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cultures. This can be measured by comparing whether assessment tools are measuring similar constructs across countries or cultures. Two approaches to researching personality are looking at emic and etic traits. Emic traits are constructs unique to each culture, which are determined by local customs, thoughts, beliefs, and characteristics. Etic traits are considered universal constructs, which establish traits that are evident across cultures that represent a biological basis of human personality. If personality traits are unique to the individual culture, then different traits should be apparent in different cultures. However, the idea that personality traits are universal across cultures is supported by establishing the Five-Factor Model of personality across multiple translations of the NEO-PI-R, which is one of the most widely used personality measures. When administering the NEO-PI-R to 7,134 people across six languages, the results show a similar pattern of the same five underlying constructs that are found in the
American factor structure.
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cultures. There are some differences across culture, but they may be a consequence of using a lexical approach to study personality structures, as language has limitations in translation and different cultures have unique words to describe emotion or situations. Differences across cultures could be due to real cultural differences, but they could also be consequences of poor translations, biased sampling, or differences in response styles across cultures. Examining personality questionnaires developed within a culture can also be useful evidence for the universality of traits across cultures, as the same underlying factors can still be found. Results from several
European and Asian studies have found overlapping dimensions with the Five-Factor Model as well as additional culture-unique dimensions. Finding similar factors across cultures provides support for the universality of personality trait structure, but more research is necessary to gain stronger support.
1069:. In fact, James' lecture of 1907 fashioned a sort of trait theory of the empiricist and rationalist camps of philosophy. As in most modern trait theories, the traits of each camp are described by James as distinct and opposite, and maybe possessed in different proportions on a continuum, and thus characterize the personality of philosophers of each camp. The "mental make-up" (i.e. personality) of rationalist philosophers is described as "tender-minded" and "going by "principles", and that of empiricist philosophers is described as "tough-minded" and "going by "facts." James distinguishes each not only in terms of the philosophical claims they made in 1907, but by arguing that such claims are made primarily on the basis of temperament. Furthermore, such categorization was only incidental to James' purpose of explaining his pragmatist philosophy and is not exhaustive.
1164:(1632–1677) argued that ideas are the first element constituting the human mind, but existed only for actually existing things. In other words, ideas of non-existent things are without meaning for Spinoza, because an idea of a non-existent thing cannot exist. Further, Spinoza's rationalism argued that the mind does not know itself, except insofar as it perceives the "ideas of the modifications of body", in describing its external perceptions, or perceptions from without. On the contrary, from within, Spinoza argued, perceptions connect various ideas clearly and distinctly. The mind is not the free cause of its actions for Spinoza. Spinoza equates the will with the understanding and explains the common distinction of these things as being two different things as an error which results from the individual's misunderstanding of the nature of thinking.
820:(or emotional stability), known as "OCEAN". These components are generally stable over time, and about half of the variance appears to be attributable to a person's genetics rather than the effects of one's environment. These five factors are made up of two aspects each as well as many facets (e.g., openness splits into experiencing and intellect, which each further split into facets like fantasy and ideas). These five factors also show correlations with each other that suggest higher order meta-traits (e.g., factor beta, which combines openness and extraversion to form a meta-trait associated with mental and physical exploration). There are several personality frameworks that recognize the Big Five factors and there are thousands of measures of personality that can be used to measure specific facets as well as general traits.
1131:'s (1632–1704) explanation of personal identity provides an example of what James referred to. Locke explains the identity of a person, i.e. personality, on the basis of a precise definition of identity, by which the meaning of identity differs according to what it is being applied to. The identity of a person is quite distinct from the identity of a man, woman, or substance according to Locke. Locke concludes that consciousness is personality because it "always accompanies thinking, it is that which makes everyone to be what he calls self," and remains constant in different places at different times.
1031:: "at the core of the poem lay key principles of a modern understanding of the world." "Dependent on the family, the individual alone was nothing," Jacques GĂ©lis observes. "The characteristic mark of the modern man has two parts: one internal, the other external; one dealing with his environment, the other with his attitudes, values, and feelings." Rather than being linked to a network of social roles, the modern man is largely influenced by the environmental factors such as: "urbanization, education, mass communication, industrialization, and politicization."
