whether the change is "improvement". This may be compared to
1942:
taboo: "It might be well to abstain from use of the word 'orthogenesis' .. since so many of the geneticists seem to be of the opinion that the use of the term implies some supernatural force." For these and other reasons, belief in evolutionary progress has remained "a persistent
652:
Though evolution is not progressive, it does sometimes proceed in a linear way, reinforcing characteristics in certain lineages, but such examples are entirely consistent with the modern neo-Darwinian theory of evolution. These examples have sometimes been referred to as
589:
approach to orthogenesis, arguing that Eimer's criticism of natural selection was common amongst many evolutionists of his generation; they were searching for alternative mechanisms, as they had come to believe that natural selection could not create new
389:
himself rarely used the term "evolution" now so commonly used to describe his theory, because the term was strongly associated with orthogenesis, as had been common usage since at least 1647. His grandfather, the physician and polymath
608:
Numerous versions of orthogenesis (see table) have been proposed. Debate centred on whether such theories were scientific, or whether orthogenesis was inherently vitalistic or essentially theological. For example, biologists such as
1959:
wrote that "some of the most significant of today's evolutionists are progressionists, and that because of this we find (absolute) progressionism alive and well in their work." He argued that progressionism has harmed the status of
1907:
mechanisms of evolution were incorporated, appeared to refute the hypothesis for good. As more was understood about these mechanisms it came to be held that there was no naturalistic way in which the newly discovered mechanism of
1812:
since the 19th century for how evolution took place, given that many scientists initially had objections to natural selection. Many of these theories led (solid blue arrows) to some form of orthogenesis, with or without invoking
299:
Literally, the term means evolution in a straight line, generally assumed to be evolution that is held to a regular course by forces internal to the organism. Orthogenesis assumes that variation is not random but is directed
2199:
of the 1930s and 1940s. That made biology a professional science, at the price of ejecting the notion of progress. That, Ruse argues, was a significant cost to "people still firmly committed to
Progress" as a philosophy.
1821:
believed in a combination of theistic evolution, Lamarckism, vitalism, and orthogenesis, represented by a sequence of arrows on the left of the diagram. The development of modern
Darwinism is indicated by dashed orange
4112:
L'idée s'imposa que les microorganismes avaient subi des pertes de fonction. Celles-ci apparurent comme la manifestation d'une évolution physiologique, definie comme une degradation, une orthogenese regressive.
474:" transmitted inherited characteristics, dissuaded Mendel from continuing to work on plant genetics. According to NĂ€geli many evolutionary developments were nonadaptive and variation was internally programmed.
2089:, mocked the idea of any evolutionary link between humans and animals, with a sequence from chaos to earthworm to apes, primitive men, a Victorian beau, and Darwin in a pose that according to Tucker recalls
246:
was the first to give the word a definition; he defined orthogenesis as "the general law according to which evolutionary development takes place in a noticeable direction, above all in specialized groups".
657:
but are not strictly orthogenetic, and simply appear as linear and constant changes because of environmental and molecular constraints on the direction of change. The term orthoselection was first used by
3834:
500:
secure future of equally inappreciable length. And as natural selection works solely by and for the good of each being, all corporeal and mental endowments will tend to progress towards perfection.
275:
either the germinal material or the environment ... By 1910, however most who subscribed to orthogenesis hypothesized some physical rather than metaphysical determinant of orderly change.
1513:
a force "working upon some definite law that we do not yet comprehend", compromise between special creation and natural selection, driven by large mutations involving chromosome alterations
416:
381:
thought there was a gradual and constant directional change. Those who accepted orthogenesis in this way, however, did not necessarily accept that the mechanism that drove orthogenesis was
2910:
4503:
This demonstrated that
Darwinian natural selection was the primary mechanism for evolution and that other models of evolution, such as neo-Lamarckism and orthogenesis, were invalid.
2187:, meaning a progressionist philosophy, in evolutionary biology by stating that evolutionary thought came out of that philosophy. Before Darwin, Ruse argues, evolution was just a
442:
became essentially a nineteenth-century belief. It gave meaning to lifeâit offered inspirationâafter the collapse of the foundations of the past." The Baltic German biologist
4124:
Loison, Laurent; Gayon, Jean; Burian, Richard M. (2017). "The
Contributions â and Collapse â of Lamarckian Heredity in Pasteurian Molecular Biology: 1. Lysogeny, 1900â1960".
2191:; Darwin made it respectable, but "only as popular science". "There it remained frozen, for nearly another hundred years", until mathematicians such as Fisher provided "both
1990:. With its rise in the late 20th-early 21st centuries, ideas of constraint and preferred directions of morphological change have made a reappearance in evolutionary theory.
185:
by describing it as "the mysterious inner force". Despite this, many museum displays and textbook illustrations continue to give the impression that evolution is directed.
5042:
4608:
2610:
2180:
which remain in
Dawkins's words "by far the most satisfactory explanation for the existence of the advanced and complex machinery that animals and plants possess".
408:
presented a sweeping narrative account of cosmic transmutation, culminating in the evolution of humanity. Chambers included detailed analysis of the fossil record.
3597:
Jacobs, Susan C.; Larson, Allan; Cheverud, James M. (1995). "Phylogenetic
Relationships and Orthogenetic Evolution of Coat Color Among Tamarins (Genus Saguinus)".
2303:
of each other, so natural selection is the driving force, but their wing patterns, which arose in separate evolutionary events, are controlled by the same genes.
6050:
2176:
deny the "earlier prejudice" that there is anything "inherently progressive about evolution", but, Ruse argues, the feeling of progress comes from evolutionary
3838:
1964:
as a mature, professional science. Presentations of evolution remain characteristically progressionist, with humans at the top of the "Tower of Time" in the
1882:
The stronger versions of the orthogenetic hypothesis began to lose popularity when it became clear that they were inconsistent with the patterns found by
577:
to argue that evolution had proceeded in a regular single direction that was difficult to explain by random variation. Gould described Eimer as a
1554:
1402:
4771:
Baxter, S.W.; Papa, R.; Chamberlain, N.; Humphray, S.J.; Joron, M.; Morrison, C.; ffrench-Constant, R.H.; McMillan, W.O.; Jiggins, C.D. (2008).
1827:
1809:
968:
Cultural value of progress; "Spencer has no rivals when it comes to open, flagrant connections of social Progress with evolutionary progress."â
690:
2922:
304:. Selection is thus powerless, and the species is carried automatically in the direction marked out by internal factors controlling variation.
5799:
4305:
Gray, Russell (1989). "Oppositions in panbiogeography: can the conflicts between selection, constraint, ecology, and history be resolved?".
3977:
Luzzatto, Michele; Palestrini, Claudia; D'entrĂšves, Passerin Pietro (2000). "Hologenesis: The Last and Lost Theory of Evolutionary Change".
353:, from insects that produced only a grub, to fish that laid eggs, and on up to animals with blood and live birth. The medieval chain, as in
5099:
3537:
159:
were largely abandoned by biologists, but the notion that evolution represents progress is still widely shared; modern supporters include
404:
645:, but that evolution occurs due to a periodic cycle of evolutionary processes dictated by factors internal to the organism. In 1964
6362:
6303:
5758:
649:
argued that orthogenetic theories such as those promulgated by Du NoĂŒy and Sinnott were essentially theology rather than biology.
2008:
1328:
of evolution (which can be explained without orthogenesis as a statistical improbability that a path should be exactly reversed)
795:
312:
defined orthogenesis as "the view that evolution has a kind of momentum of its own that carries organisms along certain tracks".
50:
2848:
5109:
641:
argued that variation tends to move in a predetermined direction. He believed this was purely mechanistic, denying any kind of
399:
4566:
6066:
5826:
4934:
4908:
4887:
4861:
4835:
4584:
4495:
4470:
4445:
4396:
4289:
4176:
4063:
3949:
3804:
3520:
3297:
3263:
3229:
3189:
3122:
3092:
3062:
3034:
3009:
2972:
2862:
2798:
2768:
2740:
2677:
2649:
2447:
2400:
2484:
Ulett, Mark A. (2014). "Making the case for orthogenesis: The popularization of definitely directed evolution (1890â1926)".
2172:, that act much like genes. Dawkins can speak of "progressive rather than random ... trends in evolution". Dawkins and
5423:
4431:
2635:
1830:
by natural selection were not necessarily mutually exclusive. The evolutionary philosophy of the American palaeontologist
6149:
5069:
2164:
Scientists, Ruse argues, continue to slide easily from one notion of progress to another: even committed Darwinians like
2277:
Biology has largely rejected the idea that evolution is guided in any way, but the evolution of some features is indeed
6377:
5811:
5471:
4978:
4341:
3538:"Basic Questions in Paleontology: Geologic Time, Organic Evolution, and Biological Systematics, by Otto H. Schindewolf"
3163:
On the Origin of Species By Means of Natural Selection, or, the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life
2344:
2334:
2286:
1983:
1017:
779:
109:
938:" transmitted inherited characteristics; many evolutionary developments nonadaptive; variation internally programmed.
567:
Organic Evolution as the Result of the Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics According to the Laws of Organic Growth
192:
notes that in popular culture, evolution and progress are synonyms, while the unintentionally misleading image of the
5009:
4262:
3674:
Yampolsky, L. Y.; Stoltzfus, A. (2001). "Bias in the introduction of variation as an orienting factor in evolution".
1733:
1325:
517:, argued that aristogenes, not mutation or natural selection, created all novelty. Osborn supposed that the horns of
105:
5878:
206:
6357:
5883:
5481:
1836:
553:
significance that would be difficult to explain by natural selection. To supporters of orthogenesis, in some cases
452:
that "Forces which are not directedâso-called blind forcesâcan never produce order." In 1864, the Swiss anatomist
4519:
3625:
6128:
6118:
6042:
5317:
4989:
2349:
2196:
2026:
In popular culture, progressionist images of evolution are widespread. The historian Jennifer Tucker, writing in
1900:
663:
369:
The orthogenesis hypothesis had a significant following in the 19th century when evolutionary mechanisms such as
148:
49:, and 2) an adaptive force that causes animals with a given body plan to adapt to circumstances (use and disuse,
6256:
6123:
5903:
5647:
5445:
5349:
5238:
4574:
1492:
398:, seeing "the whole cosmos a living thing propelled by an internal vital force" towards "greater perfection".
85:
6321:
5908:
5652:
5391:
2282:
2258:
751:
5853:
3861:
6261:
5763:
6331:
5925:
1839:, which Agassiz believed showed a divine plan leading straight up to man, in a pattern revealed both in
6027:
5201:
4969:
1666:
912:
259:
5821:
5618:
5428:
5196:
5089:
1913:
1339:
1122:
378:
156:
5950:
3342:
2895:
1708:
posthumous; combined orthogenesis with non-material vitalist directive force aiming for a supposed "
1518:
462:, arguing for wholly separate lines of descent with no common ancestor. In 1884, the Swiss botanist
6244:
6108:
6080:
6055:
6012:
5915:
5848:
5723:
5596:
5564:
5537:
5527:
3976:
1760:
448:
5728:
6249:
6179:
6088:
5816:
5698:
5466:
5062:
4640:
2354:
2173:
2125:
2078:
2066:
1965:
1764:
1486:
1397:(in Beurlen's sense, repeating developmental pathway of ancestors) as mechanism for orthogenesis
361:, 1305, added steps or levels above humans, with orders of angels reaching up to God at the top.
3161:
2012:
was intended to compare the skeletons of apes and humans, but unintentionally created a durable
349:, with a linear sequence of forms from lowest to highest. The concept, indeed, had its roots in
288:'s suggestion of "replacing the idea of progress with an operational notion of directionality".
