Personality disorder

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their research indicates that some children and adolescents do experience clinically significant syndromes that resemble adult personality disorders, and that these syndromes have meaningful correlates and are consequential. Much of this research has been framed by the adult personality disorder constructs from Axis II of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual. Hence, they are less likely to encounter the first risk they described at the outset of their review: clinicians and researchers are not simply avoiding use of the PD construct in youth. However, they may encounter the second risk they described: under-appreciation of the developmental context in which these syndromes occur. That is, although PD constructs show continuity over time, they are probabilistic predictors; not all youths who exhibit PD symptomatology become adult PD cases.

4402: consistently show up as risk factors to the development of personality disorders in adulthood. A study looked at retrospective reports of abuse of participants that had demonstrated psychopathology throughout their life and were later found to have past experience with abuse. In a study of 793 mothers and children, researchers asked mothers if they had screamed at their children, and told them that they did not love them or threatened to send them away. Children who had experienced such verbal abuse were three times as likely as other children (who did not experience such verbal abuse) to have borderline, narcissistic, obsessive–compulsive or paranoid personality disorders in adulthood. The 5797:. Regarding maladaptation, ubiquity, and stability as the three main symptoms of behavioral pathology, he distinguished nine clusters of psychopaths: cycloids (including constitutionally depressive, constitutionally excitable, cyclothymics, and emotionally labile), asthenics (including psychasthenics), schizoids (including dreamers), paranoiacs (including fanatics), epileptoids, hysterical personalities (including pathological liars), unstable psychopaths, antisocial psychopaths, and constitutionally stupid. Some elements of Gannushkin's typology were later incorporated into the theory developed by a Russian adolescent psychiatrist, 4442: patients, analysis showed that BPD patients were significantly more likely not to have been breastfed as a baby (42.4% in BPD vs. 9.2% in healthy controls). These researchers suggested "Breastfeeding may act as an early indicator of the mother-infant relationship that seems to be relevant for bonding and attachment later in life". Additionally, findings suggest personality disorders show a negative correlation with two attachment variables: maternal availability and dependability. When left unfostered, other attachment and interpersonal problems occur later in life ultimately leading to development of personality disorders. 5928:, was renamed Antisocial Personality Disorder. Most categories were given more specific 'operationalized' definitions, with standard criteria psychiatrists could agree on to conduct research and diagnose patients. In the DSM-III revision, self-defeating personality disorder and sadistic personality disorder were included as provisional diagnoses requiring further study. They were dropped in the DSM-IV, though a proposed 'depressive personality disorder' was added; in addition, the official diagnosis of passive–aggressive personality disorder was dropped, tentatively renamed 'negativistic personality disorder.' 5734:(emotion or mood) rather than simply the ethical dimension, but it was arguably a significant move for 'psychiatric' diagnostic practice to become so clearly engaged with judgments about individual's social behaviour. Prichard was influenced by his own religious, social and moral beliefs, as well as ideas in German psychiatry. These categories were much different and broader than later definitions of personality disorder, while also being developed by some into a more specific meaning of moral degeneracy akin to later ideas about 'psychopaths'. Separately, 4298:

authors analyzed data from 15 other studies to determine how personality disorders are different and similar, respectively, with regard to underlying personality traits. In terms of how personality disorders differ, the results showed that each disorder displays a FFM profile that is meaningful and predictable given its unique diagnostic criteria. With regard to their similarities, the findings revealed that the most prominent and consistent personality dimensions underlying a large number of the personality disorders are positive associations with

5841:. The term 'borderline' stems from a belief some individuals were functioning on the edge of those two categories, and a number of the other personality disorder categories were also heavily influenced by this approach, including dependent, obsessive–compulsive and histrionic, the latter starting off as a conversion symptom of hysteria particularly associated with women, then a hysterical personality, then renamed histrionic personality disorder in later versions of the DSM. A passive aggressive style was defined clinically by Colonel 5932:

British psychiatrists have also been reluctant to address such disorders or consider them on par with other mental disorders, which has been attributed partly to resource pressures within the National Health Service, as well as to negative medical attitudes towards behaviors associated with personality disorders. In the US, the prevailing healthcare system and psychoanalytic tradition has been said to provide a rationale for private therapists to diagnose some personality disorders more broadly and provide ongoing treatment for them.

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were average. Narcissistic and obsessive–compulsive PD, however, had high functioning and appeared to contribute rather positively to these aspects of life success. There is also a direct relationship between the number of diagnostic criteria and quality of life. For each additional personality disorder criterion that a person meets there is an even reduction in quality of life. Personality disorders – especially dependent, narcissistic, and sadistic personality disorders – also facilitate various forms of

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altering their personality disorders and sometimes clamor for treatment. The classification of 68 personality disordered patients on the caseload of an assertive community team using a simple scale showed a 3 to 1 ratio between Type R and Type S personality disorders with Cluster C personality disorders being significantly more likely to be Type S, and paranoid and schizoid (Cluster A) personality disorders significantly more likely to be Type R than others.

4421: has also been looked at as a potential cause for personality disorders. There is a strong association with low parental/neighborhood socioeconomic status and personality disorder symptoms. In a 2015 publication from Bonn, Germany, which compared parental socioeconomic status and a child's personality, it was seen that children who were from higher socioeconomic backgrounds were more altruistic, less risk seeking, and had overall higher 5773:, included a chapter on psychopathic inferiority in his influential work on clinical psychiatry for students and physicians. He suggested six types – excitable, unstable, eccentric, liar, swindler and quarrelsome. The categories were essentially defined by the most disordered criminal offenders observed, distinguished between criminals by impulse, professional criminals, and morbid 4425:. These traits correlate with a low risk of developing personality disorders later on in life. In a study looking at female children who were detained for disciplinary actions found that psychological problems were most negatively associated with socioeconomic problems. Furthermore, social disorganization was found to be inversely correlated with personality disorder symptoms. 5944: 1353:. Patients who meet the DSM-IV-TR diagnostic criteria for one personality disorder are likely to meet the diagnostic criteria for another. Diagnostic categories provide clear, vivid descriptions of discrete personality types but the personality structure of actual patients might be more accurately described by a constellation of maladaptive personality traits. 1015:

drives or ambitions, if any. Is an uncommon condition in which people avoid social activities and consistently shy away from interaction with others. It affects more males than females. To others, they may appear somewhat dull or humorless. Because they do not tend to show emotion, they may appear as though they do not care about what's going on around them.

972:, a researcher on personality disorders, and other researchers consider some relegated diagnoses to be equally valid disorders, and may also propose other personality disorders or subtypes, including mixtures of aspects of different categories of the officially accepted diagnoses. Millon proposed the following description of personality disorders: 5671:. The currently accepted meaning must be understood in the context of historical changing classification systems such as DSM-IV and its predecessors. Although highly anachronistic, and ignoring radical differences in the character of subjectivity and social relations, some have suggested similarities to other concepts going back to at least the 2100:, which may take into account observations by relatives and others. One tool of diagnosing personality disorders is a process involving interviews with scoring systems. The patient is asked to answer questions, and depending on their answers, the trained interviewer tries to code what their responses were. This process is fairly time-consuming. 2085:

agreeableness). Many studies across cultures have explored the relationship between personality disorders and the Five Factor Model. This research has demonstrated that personality disorders largely correlate in expected ways with measures of the Five Factor Model and has set the stage for including the Five Factor Model within

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borderline PD and antisocial PD, alongside social and gender stereotypes, and the relationship between diagnosis rates and prevalence rates. Since the removal of depressive PD, self-defeating PD, sadistic PD and passive-aggressive PD from the DSM-5, studies analysing their prevalence and demographics have been limited.

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mental disorders. In addition to subthreshold (personality difficulty) and single cluster (simple personality disorder), this also derives complex or diffuse personality disorder (two or more clusters of personality disorder present) and can also derive severe personality disorder for those of greatest risk.

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personality abnormality than by other clinical variables. The Personality Assessment Schedule gives social function priority in creating a hierarchy in which the personality disorder creating the greater social dysfunction is given primacy over others in a subsequent description of personality disorder.

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Personality Disorder, DPD – Dependent Personality Disorder, OCPD – Obsessive–Compulsive Personality Disorder, PAPD – Passive–Aggressive Personality Disorder, DpPD – Depressive Personality Disorder, SDPD – Self-Defeating Personality Disorder, SaPD – Sadistic Personality Disorder, and n/a – not available.