944:'s group socialization theory postulates that an individual's peer groups, rather than parental figures, are the primary influence of personality and behavior in adulthood. Intra- and intergroup processes, not dyadic relationships such as parent-child relationships, are responsible for the transmission of culture and for environmental modification of children's personality characteristics. Thus, this theory points at the peer group representing the environmental influence on a child's personality rather than the parental style or home environment.
786:
836:, or cognitive fatigue, is the use of one's energy to overtly act in a way that is contrary to one's inner disposition. When people act in a contrary fashion, they divert most, if not all, (cognitive) energy toward regulating this foreign style of behavior and attitudes. Because all available energy is being used to maintain this contrary behavior, the result is an inability to use any energy to make important or difficult decisions, plan for the future, control or regulate emotions, or perform effectively on other cognitive tasks.
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in more positive situations and they also react more strongly than introverts to positive situations. The temperamental theory suggests that extroverts have a disposition that generally leads them to experience a higher degree of positive affect. In their study of extraversion, Lucas and Baird found no statistically significant support for the instrumental theory but did, however, find that extraverts generally experience a higher level of positive affect.
50:
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Temperament thus conceived is tantamount to a bias. Such bias, James explained, was a consequence of the trust philosophers place in their own temperament. James thought the significance of his observation lay on the premise that in philosophy an objective measure of success is whether philosophy is peculiar to its philosopher or not, and whether a philosopher is dissatisfied with any other way of seeing things or not.
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dispositional nature. In other words, the study focused on the benefits and drawbacks of introverts (people who are shy, socially inhibited, and non-aggressive) acting extraverted, and of extraverts acting introverted. After acting extraverted, introverts' experience of positive affect increased whereas extraverts seemed to experience lower levels of positive affect and suffered from the phenomenon of ego depletion.
701:, attempts to explain the tendencies that underlie differences in behavior. Psychologists have taken many different approaches to the study of personality, including biological, cognitive, learning, and trait-based theories, as well as psychodynamic, and humanistic approaches. The various approaches used to study personality today reflect the influence of the first theorists in the field, a group that includes
824:
children are likely to respond to. In both children and adults, research shows that genetics, as opposed to environmental factors, exert a greater influence on happiness levels. Personality is not stable over the course of a lifetime, but it changes much more quickly during childhood, so personality constructs in children are referred to as temperament. Temperament is regarded as the precursor to personality.
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766:, two factors that make a test accurate. "Each item should be influenced to a degree by the underlying trait construct, giving rise to a pattern of positive intercorrelations so long as all items are oriented (worded) in the same direction." A recent, but not well-known, measuring tool that psychologists use is the
964:
There has been some recent debate over the subject of studying personality in a different culture. Some people think that personality comes entirely from culture and therefore there can be no meaningful study in cross-culture study. On the other hand, many believe that some elements are shared by all
839:
One question that has been posed is why extraverts tend to be happier than introverts. The two types of explanations that attempt to account for this difference are instrumental theories and temperamental theories. The instrumental theory suggests that extraverts end up making choices that place them
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because he thought his argument was sufficient but not compelling. Descartes himself distinguished active and passive faculties of mind, each contributing to thinking and consciousness in different ways. The passive faculty, Descartes argued, simply receives, whereas the active faculty produces and
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The harm avoidance trait has been associated with increased reactivity in insular and amygdala salience networks, as well as reduced 5-HT2 receptor binding peripherally, and reduced GABA concentrations. Novelty seeking has been associated with reduced activity in insular salience networks increased
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talked about some significant laboratory tests. The study mainly focused on the effects of life experiences on change in personality and life experiences. The assessments suggested that "the accumulation of small daily experiences may work for the personality development of university students and
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and positive affect. Extraverted behaviors include acting talkative, assertive, adventurous, and outgoing. For the purposes of this study, positive affect is defined as experiences of happy and enjoyable emotions. This study investigated the effects of acting in a way that is counter to a person's
980:
Studies have identified cultural differences in personality traits such as extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness, indicating that culture influences personality development (Allik & McCrae, 2004). For example, Western cultures value individualism, independence, and assertiveness,