6288:
5937:
5806:
5768:
5669:
5640:
5613:
5608:
5206:
5018:
4226:
3318:
2556:
2117:
1912:
could be far-sighted or have a memory of past trends. Orthogenesis was seen to lie outside the
1453:
774:
646:
508:
446:(1792â1876) argued for an orthogenetic force in nature, reasoning in a review of Darwin's 1859
350:
178:
26:
5794:
4279:
4055:
4049:
3794:
3289:
3283:
3112:
2962:
2641:
2568:
834:
453:
112:. Prominent historical figures who have championed some form of evolutionary progress include
6352:
6229:
6103:
6022:
6017:
6002:
5987:
5977:
5893:
5868:
5703:
5659:
5623:
5591:
5532:
5510:
5491:
5354:
5307:
5258:
5253:
5211:
3255:
3249:
2364:
2278:
2272:
2254:
2051:
1704:
1050:
745:
374:
113:
4103:
1659:
Basic Questions in Paleontology: Geologic Time, Organic Evolution and Biological Systematics
1333:
6203:
6098:
6032:
5833:
5748:
5664:
5576:
5559:
5486:
5476:
5186:
5094:
5078:
4652:
4437:
4235:
3640:
3423:
2323:
2317:
2236:
2101:. This was followed by a flood of variations on the evolution-as-progress theme, including
1961:
1232:
1160:
701:
659:
603:
346:
325:
301:
217:
177:
in 1948, by stating that it implied "some supernatural force". The American paleontologist
5838:
5708:
4773:"Convergent Evolution in the Genetic Basis of Mullerian Mimicry in Heliconius Butterflies"
2300:
466:(1817â1891) proposed a version of orthogenesis involving an "inner perfecting principle".
8:
6266:
6224:
6174:
6093:
5941:
5933:
5863:
5843:
5789:
5633:
5386:
5329:
5191:
5174:
5152:
4828:
The Eclipse of Darwinism: anti-Darwinian evolutionary theories in the decades around 1900
3687:
2192:
2033:
2003:
1974:
1952:
1874:
1831:
1818:
1672:
1661:; evolution due to periodic cycle of processes dictated by factors internal to organism.
1595:
1226:
Hologenesis: a New Theory of Evolution and the Geographical Distribution of Living Beings
872:
866:
809:
803:
443:
427:
164:
147:
for a rectilinear (straight-line) model of directed evolution. With the emergence of the
117:
5544:
4656:
4239:
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3427:
2229:
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5137:
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4797:
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4676:
4149:
3994:
3699:
3656:
3490:
3482:
3439:
3407:
3390:
3373:
3330:
3222:
The Evolution of Darwinism: Selection, Adaptation, and Progress in Evolutionary Biology
3114:
Man's Selection: Charles Darwin's Theory of Creation, Evolution, And Intelligent Design
2883:
2756:
2710:
2328:
2296:
2250:
1986:, however, is open to an expanded concept of heredity that incorporates the physics of
1872:, showing a linear sequence of forms leading up to 'Man'. Illustration by G. Avery for
1814:
1719:
798:, was a secondary aspect of this, an adaptive force creating species within a phylum.)
618:
614:
610:
280:
267:
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3945:
3800:
3775:
3734:
3691:
3579:
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3516:
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Metcalf, Maynard M. (1913). "Adaptation Through Natural Selection and Orthogenesis".
3293:
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on the State of Tennessee law limiting the teaching of evolution. Tucker noted that
2046:
2021:
1987:
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1004:
730:
622:
485:
422:
285:
194:
140:
4153:
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3703:
3660:
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Evolution and BahĂĄ'Ă Belief: Ê»AbduÊŒl-BahĂĄ's Response to Nineteenth-century Darwinism
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173:
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3182:
Beasts of Eden: Walking Whales, Dawn Horses, And Other Enigmas of Mammal Evolution
2911:"The Botanic Universe: Generative Nature and Erasmus Darwin's Cosmic Transformism"
2759:(1988). "Can progress be defined as a biological concept?". In Nitecki, M. (ed.).
258:
has meant many different things to many different people, ranging from a mystical
6234:
5858:
5685:
5674:
5628:
5571:
5520:
5300:
5104:
4950:
4871:
4845:
4823:
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4108:
L'evolution physiologique. Etude des pertes de fonctions chez les microorganismes
3931:
3435:
2728:
2213:
2165:
2133:
2109:
1969:
1739:
943:
292:
41:
Lamarck's two-factor theory involves 1) a complexifying force that drives animal
4788:
2497:
1998:
1727:
829:"Forces which are not directedâso-called blind forcesâcan never produce order."
104:
due to some internal mechanism or "driving force". According to the theory, the
37:
6074:
5946:
5888:
5248:
5243:
5181:
5159:
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3157:
2393:
The lying stones of Marrakech : penultimate reflections in natural history
2098:
1166:
1025:
976:
898:
671:
475:
391:
386:
239:
231:
223:
132:
4137:
3990:
3835:"The Persistence of Heresy: The Concepts of Directed Evolution (Orthogenesis)"
3610:
2788:
906:
778:, inherent progressive tendency drives organisms continuously towards greater
463:
6346:
6276:
6154:
6113:
5959:
5713:
5381:
5376:
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4570:
3937:
3513:
Styles of Knowing: A New History of Science from Ancient Times to the Present
3027:
From Cosmology to Ecology: The Monist World-view in Germany from 1770 to 1930
2188:
2108:
s 1925 "The Rise and Fall of Man", the sequence running from a chimpanzee to
1887:
1865:
1844:
1817:(dotted blue arrows) directly or indirectly. For example, evolutionists like
1722:. Censured by Gaylord Simpson for nonscientific spiritualistic "doubletalk".
1637:
1459:
1130:
1094:
1089:
with no adaptive significance, claimed hard to explain by natural selection.
1059:
840:
681:
adaptation, meaning that limited local orthogenesis is now seen as possible.
678:
667:
538:
513:
467:
458:
243:
210:
136:
121:
30:
16:
Hypothesis that organisms have an innate tendency to evolve towards some goal
3903:
3770:
3754:"Climbing Mount Probable: Mutation as a Cause of Nonrandomness in Evolution"
3753:
3730:
2733:
Fight to Save the Redwoods: A History of the Environmental Reform, 1917â1978
1805:
1100:
1083:
On Orthogenesis: And the Impotence of Natural Selection in Species Formation
543:
On Orthogenesis: And the Impotence of Natural Selection in Species Formation
61:. Popular views of Lamarckism only consider an aspect of the adaptive force.
6271:
6219:
5997:
5992:
5586:
5344:
4918:
4806:
4664:
4614:
4515:
4145:
3779:
3738:
3695:
3583:
3570:
Jepsen, Glenn L. (1949). "Selection. Orthogenesis, and the Fossil Record".
3451:
2854:
2505:
2339:
2121:
2090:
1956:
1948:
1883:
1524:
1365:
1299:
1198:
969:
586:
309:
189:
160:
3717:
Stoltzfus, A. (2006). "Mutation-Biased Adaptation in a Protein NK Model".
2077:
Popular perception, however, had seized upon the idea of linear progress.
6298:
6169:
5898:
5433:
5263:
5169:
5127:
3078:
1709:
1678:
1271:
1204:
725:
578:
518:
5738:
4672:
139:
five years later. Proponents of orthogenesis had rejected the theory of
6159:
6060:
5982:
5969:
5603:
5403:
5290:
5268:
5221:
5216:
5164:
5132:
5047:
4997:
4389:
The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance
4384:
3652:
3486:
3443:
3394:
3377:
2714:
2539:
2486:
Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences
2435:
2291:
1931:
1923:
1840:
1567:
1433:
1136:
1013:
982:
894:
791:
787:
720:
562:
558:
550:
526:
370:
354:
329:
168:
89:
541:(1843â1898) introduced the term orthogenesis with a widely read book,
6293:
6144:
5753:
5371:
5119:
3941:
2359:
2177:
1714:
1686:
1445:
1086:
935:
570:
546:
534:
504:
471:
431:
382:
144:
101:
97:
42:
3411:
2693:
Guyer, Michael F. (1922). "Orthogenesis and Serological Phenomena".
2058:
1012:
Pangenesis theory of inheritance by gemmules from all over body was
1008:
is somewhat progressionist, e.g. man higher than animals, alongside
6196:
5398:
4954:
4205:
4169:
Henry Fairfield Osborn: Race, and the Search for the Origins of Man
4030:
4013:
3478:
3369:
3245:
2706:
2440:
Toward a New Philosophy of Biology: Observations of an Evolutionist
2289:. An example is the development of wing pattern in some species of
2168:
embed the idea of cultural progress in a theory of cultural units,
2113:
1909:
1904:
1265:
735:
642:
626:
582:
480:
395:
182:
152:
93:
21:
1919:
5581:
5295:
3907:
1860:
591:
554:
522:
54:
4565:
4224:
Koch, Leo Francis (1957). "Vitalistic-Mechanistic Controversy".
4334:
Evolution Without Selection: Form and Function by Autoevolution
2195:
and status", enabling evolutionary biologists to construct the
1944:
1601:
783:
46:
3792:
1955:, although often denied or veiled. The philosopher of biology
5502:
4925:
Monad to man: the Concept of Progress in Evolutionary Biology
2611:"'Evolution on Rails': Mechanisms and Levels of Orthogenesis"
634:
574:
58:
4635:
4355:
4353:
3131:
3002:
Biosemiotics: Information, Codes and Signs in Living Systems
4192:
Hubbs, Carl L. " The Course of Evolution by J. C. Willis".
3796:
Radiation Risk Estimates in Normal and Emergency Situations
2418:
2416:
2414:
2412:
2169:
2148:
2094:
2013:
630:
45:
towards higher levels (orthogenesis) creating a ladder of
4961:(A.C. Seward ed.) Cambridge University Press. Chapter V.
4350:
3958:
2790:
Full House: The Spread of Excellence from Plato to Darwin
2467:
2465:
2463:
2461:
2459:
2320:(contrastable with orthogenesis, not involving teleology)
1436:(inheriting acquired characteristics after heat shock as
861:
Wholly separate lines of descent with no common ancestor
677:
Recent work has supported the mechanism and existence of
345:
The possibility of progress is embedded in the mediaeval
4410:
4408:
2824:
2822:
2409:
2120:
who argued for the anti-evolutionist prosecution in the
198:, from apes to modern humans, has been widely imitated.
4740:
3880:
3465:
Lipman, Charles B. (1922). "Orthogenesis in Bacteria".
3198:
4728:
4716:
4706:
4704:
4702:
4609:"What our most famous evolutionary cartoon gets wrong"
3799:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 213.
2456:
328:
as a staircase, implying the possibility of progress:
155:
was integrated with evolution, orthogenesis and other
4752:
4405:
4365:
4084:
3862:"Edward Drinker Cope's Law of Acceleration of Growth"
2937:
2819:
2519:
2517:
2515:
597:
5043:
What our most famous evolutionary cartoon gets wrong
2183:
Ruse concludes his detailed analysis of the idea of
1294:
Chemical forces direct evolution, leading to humans
897:
use and disuse. "On the Origin of Genera"; See also
4699:
4687:
4546:
4534:
4072:
3868:
3395:
A Suggested Explanation of 'Orthogenesis' in Plants
2807:
470:
died that same year; NĂ€geli, who proposed that an "
4922:
4875:
4849:
4486:Montgomery, Georgina M.; Largent, Mark A. (2015).
3904:"Nonsense in schoolbooks: 'The Imaginary Lamarck'"
3751:
3673:
2981:
2604:
2602:
2600:
2598:
2560:
2512:
1926:considered orthogenesis effectively taboo in 1948.