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who wandered through life. Kraepelin also described three paranoid (meaning then delusional) disorders, resembling later concepts of schizophrenia, delusional disorder and paranoid personality disorder. A diagnostic term for the latter concept would be included in the DSM from 1952, and from 1980 the

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that seem to be beneficial regardless of techniques, including attributes of the therapist (e.g. trustworthiness, competence, caring), processes afforded to the client (e.g. ability to express and confide difficulties and emotions), and the match between the two (e.g. aiming for mutual respect, trust

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Evidence shows personality disorders may begin with parental personality issues. These cause the child to have their own difficulties in adulthood, such as difficulties reaching higher education, obtaining jobs, and securing dependable relationships. By either genetic or modeling mechanisms, children

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of personality as an alternative to the classification of personality disorders. For example, this view specifies that Borderline Personality Disorder can be understood as a combination of emotional lability (i.e., high neuroticism), impulsivity (i.e., low conscientiousness), and hostility (i.e., low

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One study investigated some aspects of "life success" (status, wealth and successful intimate relationships). It showed somewhat poor functioning for schizotypal, antisocial, borderline and dependent PD, schizoid PD had the lowest scores regarding these variables. Paranoid, histrionic and avoidant PD

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Hesitant, self-conscious, embarrassed, anxious. Tense in social situations due to fear of rejection. Plagued by constant performance anxiety. See themselves as inept, inferior, or unappealing. They experience long-standing feelings of inadequacy and are very sensitive of what others think about them.

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Impulsive, irresponsible, deviant, unruly. Act without due consideration. Meet social obligations only when self-serving. Disrespect societal customs, rules, and standards. See themselves as free and independent. People with antisocial personality disorder depict a long pattern of disregard for other

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Both the DSM-5 and the ICD-11 diagnostic systems provide a definition and six criteria for a general personality disorder. These criteria should be met by all personality disorder cases before a more specific diagnosis can be made. The DSM-5 indicates that any personality disorder diagnosis must meet

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stresses that a personality disorder is an enduring and inflexible pattern of long duration leading to significant distress or impairment and is not due to use of substances or another medical condition. The DSM-5 lists personality disorders in the same way as other mental disorders, rather than on a

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Such views lasted into the eighteenth century, when experiments began to question the supposed biologically based humours and 'temperaments'. Psychological concepts of character and 'self' became widespread. In the nineteenth century, 'personality' referred to a person's conscious awareness of their

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As of 2002, there were over fifty published studies relating the five factor model (FFM) to personality disorders. Since that time, quite a number of additional studies have expanded on this research base and provided further empirical support for understanding the DSM personality disorders in terms

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The disorders in each of the three clusters may share with each other underlying common vulnerability factors involving cognition, affect and impulse control, and behavioral maintenance or inhibition, respectively. But they may also have a spectrum relationship to certain syndromal mental disorders:

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Significant evidence suggests a small proportion of people with Cluster A personality disorders, especially schizotypal personality disorder, have the potential to develop schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders. These disorders also have a higher probability of occurring among individuals whose

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The ICD is a collection of alpha-numerical codes which have been assigned to all known clinical states, and provides uniform terminology for medical records, billing, statistics and research. The DSM defines psychiatric diagnoses based on research and expert consensus. Both have deliberately aligned

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International differences have been noted in how attitudes have developed towards the diagnosis of personality disorder. Kurt Schneider argued they were 'abnormal varieties of psychic life' and therefore not necessarily the domain of psychiatry, a view said to still have influence in Germany today.

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and therapeutic relationships. However, there can be difficulty acknowledging the different worlds and views that both the client and therapist may live with. A therapist may assume that the kinds of relationships and ways of interacting that make them feel safe and comfortable have the same effect

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Resentful, contrary, skeptical, discontented. Resist fulfilling others' expectations. Deliberately inefficient. Vent anger indirectly by undermining others' goals. Alternately moody and irritable, then sullen and withdrawn. Withhold emotions. Will not communicate when there is something problematic

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Egotistical, arrogant, grandiose, insouciant. Preoccupied with fantasies of success, beauty, or achievement. See themselves as admirable and superior, and therefore entitled to special treatment. Is a mental disorder in which people have an inflated sense of their own importance and a deep need for

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Guarded, defensive, distrustful and suspicious. Hypervigilant to the motives of others to undermine or do harm. Always seeking confirmatory evidence of hidden schemes. Feel righteous, but persecuted. Experience a pattern of pervasive distrust and suspicion of others that lasts a long time. They are

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study (based on DSM-IV screening criteria), reclassified into levels of severity rather than just diagnosis, reported in 2010 that the majority of people show some personality difficulties in one way or another (short of threshold for diagnosis), while the prevalence of the most complex and severe

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Currently, genetic research for the understanding of the development of personality disorders is severely lacking. However, there are a few possible risk factors currently in discovery. Researchers are currently looking into genetic mechanisms for traits such as aggression, fear and anxiety, which

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Early stages and preliminary forms of personality disorders need a multi-dimensional and early treatment approach. Personality development disorder is considered to be a childhood risk factor or early stage of a later personality disorder in adulthood. In addition, in Robert F. Krueger's review of

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The ICD adds: "For different cultures it may be necessary to develop specific sets of criteria with regard to social norms, rules and obligations." Chapter V in the ICD-10 contains the mental and behavioral disorders and includes categories of personality disorder and enduring personality changes.

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Personality disorder should not be diagnosed if the patterns of behaviour characterizing the personality disturbance are developmentally appropriate (e.g., problems related to establishing an independent self-identity during adolescence) or can be explained primarily by social or cultural factors,

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patterns of behavior, cognition, and inner experience, exhibited across many contexts and deviating from those accepted by the individual's culture. These patterns develop early, are inflexible, and are associated with significant distress or disability. The definitions vary by source and remain a

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Replication between 2001 and 2003, combined with interviews of a subset of respondents, indicated a population prevalence of around 9% for personality disorders in total. Functional disability associated with the diagnoses appeared to be largely due to co-occurring mental disorders (Axis I in the

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Research results examining the relationships between the FFM and each of the ten DSM personality disorder diagnostic categories are widely available. For example, in a study published in 2003 titled "The five-factor model and personality disorder empirical literature: A meta-analytic review", the

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Many who have a personality disorder do not recognize any abnormality and defend valiantly their continued occupancy of their personality role. This group have been termed the Type R, or treatment-resisting personality disorders, as opposed to the Type S or treatment-seeking ones, who are keen on

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Frantic efforts to avoid abandonment. Identity disturbance; unstable sense of self-image or sense of self. Impulsivity — spending, sex, substance abuse, binge eating. Unstable mood; fluctuation between highs and lows. Feelings of emptiness. Ideation and devaluation of interpersonal relationships.

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differences in the frequency of personality disorders which are shown in the table below. The known prevalence of some personality disorders, especially borderline PD and antisocial PD are affected by diagnostic bias. This is due to many factors including disproportionately high research towards

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This involves both the notion of personality difficulty as a measure of subthreshold scores for personality disorder using standard interviews and the evidence that those with the most severe personality disorders demonstrate a "ripple effect" of personality disturbance across the whole range of

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Explosively hostile, abrasive, cruel, dogmatic. Liable to sudden outbursts of rage. Gain satisfaction through dominating, intimidating and humiliating others. They are opinionated and closed-minded. Enjoy performing brutal acts on others. Find pleasure in abusing others. Would likely engage in a

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Eccentric, self-estranged, bizarre, absent. Exhibit peculiar mannerisms and behaviors. Think they can read thoughts of others. Preoccupied with odd daydreams and beliefs. Blur line between reality and fantasy. Magical thinking and strange beliefs. People with schizotypal personality disorder are

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Apathetic, indifferent, remote, solitary, distant, humorless, contempt, odd fantasies. Neither desire nor need human attachments. Withdrawn from relationships and prefer to be alone. Little interest in others, often seen as a loner. Minimal awareness of the feelings of themselves or others. Few

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With regard to Axis II, Cluster A personality disorders (paranoid, schizoid, schizotypal) were found in almost all participants (92% had at least one diagnosis), and Cluster B (83% had at least one of antisocial, borderline, histrionic, or narcissistic) and C (68% had at least one of avoidant,

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The term 'personality disorder' encompasses a wide range of issues, each with a different level of severity or impairment; thus, personality disorders can require fundamentally different approaches and understandings. To illustrate the scope of the matter, consider that while some disorders or

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because that is a basic diagnostic requirement. But research shows that this may be true only for some types of personality disorder. In several studies, higher levels of disability and lower QoL were predicted by avoidant, dependent, schizoid, paranoid, schizotypal and antisocial personality

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Social function is affected by many other aspects of mental functioning apart from that of personality. However, whenever there is persistently impaired social functioning in conditions in which it would normally not be expected, the evidence suggests that this is more likely to be created by

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Helpless, incompetent, submissive, immature. Withdrawn from adult responsibilities. See themselves as weak or fragile. Seek constant reassurance from stronger figures. They have the need to be taken care of by others. They fear being abandoned or separated from important people in their life.