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Cross-cultural assessment depends on the universality of personality traits, which is whether there are common traits among humans regardless of culture or other factors. If there is a common foundation of personality, then it can be studied on the basis of human traits rather than within certain
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experiment showcased how babies reacted to having their mother leave them alone in a room with a stranger. The different styles of attachment, labeled by
Ainsworth, were Secure, Ambivalent, avoidant, and disorganized. Children who were securely attached tend to be more trusting, sociable, and are
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Self-efficacy is one's belief about abilities to perform up to personal standards, the ability to produce desired results, and the feeling of having some ability to make important life decisions. Self-efficacy has been found to be related to the personality traits of extraversion and subjective
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Some research has investigated whether the relationship between happiness and extraversion seen in adults also can be seen in children. The implications of these findings can help identify children who are more likely to experience episodes of depression and develop types of treatment that such
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Similar results were found using the Big Five
Inventory (BFI), as it was administered in 56 nations across 28 languages. The five factors continued to be supported both conceptually and statistically across major regions of the world, suggesting that these underlying factors are common across
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is the ability to maintain one's average level of happiness in the face of an ambiguous situation – meaning a situation that has the potential to engender either positive or negative emotions in different individuals. It has been found to be a stronger force in extroverts. This means that the
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explains a great deal of the controversies in the history of philosophy by arguing that it is a very influential premise in the arguments of philosophers. Despite seeking only impersonal reasons for their conclusions, James argued, the temperament of philosophers influenced their philosophy.
1146:(1596–1650) agreed only insofar as he did not argue that one immaterial spirit is the basis of the person "for fear of making brutes thinking things too." According to James, Locke tolerated arguments that a soul was behind the consciousness of any person. However, Locke's successor
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Some studies suggest that a shared family environment between siblings has less influence on personality than individual experiences of each child. Identical twins have similar personalities largely because they share the same genetic makeup rather than their shared environment.
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Self-efficacy, however, only partially mediates the relationship between extraversion (and neuroticism) and subjective happiness. This implies that there are most likely other factors that mediate the relationship between subjective happiness and personality traits.
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Culture is an important factor in shaping the personality of individuals. Psychologists have found that cultural norms, beliefs, and practices shape the way people interact and behave with others, which can impact personality development (Cheung et al., 2011).
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The branch of psychology which concerns itself with the study of human lives and the factors that influence their course which investigates individual differences and types of personality ... the science of men, taken as gross units ... encompassing
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Personality can be determined through a variety of tests. Due to the fact that personality is a complex idea, the dimensions of personality and scales of such tests vary and often are poorly defined. Two main tools to measure personality are
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forms ideas, but does not presuppose thought, and thus cannot be within the thinking thing. The active faculty mustn't be within self because ideas are produced without any awareness of them, and are sometimes produced against one's will.
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which are reflected in personality traits such as extraversion. In contrast, Eastern cultures value collectivism, cooperation, and social harmony, which are reflected in personality traits such as agreeableness (Cheung et al., 2011).
1857:
Zelenski, John M.; Santoro, Maya S.; Whelan, Deanna C. (2012). "Would introverts be better off if they acted more like extraverts? Exploring emotional and cognitive consequences of counter-dispositional behavior".
770:. It measures personality based on Cattell's 16-factor theory of personality. Psychologists also use it as a clinical measuring tool to diagnose psychiatric disorders and help with prognosis and therapy planning.
1150:(1711–1776), and empirical psychologists after him denied the soul except for being a term to describe the cohesion of inner lives. However, some research suggests Hume excluded personal identity from his opus
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maybe another similar factor. Individuals with a greater degree of confidence about themselves and their abilities seem to have both higher degrees of subjective well-being and higher levels of extraversion.
1898:
Strobel, Maria; Tumasjan, Andranik; Spörrle, Matthias (February 2011). "Be yourself, believe in yourself, and be happy: Self-efficacy as a mediator between personality factors and subjective well-being".
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Jeronimus, Bertus F.; Riese, Harriëtte; Sanderman, Robbert; Ormel, Johan (2014). "Mutual reinforcement between neuroticism and life experiences: A five-wave, 16-year study to test reciprocal causation".