4643:(1979). "Arms races between and within species".
4485:
4123:
3710:
3572:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society
2735:. University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 81â82.
2670:The Phenomenon of Teilhard: Prophet for a New Age
2596:
2594:
2592:
2590:
2588:
2586:
2584:
2582:
2580:
2578:
2563:Life of the Past: An Introduction to Paleontology
402:, in his popular anonymously published 1844 book
6344:
3892:
3325:. Harcourt, Brace & World. pp. 213â233.
2960:
1799:Natural selection is immaterial so cannot work.
3793:Cigna, Arrigo A.; Durante, Marco, eds. (2007).
3515:. University of Pittsburgh Press. p. 237.
3215:
3213:
3057:. University of California Press. p. 137.
3048:
3046:
2763:. University of Chicago Press. pp. 75â96.
2618:Annals of the History and Philosophy of Biology
456:(1817â1905) presented his orthogenetic theory,
171:made the term effectively taboo in the journal
5023:Life Of The Past: Introduction to Paleontology
4488:A Companion to the History of American Science
4465:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 14â16.
4391:. Harvard University Press. pp. 530â531.
3623:
3313:
3311:
3309:
3184:. University of California Press. p. 96.
3175:
3173:
3106:
3104:
2575:
691:Alternatives to evolution by natural selection
181:(1953) attacked orthogenesis, linking it with
5063:
4602:
4600:
4598:
4596:
4438:Chapter 7, section "Synthesis as Restriction"
4331:
4014:"Review of Orthogenetic Evolution in Pigeons"
3152:
3150:
3148:
3146:
3084:Gregor Mendel: planting the seeds of genetics
1360:Directed loss of functions in microorganisms
4281:Marxist Writings on History & Philosophy
4246:
3970:
3828:
3826:
3824:
3822:
3820:
3818:
3816:
3210:
3043:
2961:Brown, Keven; Von Kitzing, Eberhard (2001).
2956:
2954:
2952:
2839:
2837:
2663:
2661:
2383:
2381:
2379:
625:(1922) claimed evidence for orthogenesis in
483:he studied. Darwin indeed wrote in his 1859
238:, "origin") was first used by the biologist
4219:
4217:
4215:
3306:
3224:. Cambridge University Press. p. 121.
3170:
3110:
3101:
2672:. Mercer University Press. pp. 60â64.
2608:
2159:
2147:One of many versions of the progressionist
1947:", among evolutionary biologists including
405:Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation
5070:
5056:
4593:
4463:Genetics, Paleontology, and Macroevolution
4005:
3506:
3504:
3143:
2850:Darwin's Dilemma: The Odyssey of Evolution
2624:
2609:Levit, Georgy S.; Olsson, Lennart (2006).
2534:
2532:
2097:in his fresco adorning the ceiling of the
373:were being proposed. The French zoologist
4796:
4029:
3813:
3769:
3716:
3626:"Karyotypic orthoselection in Drosophila"
3535:
3272:
3071:
2949:
2902:
2834:
2727:
2658:
2442:. Harvard University Press. p. 499.
2376:
6304:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
5077:
4460:
4377:
4298:
4212:
3898:
3752:Stoltzfus, A.; Yampolsky, L. Y. (2009).
3397:Science, Vol. 42, No. 1094. pp. 859â863.
3323:Evolutionary Theology: The New Mysticism
3238:
3219:
3052:
3024:
2999:
2299:similar patterns. These butterflies are
2203:
2142:
2057:
1997:
1918:
1859:
1804:
503:
415:
359:Ladder of Ascent and Descent of the Mind
334:Ladder of Ascent and Descent of the Mind
319:
205:
36:
20:
4955:Heredity and variation in modern lights
4870:
4734:
4722:
4252:
3501:
3355:
3317:
3179:
2555:
2529:
1870:The modern theory of the descent of man
1810:Multiple explanations have been offered
981:(concept of higher and lower species),
893:Combined orthogenetic constraints with
796:inheritance of acquired characteristics
51:inheritance of acquired characteristics
6345:
5025:. Yale University Press, p. 119.
4896:
4844:
4822:
4758:
4606:
4414:
4371:
4359:
4277:
4090:
4011:
3964:
3929:
3859:
3569:
3464:
3156:
3004:. Nova Science Publishers. p. 7.
2943:
2422:
1054:, a tendency to increasing perfection
6067:Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion
5051:
4426:
4257:. Sussex Academic Press. p. 65.
4253:Chardin, Pierre Teilhard de (2003) .
4166:
4102:
4044:
3860:Barnes, M. Elizabeth (24 July 2014).
3832:
3745:
3667:
3545:Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology
3406:
3288:. Harvard University Press. pp.
3278:
3111:Watson, Marc; Angle, Barbara (2017).
3077:
2843:
2783:
2755:
2692:
2640:. Harvard University Press. pp.
2630:
2483:
2387:
2016:of supposed "monkey-to-man" progress.
1993:
1979:technological progress has declined.
1903:of the 1930s and 1940s, in which the
901:(linear increase in size of species)
637:. In 1950, the German paleontologist
545:. Eimer claimed there were trends in
4917:
4746:
4710:
4693:
4607:Tucker, Jennifer (28 October 2012).
4552:
4540:
4514:
4508:
4433:The Structure of Evolutionary Theory
4383:
4304:
4223:
4078:
4054:. Harvard University Press. p.
4051:The Structure of Evolutionary Theory
3886:
3874:
3688:10.1046/j.1525-142x.2001.003002073.x
3624:Ranganath, H. A.; HĂ€gel, K. (1981).
3285:The Structure of Evolutionary Theory
3254:. Oxford University Press. pp.
3244:
3204:
3137:
2987:
2908:
2828:
2813:
2667:
2637:The Structure of Evolutionary Theory
2523:
2471:
2434:
2155:artwork by Giuseppe Donatiello, 2016
2009:Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature
1930:By 1948, the evolutionary biologist
430:argued for a directed force guiding
222:The term orthogenesis (from Ancient
4522:. The Chronicle of Higher Education
3510:
1828:alternatives to Darwinian evolution
696:discussed, not part of the theory.
13:
5472:Evolutionary developmental biology
4944:
4856:. University of California Press.
4830:. Johns Hopkins University Press.
4645:Proceedings of the Royal Society B
4520:"Edward O. Wilson on Sociobiology"
4110:. Paris: Hermann. pp. 1â308.
2777:
2749:
2345:Evolution of biological complexity
2335:Directed evolution (transhumanism)
2287:evolutionary developmental biology
2253:similar patterns, apparently both
1984:evolutionary developmental biology
1712:" with creation of consciousness.
598:Nineteenth and twentieth centuries
511:'s 1934 version of orthogenesis,
14:
6389:
5036:
4993:, London: George Allen and Unwin.
4852:Evolution: The History of an Idea
4284:. Resistance Books. p. 207.
4200:(762 (Jan. Feb., 1942)): 96â101.
4191:
4126:Journal of the History of Biology
3251:Genesis: The Evolution of Biology
2567:. Yale University Press. p.
1258:Orthogenetic Evolution in Pigeons
106:largest-scale trends in evolution
6326:
6317:
6316:
2228:
2212:
1837:ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny
662:, and was incorporated into the
364:
230:orthĂłs, "straight", and Ancient
110:increasing biological complexity
6363:History of evolutionary biology
6129:Extended evolutionary synthesis
5318:Gene-centered view of evolution
4990:Evolution: The Modern Synthesis
4764:
4629:
4558:
4479:
4454:
4420:
4325:
4271:
4185:
4160:
4117:
4096:
4038:
3923:
3853:
3786:
3719:Molecular Biology and Evolution
3617:
3590:
3563:
3529:
3458:
3400:
3384:
3349:
3018:
2993:
2721:
2686:
2350:History of evolutionary thought
569:. He used examples such as the
561:. Eimer linked orthogenesis to
557:could be led by such trends to
143:as the organizing mechanism in
6257:Hologenome theory of evolution
6124:History of molecular evolution
5350:Evolutionarily stable strategy
5239:Last universal common ancestor
4576:Origination of Organismal Form
4319:10.1080/03014223.1989.10422935
4307:New Zealand Journal of Zoology
3933:A History of the Life Sciences
3536:Dimichele, William A. (1995).
3117:. BookBaby. pp. 146â150.
2967:. Kalimat Press. p. 159.
2549:
2477:
2428:
1493:Differentiation (orthogenesis)
1326:Dollo's law of irreversibility
411:
394:, was both progressionist and
108:have an absolute goal such as
1:
6051:Renaissance and Enlightenment
4461:Levinton, Jeffrey S. (2001).
4171:. Ashgate. pp. 184â192.
3180:Wallace, David Rains (2005).
2395:. Vintage. pp. 119â121.
2370:
2283:developmental-genetic toolkit
2259:developmental-genetic toolkit
1855:
752:Inherent progressive tendency
438:Ruse observed that "Progress
201:
167:. The evolutionary biologist
102:towards some goal (teleology)
6262:Missing heritability problem
5889:Gamete differentiation/sexes
4929:. Harvard University Press.
3833:Popov, Igor (7 April 2005).
3557:10.1016/0034-6667(95)90007-1
3436:10.1126/science.52.1331.13-a
3053:Vucinich, Alexander (1988).
3025:Jacobsen, Eric Paul (2005).
2909:Daly, J. P. (4 March 2018).
950:'The Development Hypothesis'
700:Theories of orthogenesis in
7:
5004:. Weidenfeld and Nicolson.
4789:10.1534/genetics.107.082982
3676:Evolution & Development
3412:"Orthogenesis among Fishes"
3029:. Peter Lang. p. 100.
3000:Barbieri, Marcello (2013).
2498:10.1016/j.shpsc.2013.11.009
2306:
2255:facilitated and constrained
2132:" fold-out illustration in
2041:progression" leading up to
1938:, made the use of the term
1934:, as editor of the journal
1432:Combined orthogenesis with
1393:, generating variety; then
684:
340:
188:The philosopher of biology
135:in 1893 and popularized by
96:have an innate tendency to
53:), creating a diversity of
25:Evolutionary progress as a
10:
6394:
5894:Life cycles/nuclear phases
5446:TriversâWillard hypothesis
4897:Larson, Edward J. (2004).
4816:
4332:Lima-de-Faria, A. (1988).
3979:Italian Journal of Zoology
3902:(SeptemberâOctober 1994).
3220:Shanahan, Timothy (2004).
2270:
2019:
913:Inner perfecting principle
688:
601:
315:
260:inner perfecting principle
215:
118:Pierre Teilhard de Chardin
6378:Obsolete biology theories
6312:
6212:
6137:
6041:
5968:
5924:
5779:
5683:
5500:
5459:
5392:Parentâoffspring conflict
5328:
5197:Earliest known life forms
5118:
5085:
5030:"What is macroevolution?"
4973:. Simon & Schuster.
4959:Darwin and Modern Science
4138:10.1007/s10739-015-9434-3
3991:10.1080/11250000009356303
3055:Darwin in Russian Thought
2116:, and finally the lawyer
1914:methodological naturalism
1850:
1761:developmental constraints
1340:Physiological degradation
440:(sic, his capitalisation)
379:invertebrate paleontology
295:defined orthogenesis as:
235:
227:
157:alternatives to Darwinism
6245:Cultural group selection
6109:The eclipse of Darwinism
6081:On the Origin of Species
6056:Transmutation of species
3930:Magner, Lois N. (2002).
3140:, pp. 154â155, 162.