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There is an enduring disturbance characterized by problems in functioning of aspects of the self (e.g., identity, self-worth, accuracy of self-view, self-direction), and/or interpersonal dysfunction (e.g., ability to develop and maintain close and mutually satisfying relationships, ability to

283:. For psychiatric patients, the prevalence of personality disorders is estimated between 40 and 60%. The behavior patterns of personality disorders are typically recognized by adolescence, the beginning of adulthood or sometimes even childhood and often have a pervasive negative impact on the 1140:

Somber, discouraged, pessimistic, brooding, fatalistic. Present themselves as vulnerable and abandoned. Feel valueless, guilty, and impotent. Judge themselves as worthy only of criticism and contempt. Hopeless, suicidal, restless. This disorder can lead to aggressive acts and hallucinations.

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Currently, there are no definitive proven causes for personality disorders. However, there are numerous possible causes and known risk factors supported by scientific research that vary depending on the disorder, the individual, and the circumstance. Overall, findings show that genetic

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concern requiring attention by researchers and clinicians. The prevalence of individual personality disorders ranges from about 2% to 8% for the more common varieties, such as obsessive-compulsive, schizotypal, antisocial, borderline, and histrionic, to 0.5–1% for the least common, such as

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PPD – Paranoid Personality Disorder, SzPD – Schizoid Personality Disorder, StPD – Schizotypal Personality Disorder, ASPD – Antisocial Personality Disorder, BPD – Borderline Personality Disorder, HPD – Histrionic Personality Disorder, NPD – Narcissistic Personality Disorder, AvPD – Avoidant

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Deferential, pleasure-phobic, servile, blameful, self-effacing. Encourage others to take advantage of them. Deliberately defeat own achievements. Seek condemning or mistreatful partners. They are suspicious of people who treat them well. Would likely engage in a sadomasochist relationship.

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cases (including meeting criteria for multiple diagnoses in different clusters) was estimated at 1.3%. Even low levels of personality symptoms were associated with functional problems, but the most severely in need of services was a much smaller group. Personality disorders (especially

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Hysteria, dramatic, seductive, shallow, egocentric, attention-seeking, vain. Overreact to minor events. Exhibitionistic as a means of securing attention and favors. See themselves as attractive and charming. Constantly seeking others' attention. Disorder is characterized by constant

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or positivity. On the other hand, reassurance, openness and clear communication are usually helpful and needed. It can take several months of sessions, and perhaps several stops and starts, to begin to develop a trusting relationship that can meaningfully address a client's issues.

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perception of the problems with their personality that prevents them from experiencing it as being in conflict with their goals and self-image, or by the simple fact that there is no distinct or objective boundary between 'normal' and 'abnormal' personalities. There is substantial

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asserted that "the five-factor model of personality is widely accepted as representing the higher-order structure of both normal and abnormal personality traits". The five factor model has been shown to significantly predict all 10 personality disorder symptoms and outperform the

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published in 1980 made some major changes, notably putting all personality disorders onto a second separate 'axis' along with "mental retardation", intended to signify more enduring patterns, distinct from what were considered axis one mental disorders. 'Inadequate' and

5833:, which were seen as enduring problems linked not to specific symptoms but to pervasive internal conflicts or derailments of normal childhood development. These were often understood as weaknesses of character or willful deviance, and were distinguished from 318:

in popular and clinical discourse alike. Despite various methodological schemas designed to categorize personality disorders, many issues occur with classifying a personality disorder because the theory and diagnosis of such disorders occur within prevailing

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Grant BF, Hasin DS, Stinson FS, Dawson DA, Chou SP, Ruan WJ, et al. (July 2004). "Prevalence, correlates, and disability of personality disorders in the United States: results from the national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions".

4410: showed an extremely strong correlation with the development of antisocial and impulsive behavior. On the other hand, cases of abuse of the neglectful type that created childhood pathology were found to be subject to partial remission in adulthood. 1955:

and co-morbid mental disorders, can be problematic. However, personality disorders can also bring about above-average work abilities by increasing competitive drive or causing the individual with the condition to exploit their co-workers.

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Restrained, conscientious, respectful, rigid. Maintain a rule-bound lifestyle. Adhere closely to social conventions. See the world in terms of regulations and hierarchies. See themselves as devoted, reliable, efficient, and productive.

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Depending on the diagnosis, severity and individual, and the job itself, personality disorders can be associated with difficulty coping with work or the workplace—potentially leading to problems with others by interfering with

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The disturbance is manifest across a range of personal and social situations (i.e., is not limited to specific relationships or social roles), though it may be consistently evoked by particular types of circumstances and not

490:. People with these disorders can be paranoid and have difficulty being understood by others, as they often have odd or eccentric modes of speaking and an unwillingness and inability to form and maintain close relationships. 9828:

Grant JE, Mooney ME, Kushner MG (April 2012). "Prevalence, correlates, and comorbidity of DSM-IV obsessive-compulsive personality disorder: results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions".

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They are defined as ingrained patterns indicated by inflexible and disabling responses that significantly differ from how the average person in the culture perceives, thinks, and feels, particularly in relating to others.

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Schwarze CE, Hellhammer DH, Stroehle V, Lieb K, Mobascher A (October 2015). "Lack of Breastfeeding: A Potential Risk Factor in the Multifactorial Genesis of Borderline Personality Disorder and Impaired Maternal Bonding".

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Budge SL, Moore JT, Del Re AC, Wampold BE, Baardseth TP, Nienhuis JB (December 2013). "The effectiveness of evidence-based treatments for personality disorders when comparing treatment-as-usual and bona fide treatments".

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The symptoms are not due to the direct effects of a medication or substance, including withdrawal effects, and are not better accounted for by another mental disorder, a disease of the nervous system, or another medical

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In clinical samples men have higher rates, whereas epidemiologically there is a reported higher rate of women although due the controversy of paranoid personality disorder the usefulness of these results is disputed

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The management and treatment of personality disorders can be a challenging and controversial area, for by definition the difficulties have been enduring and affect multiple areas of functioning. This often involves

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Diagnosis rates vary from about three times more common in women, to only a minor predominance of women over men. This is partially attributable to increased rates of treatment-seeking in women, although disputed

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individuals with such diagnoses or associated behaviors. The disruptiveness that people with personality disorders can create in an organisation makes these, arguably, the most challenging conditions to manage.

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Markedly disharmonious attitudes and behavior, generally involving several areas of functioning, e.g. affectivity, arousal, impulse control, ways of perceiving and thinking, and style of relating to others;

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Van Damme L, Colins O, De Maeyer J, Vermeiren R, Vanderplasschen W (June 2015). "Girls' quality of life prior to detention in relation to psychiatric disorders, trauma exposure and socioeconomic status".

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There is an enduring pattern of inner experience and behavior that deviates markedly from the expectations of the individual's culture. This pattern is manifested in two (or more) of the following areas:

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rate of diagnosable PD was estimated at 10.6%, based on six major studies across three nations. This rate of around one in ten, especially as associated with high use of cocaine, is described as a major

275:, defined psychologically, is the set of enduring behavioral and mental traits that distinguish individual humans. Hence, personality disorders are defined by experiences and behaviors that deviate from 6520: 4570:

techniques. In clinical practice, many therapists use an 'eclectic' approach, taking elements of different schools as and when they seem to fit to an individual client. There is also often a focus on

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Other specified personality disorder – disorder which meets the general criteria for a personality disorder but fails to meet the criteria for a specific disorder, with the reason given

8434: 529: – pervasive pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others, lack of empathy, lack of remorse, callousness, bloated self-image, and manipulative and impulsive behavior 323:; thus, their validity is contested by some experts on the basis of inevitable subjectivity. They argue that the theory and diagnosis of personality disorders are based strictly on social, or even 4355:(sensitivity to external hostility). Lack of insight (shows low openness) is characteristic to all personality disorders and could help explain the persistence of maladaptive behavioral patterns. 2050:

The issue of the relationship between normal personality and personality disorders is one of the important issues in personality and clinical psychology. The personality disorders classification (

10128: 8877:"Prescribing of antipsychotics among people with recorded personality disorder in primary care: a retrospective nationwide cohort study using The Health Improvement Network primary care database" 5679:

described 29 'character' types that he saw as deviations from the norm, and similar views have been found in Asian, Arabic and Celtic cultures. A long-standing influence in the Western world was

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Piedmont RL, Sherman MF, Sherman NC, Dy-Liacco GS, Williams JE (June 2009). "Using the five-factor model to identify a new personality disorder domain: the case for experiential permeability".