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striatal connectivity. Novelty seeking correlates with dopamine synthesis capacity in the striatum and reduced auto receptor availability in the midbrain. Reward dependence has been linked with the
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It has been shown that personality traits are more malleable by environmental influences than researchers originally believed. Personality differences predict the occurrence of life experiences.
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happiness levels of extraverted individuals are less susceptible to the influence of external events. This finding implies that extraverts' positive moods last longer than those of introverts.
906:, are somewhat analogous to ancient conceptions of melancholic, sanguine, choleric, phlegmatic personality types, although the temperaments reflect dimensions rather than distance categories.
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connectivity, increased activation of ventral striatal-orbitofrontal-anterior cingulate circuits, as well as increased salivary amylase levels indicative of increased noradrenergic tone.
777:. When brought back to two dimensions, often the dimensions of introvert-extrovert and neuroticism (emotionally unstable-stable) are used as first proposed by Eysenck in the 1960s.
1942:
Joshanloo, Mohsen; Afshari, Samaneh (26 November 2009). "Big Five
Personality Traits and Self-Esteem as Predictors of Life Satisfaction in Iranian Muslim University Students".
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have suggested four basic temperaments that are thought to reflect basic and automatic responses to danger and reward that rely on associative learning. The four temperaments,
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are responsible for processing visual information. In addition, certain physiological functions such as hormone secretion also affect personality. For example, the hormone
1142:
Rationalists conceived of the identity of persons differently than empiricists such as Locke who distinguished identity of substance, person, and life. According to Locke,
2682:. Murray, Henry A. (Henry Alexander), 1893–1988., Harvard University. Harvard Psychological Clinic. (70th anniversary ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2008.
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Prunas, Antonio; Di Pierro, Rossella; Huemer, Julia; Tagini, Angela (January 2019). "Defense mechanisms, remembered parental caregiving, and adult attachment style".
690:, define personality as traits that predict an individual's behavior. On the other hand, more behaviorally-based approaches define personality through learning and
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From a holistic perspective, personology studies personality as a whole, as a system, but at the same time through all its components, levels, and spheres.
1196:, and sexuality. Additionally, studies show that the expression of a personality trait depends on the volume of the brain cortex it is associated with.
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One study has shown how the home environment, specifically the types of parents a person has, can affect and shape their personality. Mary
Ainsworth's
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confident in their day-to-day life. Children who were disorganized were reported to have higher levels of anxiety, anger, and risk-taking behavior.
1763:"Taxonomies and Compendia of Cognitive Ability and Personality Constructs and Measures Relevant to Industrial, Work and Organizational Psychology"
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1180:, which studies how the structure of the brain relates to various psychological processes and behaviors. For instance, in human beings, the
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DeYoung, Colin G.; Hirsh, Jacob B.; Shane, Matthew S.; Papademetris, Xenophon; Rajeevan, Nallakkandi; Gray, Jeremy R. (30 April 2010).
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system, with increased concentration of plasma oxytocin being observed, as well as increased volume in oxytocin-related regions of the
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Research has been done to uncover some of the mediators that are responsible for the correlation between extraversion and happiness.
2217:
McCrae, R.R., & Allik, I.U. (2002). The five-factor model of personality across cultures. Springer
Science & Business Media.
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James argued that temperament may be the basis of several divisions in academia, but focused on philosophy in his 1907 lectures on
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Kwon, Paul (August 1999). "Attributional Style and
Psychodynamic Defense Mechanisms: Toward an Integrative Model of Depression".
1255:
2015:
Sadock, Benjamin J.; Sadock, Virginia A.; Ruiz, Pedro (June 2017). "Personality
Disorders". In Cloninger, R; Svrakic, D (eds.).
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1113:, and such optimism is considered shallow by the fact-loving mind, for whom perfection is far off. Rationalism is regarded as
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Lischetzke, Tanja; Eid, Michael (August 2006). "Why
Extraverts Are Happier Than Introverts: The Role of Mood Regulation".
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Personality is frequently broken into factors or dimensions, statistically extracted from large questionnaires through
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Bornstein, Robert F. (2006). "A Freudian construct lost and reclaimed: The psychodynamics of personality pathology".