2331:(in protein engineering)
2160:Sliding between meanings
2130:The Road to Homo Sapiens
1765:phylogenetic constraints
1626:, essentially religious
1549:, essentially religious
782:, in separate lineages (
533:In 1898, after studying
449:On the Origin of Species
100:in a definite direction
6358:Non-Darwinian evolution
6250:Dual inheritance theory
6089:History of paleontology
4970:Darwin's Dangerous Idea
4278:Novack, George (2002).
4194:The American Naturalist
4018:The American Naturalist
3611:10.1093/sysbio/44.4.515
3467:The American Naturalist
3358:The American Naturalist
3319:Simpson, George Gaylord
2695:The American Naturalist
2668:Lane, David H. (1996).
2557:Simpson, George Gaylord
2546:papers, 23 January 1948
2261:genes controlling wing
2126:Rudolph Franz Zallinger
2079:Edward Linley Sambourne
2067:Edward Linley Sambourne
1966:Smithsonian Institution
1864:A satirical opinion of
1759:mechanistic, caused by
1018:pass on traits acquired
794:", use and disuse, and
385:(had a definite goal).
250:In 1922, the zoologist
5938:Punctuated equilibrium
5259:Non-adaptive radiation
5207:Evolutionary arms race
5028:Wilkins, John (1997).
4665:10.1098/rspb.1979.0081
4490:. Wiley. p. 218.
4227:The Scientific Monthly
3511:Kwa, Chunglin (2011).
2921:: 1â57. Archived from
2295:butterfly, which have
2156:
2118:William Jennings Bryan
2074:
2045:, a view denounced by
2017:
1927:
1897:
1895:appeared on the scene.
1879:
1823:
1589:L'Homme et L'Evolution
775:Philosophie Zoologique
647:George Gaylord Simpson
530:
509:Henry Fairfield Osborn
502:
496:
435:
337:
306:
277:
264:
213:
179:George Gaylord Simpson
70:orthogenetic evolution
62:
34:
6230:Evolutionary medicine
6104:Mendelian inheritance
5812:Biological complexity
5800:Programmed cell death
5492:Phenotypic plasticity
5212:Evolutionary pressure
5202:Evidence of evolution
5100:Timeline of evolution
4167:Regal, Brian (2002).
4012:Castle, W.E. (1920).
3912:. The Textbook League
3771:10.1093/jhered/esp048
3731:10.1093/molbev/msl064
2761:Evolutionary Progress
2365:Teleological argument
2297:independently evolved
2273:Facilitated variation
2251:independently evolved
2245:Different species of
2204:Facilitated variation
2153:Astronomy Evolution 2
2146:
2061:
2038:The Origin of Species
2020:Further information:
2001:
1922:
1892:
1863:
1835:of the embryo - that
1808:
1705:The Phenomenon of Man
1442:plasmatic inheritance
1417:Protozoology, Zoology
689:Further information:
602:Further information:
525:form, way beyond the
507:
497:
491:
419:
375:Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
323:
297:
272:
256:
216:Further information:
209:
114:Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
78:evolutionary progress
74:progressive evolution
40:
24:
6204:Teleology in biology
6099:Blending inheritance
5477:Genetic assimilation
5340:Artificial selection
5079:Evolutionary biology
4878:The Blind Watchmaker
4255:The Human Phenomenon
3900:Ghiselin, Michael T.
2915:Republics of Letters
2318:Convergent evolution
2281:by the genes of the
2237:Heliconius melpomene
2002:The frontispiece to
1962:evolutionary biology
1734:Biological synthesis
1307:(the law of inertia)
702:evolutionary biology
660:Ludwig Hermann Plate
604:Eclipse of Darwinism
347:great chain of being
326:great chain of being
218:Teleology in biology
6267:Molecular evolution
6225:Ecological genetics
6094:Transitional fossil
5884:Sexual reproduction
5724:endomembrane system
5653:pollinator-mediated
5609:dolphins and whales
5387:Parental investment
4749:, pp. 292â295.
4657:1979RSPSB.205..489D
4362:, pp. 261â262.
4240:1957SciMo..85..245K
3967:, pp. 116â117.
3909:The Textbook Letter
3889:, pp. 181â191.
3758:Journal of Heredity
3645:1981NW.....68..527R
3633:Naturwissenschaften
3428:1920Sci....52...13S
3408:Starr, Jordan David
3207:, pp. 266â267.
3087:. Harry N. Abrams.
2757:Ayala, Francisco J.
2729:Schrepfer, Susan R.
2474:, pp. 526â539.
2425:, pp. 268â270.
2034:Thomas Henry Huxley
2004:Thomas Henry Huxley
1975:Scientific American
1953:Simon Conway Morris
1875:Scientific American
1832:Edward Drinker Cope
1819:Edward Drinker Cope
1673:Directed additivity
1667:Teilhard de Chardin
873:Law of acceleration
810:Purposeful creation
704:
454:Albert von Kölliker
444:Karl Ernst von Baer
428:Karl Ernst von Baer
420:Reviewing Darwin's
351:Aristotle's biology
302:towards fixed goals
165:Simon Conway Morris
6240:Cultural evolution
5355:Fisher's principle
5284:Handicap principle
5274:Parallel evolution
5138:Adaptive radiation
5019:Simpson, George G.
4903:. Modern Library.
4564:see, for example,
4428:Gould, Stephen Jay
4046:Gould, Stephen Jay
3936:(Third ed.).
3653:10.1007/bf00365385
3599:Systematic Biology
3391:John Merle Coulter
3280:Gould, Stephen Jay
3166:. Chapters 10, 14.
2845:Gould, Stephen Jay
2785:Gould, Stephen Jay
2632:Gould, Stephen Jay
2329:Directed evolution
2157:
2075:
2018:
1994:In popular culture
1982:The discipline of
1928:
1880:
1824:
1781:Physics, Chemistry
1720:Vladimir Vernadsky
1438:dauermodifications
1123:Creative Evolution
699:
619:David Starr Jordan
615:John Merle Coulter
611:Maynard M. Metcalf
531:
436:
338:
281:Francisco J. Ayala
268:Susan R. Schrepfer
214:
131:was introduced by
63:
35:
6340:
6339:
5956:Uniformitarianism
5909:Sex-determination
5414:Sexual dimorphism
5409:Natural selection
5313:Unit of selection
5279:Signalling theory
5002:What Evolution Is
4936:978-0-674-03248-4
4910:978-0-679-64288-6
4889:978-0-393-31570-7
4863:978-0-520-06385-3
4837:978-0-8018-4391-4
4651:(1161): 489â511.
4586:978-0-262-13419-4
4571:Newman, Stuart A.
4518:(31 March 2010).
4497:978-1-4051-5625-7
4472:978-0-521-80317-5
4447:978-0-674-00613-3
4398:978-0-674-36446-2
4291:978-1-876646-23-3
4178:978-0-7546-0587-4
4065:978-0-674-00613-3
3951:978-0-203-91100-6
3806:978-1-4020-4956-9
3725:(10): 1852â1862.
3522:978-0-8229-6151-2
3299:978-0-674-00613-3
3265:978-0-19-515619-5
3231:978-0-521-54198-5
3191:978-0-520-24684-3
3124:978-1-936883-14-1
3094:978-0-8109-5748-0
3064:978-0-520-06283-2
3036:978-0-8204-7231-7
3011:978-1-60021-612-1
2974:978-1-890688-08-0
2864:978-0-393-06425-4
2831:, pp. 21â23.
2800:978-0-609-80140-6
2770:978-0-226-58693-9
2742:978-0-299-08854-5
2679:978-0-86554-498-7
2651:978-0-674-00613-3
2542:to R. H. Flower,
2449:978-0-674-89666-6
2402:978-0-09-928583-0
2389:Gould, Stephen J.
2313:Adaptive mutation
2263:pattern formation
2257:by the available
2083:Man is But a Worm
2063:Man is But a Worm
2047:Stephen Jay Gould
2022:March of Progress
1988:self-organization
1916:of the sciences.
1803:
1802:
1414:Directed mutation
1010:natural selection
1005:Origin of Species
623:Charles B. Lipman
581:who rejected any
565:in his 1890 book
486:Origin of Species
423:Origin of Species
286:Stephen Jay Gould
195:March of Progress
141:natural selection
6385:
6330:
6320:
6319:
6119:Modern synthesis
5879:Multicellularity
5874:Mosaic evolution
5759:auditory ossicle
5441:Social selection
5424:Flowering plants
5419:Sexual selection
5072:
5065:
5058:
5049:
5048:
5032:13 October 2004.
5015:
4951:Bateson, William
4940:
4928:
4914:
4893:
4881:
4872:Dawkins, Richard
4867:
4855:
4846:Bowler, Peter J.
4841:
4824:Bowler, Peter J.
4811:
4810:
4800:
4783:(3): 1567â1577.
4768:
4762:
4756:
4750:
4744:
4738:
4732:
4726:
4720:
4714:
4708:
4697:
4691:
4685:
4684:
4637:Dawkins, Richard
4633:
4627:
4626:
4624:
4622:
4604:
4591:
4590:
4562:
4556:
4550:
4544:
4538:
4532:
4531:
4529:
4527:
4512:
4506:
4505:
4483:
4477:
4476:
4458:
4452:
4451:
4424:
4418:
4412:
4403:
4402:
4381:
4375:
4369:
4363:
4357:
4348:
4347:
4329:
4323:
4322:
4302:
4296:
4295:
4275:
4269:
4268:
4250:
4244:
4243:
4221:
4210:
4209:
4189:
4183:
4182:
4164:
4158:
4157:
4121:
4115:
4114:
4100:
4094:
4088:
4082:
4076:
4070:
4069:
4042:
4036:
4035:
4033:
4024:(631): 188â192.
4009:
4003:
4002:
3974:
3968:
3962:
3956:
3955:
3927:
3921:
3920:
3918:
3917:
3896:
3890:
3884:
3878:
3872:
3866:
3865:
3857:
3851:
3850:
3848:
3846:
3841:on 15 April 2017
3837:. Archived from
3830:
3811:
3810:
3790:
3784:
3783:
3773:
3749:
3743:
3742:
3714:
3708:
3707:
3671:
3665:
3664:
3630:
3621:
3615:
3614:
3594:
3588:
3587:
3567:
3561:
3560:
3551:(3â4): 481â483.
3542:
3533:
3527:
3526:
3508:
3499:
3498:
3473:(643): 105â115.
3462:
3456:
3455:
3404:
3398:
3388:
3382:
3381:
3353:
3347:
3346:
3340:
3336:
3334:
3326:
3315:
3304:
3303:
3276:
3270:
3269:
3242:
3236:
3235:
3217:
3208:
3202:
3196:
3195:
3177:
3168:
3167:
3154:
3141:
3135:
3129:
3128:
3108:
3099:
3098:
3075:
3069:
3068:
3050:
3041:
3040:
3022:
3016:
3015:
2997:
2991:
2985:
2979:
2978:
2958:
2947:
2941:
2935:
2934:
2932:
2930:
2906:
2900:
2899:
2893:
2889:
2887:
2879:
2877:
2876:
2867:. Archived from
2841:
2832:
2826:
2817:
2811:
2805:
2804:
2781:
2775:
2774:
2753:
2747:
2746:
2725:
2719:
2718:
2701:(643): 116â133.