710:), which can be used to describe personality traits that are problematic, but do not meet the diagnostic criteria for a PD. A personality disorder or difficulty can be specified by one or more 8658:

Nunes PM, Wenzel A, Borges KT, Porto CR, Caminha RM, de Oliveira IR (August 2009). "Volumes of the hippocampus and amygdala in patients with borderline personality disorder: a meta-analysis".

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connecting them and taking care of the feedback loops on what to do with all the incoming information from the multiple senses; so what comes out is anti-social – not according to what is the

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Niedtfeld I (July 2017). "Experimental investigation of cognitive and affective empathy in borderline personality disorder: Effects of ambiguity in multimodal social information processing".

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personality disorder. The DSM-5 also contains three diagnoses for personality patterns not matching these ten disorders, which nevertheless exhibit characteristics of a personality disorder:

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Apart from all these issues, an individual may not consider their personality to be disordered or the cause of problems. This perspective may be caused by the patient's ignorance or lack of

9707:"Prevalence, correlates, disability, and comorbidity of DSM-IV narcissistic personality disorder: results from the wave 2 national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions" 3850:

Conscientiousness (vs. disinhibition) DSM-IV-TR Personality disorders from the perspective of the five-factor model of general personality functioning (including previous DSM revisions)

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Neuroticism (vs. emotional stability) DSM-IV-TR Personality disorders from the perspective of the five-factor model of general personality functioning (including previous DSM revisions)

9563:"Prevalence, correlates, disability, and comorbidity of DSM-IV schizotypal personality disorder: results from the wave 2 national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions" 2976:

Open-mindedness (vs. closed-minded) DSM-IV-TR Personality disorders from the perspective of the five-factor model of general personality functioning (including previous DSM revisions)

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rather than as a personality disorder. There are accepted diagnostic issues and controversies with regard to distinguishing particular personality disorder categories from each other.

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that includes developing the ability to be nonjudgmentally aware of unpleasant emotions appears to be a promising clinical tool for managing different types of personality disorders.

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attention-seeking, emotional overreaction, and suggestibility. Their tendency to over-dramatize may impair relationships and lead to depression, but they are often high-functioning.

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Lenzenweger MF, Clarkin JF, Caligor E, Cain NM, Kernberg OF (2018). "Malignant Narcissism in Relation to Clinical Change in Borderline Personality Disorder: An Exploratory Study".

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Extraversion (vs. introversion) DSM-IV-TR Personality disorders from the perspective of the five-factor model of general personality functioning (including previous DSM revisions)

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Agreeableness (vs. antagonism) DSM-IV-TR Personality disorders from the perspective of the five-factor model of general personality functioning (including previous DSM revisions)

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In addition to classifying by category and cluster, it is possible to classify personality disorders using additional factors such as severity, impact on social functioning, and

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The disturbance is associated with substantial distress or significant impairment in personal, family, social, educational, occupational or other important areas of functioning.

10824: 10621: 10848: 5822:, based on his personal categorization of similarities he noted in some prisoners, marked the start of the modern clinical conception of psychopathy and its popularist usage. 5761:" or illness, supposedly without a moral judgment. Described as deeply rooted in his Christian faith, his work established the concept of personality disorder as used today. 10588: 8108:

Mullins-Sweatt SN, Widiger TA (2006). "The five-factor model of personality disorder: A translation across science and practice", pp. 39–70 in Krueger R, Tackett J (eds.).

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The disturbance is manifest in patterns of cognition, emotional experience, emotional expression, and behaviour that are maladaptive (e.g., inflexible or poorly regulated).

782:. This is not a trait in itself, but a combination of the five traits in certain severity. In the ICD-11, any personality disorder must meet all of the following criteria: 647:

The enduring pattern is not attributable to the physiological effects of a substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, a medication) or another medical condition (e.g., head trauma).

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Rotenstein OH, McDermut W, Bergman A, Young D, Zimmerman M, Chelminski I (February 2007). "The validity of DSM-IV passive-aggressive (negativistic) personality disorder".

7061: 947:(this is for conditions that seem to arise in adults without a diagnosis of personality disorder, following catastrophic or prolonged stress or other psychiatric illness). 4764:

Therapists in this area can become disheartened by lack of initial progress, or by apparent progress that then leads to setbacks. Clients may be perceived as negative,

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Cluster B personality disorders are characterized by dramatic, impulsive, self-destructive, emotional behavior and sometimes incomprehensible interactions with others.

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is the most obvious aspect of (low) openness among personality disorders and that shows lack of knowledge of one's emotional experiences. It is most characteristic of

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Costa, P.T., & Widiger, T.A. (2001). Personality disorders and the five-factor model of personality (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

9176:

Collins A, Barnicot K, Sen P (June 2020). "A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Personality Disorder Prevalence and Patient Outcomes in Emergency Departments".

11498: 4700:

issues, and there can be difficulties in seeking and obtaining help from organizations in the first place, as well as with establishing and maintaining a specific

6449:

Kliem S, Kröger C, Kosfelder J (December 2010). "Dialectical behavior therapy for borderline personality disorder: a meta-analysis using mixed-effects modeling".

220: 10814: 6528: 5920:' personality disorder' categories were deleted, and others were expanded into more types, or changed from being personality disorders to regular disorders. 5904: 5118: 1829:

Personality Disorder, DPD – Dependent Personality Disorder, OCPD – Obsessive–Compulsive Personality Disorder, PAPD – Passive–Aggressive Personality Disorder.

416: 265: 8445: 4434:

can pick up these traits. Additionally, poor parenting appears to have symptom elevating effects on personality disorders. More specifically, lack of

4358:

The problems associated with low openness are difficulties adapting to change, low tolerance for different worldviews or lifestyles, emotional flattening,

7003: 8841: 8173:

and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-IV personality disorders with the five-factor model of personality and the personality psychopathology five".

1963:, UK, interviewed and gave personality tests to high-level British executives and compared their profiles with those of criminal psychiatric patients at 599: – rigid conformity to rules, perfectionism, and control to the point of exclusion of leisurely activities and friendships (distinct from 4370:; the opposite of it known as impulsivity (here: an aspect of openness that shows a tendency to behave unusually or autistically) is characteristic of 1820:

Sites used DSM-III-R criterion sets. Data obtained for purposes of informing the development of the DSM-IV-TR personality disorder diagnostic criteria.

1085:

admiration. Those with narcissistic personality disorder believe that they are superior to others and have little regard for other people's feelings.

10581: 4684: 7016:

Fuller AK, Blashfield RK, Miller M, Hester T (November 1992). "Sadistic and self-defeating personality disorder criteria in a rural clinic sample".

5845:

during World War II in the context of men's reactions to military compliance, which would later be referenced as a personality disorder in the DSM.

279:

and expectations. Those diagnosed with a personality disorder may experience difficulties in cognition, emotiveness, interpersonal functioning, or

964:

or masochistic personality disorder (characterized by behavior consequently undermining the person's pleasure and goals). They were listed in the

7139: 10368: 7754: 5849:

was influential with regard to the concepts of borderline and narcissistic personalities later incorporated in 1980 as disorders into the DSM.

638:

The enduring pattern leads to clinically significant distress, or impairment in functioning, in social, occupational, or other important areas.

7770:"Personality disorders as a predictor of counterproductive knowledge behavior: the application of the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory-IV" 5825:

Towards the mid 20th century, psychoanalytic theories were coming to the fore based on work from the turn of the century being popularized by

1967:

in the UK. They found that three out of eleven personality disorders were actually more common in executives than in the disturbed criminals:

10976: 8087:

Widiger TA, Costa PT., Jr. (2002) "Five-Factor model personality disorder research", pp. 59–87 in Costa Paul T, Jr, Widiger Thomas A. (eds.)