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The SAGE Handbook of Industrial, Work and Organizational Psychology: Personnel Psychology and Employee Performance
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is the theory that anatomical structures located in the brain contribute to personality traits. This stems from
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that environmental influences may vary by individual susceptibility to experiences, like attachment security".
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Church, A. Timothy (August 2000). "Culture and Personality: Toward an Integrated Cultural Trait Psychology".
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Harris, Judith Rich (1995). "Where is the child's environment? A group socialization theory of development".
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Personology confers a multidimensional, complex, and comprehensive approach to personality. According to
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cultures and an effort is being made to demonstrate the cross-cultural applicability of "the Big Five".
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Gélis (1989). "The Child: from anonymity to individuality". In Ariès, Philippe; Duby, Georges (eds.).
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1706:"Delineating the Structure of Normal and Abnormal Personality: An Integrative Hierarchical Approach"
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The modern sense of individual personality is a result of the shifts in culture originating in the
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1237:) and other terms that stand for methods of inquiry or doctrines rather than realms of knowledge.
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Boundless dominion : providence, politics, and the early Canadian presbyterian worldview
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Schmitt, David P.; Allik, JĂĽri; McCrae, Robert R.; Benet-MartĂnez, VerĂłnica (26 July 2016).
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Personality Questionnaire (EPQ-R). All of these tests are beneficial because they have both
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Holder, Mark D.; Klassen, Andrea (13 June 2009). "Temperament and Happiness in Children".
1769:, 1 Oliver's Yard, 55 City Road London EC1Y 1SP: SAGE Publications Ltd, pp. 366–407,
1127:, on the other hand, stick with the external senses rather than logic. British empiricist
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Lucas, Richard E.; Baird, Brendan M. (2004). "Extraversion and Emotional Reactivity".
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never satisfied an empiricist temper of mind. Rationalism leads to the creation of
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1602:"Genetic and environmental continuity in personality development: A meta-analysis"
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Personality Change from Life Experiences: Moderation Effect of Attachment Security
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Hogan, Joyce; Ones, Deniz S. (1997). "Conscientiousness and Integrity at Work".
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philosophers of his day. The tendency of rationalist philosophers toward
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694:. Nevertheless, most theories view personality as relatively stable.
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Another interesting finding has been the link found between acting
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2619:(The Rationalists ed.). New York: Random House. p. 256.
2604:(The Rationalists ed.). New York: Random House. p. 253.
2589:(The Rationalists ed.). New York: Random House. p. 241.
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DeYoung, Colin G.; Quilty, Lena C.; Peterson, Jordan B. (2007).
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to life. These interrelated patterns are relatively stable, but
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Markon, Kristian E.; Krueger, Robert F.; Watson, David (2005).
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Aleksandrowicz JW, Klasa K, Sobański JA, Stolarska D (2009).
1302:, consisting of the right to individual publicity and privacy
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2286:"The Geographic Distribution of Big Five Personality Traits"
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1349:(1. publ. ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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A History of Private Life III: Passions of the Renaissance
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observes, in recounting the recovery (1417) and career of
918:. Persistence has been associated with increased striatal-
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and projective measures. Examples of such tests are the:
2017:
Kaplan and Sadock's Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry
1651:"Between facets and domains: 10 aspects of the Big Five"
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Kaplan and Sadock's Comprehensive Textbook of Psychiatry
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Sadock, Benjamin; Sadock, Virginia; Ruiz, Pedro (2017).
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Khazan, Olga (March 2022). "My Personality Transplant".
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are responsible for foresight and anticipation, and the
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2574:(The Rationalists ed.). New York: Anchor Books.
2165:"The Role of the Environment in Shaping Personality"
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2632:"Testing Predictions From Personality Neuroscience"
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697:The study of the psychology of personality, called
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2236:"Personality trait structure as a human universal"
2220:
1600:Briley, Daniel A.; Tucker-Drob, Elliot M. (2014).
2181:Funder, David C. (February 2001). "Personality".
1599:
1017:– these were the building blocks of personhood".
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2529:. New York: Washington Square Press. p. 69.