2690:
2684:
2683:
2665:
2656:
2655:
2628:
2622:
2621:
2615:
2606:
2573:
2572:
2566:
2553:
2547:
2536:
2527:
2521:
2510:
2509:
2481:
2475:
2469:
2454:
2453:
2432:
2426:
2420:
2407:
2406:
2385:
2301:MĂŒllerian mimics
2232:
2221:Heliconius erato
2216:
2197:modern synthesis
2107:
2087:Punch's Almanack
2071:Punch's Almanack
2029:The Boston Globe
1901:modern synthesis
1776:Autoevolutionism
1563:
1411:
1389:Start is random
1193:Combined theory
1016:: parents could
705:
698:
664:modern synthesis
639:Otto Schindewolf
633:populations and
252:Michael F. Guyer
237:
229:
149:modern synthesis
68:, also known as
6393:
6392:
6388:
6387:
6386:
6384:
6383:
6382:
6343:
6342:
6341:
6336:
6308:
6235:Group selection
6208:
6133:
6037:
5964:
5926:Tempo and modes
5920:
5775:
5679:
5496:
5455:
5331:
5324:
5301:Species complex
5114:
5105:History of life
5081:
5076:
5039:
5012:
4996:
4965:Dennett, Daniel
4947:
4945:Further reading
4937:
4911:
4890:
4864:
4838:
4819:
4814:
4769:
4765:
4757:
4753:
4745:
4741:
4733:
4729:
4721:
4717:
4709:
4700:
4692:
4688:
4634:
4630:
4620:
4618:
4605:
4594:
4587:
4573:, eds. (2003).
4567:MĂŒller, Gerd B.
4563:
4559:
4551:
4547:
4539:
4535:
4525:
4523:
4513:
4509:
4498:
4484:
4480:
4473:
4459:
4455:
4448:
4425:
4421:
4413:
4406:
4399:
4382:
4378:
4370:
4366:
4358:
4351:
4344:
4330:
4326:
4303:
4299:
4292:
4276:
4272:
4265:
4251:
4247:
4222:
4213:
4190:
4186:
4179:
4165:
4161:
4122:
4118:
4101:
4097:
4089:
4085:
4077:
4073:
4066:
4043:
4039:
4010:
4006:
3975:
3971:
3963:
3959:
3952:
3928:
3924:
3915:
3913:
3897:
3893:
3885:
3881:
3873:
3869:
3858:
3854:
3844:
3842:
3831:
3814:
3807:
3791:
3787:
3750:
3746:
3715:
3711:
3672:
3668:
3639:(10): 527â528.
3628:
3622:
3618:
3595:
3591:
3568:
3564:
3540:
3534:
3530:
3523:
3509:
3502:
3463:
3459:
3422:(1331): 13â14.
3405:
3401:
3389:
3385:
3354:
3350:
3338:
3337:
3328:
3327:
3316:
3307:
3300:
3277:
3273:
3266:
3243:
3239:
3232:
3218:
3211:
3203:
3199:
3192:
3178:
3171:
3158:Darwin, Charles
3155:
3144:
3136:
3132:
3125:
3109:
3102:
3095:
3076:
3072:
3065:
3051:
3044:
3037:
3023:
3019:
3012:
2998:
2994:
2986:
2982:
2975:
2959:
2950:
2942:
2938:
2928:
2926:
2907:
2903:
2891:
2890:
2881:
2880:
2874:
2872:
2865:
2842:
2835:
2827:
2820:
2812:
2808:
2801:
2782:
2778:
2771:
2754:
2750:
2743:
2726:
2722:
2691:
2687:
2680:
2666:
2659:
2652:
2629:
2625:
2613:
2607:
2576:
2554:
2550:
2537:
2530:
2522:
2513:
2482:
2478:
2470:
2457:
2450:
2433:
2429:
2421:
2410:
2403:
2386:
2377:
2373:
2309:
2275:
2269:
2268:
2267:
2266:
2249:butterfly have
2242:
2241:
2240:
2233:
2225:
2224:
2217:
2206:
2166:Richard Dawkins
2162:
2134:F. Clark Howell
2110:Neanderthal man
2105:
2024:
1996:
1970:Washington D.C.
1884:paleontologists
1878:, 11 March 1876
1858:
1853:
1740:Panbiogeography
1737:
1685:
1676:
1624:Cell and Psyche
1557:
1440:, passed on by
1405:
1305:TrÀgheitsgesetz
1048:Accompanied by
949:
693:
687:
679:mutation biased
606:
600:
521:evolved into a
414:
400:Robert Chambers
367:
343:
318:
293:Peter J. Bowler
236:ÎłÎΜΔÏÎčÏ gĂ©nesis
220:
204:
17:
12:
11:
5:
6391:
6381:
6380:
6375:
6370:
6365:
6360:
6355:
6338:
6337:
6335:
6334:
6324:
6313:
6310:
6309:
6307:
6306:
6301:
6296:
6291:
6286:
6285:
6284:
6274:
6269:
6264:
6259:
6254:
6253:
6252:
6247:
6242:
6232:
6227:
6222:
6216:
6214:
6210:
6209:
6207:
6206:
6201:
6200:
6199:
6194:
6189:
6188:
6187:
6177:
6172:
6167:
6162:
6157:
6147:
6141:
6139:
6135:
6134:
6132:
6131:
6126:
6121:
6116:
6111:
6106:
6101:
6096:
6091:
6086:
6085:
6084:
6075:Charles Darwin
6072:
6071:
6070:
6058:
6053:
6047:
6045:
6039:
6038:
6036:
6035:
6030:
6025:
6020:
6015:
6013:Non-ecological
6010:
6005:
6000:
5995:
5990:
5985:
5980:
5974:
5972:
5966:
5965:
5963:
5962:
5953:
5944:
5930:
5928:
5922:
5921:
5919:
5918:
5913:
5912:
5911:
5906:
5901:
5896:
5891:
5881:
5876:
5871:
5866:
5861:
5856:
5851:
5846:
5841:
5836:
5831:
5830:
5829:
5819:
5814:
5809:
5804:
5803:
5802:
5797:
5786:
5784:
5777:
5776:
5774:
5773:
5772:
5771:
5766:
5764:nervous system
5761:
5756:
5751:
5743:
5742:
5741:
5736:
5731:
5726:
5721:
5716:
5706:
5701:
5696:
5690:
5688:
5681:
5680:
5678:
5677:
5672:
5667:
5662:
5657:
5656:
5655:
5645:
5644:
5643:
5638:
5637:
5636:
5631:
5621:
5616:
5611:
5606:
5601:
5600:
5599:
5594:
5584:
5574:
5569:
5568:
5567:
5557:
5552:
5547:
5542:
5541:
5540:
5530:
5525:
5524:
5523:
5513:
5507:
5505:
5498:
5497:
5495:
5494:
5489:
5484:
5479:
5474:
5469:
5463:
5461:
5457:
5456:
5454:
5453:
5448:
5443:
5438:
5437:
5436:
5431:
5426:
5416:
5411:
5406:
5401:
5396:
5395:
5394:
5389:
5379:
5374:
5369:
5368:
5367:
5357:
5352:
5347:
5342:
5336:
5334:
5326:
5325:
5323:
5322:
5321:
5320:
5310:
5305:
5304:
5303:
5298:
5288:
5287:
5286:
5276:
5271:
5266:
5264:Origin of life
5261:
5256:
5251:
5249:Microevolution
5246:
5244:Macroevolution
5241:
5236:
5231:
5230:
5229:
5219:
5214:
5209:
5204:
5199:
5194:
5189:
5184:
5182:Common descent
5179:
5178:
5177:
5167:
5162:
5160:Baldwin effect
5157:
5156:
5155:
5150:
5140:
5135:
5130:
5124:
5122:
5116:
5115:
5113:
5112:
5107:
5102:
5097:
5092:
5086:
5083:
5082:
5075:
5074:
5067:
5060:
5052:
5046:
5045:
5038:
5037:External links
5035:
5034:
5033:
5026:
5016:
5010:
4994:
4985:Huxley, Julian
4982:
4979:978-0140167344
4962:
4946:
4943:
4942:
4941:
4935:
4915:
4909:
4894:
4888:
4868:
4862:
4842:
4836:
4818:
4815:
4813:
4812:
4763:
4761:, p. 270.
4751:
4739:
4737:, p. 181.
4727:
4725:, p. 178.
4715:
4713:, p. 468.
4698:
4696:, p. 466.
4686:
4628:
4592:
4585:
4557:
4555:, p. 530.
4545:
4543:, p. 536.
4533:
4507:
4496:
4478:
4471:
4453:
4446:
4419:
4417:, p. 127.
4404:
4397:
4376:
4374:, p. 264.
4364:
4349:
4343:978-0444809636
4342:
4324:
4313:(4): 787â806.
4297:
4290:
4270:
4263:
4245:
4234:(5): 245â255.
4211:
4206:10.1086/281018
4184:
4177:
4159:
4116:
4095:
4093:, p. 157.
4083:
4081:, p. 395.
4071:
4064:
4037:
4031:10.1086/279751
4004:
3969:
3957:
3950:
3922:
3891:
3879:
3877:, p. 189.
3867:
3852:
3812:
3805:
3785:
3764:(5): 637â647.
3744:
3709:
3666:
3616:
3605:(4): 515â532.
3589:
3578:(6): 479â500.
3562:
3528:
3521:
3500:
3479:10.1086/279851
3457:
3399:
3383:
3370:10.1086/279329
3364:(554): 65â71.
3348:
3305:
3298:
3271:
3264:
3237:
3230:
3209:
3197:
3190:
3169:
3142:
3130:
3123:
3100:
3093:
3070:
3063:
3042:
3035:
3017:
3010:
2992:
2980:
2973:
2948:
2946:, p. 134.
2936:
2925:on 1 July 2022
2901:
2863:
2833:
2818:
2816:, p. 261.
2806:
2799:
2776:
2769:
2748:
2741:
2720:
2707:10.1086/279852
2685:
2678:
2657:
2650:
2623:
2574:
2548:
2528:
2526:, p. 447.
2511:
2476:
2455:
2448:
2427:
2408:
2401:
2374:
2372:
2369:
2368:
2367:
2362:
2357:
2352:
2347:
2342:
2337:
2332:
2326:
2321:
2315:
2308:
2305:
2271:Main article:
2244:
2243:
2234:
2227:
2226:
2218:
2211:
2210:
2209:
2208:
2207:
2205:
2202:
2161:
2158:
2103:The New Yorker
2099:Sistine Chapel
2052:Wonderful Life
1995:
1992:
1857:
1854:
1852:
1849:
1815:divine control
1801:
1800:
1797:
1794:
1791:
1788:
1785:
1782:
1779:
1772:
1768:
1767:
1757:
1755:
1753:
1751:
1749:
1746:
1743:
1730:
1724:
1723:
1701:
1698:
1696:
1694:
1692:
1689:
1682:
1669:
1663:
1662:
1656:
1654:
1652:
1649:
1647:
1644:
1641:
1634:
1628:
1627:
1620:
1617:
1615:
1613:
1611:
1608:
1605:
1598:
1592:
1591:
1586:
1584:
1581:
1579:
1577:
1574:
1571:
1564:
1551:
1550:
1543:
1540:
1538:
1536:
1534:
1531:
1528:
1521:
1515:
1514:
1511:
1508:
1506:
1504:
1502:
1499:
1496:
1489:
1483:
1482:
1480:
1478:
1475:
1472:
1469:
1466:
1463:
1456:
1450:
1449:
1430:
1428:
1426:
1424:
1421:
1418:
1415:
1412:
1399:
1398:
1387:
1385:
1382:
1380:
1377:
1374:
1371:
1368:
1362:
1361:
1358:
1356:
1354:
1352:
1349:
1346:
1343:
1336:
1330:
1329:
1322:
1320:
1318:
1316:
1314:
1311:
1308:
1302:
1296:
1295:
1292:
1290:
1287:
1284:
1281:
1278:
1275:
1268:
1262:
1261:
1255:
1253:
1250:
1247:
1244:
1241:
1238:
1235:
1229:
1228:
1223:
1221:
1219:
1217:
1214:
1211:
1208:
1201:
1195:
1194:
1191:
1189:
1186:
1183:
1180:
1177:
1174:
1167:Orthoselection
1163:
1157:
1156:
1154:
1152:
1150:
1148:
1146:
1143:
1140:
1133:
1127:
1126:
1119:
1116:
1114:
1112:
1110:
1107:
1104:
1097:
1091:
1090:
1080:
1078:
1075:
1073:
1071:
1068:
1065:
1062:
1056:
1055:
1046:
1044:
1042:
1040:
1037:
1034:
1031:
1028:
1022:
1021:
1001:
999:
996:
994:
991:
988:
985:
979:
973:
972:
966:
964:
962:
960:
957:
954:
951:
948:Progressionism
946:
940:
939:
932:
930:
927:
925:
922:
919:
916:
909:
903:
902:
891:
889:
887:
885:
882:
879:
876:
869:
863:
862:
859:
857:
855:
853:
850:
847:
844:
837:
831:
830:
827:
825:
823:
821:
819:
816:
813:
806:
800:
799:
770:
768:
766:
764:
761:
758:
755:
748:
742:
741:
738:
733:
731:Nat. Sel.