7117: 6002: 5066: 4367: 2063: 2002: 1918: 1118: 759: 596: 465:

Personality change due to another medical condition – personality disturbance due to the direct effects of a medical condition

458: 111: 7572:

Tyrer P, Mitchard S, Methuen C, Ranger M (June 2003). "Treatment rejecting and treatment seeking personality disorders: Type R and Type S".

2066:

is an alternative approach that personality disorders represent maladaptive extensions of the same traits that describe normal personality.

10855: 10800: 10574: 10415: 9310: 7529:

Standage KF (September 1979). "The use of Schneider's typology for the diagnosis of personality disorders--an examination of reliability".

7004:"International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems 10th Revision (ICD-10) Version for 2010 (Online Version)" 1299:

This system accommodates the new diagnosis of severe personality disorder, particularly "dangerous and severe personality disorder" (DSPD).

1001:

generally difficult to work with and are very hard to form relationships with. They are also known to be argumentative and hypersensitive.

471: 120: 5753:

sought to make the moral insanity concept more scientific, and in 1891 suggested the phrase 'psychopathic inferiority', theorized to be a

1332:

of the individual) and are therefore perceived to be appropriate by that individual. In addition, this behavior can result in maladaptive

10874: 10759: 10686: 10611: 8628: 6215:

Beckwith H, Moran PF, Reilly J (May 2014). "Personality disorder prevalence in psychiatric outpatients: a systematic literature review".

6012: 5885: 5053: 4970:

About three times more common in men, with rates substantially higher in prison populations, up to almost 50% in some prison populations

4291: 1146: 914: 213: 154: 9615:"Sex differences in antisocial personality disorder: results from the National Epidemiological Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions" 5667:

Personality disorder is a term with a distinctly modern meaning, owing in part to its clinical usage and the institutional character of

1336:

and may lead to personal problems that induce extreme anxiety, distress, or depression and result in impaired psychosocial functioning.

11970: 11926: 11029: 8020:"A meta-analytic review of the relationships between the five-factor model and DSM-IV-TR personality disorders: a facet level analysis" 4876:

DSM). This statistic has been supported by other studies in the US, with overall global prevalence statistics ranging from 9% to 11%.

2062:

that views personality disorders as discrete entities that are distinct from each other and from normal personality. In contrast, the

474: – disorder which meets the general criteria for a personality disorder but is not included in the DSM-5 classification 10706: 8357: 7029: 6114:

Magnavita JJ (2004). "Chapter 1: Classification, prevalence, and etiology of personality disorders: Related issues and controversy".

4675:

Despite the lack of evidence supporting the benefit of antipsychotics in people with personality disorders, 1 in 4 who do not have a

865: 8600: 8238:

Piedmont RL, Sherman MF, Sherman NC (December 2012). "Maladaptively high and low openness: the case for experiential permeability".

8200:

Saulsman LM, Page AC (January 2004). "The five-factor model and personality disorder empirical literature: A meta-analytic review".

6783: 5808:

In 1939, psychiatrist David Henderson published a theory of 'psychopathic states' that contributed to popularly linking the term to

5699:. This sense of the term has been compared to the use of the term 'multiple personality disorder' in the first versions of the DSM. 4957:

The DSM-5 reports it is slightly more common in males, although other results suggest a prevalence of 4.2% in women and 3.7% in men

11785: 11402: 11215: 10646: 10307: 1866: 1029:

often described as odd or eccentric and usually have few, if any, close relationships. They think others think negatively of them.

10006: 5802: 941:(defined as conditions that are often troublesome but do not demonstrate the specific pattern of symptoms in the named disorders). 666:

personality disorder section differs substantially from the previous edition, ICD-10. All distinct PDs have been merged into one:

11195: 4821:

on clients. As an example of one extreme, people who may have been exposed to hostility, deceptiveness, rejection, aggression or

8314:

Cohen P, Brown J, Smaile E (2001). "Child abuse and neglect and the development of mental disorders in the general population".

7058: 11521: 2045: 956:

Some types of personality disorder were in previous versions of the diagnostic manuals but have been deleted. Examples include

206: 4562:

There are different specific theories or schools of therapy within many of these modalities. They may, for example, emphasize

567:, haughtiness, need for admiration, deceiving others, and lack of empathy (and, in more severe expressions, criminal behavior 10352: 10333: 10080: 9418: 8744: 8096: 8075: 7730: 7701: 7452: 6762: 6561: 6338: 6310: 6250:

Tyrer P, Reed GM, Crawford MJ (February 2015). "Classification, assessment, prevalence, and effect of personality disorder".

6164: 6071: 4871:

factors, and functional impairment was partly explained by co-occurring mental disorders. In the US, screening data from the

7677: 5900:

was popularising a clinical use in place of the previously more usual terms 'character', 'temperament' or 'constitution'.

1951:. Indirect effects also play a role; for example, impaired educational progress or complications outside of work, such as 11982: 11130: 10838: 6022: 5079: 4387:

disposition and life experiences, such as trauma and abuse, play a key role in the development of personality disorders.

1289:

It not only allows for but also takes advantage of the tendency for personality disorders to be comorbid with each other.

1174: 961: 840:

The disorder is usually, but not invariably, associated with significant problems in occupational and social performance.

159: 10701: 8693:

Kaya S, Yildirim H, Atmaca M (May 2020). "Reduced hippocampus and amygdala volumes in antisocial personality disorder".

6810:"Cluster A Personality Disorders: Schizotypal, Schizoid and Paranoid Personality Disorders in Childhood and Adolescence" 5722:' – mania without delusions – and described a number of cases mainly involving excessive or inexplicable anger or rage. 4863:

criteria, reported in 2009 a prevalence estimate of around 6% for personality disorders. The rate sometimes varied with

4842:

of personality disorder in the general community was largely unknown until surveys starting from the 1990s. In 2008 the

641:

The pattern is stable and of long duration, and its onset can be traced back at least to adolescence or early adulthood.

587: – pervasive feelings of social inhibition and inadequacy, and extreme sensitivity to negative evaluation 11232: 11207: 11042: 10666: 4532: 10407: 7607:

Blumenthal S (3 April 2014). "Psychoanalytic diagnosis: understanding personality structure in the clinical process".

831:

The abnormal behavior pattern is pervasive and clearly maladaptive to a broad range of personal and social situations;

478:

These specific personality disorders are grouped into the following three clusters based on descriptive similarities:

12018: 11838: 11736: 10948: 10754: 10063: 9933: 9755: 8975: 7473: 7245: 7075: 6703: 6678: 6648: 6125: 5987: 5002: 4348: 1988: 1922: 1076: 873: 600: 560: 446: 83: 7486:

Nur U, Tyrer P, Merson S, Johnson T (March 2004). "Social function, clinical symptoms and personality disturbance".

7220: 7092: 4451:

are associated with diagnosed individuals. More research is being conducted into disorder specific mechanisms.

4438: has also been correlated with personality disorders. In a study comparing 100 healthy individuals to 100 12110: 11347: 11318: 11259: 10915: 10424: 8386:"Socioeconomic background and the developmental course of schizotypal and borderline personality disorder symptoms" 7827:"Does Having a Dysfunctional Personality Hurt Your Career? Axis II Personality Disorders and Labor Market Outcomes" 5967: 5921: 4949: 4705: 4344: 2026: 1906: 1020: 857: 506: 503: – cold affect and detachment from social relationships, apathy, and restricted emotional expression 430: 354: 260: 50: 6357:

Ullrich S, Farrington DP, Coid JW (December 2007). "Dimensions of DSM-IV personality disorders and life-success".

5907:

in the 1950s, which relied heavily on psychoanalytic concepts. Somewhat more neutral language was employed in the

4704:. On the one hand, an individual may not consider themselves to have a mental health problem, while on the other, 4332:. Problems related to high openness that can cause problems with social or professional functioning are excessive 11352: 11147: 11072: 10943: 10938: 10933: 10869: 10711: 10383: 9909: 8516:"Socioeconomic-status and mental health in a personality disorder sample: the importance of neighborhood factors" 6027: 6007: 5982: 5977: 5972: 5040: 4989: 4975: 4962: 4733:

individuals are characterized by continual social withdrawal and the shunning of relationships, others may cause

4439: 4375: 1971: 1930: 1910: 1132: 1062: 1048: 1034: 877: 869: 779: 546: 532: 526: 442: 438: 434: 307: 194: 136: 78: 73: 68: 10309:

Treating Severe Personality Disorder]: Creating Robust Services for Clients with Complex Mental Health Needs

8602:

The Moderating Role of Maternal Attachment on Borderline Personality Disorder Features and Dependent Life Stress

4547:, a kind of group-based residential approach, has a history of use in treating personality disorders, including 497: – pattern of irrational suspicion and mistrust of others, interpreting motivations as malevolent 12287: 12005: 11790: 11761: 11022: 10971: 10696: 6979:

The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders – Clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines

5997: 5794: 5027: 1104: 885: 861: 590: 454: 387: 106: 7982:

Widiger TA (1993). "The DSM-III-R categorical personality disorder diagnoses: A critique and an alternative".