2499:. New York: Washington Square Press. p. 32.
2484:. New York: Washington Square Press. p. 16.
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1347:The Cambridge handbook of personality psychology
997:. In contrast, the Medieval European's sense of
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886:Modern conceptions of personality, such as the
686:personality theories, such as those defined by
1001:was linked to a network of social roles: "the
869:Other research has examined the phenomenon of
796:Many factor analyses found what is called the
16:Psychological characteristics of an individual
2374:The swerve : how the world became modern
2167:. The Great Courses Daily. December 27, 2019.
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1417:"KON-2006 Neurotic Personality Questionnaire"
1093:philosophers differed fundamentally from the
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2046:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
1710:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
1655:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
1564:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
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2739:Handbook of Personology and Psychopathology
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1192:is important for sociability, affectivity,
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752:Neurotic Personality Questionnaire KON-2006
744:Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
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2234:McCrae, Robert R.; Costa, Paul T. (1997).
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1507:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1345:Corr, Philip J.; Matthews, Gerald (2009).
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2542:An Inquiry Concerning Human Understanding
2309:
2148:
1761:Stanek, Kevin C.; Ones, Deniz S. (2018),
1737:
1625:
1441:
1153:An Inquiry Concerning Human Understanding
959:
656:patterns that comprise a person’s unique
2130:
1424:Archives of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy
1133:
1076:
1038:
784:
780:
2614:
2599:
2584:
2569:
2512:An Essay Concerning Human Understanding
2414:
2176:
2174:
1521:
1335:
1256:Association for Research in Personality
674:of personality, most theories focus on
2836:
2335:
2180:
2103:
2079:Kail, Robert; Barnfield, Anne (2014).
1369:
1331:https://dictionary.apa.org/personality
1329:APA Dictionary of Psychology. (n.d.).
1278:Personality and Individual Differences
2524:
2509:
2494:
2479:
2464:
2405:
1474:
1117:, and a temperament most inclined to
682:interactions with one's environment.
2775:
2728:. New York: Oxford University Press.
2539:
2469:. New York: Washington Square Press.
2290:Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology
2171:
2557:Meditations on the First Philosophy
1525:The biological basis of personality
888:Temperament and Character Inventory
13:
2748:
1901:Scandinavian Journal of Psychology
1444:Handbook of Personality Psychology
14:
2870:
1058:
985:Historical development of concept
2131:Kawamoto, Tetsuya (April 2016).
1994:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00405.x
1913:10.1111/j.1467-9450.2010.00826.x
1452:10.1016/b978-012134645-4/50033-0
1311:Two-factor models of personality
592:
48:
2731:
2718:
2672:
2623:
2608:
2593:
2578:
2563:
2548:
2533:
2518:
2503:
2488:
2473:
2399:
2364:
2211:
2157:
2137:Japanese Psychological Research
2124:
2097:
2072:
2008:
1935:
1754:
1697:
1642:
1174:biological basis of personality
2197:10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.197
2081:Children and Their Development
1515:
1468:
1435:
1407:
1382:
1363:
1323:
1199:
1138:Benedictus Spinoza (1632–1677)
882:Developmental biological model
873:as another possible mediator.
644:'s collection of interrelated
1:
2544:. US: Liberal Arts Press Inc.
2437:10.4159/harvard.9780674499348
1522:Eysenck, Hans Jurgen (2006).
1316:
335:Industrial and organizational
2615:Spinoza, Benedictus (1974).
2600:Spinoza, Benedictus (1974).
2585:Spinoza, Benedictus (1974).
2570:Spinoza, Benedictus (1974).
2371:Greenblatt, Stephen (2011).
1944:Journal of Happiness Studies
1819:Journal of Happiness Studies
1073:Empiricists and rationalists
728:
490:Human factors and ergonomics
21:Personality (disambiguation)
7:
2726:Explorations in Personality
2680:Explorations in personality
2527:Pragmatism and other essays
2497:Pragmatism and other essays
2482:Pragmatism and other essays
2467:Pragmatism and Other Essays
2184:Annual Review of Psychology
2118:10.1037/0033-295x.102.3.458
1475:Denis, McKim (2017-11-30).