728:
723:
718:
715:
712:
709:
686:
683:
672:Bernard Rensch
655:orthoselection
599:
596:
563:neo-Lamarckism
476:Charles Darwin
413:
410:
392:Erasmus Darwin
387:Charles Darwin
366:
363:
342:
339:
324:The mediaeval
317:
314:
240:Wilhelm Haacke
203:
200:
133:Wilhelm Haacke
82:progressionism
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6390:
6379:
6376:
6374:
6371:
6369:
6366:
6364:
6361:
6359:
6356:
6354:
6351:
6350:
6348:
6333:
6329:
6325:
6323:
6315:
6314:
6311:
6305:
6302:
6300:
6297:
6295:
6292:
6290:
6287:
6283:
6280:
6279:
6278:
6277:Phylogenetics
6275:
6273:
6270:
6268:
6265:
6263:
6260:
6258:
6255:
6251:
6248:
6246:
6243:
6241:
6238:
6237:
6236:
6233:
6231:
6228:
6226:
6223:
6221:
6218:
6217:
6215:
6211:
6205:
6202:
6198:
6195:
6193:
6190:
6186:
6183:
6182:
6181:
6180:Structuralism
6178:
6176:
6173:
6171:
6168:
6166:
6163:
6161:
6158:
6156:
6155:Catastrophism
6153:
6152:
6151:
6148:
6146:
6143:
6142:
6140:
6136:
6130:
6127:
6125:
6122:
6120:
6117:
6115:
6114:Neo-Darwinism
6112:
6110:
6107:
6105:
6102:
6100:
6097:
6095:
6092:
6090:
6087:
6083:
6082:
6078:
6077:
6076:
6073:
6069:
6068:
6064:
6063:
6062:
6059:
6057:
6054:
6052:
6049:
6048:
6046:
6044:
6040:
6034:
6031:
6029:
6028:Reinforcement
6026:
6024:
6021:
6019:
6016:
6014:
6011:
6009:
6006:
6004:
6001:
5999:
5996:
5994:
5991:
5989:
5986:
5984:
5981:
5979:
5976:
5975:
5973:
5971:
5967:
5961:
5960:Catastrophism
5957:
5954:
5952:
5951:Macromutation
5948:
5947:Micromutation
5945:
5943:
5939:
5935:
5932:
5931:
5929:
5927:
5923:
5917:
5914:
5910:
5907:
5905:
5902:
5900:
5897:
5895:
5892:
5890:
5887:
5886:
5885:
5882:
5880:
5877:
5875:
5872:
5870:
5867:
5865:
5862:
5860:
5857:
5855:
5854:Immune system
5852:
5850:
5847:
5845:
5842:
5840:
5837:
5835:
5832:
5828:
5825:
5824:
5823:
5820:
5818:
5815:
5813:
5810:
5808:
5805:
5801:
5798:
5796:
5793:
5792:
5791:
5788:
5787:
5785:
5783:
5778:
5770:
5767:
5765:
5762:
5760:
5757:
5755:
5752:
5750:
5747:
5746:
5744:
5740:
5737:
5735:
5732:
5730:
5727:
5725:
5722:
5720:
5717:
5715:
5714:symbiogenesis
5712:
5711:
5710:
5707:
5705:
5702:
5700:
5697:
5695:
5692:
5691:
5689:
5687:
5682:
5676:
5673:
5671:
5668:
5666:
5663:
5661:
5658:
5654:
5651:
5650:
5649:
5646:
5642:
5639:
5635:
5632:
5630:
5627:
5626:
5625:
5622:
5620:
5617:
5615:
5612:
5610:
5607:
5605:
5602:
5598:
5595:
5593:
5590:
5589:
5588:
5585:
5583:
5580:
5579:
5578:
5575:
5573:
5570:
5566:
5563:
5562:
5561:
5558:
5556:
5553:
5551:
5548:
5546:
5543:
5539:
5536:
5535:
5534:
5531:
5529:
5526:
5522:
5519:
5518:
5517:
5514:
5512:
5509:
5508:
5506:
5504:
5499:
5493:
5490:
5488:
5485:
5483:
5480:
5478:
5475:
5473:
5470:
5468:
5465:
5464:
5462:
5458:
5452:
5449:
5447:
5444:
5442:
5439:
5435:
5432:
5430:
5427:
5425:
5422:
5421:
5420:
5417:
5415:
5412:
5410:
5407:
5405:
5402:
5400:
5397:
5393:
5390:
5388:
5385:
5384:
5383:
5382:Kin selection
5380:
5378:
5377:Genetic drift
5375:
5373:
5370:
5366:
5363:
5362:
5361:
5358:
5356:
5353:
5351:
5348:
5346:
5343:
5341:
5338:
5337:
5335:
5333:
5327:
5319:
5316:
5315:
5314:
5311:
5309:
5306:
5302:
5299:
5297:
5294:
5293:
5292:
5289:
5285:
5282:
5281:
5280:
5277:
5275:
5272:
5270:
5267:
5265:
5262:
5260:
5257:
5255:
5252:
5250:
5247:
5245:
5242:
5240:
5237:
5235:
5232:
5228:
5225:
5224:
5223:
5220:
5218:
5215:
5213:
5210:
5208:
5205:
5203:
5200:
5198:
5195:
5193:
5190:
5188:
5185:
5183:
5180:
5176:
5173:
5172:
5171:
5168:
5166:
5163:
5161:
5158:
5154:
5151:
5149:
5146:
5145:
5144:
5141:
5139:
5136:
5134:
5131:
5129:
5126:
5125:
5123:
5121:
5117:
5111:
5108:
5106:
5103:
5101:
5098:
5096:
5093:
5091:
5088:
5087:
5084:
5080:
5073:
5068:
5066:
5061:
5059:
5054:
5053:
5050:
5044:
5041:
5040:
5031:
5027:
5024:
5020:
5017:
5013:
5011:9780297607410
5007:
5003:
4999:
4995:
4992:
4991:
4986:
4983:
4980:
4976:
4972:
4971:
4966:
4963:
4960:
4956:
4952:
4949:
4948:
4938:
4932:
4927:
4926:
4920:
4919:Ruse, Michael
4916:
4912:
4906:
4902:
4901:
4895:
4891:
4885:
4880:
4879:
4873:
4869:
4865:
4859:
4854:
4853:
4847:
4843:
4839:
4833:
4829:
4825:
4821:
4820:
4808:
4804:
4799:
4794:
4790:
4786:
4782:
4778:
4774:
4767:
4760:
4755:
4748:
4743:
4736:
4731:
4724:
4719:
4712:
4707:
4705:
4703:
4695:
4690:
4682:
4678:
4674:
4670:
4666:
4662:
4658:
4654:
4650:
4646:
4642:
4638:
4632:
4617:
4616:
4610:
4603:
4601:
4599:
4597:
4588:
4582:
4578:
4577:
4572:
4568:
4561:
4554:
4549:
4542:
4537:
4521:
4517:
4516:Ruse, Michael
4511:
4504:
4499:
4493:
4489:
4482:
4474:
4468:
4464:
4457:
4449:
4443:
4439:
4435:
4434:
4429:
4423:
4416:
4411:
4409:
4400:
4394:
4390:
4386:
4380:
4373:
4368:
4361:
4356:
4354:
4345:
4339:
4335:
4328:
4320:
4316:
4312:
4308:
4301:
4293:
4287:
4283:
4282:
4274:
4266:
4264:1-902210-30-1
4260:
4256:
4249:
4241:
4237:
4233:
4229:
4228:
4220:
4218:
4216:
4207:
4203:
4199:
4195:
4188:
4180:
4174:
4170:
4163:
4155:
4151:
4147:
4143:
4139:
4135:
4131:
4127:
4120:
4113:
4109:
4105:
4099:
4092:
4087:
4080:
4075:
4067:
4061:
4057:
4053:
4052:
4047:
4041:
4032:
4027:
4023:
4019:
4015:
4008:
4000:
3996:
3992:
3988:
3984:
3980:
3973:
3966:
3961:
3953:
3947:
3943:
3939:
3938:Marcel Dekker
3935:
3934:
3926:
3911:
3910:
3905:
3901:
3895:
3888:
3883:
3876:
3871:
3863:
3856:
3840:
3836:
3829:
3827:
3825:
3823:
3821:
3819:
3817:
3808:
3802:
3798:
3797:
3789:
3781:
3777:
3772:
3767:
3763:
3759:
3755:
3748:
3740:
3736:
3732:
3728:
3724:
3720:
3713:
3705:
3701:
3697:
3693:
3689:
3685:
3681:
3677:
3670:
3662:
3658:
3654:
3650:
3646:
3642:
3638:
3634:
3627:
3620:
3612:
3608:
3604:
3600:
3593:
3585:
3581:
3577:
3573:
3566:
3558:
3554:
3550:
3546:
3539:
3532:
3524:
3518:
3514:
3507:
3505:
3496:
3492:
3488:
3484:
3480:
3476:
3472:
3468:
3461:
3453:
3449:
3445:
3441:
3437:
3433:
3429:
3425:
3421:
3417:
3413:
3409:
3403:
3396:
3392:
3387:
3379:
3375:
3371:
3367:
3363:
3359:
3352:
3344:
3332:
3324:
3320:
3314:
3312:
3310:
3301:
3295:
3291:
3287:
3286:
3281:
3275:
3267:
3261:
3257:
3253:
3252:
3247:
3241:
3233:
3227:
3223:
3216:
3214:
3206:
3201:
3193:
3187:
3183:
3176:
3174:
3165:
3164:
3159:
3153:
3151:
3149:
3147:
3139:
3134:
3126:
3120:
3116:
3115:
3107:
3105:
3096:
3090:
3086:
3085:
3080:
3074:
3066:
3060:
3056:
3049:
3047:
3038:
3032:
3028:
3021:
3013:
3007:
3003:
2996:
2990:, p. 29.
2989:
2984:
2976:
2970:
2966:
2965:
2957:
2955:
2953:
2945:
2940:
2924:
2920:
2916:
2912:
2905:
2897:
2885:
2871:on 2019-12-16
2870:
2866:
2860:
2856:
2852:
2851:
2846:
2840:
2838:
2830:
2825:
2823:
2815:
2810:
2802:
2796:
2792:
2791:
2786:
2780:
2772:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2752:
2744:
2738:
2734:
2730:
2724:
2716:
2712:
2708:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2689:
2681:
2675:
2671:
2664:
2662:
2653:
2647:
2643:
2639:
2638:
2633:
2627:
2620:(11): 99â138.
