296:, which change the types of formulations involved in addressing post-emergent pesticide pressure. It was important to also note that even given appropriate chemical choices, high ambient temperatures or other environmental influences, can allow the non-targeted desirable organism to be damaged during application. As plants have already germinated, post-emergent pesticide application necessitates limited field contact in order to minimize losses due to crop and soil damage. Typical industrial application equipment will utilize very tall and narrow tires and combine this with a sprayer body which can be raised and lowered depending on crop height. These sprayers usually carry the label ‘high-clearance’ as they can rise over growing crops, although usually not much more than 1 or 2 meters high. In addition, these sprayers often have very wide booms in order to minimize the number of passes required over a field, again designed to limit crop damage and maximize efficiency. In
36:
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pesticide companies are unlikely widely to promote better targeting and thus reduced pesticide sales, unless they can benefit by adding value to products in some other way. RPU contrasts dramatically with the promotion of pesticides, and many agrochemical concerns, have equally become aware that product stewardship provides better long-term profitability than high pressure salesmanship of a dwindling number of new “silver bullet” molecules. RPU may therefore provide an appropriate framework for collaboration between many of the stake-holders in crop protection.
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229:
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402:. The effect of gaseous chemical is lost at its intended place of application and may move downwind and affect other plants not intended to be affected causing crop damage. Herbicides vary in their susceptibility to volatilisation. Prompt incorporation of the herbicide into the soil may reduce or prevent volatilisation. Wind, temperature, and humidity also affect the rate of volatilisation with humidity reducing in.
28:
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chemical which does not have undesirable effects on other desirable organisms, or by adequate buffer distance. These can be used for insects, weeds, and other pests to crops, humans, and animals. Air blast sprayers inject liquid into a fast-moving stream of air, breaking down large droplets into smaller particles by introducing a small amount of liquid into a fast-moving stream of air.
423:
354:) has been shown to be inefficient. However, relating "ideal" deposits with biological effect is fraught with difficulty, but in spite of Hislop's misgivings about detail, there have been several demonstrations that massive amounts of pesticides are wasted by run-off from the crop and into the soil, in a process called endo-drift. This is a less familiar form of
596:. Other preparations are granules or liquids that are formulated with bait that is eaten by insects. For many household pests bait traps are available that contain the pesticide and either pheromone or food baits. Crack and crevice sprays are applied into and around openings in houses such as baseboards and plumbing. Pesticides to control
463:. They found that in order to be effective, the pesticide needs to penetrate through the corn's silk, where the earworm's larvae hatch. The research concluded that larger pesticide droplets best penetrated the targeted corn silk. Knowing where the pest's destruction originates is crucial in targeting the amount of pesticide needed.
614:
Bug sprays should be used in well ventilated areas only, as the chemicals contained in the aerosol and most insecticides can be harmful or deadly to humans and pets. All insecticide products including solids, baits and bait traps should be applied such that they are out of reach of wildlife, pets and
451:
CDA is a good example of a rational pesticide use (RPU) technology (Bateman, 2003), but unfortunately has been unfashionable with public funding bodies since the early 1990s, with many believing that all pesticide development should be the responsibility of pesticide manufacturers. On the other hand,
260:
mixtures are often applied pre-emergent on agricultural fields to remove early-germinating weeds and prepare for subsequent crops. Pre-emergent application equipment often has large, wide tires designed to float on soft soil, minimizing both soil compaction and damage to planted (but not yet emerged)
365:
Different droplet sizes have dramatically different dispersal characteristics, and are subject to complex macro- and micro-climatic interactions (Bache & Johnstone, 1992). Greatly simplifying these interactions in terms of droplet size and wind speed, Craymer & Boyle concluded that there are
318:
fulfill a similar role to mist sprayers in producing particles of very small size, but use a different method. Whereas mist sprayers create a high-speed stream of air which can travel significant distances, foggers use a piston or bellows to create a stagnant area of pesticide that is often used for
311:
Air Blast sprayers, also known as air-assisted or mist sprayers, are often used for tall crops, such as tree fruit, where boom sprayers and aerial application would be ineffective. These types of sprayers can only be used where overspray—spray drift—is less of a concern, either through the choice of
84:
or other plant). Public concern about the use of pesticides has highlighted the need to make this process as efficient as possible, in order to minimise their release into the environment and human exposure (including operators, bystanders and consumers of produce). The practice of pest management
373:
turbulent eddies dominate: typically small droplets (<50 μm) that are usually considered most appropriate for targeting flying insects, unless an electrostatic charge is also present that provides the necessary force to attract droplets to foliage. (NB: the latter effects only operate at
486:
Ensuring quality of sprayers by testing and setting of standards for application equipment is important to ensure users get value for money. Since most equipment uses various hydraulic nozzles, various initiatives have attempted to classify spray quality, starting with the BCPC system.