1244:
791:Big Five personality traits
10:
2875:
2769:10.1037/0736-9735.23.2.339
2427:; Smith, David H. (1974).
2252:10.1037/0003-066X.52.5.509
1722:10.1037/0022-3514.88.1.139
1667:10.1037/0022-3514.93.5.880
1576:10.1037/0022-3514.86.3.473
1528:. Transaction Publishers.
1258:, an academic organization
1167:
1035:Temperament and philosophy
993:, an essential element in
25:
18:
2807:Psychoanalytic Psychology
2757:Psychoanalytic Psychology
2559:. New York: Anchor Books.
1956:10.1007/s10902-009-9177-y
1831:10.1007/s10902-009-9149-2
1775:10.4135/9781473914940.n14
1413:
1043:William James (1842–1910)
265:Applied behavior analysis
2648:10.1177/0956797610370159
2555:Descartes, Rene (1974).
2514:. Toronto: Random House.
2302:10.1177/0022022106297299
1802:: CS1 maint: location (
1160:Rationalist philosopher
1085:According to James, the
1050:(1842–1910) argued that
926:Environmental influences
853:are two such mediators.
664:over long time periods.
26:Not to be confused with
2790:10.1111/1467-6494.00068
2525:James, William (1970).
2495:James, William (1970).
2480:James, William (1970).
2465:James, William (1970).
2350:10.1111/1467-6494.00112
1262:Differential psychology
455:Behavioral neuroscience
110:Behavioral neuroscience
2778:Journal of Personality
2710:: CS1 maint: others (
2338:Journal of Personality
1982:Journal of Personality
1606:Psychological Bulletin
1251:Personality in animals
1239:
1139:
1082:
1081:John Locke (1632–1704)
1044:
960:Cross-cultural studies
802:openness to experience
793:
748:Rorschach Inkblot test
699:personality psychology
505:Psychology of religion
445:Behavioral engineering
129:Cognitive neuroscience
95:Affective neuroscience
2724:Murray, H.A. (1938).
2636:Psychological Science
2240:American Psychologist
1285:Personality computing
1231:individual psychology
1223:analytical psychology
1210:
1137:
1080:
1042:
788:
781:Five-factor inventory
667:Although there is no
599:Psychology portal
2540:Hume, David (1955).
2510:Locke, John (1974).
2106:Psychological Review
1446:. pp. 849–870.
1295:Personality disorder
19:For other uses, see
2859:Metaphysics of mind
2849:Conceptions of self
2737:Strack, S. (2005).
947:Tessuya Kawamoto's
450:Behavioral genetics
365:Occupational health
105:Behavioral genetics
36:Part of a series on
2819:10.1037/pap0000158
1393:. Wolters Kluwer.
1300:Personality rights
1290:Personality crisis
1272:Offender profiling
1208:, personology is:
1162:Benedictus Spinoza
1140:
1083:
1045:
1019:Stephen Greenblatt
942:Judith Rich Harris
794:
740:Big Five Inventory
567:Schools of thought
405:Sport and exercise
251:Applied psychology
2854:Human development
2689:978-0-19-804152-8
2446:978-0-674-49934-8
2384:978-0-393-08338-5
2311:20.500.12724/2395
2150:10.1111/jpr.12110
2090:978-0-205-99302-4
2026:978-1-4511-0047-1
2019:. Wolter Kluwer.
1784:978-1-4462-0721-5
1486:978-0-7735-5240-1
1400:978-1-4511-0047-1
1356:978-0-521-86218-9
1267:Human variability
935:strange situation
896:reward dependence
806:conscientiousness
635:
634:
532:Counseling topics
475:Consumer behavior
216:Psycholinguistics
100:Affective science
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2058:10.1037/a0037009
2040:
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2012:
2006:
2005:
1988:(4): 1127–1162.
1977:
1968:
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1939:
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1872:10.1037/a0025169
1854:
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1695:
1694:
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1629:
1618:10.1037/a0037091
1612:(5): 1303–1331.
1597:
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875:Mood maintenance
871:mood maintenance
627:
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562:Research methods
221:Psychophysiology
81:Basic psychology
52:
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32:
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2749:Further reading
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2429:Becoming Modern
2422:
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2385:
2377:. W.W. Norton.