2619:
2612:
2605:
2603:
2601:
2599:
2597:
2595:
2593:
2591:
2589:
2587:
2585:
2583:
2581:
2579:
2570:
2565:
2564:
2558:
2552:
2545:
2541:
2535:
2533:
2525:
2520:
2518:
2516:
2507:
2503:
2499:
2495:
2491:
2487:
2480:
2473:
2468:
2466:
2464:
2462:
2460:
2451:
2445:
2441:
2437:
2431:
2424:
2419:
2417:
2415:
2413:
2404:
2398:
2394:
2390:
2384:
2382:
2380:
2375:
2366:
2363:
2361:
2358:
2356:
2355:Structuralism
2353:
2351:
2348:
2346:
2343:
2341:
2338:
2336:
2333:
2330:
2327:
2325:
2322:
2319:
2316:
2314:
2311:
2310:
2304:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2293:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2274:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2239:
2238:
2231:
2223:
2222:
2215:
2201:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2189:pseudoscience
2186:
2181:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2154:
2150:
2145:
2141:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2093:'s figure of
2092:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2054:
2053:
2048:
2044:
2039:
2035:
2032:, notes that
2031:
2030:
2023:
2015:
2011:
2010:
2005:
2000:
1991:
1989:
1985:
1980:
1977:
1976:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1915:
1911:
1906:
1902:
1896:
1891:
1889:
1888:fossil record
1885:
1877:
1876:
1871:
1867:
1866:Ernst Haeckel
1862:
1848:
1846:
1845:palaeontology
1842:
1838:
1833:
1829:
1820:
1816:
1811:
1807:
1798:
1795:
1792:
1789:
1786:
1783:
1780:
1778:
1777:
1773:
1771:Lima-de-Faria
1770:
1769:
1766:
1762:
1758:
1756:
1754:
1752:
1750:
1747:
1744:
1742:
1741:
1736:
1735:
1731:
1729:
1726:
1725:
1721:
1718:concept from
1717:
1716:
1711:
1707:
1706:
1702:
1699:
1697:
1695:
1693:
1690:
1688:
1684:Palaeontology
1683:
1681:
1680:
1675:
1674:
1670:
1668:
1665:
1664:
1660:
1657:
1655:
1653:
1650:
1648:
1645:
1643:Palaeontology
1642:
1640:
1639:
1638:Typostrophism
1635:
1633:
1630:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1618:
1616:
1614:
1612:
1609:
1606:
1604:
1603:
1599:
1597:
1594:
1593:
1590:
1587:
1585:
1582:
1580:
1578:
1575:
1572:
1570:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1556:
1553:
1552:
1548:
1547:Human Destiny
1544:
1541:
1539:
1537:
1535:
1532:
1529:
1527:
1526:
1522:
1520:
1517:
1516:
1512:
1509:
1507:
1505:
1503:
1500:
1497:
1495:
1494:
1490:
1488:
1485:
1484:
1481:
1479:
1476:
1473:
1470:
1467:
1465:Palaeontology
1464:
1462:
1461:
1460:Aristogenesis
1457:
1455:
1452:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1431:
1429:
1427:
1425:
1422:
1419:
1416:
1413:
1409:
1404:
1403:Victor Jollos
1401:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1386:
1383:
1381:
1378:
1375:
1373:Palaeontology
1372:
1369:
1367:
1364:
1363:
1359:
1357:
1355:
1353:
1350:
1347:
1344:
1342:
1341:
1337:
1335:
1332:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1321:
1319:
1317:
1315:
1312:
1310:Palaeontology
1309:
1306:
1303:
1301:
1298:
1297:
1293:
1291:
1288:
1285:
1282:
1279:
1276:
1274:
1273:
1269:
1267:
1264:
1263:
1259:
1256:
1254:
1251:
1248:
1245:
1242:
1239:
1236:
1234:
1231:
1230:
1227:
1224:
1222:
1220:
1218:
1215:
1212:
1209:
1207:
1206:
1202:
1200:
1197:
1196:
1192:
1190:
1187:
1184:
1181:
1178:
1175:
1173:
1172:Old-Darwinism
1169:
1168:
1164:
1162:
1159:
1158:
1155:
1153:
1151:
1149:
1147:
1144:
1141:
1139:
1138:
1134:
1132:
1129:
1128:
1125:
1124:
1120:
1117:
1115:
1113:
1111:
1108:
1105:
1103:
1102:
1098:
1096:
1093:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1081:
1079:
1076:
1074:
1072:
1069:
1066:
1063:
1061:
1058:
1057:
1053:
1052:
1047:
1045:
1043:
1041:
1038:
1035:
1032:
1029:
1027:
1024:
1023:
1020:in lifetime.
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1006:
1002:
1000:
997:
995:
992:
989:
986:
984:
980:
978:
975:
974:
971:
967:
965:
963:
961:
958:
955:
953:Social theory
952:
947:
945:
942:
941:
937:
933:
931:
928:
926:
923:
920:
917:
915:
914:
910:
908:
905:
904:
900:
896:
892:
890:
888:
886:
883:
880:
878:Palaeontology
877:
875:
874:
870:
868:
865:
864:
860:
858:
856:
854:
851:
848:
845:
843:
842:
841:Heterogenesis
838:
836:
833:
832:
828:
826:
824:
822:
820:
817:
814:
812:
811:
807:
805:
802:
801:
797:
793:
789:
785:
781:
777:
776:
771:
769:
767:
765:
762:
759:
756:
754:
753:
749:
747:
744:
743:
739:
737:
734:
732:
729:
727:
724:
722:
719:
716:
713:
710:
707:
706:
703:
697:
692:
682:
680:
675:
673:
669:
668:Julian Huxley
665:
661:
656:
650:
648:
644:
640:
636:
632:
628:
624:
620:
616:
612:
605:
595:
593:
588:
584:
580:
576:
572:
568:
564:
560:
556:
552:
548:
544:
540:
539:Theodor Eimer
536:
528:
524:
520:
516:
515:
514:aristogenesis
510:
506:
501:
495:
490:
488:
487:
482:
477:
473:
469:
468:Gregor Mendel
465:
461:
460:
459:heterogenesis
455:
451:
450:
445:
441:
433:
429:
425:
424:
418:
409:
407:
406:
401:
397:
393:
388:
384:
380:
376:
372:
365:Pre-Darwinian
362:
360:
356:
352:
348:
335:
331:
327:
322:
313:
311:
305:
303:
296:
294:
289:
287:
282:
276:
271:
269:
266:According to
263:
261:
255:
253:
248:
245:
244:Theodor Eimer
241:
233:
225:
219:
212:
211:Theodor Eimer
208:
199:
197:
196:
191:
186:
184:
180:
176:
175:
170:
166:
162:
158:
154:
150:
146:
142:
138:
137:Theodor Eimer
134:
130:
125:
123:
122:Henri Bergson
119:
115:
111:
107:
103:
99:
95:
91:
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
39:
32:
31:Ernst Haeckel
28:
23:
19:
6353:Orthogenesis
6289:Polymorphism
6272:Astrobiology
6220:Biogeography
6175:Saltationism
6165:Orthogenesis
6164:
6150:Alternatives
6079:
6065:
5998:Cospeciation
5993:Cladogenesis
5942:Saltationism
5899:Mating types
5822:Color vision
5807:Avian flight
5729:mitochondria
5467:Canalisation
5345:Biodiversity
5090:Introduction
5022:
5001:
4988:
4968:
4958:
4924:
4899:
4877:
4851:
4827:
4780:
4776:
4766:
4754:
4742:
4735:Dawkins 1986
4730:
4723:Dawkins 1986
4718:
4689:
4648:
4644:
4641:Krebs, J. R.
4631:
4619:. Retrieved
4615:Boston Globe
4612:
4579:. Bradford.
4575:
4560:
4548:
4536:
4524:. Retrieved
4510:
4501:
4487:
4481:
4462:
4456:
4432:
4422:
4388:
4379:
4367:
4336:. Elsevier.
4333:
4327:
4310:
4306:
4300:
4280:
4273:
4254:
4248:
4231:
4225:
4197:
4193:
4187:
4168:
4162:
4129:
4125:
4119:
4111:
4107:
4098:
4086:
4074:
4050:
4040:
4021:
4017:
4007:
3982:
3978:
3972:
3960:
3932:
3925:
3914:. Retrieved
3908:
3894:
3882:
3870:
3855:
3843:. Retrieved
3839:the original
3795:
3788:
3761:
3757:
3747:
3722:
3718:
3712:
3682:(2): 73â83.
3679:
3675:
3669:
3636:
3632:
3619:
3602:
3598:
3592:
3575:
3571:
3565:
3548:
3544:
3531:
3512:
3470:
3466:
3460:
3419:
3415:
3402:
3386:
3361:
3357:
3351:
3322:
3284:
3274:
3250:
3240:
3221:
3200:
3181:
3162:
3133:
3113:
3083:
3079:Mawer, Simon
3073:
3054:
3026:
3020:
3001:
2995:
2983:
2963:
2939:
2927:. Retrieved
2923:the original
2918:
2914:
2904:
2873:. Retrieved
2869:the original
2855:W. W. Norton
2849:
2809:
2789:
2779:
2760:
2751:
2732:
2723:
2698:
2694:
2688:
2669:
2636:
2626:
2617:
2562:
2551:
2543:
2538:Letter from
2489:
2485:
2479:
2439:
2430:
2392:
2340:Evolutionism
2290:
2276:
2246:
2235:
2219:
2184:
2182:
2163:
2152:
2137:
2122:Scopes Trial
2102:
2091:Michelangelo
2086:
2085:, drawn for
2082:
2076:
2070:
2062:
2050:
2043:Homo sapiens
2042:
2037:
2027:
2025:
2007:
1981:
1973:
1957:Michael Ruse
1949:E. O. Wilson
1940:orthogenesis
1939:
1935:
1929:
1898:
1893:
1881:
1873:
1869:
1826:The various
1825:
1774:
1738:
1732:
1713:
1703:
1677:
1671:
1658:
1636:
1623:
1600:
1588:
1566:
1546:
1525:Telefinalism
1523:
1491:
1458:
1441:
1437:
1395:palingenesis
1394:
1390:
1370:Orthogenesis
1338:
1304:
1270:
1257:
1237:Orthogenesis
1225:
1203:
1171:
1165:
1135:
1121:
1099:
1085:: trends in
1082:
1064:Orthogenesis
1049:
1030:Orthogenesis
1003:
970:Michael Ruse
911:
871:
839:
808:
773:
750:
694:
676:
654:
651:
607:
587:teleological
566:
542:
537:coloration,
532:
519:Titanotheres
512:
498:
494:progressed.
492:
484:
457:
447:
439:
437:
421:
403:
383:teleological
368:
358:
344:
333:
310:Michael Ruse
307:
298:
290:
278:
273:
265:
257:
249:
221:
193:
190:Michael Ruse
187:
172:
161:E. O. Wilson
129:orthogenesis
128:
126:
81:
77:
73:
69:
66:Orthogenesis
65:
64:
27:tree of life
18:
6299:Systematics
6170:Mutationism
5988:Catagenesis
5916:Snake venom
5849:Eusociality
5827:in primates
5817:Cooperation
5745:In animals
5565:butterflies
5538:Cephalopods
5528:Brachiopods
5460:Development
5434:Mate choice
5187:Convergence
5170:Coevolution
5128:Abiogenesis
4998:Mayr, Ernst
4882:. Longman.
4759:Bowler 1989
4621:29 December
4436:. pp.
4415:Larson 2004
4385:Mayr, Ernst
4372:Bowler 1989
4360:Bowler 1989
4132:(5): 5â52.
4091:Bowler 1983
3985:: 129â138.