6943: 6667:

The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioural disorders: clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines

5782:

led to a distinction between these and another type later included in the DSM, avoidant personality disorder.

4406: group demonstrated the most consistently elevated patterns of psychopathology. Officially verified 12297: 11531: 11249: 11225: 10966: 10910: 10905: 10833: 10749: 10744: 10721: 10716: 10691: 6017: 5992: 5962: 5957: 5092: 5015: 4936: 4922: 4352: 1902: 1880: 1160: 1090: 1006: 992: 957: 901: 881: 853: 849: 584: 509: – pattern of extreme discomfort interacting socially, and distorted cognition and perceptions 500: 494: 450: 426: 422: 184: 179: 164: 101: 45: 40: 7810: 6665: 4708:

may view individuals with personality disorders as too complex or difficult, and may directly or indirectly

1292:

It represents the influence of personality disorder on clinical outcome more satisfactorily than the simple

12194: 11731: 11264: 11109: 10784: 4567: 1897: 968:

appendix as "Proposed diagnostic categories needing further study" without specific criteria. Psychologist

828:

The abnormal behavior pattern is enduring, of long standing, and not limited to episodes of mental illness;

703: 303: 299: 189: 10199: 4825:

in their lives, may in some cases be made confused, intimidated or suspicious by presentations of warmth,

2017:, it seems almost inevitable that some personality disorders will be present in a senior management team. 837:

The disorder leads to considerable personal distress but this may only become apparent late in its course;

644:

The enduring pattern is not better explained as a manifestation or consequence of another mental disorder.

11439: 11237: 10345:

Fatal Flaws: Navigating Destructive Relationships With People With Disorders of Personality and Character

5757:. This referred to continual and rigid patterns of misconduct or dysfunction in the absence of apparent " 4872: 4721: 4563: 2072:

and his collaborators have contributed to this debate significantly. He discussed the constraints of the

2041: 1948: 580:

Group C personality disorders are characterised by a consistent pattern of anxious thinking or behavior.

12252: 8124:"Assessment and diagnosis of personality disorder: perennial issues and an emerging reconceptualization" 6635: 5903:

American psychiatrists officially recognized concepts of enduring personality disturbances in the first

5706:

involving disturbed emotions and behaviors but seemingly without significant intellectual impairment or

1896:

It is generally assumed that all personality disorders are linked to impaired functioning and a reduced

635:

The enduring pattern is inflexible and pervasive across a broad range of personal and social situations.

12189: 11104: 7272:"Depressive personality disorder: Theoretical issues, clinical findings, and future research questions" 5798: 4773: 4697: 2014: 2006: 1983: 1838:

Paranoid, schizoid or schizotypal personality disorders may be observed to be premorbid antecedents of

7271: 4320:

At least three aspects of openness to experience are relevant to understanding personality disorders:

729:) – including anxiety, separation insecurity, distrustfulness, worthlessness and emotional instability 12292: 12199: 12168: 11546: 11429: 11015: 9477:

Triebwasser J, Chemerinski E, Roussos P, Siever LJ (December 2013). "Paranoid personality disorder".

8842:"Antipsychotics are commonly prescribed to people with personality disorders, contrary to guidelines" 6628: 6553:

Psychoanalytic Diagnosis, Second Edition: Understanding Personality Structure in the Clinical Process

5911:

in 1968, though the terms and descriptions had only a slight resemblance to current definitions. The

5750: 5696: 4856: 2097: 553:

behavior, including excessive emotions, an impressionistic style of speech, inappropriate seduction,

399: 344: 10412: 10168: 4647:

Poor in antisocial personality. Variable in borderline, narcissistic, and histrionic personalities.

4285:

of the FFM domains. In her seminal review of the personality disorder literature published in 2007,

12247: 12163: 12158: 11855: 11818: 11810: 11628: 11597: 11338: 11323: 10492: 8967:

Treating Personality Disorder: Creating Robust Services for People with Complex Mental Health Needs

5735: 4809: 4701: 4619: 1858: 1195: 906: 834:

The above manifestations always appear during childhood or adolescence and continue into adulthood;

6402:"Meta-Analysis and Systematic Review Assessing the Efficacy of Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT)" 535: – pervasive pattern of abrupt emotional outbursts, fear of abandonment, unhealthy 12184: 11691: 11541: 11536: 11493: 11310: 10739: 4813: 4548: 4538: 1884: 896: 295: 10213: 10148: 9341: 7376:"Sadistic Personality Disorder and Comorbid Mental Illness in Adolescent Psychiatric Inpatients" 6992: 6746: 6740: 12062: 11701: 11592: 11551: 11526: 11434: 10163: 7769: 6637:

The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioural disorders: diagnostic criteria for research

5853: 5730:, which would be used to diagnose patients for some decades. 'Moral' in this sense referred to 5672: 4754: 4676: 4315: 4294:(MMPI) in the prediction of borderline, avoidant, and dependent personality disorder symptoms. 1913:. However, obsessive–compulsive PD was not related to a reduced QoL or increased impairment. A 1874: 10543: 9958:"J C Prichard's concept of moral insanity--a medical theory of the corruption of human nature" 8636: 7718: 7413: 6551: 4459:

Research shows that several brain regions are altered in personality disorders, particularly:

790:

The disturbance has persisted over an extended period of time (e.g., lasting 2 years or more).

775: 743: 715: 12257: 11990: 11870: 11777: 11756: 10456: 7939:

Krueger RF, Carlson SR (February 2001). "Personality disorders in children and adolescents".

7691: 5723: 4588: 4571: 4422: 4363: 4321: 1357:

DSM-III-R personality disorder diagnostic co-occurrence aggregated across six research sites

1321: 763: 753: 733: 726: 707: 687: 679: 671: 624:

Affectivity (i.e., the range, intensity, lability, and appropriateness of emotional response)

9561:

Pulay AJ, Stinson FS, Dawson DA, Goldstein RB, Chou SP, Huang B, et al. (16 May 2009).

6754: 5778:

DSM would also include schizoid, schizotypal; interpretations of earlier (1921) theories of

5074:

The DSM-5 lists a male-to-female ratio of 2:1, however other studies have found equal rates

4808:

of a client, and indeed a therapist, may become lost behind actual or apparent strength and

1917:

reported that all PD were associated with significant impairment 15 years later, except for

695: 12082: 11995: 11751: 11571: 11152: 10397: 9754:

Grijalva E, Newman DA, Tay L, Donnellan MB, Harms PD, Robins RW, et al. (March 2015).

9078:

Huang Y, Kotov R, de Girolamo G, Preti A, Angermeyer M, Benjet C, et al. (July 2009).

8139: 5809: 4817: 4758: 4418: 4333: 1960: 1279:

Meets criteria for creation of severe disruption to both individual and to many in society

722: 10093:

Arrigo BA (1 June 2001). "The Confusion Over Psychopathy (I): Historical Considerations".

9705:

Stinson FS, Dawson DA, Goldstein RB, Chou SP, Huang B, Smith SM, et al. (July 2008).

9035:

Schulte Holthausen B, Habel U (October 2018). "Sex Differences in Personality Disorders".

8365: 7317:

Hopwood CJ, Morey LC, Markowitz JC, Pinto A, Skodol AE, Gunderson JG, et al. (2009).

6971: 4579:

Response of patients with personality disorders to biological and psychosocial treatments

8: 12132: 12114: 12077: 12067: 11921: 11823: 11800: 11648: 11640: 11419: 11397: 11125: 10554: 10481: 8606: 8514:

Walsh Z, Shea MT, Yen S, Ansell EB, Grilo CM, McGlashan TH, et al. (December 2013).

5754: 5731: 5612:

Also classified as a schizophrenia-spectrum disorder in addition to personality disorder.