377:
intermediate conditions where both sedimentation and drift effects are important. Most agricultural insecticide and fungicide spraying is optimised by using relatively small (say 50-150 μm) droplets in order to maximize “coverage” (droplets per unit area), but are also subject to
203:, often containing a mixture of water (or another liquid chemical carrier, such as fertilizer) and chemical, into droplets, which can be large rain-type drops or tiny almost-invisible particles. This conversion is accomplished by forcing the spray mixture through a
536:
Pest management in the home begins with restricting the availability to insects of three vital commodities: shelter, water and food. If insects become a problem despite such measures, it may become necessary to control them using chemical methods,
248:, attempts to reduce competitive pressure on newly germinated plants by removing undesirable organisms and maximizing the amount of water, soil nutrients, and sunlight available for the crop. An example of pre-emergent pesticide application is
207:
under pressure. The size of droplets can be altered through the use of different nozzle sizes, or by altering the pressure under which it is forced, or a combination of both. Large droplets have the advantage of being less susceptible to
443:
pest). No atomizer has been developed able to produce uniform (monodisperse) droplets, but rotary (spinning disc and cage) atomizers usually produce a more uniform droplet size spectrum than conventional hydraulic nozzles (see:
434:
In the 1970s and 1980s improved application technologies such as controlled droplet application (CDA) received extensive research interest, but commercial uptake has been disappointing. By controlling droplet size,
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crops. A three-wheel application machine, such as the one pictured on the right, is designed so that tires do not follow the same path, minimizing the creation of ruts in the field and limiting sub-soil damage.
729:
West, Jonathan S.; Bravo, Cedric; Oberti, Roberto; Lemaire, Dimitri; Moshou, Dimitrios; McCartney, H. Alastair (2003). "The
Potential of Optical Canopy Measurement for Targeted Control of Field Crop Diseases".
439:(ULV) or very low volume (VLV) application rates of pesticidal mixtures can achieve similar (or sometimes better) biological results by improved timing and dose-transfer to the biological target (
212:, but require more water per unit of land covered. Due to static electricity, small droplets are able to maximize contact with a target organism, but very still wind conditions are required.
370:
sedimentation dominates: typically larger (>100 μm) droplets applied at low wind-speeds; droplets above this size are appropriate for minimising drift contamination by herbicides.
144:
can achieve exceptionally high efficiencies, in terms of effective dose-transfer to a crop. Pesticides are applied to the seed prior to planting, in the form of a seed treatment, or
410:
are commonly used chemicals that are known to be subject to volatilisation but there are many others. Application of herbicides later in the season to protect herbicide-resistant
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Doble, S.J., Matthews, G.A., Rutherford, I. & Southcombe, E.S.E. (1985) A system for classifying hydraulic nozzle and other atomisers into categories of spray quality.
909:
974:
O’Sullivan C M, C R Tuck, M C Butler Ellis, P C H Miller, R Bateman (2010). An alternative surfactant to nonyl phenol ethoxylates for spray application research.
293:
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Graham-Bryce, I.J. (1977) Crop protection: a consideration of the effectiveness and disadvantages of current methods and of the scope for improvement.
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can. Applied to clothing, arms, legs, and other extremities, the use of these products will tend to ward off nearby insects. This is not an insecticide.
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fatigue test for pressurised equipment: used for indoor residue spraying (IRS) against mosquitoes, other disease vectors and (sometimes) in agriculture
288:
crops, for example. A number of companies have also created genetically modified organisms that are resistant to various pesticides. Examples include
264:
Post-emergent pesticide application requires the use of specific chemicals chosen to minimize harm to the desirable target organism. An example is
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sizes produced by typical (hydraulic) spray nozzles. This has long been recognized to be one of the most important concepts in spray application (
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883:
300:, spray booms 120 feet (37 meters) wide are not uncommon, especially in prairie agriculture with large, flat fields. Related to this,
572:—primarily comes in an aerosol can, and is sprayed directly on the insect or its nest as a means of killing it. Fly sprays will kill
335:
In order to better understand the cause of the spray inefficiency, it is useful to reflect on the implications of the large range of
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448:). Other efficient application techniques include: banding, baiting, specific granule placement, seed treatments and weed wiping.
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One of the most common forms of pesticide application, especially in conventional agriculture, is the use of mechanical
148:, to protect against soil-borne risks to the plant; additionally, these coatings can provide supplemental chemicals and
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Traditional agricultural crop pesticides can either be applied pre-emergent or post-emergent, a term referring to the
699:
Bateman, R.P. (2003) Rational
Pesticide Use: spatially and temporally targeted application of specific products. In:
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Roadsides receive substantial quantities of herbicides, both intentionally applied for their maintenance and due to
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Understanding the biology and life cycle of the pest is also an important factor in determining droplet size. The
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increases the risk of volatilisation as the temperature is higher and incorporation into the soil impractical.