3965:Bowler 1989
3339:|work=
2944:Bowler 1989
2892:|work=
2793:. Harmony.
2492:: 124â132.
2436:Mayr, Ernst
2423:Bowler 1989
2285:studied in
2279:facilitated
1710:Omega Point
1679:Omega Point
1632:Schindewolf
1558: [
1406: [
1391:metakinesis
1348:1930sâ1940s
1272:Nomogenesis
1260:posthumous
1205:Hologenesis
1051:epimorphism
899:Cope's rule
621:(1920) and
579:materialist
464:Carl NĂ€geli
412:With Darwin
151:, in which
88:biological
6347:Categories
6160:Lamarckism
6138:Philosophy
6061:David Hume
6023:Peripatric
6018:Parapatric
6003:Ecological
5983:Anagenesis
5978:Allopatric
5970:Speciation
5934:Gradualism
5859:Metabolism
5719:chromosome
5709:Eukaryotes
5487:Modularity
5404:Population
5330:Population
5291:Speciation
5269:Panspermia
5222:Extinction
5217:Exaptation
5192:Divergence
5165:Cladistics
5153:Reciprocal
5133:Adaptation
3916:2008-01-23
3393:. (1915).
2929:7 December
2875:2019-08-01
2540:Ernst Mayr
2371:References
2324:Devolution
2292:Heliconius
2247:Heliconius
2178:arms races
2174:John Krebs
1932:Ernst Mayr
1924:Ernst Mayr
1856:In science
1841:embryology
1568:Organicism
1530:Biophysics
1434:Lamarckism
1345:Physiology
1142:Embryology
1137:Apogenesis
1106:Philosophy
1101:Elan vital
1014:Lamarckian
983:Pangenesis
895:Lamarckian
815:Embryology
792:Lamarckism
788:extinction
780:complexity
559:extinction
371:Lamarckism
355:Ramon Lull
330:Ramon Lull
202:Definition
169:Ernst Mayr
90:hypothesis
43:body plans
6368:Teleology
6294:Protocell
6145:Darwinism
6033:Sympatric
5782:processes
5670:Tetrapods
5619:Kangaroos
5545:Dinosaurs
5482:Inversion
5451:Variation
5372:Gene flow
5365:Inclusive
5175:Mutualism
5120:Evolution
4953:(1909). "
4900:Evolution
4747:Ruse 1996
4711:Ruse 1996
4694:Ruse 1996
4553:Ruse 1996
4541:Ruse 1996
4104:Lwoff, A.
4079:Ruse 1996
3942:CRC Press
3887:Ruse 1996
3875:Ruse 1996
3341:ignored (
3331:cite book
3246:Sapp, Jan
3205:Ruse 1996
3138:Ruse 1996
2988:Ruse 1996
2894:ignored (
2884:cite book
2829:Ruse 1996
2814:Ruse 1996
2544:Evolution
2524:Ruse 1996
2472:Ruse 1996
2360:Teleonomy
2138:Early Man
2128:'s 1965 "
1936:Evolution
1715:Noosphere
1687:Mysticism
1446:cytoplasm
1324:based on
1087:evolution
987:Evolution
936:idioplasm
740:Features
571:evolution
547:evolution
535:butterfly
481:barnacles
472:idioplasm
432:evolution
308:In 1996,
291:In 1989,
279:In 1988,
270:in 1983:
242:in 1893.
145:evolution
127:The term
94:organisms
6373:Vitalism
6322:Category
6197:Vitalism
6192:Theistic
6185:Spandrel
5869:Morality
5864:Monogamy
5739:plastids
5704:Flagella
5660:Reptiles
5641:sea cows
5624:primates
5533:Molluscs
5511:Bacteria
5399:Mutation
5332:genetics
5308:Taxonomy
5254:Mismatch
5234:Homology
5148:Cheating
5143:Altruism
5021:(1957).
5000:(2002).
4987:(1942).
4967:(1995).
4921:(1996).
4874:(1986).
4848:(1989).
4826:(1983).
4807:18791259
4777:Genetics
4430:(2002).
4387:(1982).
4154:30286465
4146:26732271
4106:(1944).
4048:(2002).
3999:85796293
3845:15 April
3780:19625453
3739:16857856
3704:26956345
3696:11341676
3661:29736048
3584:15408469
3495:85365933
3452:17793787
3410:(1920).
3321:(1964).
3282:(2002).
3248:(2003).
3160:(1859).
3081:(2006).
2847:(1977).
2787:(1997).
2731:(1983).
2634:(2002).
2559:(1953).
2506:24368232
2438:(1988).
2391:(2001).
2307:See also
2185:Progress
2114:Socrates
2073:for 1882
2006:'s 1863
1972:, while
1910:heredity
1868:'s 1874
1622:In book
1545:In book
1131:Przibram
835:Kölliker
721:Lamarck.
685:Theories
643:vitalism
627:bacteria
617:(1915),
613:(1914),
583:vitalist
551:adaptive
549:with no
529:optimum.
527:adaptive
396:vitalist
341:Medieval
183:vitalism
153:genetics
86:obsolete
84:, is an
6213:Related
6043:History
5904:Meiosis
5839:Empathy
5834:Emotion
5734:nucleus
5675:Viruses
5665:Spiders
5577:Mammals
5560:Insects
5360:Fitness
5296:Species
5095:Outline
4817:Sources
4798:2581958
4681:9695900
4653:Bibcode
4526:4 April
4236:Bibcode
3641:Bibcode
3487:2456503
3444:1646251
3424:Bibcode
3416:Science
3378:2455865
3290:355â364
2715:2456504
2642:351â352
1905:genetic
1886:in the
1822:arrows.
1728:Croizat
1596:Sinnott
1573:Zoology
1444:in the
1366:Beurlen
1277:Zoology
1240:Zoology
1233:Whitman
1210:Zoology
1176:Zoology
1095:Bergson
1067:Zoology
1033:Zoology
944:Spencer
846:Anatomy
772:In his
757:Zoology
746:Lamarck
592:species
573:of the
555:species
523:baroque
316:History
254:wrote:
55:species
6332:Portal
6008:Hybrid
5844:Ethics
5686:organs
5648:Plants
5634:lemurs
5629:humans
5614:horses
5604:hyenas
5592:wolves
5587:canids
5521:origin
5008:
4977:
4957:", in
4933:
4907:
4886:
4860:
4834:
4805:
4795:
4679:
4671:
4583:
4494:
4469:
4444:
4395:
4340:
4288:
4261:
4175:
4152:
4144:
4062:
3997:
3948:
3803:
3778:
3737:
3702:
3694:
3659:
3582:
3519:
3493:
3485:
3450:
3442:
3376:
3296:
3262:
3228:
3188:
3121:
3091:
3061:
3033:
3008:
2971:
2861:
2797:
2767:
2739:
2713:
2676:
2648:
2504:
2446:
2399:
2193:models
1945:heresy
1851:Status
1745:Botany
1607:Botany
1602:Telism
1555:Vandel
1498:Botany
1487:Willis
1454:Osborn
1026:Haacke
977:Darwin
918:Botany
907:NĂ€geli
786:), no
736:Vital.
726:Mutat.
708:Author
635:plants
336:, 1305
174:Nature
120:, and
98:evolve
59:genera
33:, 1866
5795:Death
5790:Aging
5769:brain
5555:Fungi
5516:Birds
5429:Fungi
5227:Event
5110:Index
4677:S2CID
4673:42057
4150:S2CID
3995:S2CID
3700:S2CID
3657:S2CID
3629:(PDF)
3541:(PDF)
3491:S2CID
3483:JSTOR
3440:JSTOR
3374:JSTOR
3256:69â70
2711:JSTOR
2614:(PDF)
2170:memes
2106:'
1562:]
1410:]
1334:Lwoff
1161:Plate
1145:1910s
1060:Eimer
956:1852
784:phyla
714:Field
711:Title
575:horse
232:Greek
228:áœÏΞÏÏ
224:Greek
92:that
80:, or
47:phyla
6282:Tree
5754:hair
5694:Cell
5597:dogs
5582:cats
5572:Life
5550:Fish
5503:taxa
5006:ISBN
4975:ISBN
4931:ISBN
4905:ISBN
4884:ISBN
4858:ISBN
4832:ISBN
4803:PMID
4669:PMID
4623:2017
4613:The
4581:ISBN
4528:2017
4492:ISBN
4467:ISBN
4442:ISBN
4393:ISBN
4338:ISBN
4286:ISBN
4259:ISBN
4173:ISBN
4142:PMID
4060:ISBN
3946:ISBN
3847:2017
3801:ISBN
3776:PMID
3735:PMID
3692:PMID
3580:PMID
3517:ISBN
3448:PMID
3343:help
3294:ISBN
3260:ISBN
3226:ISBN
3186:ISBN
3119:ISBN
3089:ISBN
3059:ISBN
3031:ISBN
3006:ISBN
2969:ISBN
2931:2021
2896:help
2859:ISBN
2795:ISBN
2765:ISBN
2737:ISBN
2674:ISBN
2646:ISBN
2502:PMID
2444:ISBN
2397:ISBN
2149:meme
2095:Adam
2014:meme
1951:and
1899:The
1843:and
1784:1988
1748:1964
1691:1959
1646:1950
1610:1950
1576:1949
1533:1947
1519:NoĂŒy
1501:1942
1468:1934
1420:1931
1376:1930
1313:1928
1300:Abel
1280:1926
1266:Berg
1243:1919
1213:1918
1199:Rosa
1179:1913
1109:1907
1070:1898
1036:1893
990:1859
934:An "
921:1884
881:1868
867:Cope
849:1864
818:1859
804:Baer
790:. ("
760:1809
717:Date
670:and
631:fish
479:the
163:and
57:and
5780:Of
5749:eye
5699:DNA
5684:Of
5501:Of
4793:PMC
4785:doi
4781:180
4661:doi
4649:205
4315:doi
4202:doi
4134:doi
4056:283
4026:doi
3987:doi
3766:doi
3762:100
3727:doi
3684:doi
3649:doi
3607:doi
3553:doi
3475:doi
3432:doi
3366:doi
2703:doi
2569:125
2494:doi
2136:'s
2081:'s
2065:by
2049:in
1968:in
1763:or
1700:yes
1651:yes
1619:yes
1542:yes
1510:yes
1471:yes
1423:yes
1351:yes
1286:yes
1216:yes
1188:yes
1185:yes
1182:yes
1170:or
1118:yes
1039:yes
998:yes
993:yes
959:Yes
924:yes
884:yes
852:yes
763:yes
666:by
585:or
357:'s
332:'s
6349::
4801:.
4791:.
4779:.
4775:.
4701:^
4675:.
4667:.
4659:.
4647:.
4639:;
4611:.
4595:^
4569:;
4500:.
4440:.
4407:^
4352:^
4311:16
4309:.
4232:85
4230:.
4214:^
4198:76
4196:.
4148:.
4140:.
4130:50
4128:.
4058:.
4022:54
4020:.
4016:.
3993:.
3983:67
3981:.
3944:.
3940:,
3906:.
3815:^
3774:.
3760:.
3756:.
3733:.
3723:23
3721:.
3698:.
3690:.
3678:.
3655:.
3647:.
3637:68
3635:.
3631:.
3603:44
3601:.
3576:93
3574:.
3549:84
3547:.
3543:.
3503:^
3489:.
3481:.
3471:56
3469:.
3446:.
3438:.
3430:.
3420:52
3418:.
3414:.
3372:.
3362:47
3360:.
3335::
3333:}}
3329:{{
3308:^
3292:.
3258:.
3212:^
3172:^
3145:^
3103:^
3045:^
2951:^
2917:.
2913:.
2888::
2886:}}
2882:{{
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