4781: 4508: 4499:

There are many different forms (modalities) of treatment used for personality disorders:

1839: 1268:

Meets actual criteria for one or more personality disorders within more than one cluster

540: 10313: 9662:

Sprock J (2000). "Gender-Typed Behavioral Examples of Histrionic Personality Disorder".

8965: 8818: 8801: 6621: 5801:, who was also interested in psychopathies along with their milder forms, the so-called 539:, altered empathy, and instability in relationships, self-image, identity, behavior and 11795: 11392: 11244: 10362: 10274: 10181: 10110: 10037: 9982: 9957: 9731: 9706: 9687: 9639: 9614: 9587: 9562: 9543: 9291: 9237: 9220: 9201: 9153: 9128: 9104: 9079: 9060: 8947: 8901: 8876: 8857: 8782: 8718: 8540: 8515: 8496: 8410: 8385: 8339: 8151: 8044: 8019: 7964: 7891: 7851: 7826: 7792: 7748: 7632: 7554: 7511: 7351: 7318: 6925: 6882: 6834: 6809: 6598: 6581: 6426: 6401: 6382: 6275: 5861: 5818: 5813: 5758: 4785: 4630:

Evidence suggestive for antisocial and borderline personalities; otherwise none known.

1964: 10566: 10486: 10297:

Marshall WL, Serin R (1997). "Personality Disorders.". In Turner SM, Hersen R (eds.).

7287: 6263: 514:

first-degree relatives have either schizophrenia or a Cluster A personality disorder.

12041: 11566: 11556: 11488: 11414: 11298: 10503: 10348: 10329: 10266: 10185: 10114: 10076: 10059: 10029: 9987: 9929: 9846: 9842: 9810: 9775: 9736: 9691: 9679: 9644: 9613:

Alegria AA, Blanco C, Petry NM, Skodol AE, Liu SM, Grant B, et al. (July 2013).

9592: 9535: 9494: 9459: 9414: 9333: 9283: 9242: 9193: 9158: 9109: 9052: 9004: 8971: 8906: 8861: 8823: 8774: 8740: 8722: 8710: 8675: 8581: 8545: 8488: 8415: 8331: 8293: 8255: 8251: 8217: 8143: 8092: 8071: 8049: 7956: 7895: 7856: 7842: 7796: 7736: 7726: 7697: 7673: 7636: 7624: 7589: 7546: 7503: 7469: 7448: 7395: 7387: 7356: 7338: 7299: 7291: 7196: 7071: 7033: 6917: 6874: 6839: 6758: 6699: 6684: 6674: 6654: 6644: 6603: 6557: 6502: 6466: 6431: 6374: 6334: 6306: 6302: 6267: 6232: 6197: 6193: 6160: 6131: 6121: 6067: 5949: 5893: 5842: 5774: 5668: 4663: 4472: 2081: 1975: 1914: 550: 536: 127: 11007: 9295: 9205: 9064: 8500: 8343: 7968: 7515: 6929: 6886: 6386: 6279: 6180:

Berrios GE (1993). "European views on personality disorders: a conceptual history".

1257:

Meets actual criteria for one or more personality disorders within the same cluster

746:) – including grandiosity, egocentricity, deception, exploitativeness and aggression 657: 621:

Cognition (i.e., ways of perceiving and interpreting self, other people, and events)

11911: 11865: 11833: 11681: 11659: 11624: 11387: 11269: 11220: 11167: 11142: 11137: 11094: 11082: 10256: 10225: 10173: 10102: 10041: 10021: 9977: 9969: 9838: 9802: 9767: 9726: 9718: 9671: 9634: 9626: 9582: 9574: 9547: 9525: 9486: 9451: 9325: 9273: 9232: 9185: 9148: 9144: 9140: 9099: 9091: 9044: 8996: 8951: 8937: 8896: 8888: 8849: 8813: 8766: 8702: 8667: 8573: 8535: 8527: 8480: 8405: 8397: 8323: 8285: 8247: 8209: 8182: 8155: 8135: 8039: 8031: 7991: 7948: 7918: 7883: 7846: 7838: 7784: 7616: 7581: 7558: 7538: 7495: 7346: 7330: 7283: 7025: 6909: 6870: 6866: 6829: 6821: 6750: 6593: 6494: 6458: 6421: 6413: 6366: 6326: 6298: 6259: 6224: 6189: 6096: 6066:(Fifth ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing. pp. 646–49. 5786: 5779: 4765: 4709: 4476: 1959:

In 2005 and again in 2009, psychologists Belinda Board and Katarina Fritzon at the

1862: 1854: 12040: 8786: 7161: 6100: 12087: 12045: 11916: 11903: 11850: 11845: 11828: 11708: 11503: 11475: 11276: 11099: 11038: 10497: 10425:

Personality Disorders information leaflet from The Royal College of Psychiatrists

10419: 10321: 10278: 10135: 9408: 8770: 8736: 7909:

Kets MF (2003). "Interview: Manfred Kets de Vries: The Dark Side of Leadership".

7887: 7620: 7079: 7065: 7053: 6736: 6152: 6061: 5877: 5873: 4880: 4805: 4801: 4641: 4526: 2092:

In clinical practice, individuals are generally diagnosed by an interview with a

1952: 1870: 969: 314:

approaches are also used. Personality disorders are associated with considerable

284: 280: 241: 12137: 10007:"Julius Ludwig August Koch (1841-1908): Christian, philosopher and psychiatrist" 9925:

Disordered personalities and Crime: An analysis of the history of moral insanity

8892: 7585: 2009:, excessive devotion to work, rigidity, stubbornness and dictatorial tendencies. 421:

separate 'axis', as previously. DSM-5 lists ten specific personality disorders:

12072: 12013: 11937: 11746: 11713: 11696: 11686: 9329: 8853: 8706: 8671: 7995: 7334: 7188: 6718: 6577: 6370: 5897: 5881: 5876:. Tests were developing or being applied for personality evaluation, including 5857: 5770: 5727: 5715: 5711: 4633: 4544: 4514: 4479: 4407: 4286: 2069: 918: 311: 10508: 9973: 9806: 9675: 9278: 9261: 9095: 9048: 9000: 8484: 8401: 8327: 8213: 8035: 7952: 7499: 6825: 6698:. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association. 1987. pp. 269–272. 6498: 1285:

There are several advantages to classifying personality disorder by severity:

593: – pervasive psychological need to be cared for by other people 362:

their diagnoses to some extent, but some differences remain. For example, the

12281: 12106: 12057: 11375: 10177: 10106: 10025: 9683: 9490: 9189: 9129:"DSM-IV personality disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication" 8577: 8531: 8068:

Personality Disorders and the Five-Factor Model of Personality, Third Edition

7788: 7740: 7628: 7391: 7342: 7295: 6417: 5846: 5826: 5743: 5739: 4868: 4848: 4777: 4776:. This has been looked at in terms of both therapist and client; in terms of 4726: 4637: 4612: 4605: 4520: 4504: 4435: 4399: 4303: 1979: 1850: 1843: 1333: 1329: 766:) – including rigid control over behaviour and affect and rigid perfectionism 749: 554: 487: 383: 320: 315: 291: 10471: 7922: 7030:

10.1002/1097-4679(199211)48:6<827::AID-JCLP2270480618>3.0.CO;2-1

6688: 6658: 6135: 6087:

Ekselius L (2 October 2018). "Personality disorder: a disease in disguise".

4812:. It is commonly stated that there is always a need to maintain appropriate 4541:

for treating symptoms of personality dysfunction or co-occurring conditions.

756:) – including risk-taking, impulsivity, irresponsibility and distractibility 351:

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (Fifth Edition, DSM-5)

11960: 11741: 11293: 10270: 10033: 9850: 9814: 9779: 9740: 9648: 9596: 9539: 9498: 9463: 9337: 9287: 9246: 9197: 9162: 9113: 9056: 9008: 8910: 8875:

Hardoon S, Hayes J, Viding E, McCrory E, Walters K, Osborn D (March 2022).

8827: 8778: 8714: 8679: 8585: 8549: 8492: 8419: 8335: 8297: 8259: 8221: 8147: 8053: 7960: 7860: 7593: 7507: 7399: 7360: 7200: 6921: 6878: 6843: 6607: 6521:"There are few disorders that carry such a stigma as personality disorders" 6506: 6470: 6435: 6378: 6271: 6236: 5889: 5865: 5684: 5676: 4889: 4742: 4680: 4403: 2093: 1325: 1235:

Does not meet actual or subthreshold criteria for any personality disorder

932: 910: 739: 10261: 10244: 10075:Личко А. Е. (2010) Психопатии и акцентуации характера у подростков. Речь, 9991: 9530: 9513: 8987:

Lenzenweger MF (September 2008). "Epidemiology of personality disorders".