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essentially three sets of conditions under which droplets move from the nozzle to the target. These are where:
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Optical data from satellites and from aircraft are increasingly being used to inform application decisions.
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362:, either on hand-held sprayers or tractor booms, where formulations are mixed into high volumes of water.
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Ontario
Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Rural Affairs - Pesticide Storage, Handling, and Application
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459:, for example, has conducted tests to determine the ideal droplet size of a pesticide used to combat
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358:, with exo-drift causing much greater public concern. Pesticides are conventionally applied using
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Large self-propelled agricultural 'floater' sprayer, engaged in pre-emergent pesticide application
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199:, a lance (for single nozzles) or boom, and a nozzle (or multiple nozzles). Sprayers convert a
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designed to encourage growth. A typical seed coating can include a nutrient layer—containing
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a pesticide to an emerged crop which eliminates physical contact with soil and crops.
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343:. Himel, 1969), bringing about enormous variations in the properties of droplets.
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1037:"Before spraying wildly at anything that moves, consider more reasoned approach"
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Hislop, E.C. (1987) Can we define and achieve optimum pesticide deposits?
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995:; Alexander, Lauren E. (1998). "Roads and Their Major Ecological Effects".
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Himel C M (1969) The optimum drop size for insecticide spray droplets.
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Self-propelled row-crop sprayer applying pesticide to post-emergent corn
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Ed. M. Wilson. John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Chichester, UK. pp. 129-157
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working together to promote the safe, effective use of pesticides.
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Pesticide Spray
Technology Workshop, Emeryville, California, USA.
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from adjacent applications. This often kills off-target plants.
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are often injected into and around the foundations of homes.
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884:"Dow Corn, Resistant to a Weed Killer, Runs Into Opposition"
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The micrometeorology and physics of spray particle behaviour
611:, which act on the nervous system of insects and arachnids.
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International
Pesticide Application Research Centre (IPARC)
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Active ingredients of many household insecticides include
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Space treatment against mosquitoes using a thermal fogger
1099:(Japanese dry rock garden) in Lelystad, The Netherlands.
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by the rational application of pesticides is supremely
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Waxman, Michael F., (1998) Application
Equipment. In:
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346:
Historically, dose-transfer to the biological target (
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Sources of environmental contamination with pesticides
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938:. USDA Agricultural Research Service. April 12, 2010.
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enclosed areas, such as houses and animal shelters.
838:Philosophical Transactions Royal Society London B.
374:very short distances, typically under 10 mm.)
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284:). Such a chemical has been used extensively on
991:
936:"Studying Droplet Sizes to Combat Corn Earworm"
910:"Getting the Most from Soil-Applied Herbicides"
1066:Pesticides: Health, Safety and the Environment
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532:Application methods for household insecticides
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912:. Montana State University. Archived from
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780:Agrochemical and Pesticide Safety Handbook
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117:, together with newer disciplines such as
948:Matthews, G.A. and Thornhill E.W. (1994)
719:4th Edition Wiley, Chichester, UK 517 pp.
549:, referred to as "bug spray", comes in a
1095:Example of Pesticide application in the
998:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
715:Matthews GA, Bateman R, Miller P (2014)
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69:control agents) are delivered to their
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782:Ed. M. Wilson. CRC Press, Boca Raton (
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426:The Ulvamast Mk II: a ULV sprayer for
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908:Fabian Menalled and William E. Dyer.
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709:
507:
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216:Spraying pre- and post-emergent crops
49:refers to the practical way in which
1071:Bache D.H., Johnstone, D.R. (1992)
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1075:Ellis Horwood, Chichester, England.
865:Craymer, H.E., Boyle, D.G. (1973)
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467:Quality and assessment of equipment
446:CDA & ULV application equipment
191:. Hydraulic sprayers consists of a
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1073:Microclimate and spray dispersion
882:Andrew Pollack (April 25, 2012).
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42:students spraying Irish potatoes
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993:Forman, Richard Townsend Turner
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733:Annual Review of Phytopathology
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822:Journal of Economic Entomology
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430:control (photo taken in Niger)
266:2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid
23:A manual backpack-type sprayer
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717:Pesticide Application Methods
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560:Insecticide used for killing
457:Agricultural Research Service
290:glyphosate-resistant soybeans
1294:Persistent organic pollutant
801:"DropData application pages"
302:aerial pesticide application
89:, combining many aspects of
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1437:Index of pesticide articles
1264:Agricultural spray adjuvant
618:
478:houses and carries out the
412:genetically modified plants
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1432:Integrated Pest Management
1279:Integrated pest management
976:Aspects of Applied Biology
851:Aspects of Applied Biology
803:. Dropdata.net. 2020-06-15
640:Integrated pest management
244:pesticide application, in
1473:Environmental engineering
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1329:Paradox of the pesticides
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963:