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1343:
1336:
1328:
1324:
1319:
1247:
1206:Henry A. Murray
1202:
1186:occipital lobes
1178:neuropsychology
1170:
1075:
1061:
1037:
1028:De rerum natura
987:
962:
928:
900:novelty-seeking
884:
783:
775:factor analysis
736:objective tests
731:
688:Raymond Cattell
631:
593:
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557:Psychotherapies
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201:Neuropsychology
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5:
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2832:
2831:
2802:
2784:(4): 645–658.
2773:
2763:(2): 339–353.
2750:
2747:
2744:
2743:
2730:
2717:
2688:
2671:
2642:(6): 820–828.
2622:
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2502:
2487:
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2445:
2413:
2410:. p. 309.
2398:
2383:
2363:
2344:(4): 651–703.
2325:
2296:(2): 173–212.
2273:
2246:(5): 509–516.
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2191:(1): 197–221.
2170:
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2143:(2): 218–231.
2123:
2112:(3): 458–489.
2096:
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2052:(4): 751–764.
2032:
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2007:
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1950:(1): 105–113.
1934:
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1866:(2): 290–303.
1844:
1825:(4): 419–439.
1809:
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1716:(1): 139–157.
1696:
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1570:(3): 473–485.
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1215:psychoanalysis
1201:
1198:
1194:aggressiveness
1169:
1166:
1144:René Descartes
1111:closed systems
1107:superficiality
1074:
1071:
1060:
1059:Mental make-up
1057:
1036:
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986:
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892:harm avoidance
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719:Abraham Maslow
711:Gordon Allport
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1907:(1): 43–48.
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810:extraversion
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795:
772:
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715:Hans Eysenck
707:Alfred Adler
696:
666:
637:
636:
495:Intelligence
226:Quantitative
191:Mathematical
186:Intelligence
176:Experimental
171:Evolutionary
161:Differential
2844:Personality
2083:. Pearson.
1200:Personology
1125:Empiricists
1119:abstraction
1095:temperament
1091:rationalist
1087:temperament
1052:temperament
1015:corporation
991:Renaissance
904:persistence
863:Self-esteem
845:Self-esteem
829:extraverted
818:neuroticism
760:reliability
723:Carl Rogers
684:Trait-based
638:Personality
537:Disciplines
410:Suicidology
305:Educational
260:Anomalistic
236:Theoretical
211:Personality
141:Comparative
124:Cognitivism
115:Behaviorism
2838:Categories
2617:The Ethics
2602:The Ethics
2587:The Ethics
2572:The Ethics
1790:2024-01-08
1495:1015239877
1317:References
1148:David Hume
1129:John Locke
1115:pretension
1103:refinement
1099:empiricist
1066:Pragmatism
746:(MMPI-2),
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672:definition
662:can change
658:adjustment
646:behavioral
465:Competence
330:Humanistic
310:Ergonomics
295:Counseling
270:Assessment
206:Perception
166:Ecological
42:Psychology
28:Personally
2827:148867764
2706:cite book
2698:219738947
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1964:144459533
1839:145541419
1730:1939-1315
1675:1939-1315
1503:cite book
1023:Lucretius
1003:household
995:modernity
756:Eysenck's
729:Measuring
669:consensus
654:emotional
650:cognitive
460:Cognition
375:Political
285:Community
120:Cognitive
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1430:: 21–22.
1245:See also
912:oxytocin
798:Big Five
764:validity
572:Timeline
485:Feelings
480:Emotions
440:Behavior
434:Concepts
395:Religion
380:Positive
370:Pastoral
355:Military
320:Forensic
315:Feminist
300:Critical
290:Consumer
280:Coaching
275:Clinical
151:Cultural
90:Abnormal
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2657:3049165
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2316:S2CID
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1960:S2CID
1925:S2CID
1835:S2CID
1687:S2CID
1420:(PDF)
1235:Adler
1219:Freud
1011:guild
754:, or
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345:Media
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196:Moral
2794:PMID
2712:link
2694:OCLC
2684:ISBN
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