7542: 7303: 7037: 6721:

Medscape Psychiatry, Bret S. Stetka, MD, Christoph U. Correll, 21 May 2013

6201: 945:

Enduring personality changes, not attributable to brain damage and disease

11945: 11676: 11407: 11157: 10538: 9910:

The History of the Concept of Personality Disorder and its Classification

9722: 9578: 9455: 8757:

Sng AA, Janca A (January 2016). "Mindfulness for personality disorders".

7550: 5925: 5688: 4864: 4555: 4483: 4460: 4395: 4371: 4359: 4329: 4299: 1992: 1350: 787:

understand others' perspectives and to manage conflict in relationships).

564: 276: 272: 250: 245: 174: 10229: 10198:

Hoermann, Simone; Zupanick, Corinne E. and Dombeck, Mark (January 2011)

5702:

Physicians in the early nineteenth century started to diagnose forms of

5695:

behavior, a disorder of which could be linked to altered states such as

12262: 11955: 11860: 11561: 11286: 11281: 11077: 7466:

Personality Disorders: Diagnosis, Management and Course. Second Edition

4997:

Prevalence rates are equal, although diagnostic rates can favour women

4839: 4797: 4769: 1169:

sadomasochist relationship, but will not play the role of a masochist.

706:). There is also an additional category called personality difficulty ( 10439: 8942: 8925: 6913: 6731: 6729: 6727: 5791:

Manifestations of Psychopathies: Statics, Dynamics, Systematic Aspects

4507:

has been a mainstay of treatment. There are long-term and short-term (

1246:

Meets sub-threshold criteria for one or several personality disorders

12215: 12147: 11965: 11424: 11162: 11087: 10626: 10549: 10514: 10095:

International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology

9771: 9630: 9358:

dependent, obsessive–compulsive) disorders also were highly prevalent

9080:"DSM-IV personality disorders in the WHO World Mental Health Surveys" 8384:

Cohen P, Chen H, Gordon K, Johnson J, Brook J, Kasen S (April 2008).

8289: 7723:

The American Psychiatric Publishing textbook of personality disorders

6462: 6228: 5838: 5707: 4738: 4454: 1293: 1043:

people's rights. They often cross the line and violate these rights.

965: 960:(pervasive pattern of cruel, demeaning, and aggressive behavior) and 169: 9514:"Prevalence and correlates of personality disorder in Great Britain" 8123: 7375: 6115: 6055: 6053: 6051: 6049: 6047: 6045: 6043: 4683:. Many people receive these medication for over a year, contrary to 335:

The two latest editions of the major systems of classification are:

11950: 11620: 11587: 11513: 10925: 10764: 10149:"The Surprising History of Passive–Aggressive Personality Disorder" 10058:. Издательство Нижегородской государственной медицинской академии. 9476: 9127:

Lenzenweger MF, Lane MC, Loranger AW, Kessler RC (September 2007).

8186: 7319:"The Construct Validity of Passive-Aggressive Personality Disorder" 6745:(Fifth ed.). American Psychiatric Association. 2013. pp. 6724: 5917: 5834: 5703: 4826: 4789: 4746: 4468: 4464: 3846: 3400: 2972: 2528: 2102: 951: 928: 888:. Besides the ten specific PD, there are the following categories: 324: 10413:

National Mental Health Association personality disorder fact sheet

6295:

International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences

5872:, which influenced a later key advocate of personality disorders, 10958: 10519: 10245:"The distinction between personality disorder and mental illness" 9221:"Personality disorders: a nation-based perspective on prevalence" 8469: 6040: 5912: 4737:

in forwardness. The extremes are worse still: at one extreme lie

4717: 4659: 4325: 3903: 3457: 3029: 2585: 2159: 1996: 7874:

Board BJ, Fritzon K (2005). "Disordered personalities at work".

7414:"APA Dictionary of Psychology: Masochistic personality disorder" 7380:

Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law Online

6696:

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-III-R

6331:

Severe personality disorders : psychotherapeutic strategies

6059: 341:

International Classification of Diseases (11th revision, ICD-11)

11668: 11483: 10897: 10650: 10466: 10451: 8275: 7093:"Paranoid Personality Disorder (PPD): Symptoms & Treatment" 6622:"The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders" 5908: 5856:

had been developing in academia and to some extent clinically.

4860: 4843: 3908: 3462: 3034: 2590: 2164: 2055: 818: 663: 363: 340: 59: 9792: 9126: 8562: 8169:

Bagby RM, Sellbom M, Costa PT, Widiger TA (2008). "Predicting

8091:. 2nd ed. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. 8089:

Personality disorders and the five-factor model of personality

7809:

Ettner, Susan L. (2011). "Personality Disorders and Work." In

4669:

Most common treatment for these disorders. Response variable.

4644:

may help for borderline personality; otherwise not indicated.

4328:(means the ability to recognize one's own mental illness) and 1296:

system of no personality disorder versus personality disorder.

12105: 11446: 10888: 9262:"Personality pathology recorded by severity: national survey" 8435:"How does Socio-Economic Status Shape a Child's Personality?" 6899: 6614: 5680: 4822: 4793: 4750: 4523:

for personality dysfunction is probably the second most used.

2086: 2051: 517: 411: 350: 92: 9567:

Primary Care Companion to the Journal of Clinical Psychiatry

7174:

Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5

7015: 6117:

Handbook of personality disorders : theory and practice

5793:, which was one of the first attempts to develop a detailed 5111: 2080:

to the personality disorders. Specifically, he proposed the

1849:

Borderline personality disorder is seen in association with

11619: 9560: 9308: 8926:"Principles of managing patients with personality disorder" 8442:

Human Capital and Economic Opportunity Global Working Group

4337: 3918: 3472: 3044: 2600: 2174: 1324:

has been used to explain treatment-resistant tendencies as

575: 402:

disorder and never was regarded as a personality disorder.

31: 10200:

The History of the Psychiatric Diagnostic System Continued

9756:"Gender differences in narcissism: a meta-analytic review" 9753: 9704: 9512:

Coid J, Yang M, Tyrer P, Roberts A, Ullrich S (May 2006).

9311:"Personality disorders in homeless drop-in center clients" 9077: 7571: 7316: 486:

Cluster A personality disorders are often associated with

9309:

Connolly AJ, Cobb-Richardson P, Ball SA (December 2008).

8874: 7719:"Prevalence, Sociodemographics and Functional Impairment" 5061:

No longer present in the DSM-5 and no longer widely used

5048:

No longer present in the DSM-5 and no longer widely used

4905:

Sex differences in the frequency of personality disorders

4896: 3888: 3442: 3014: 2570: 2144: 481: 376:

enduring personality change after catastrophic experience

9612: 8168: 6972:"Disorders of adult personality and behaviour (F60–F69)" 6673:. Geneva: World Health Organization. 1992. p. 160. 6643:. Geneva: World Health Organization. 1993. p. 104. 5769:

In the early 20th century, another German psychiatrist,

5683:'s concept of personality types, which he linked to the 4604:

Evidence for relationship of schizotypal personality to

3868: 3422: 2994: 2550: 2124: 2046:

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator § Personality disorders

1349:

There is a considerable personality disorder diagnostic

249:

matter of controversy. Official criteria for diagnosing

11892: 10596: 9440: 9034: 6807: 6483: 4745:, while at another extreme some individuals may commit 4658:

No direct response. Medications may help with comorbid

3913: 3883: 3878: 3873: 3467: 3437: 3432: 3427: 3039: 3009: 3004: 2999: 2595: 2565: 2560: 2555: 2169: 2139: 2134: 2129: 1212:

Dimensional system of classifying personality disorders

8737:

Handbook of personality disorders: theory and practice

8657: 8383: 8237: 6808:

Esterberg ML, Goulding SM, Walker EF (December 2010).

6399: 5655:

DSM-I Sociopathic personality disturbance subsection.

5117:

Personality disorder diagnoses in each edition of the

3898: 3452: 3024: 2580: 2154: 736:) – including social detachment and emotional coldness 11037: 10056:Клиника психопатий, их статика, динамика, систематика 9896: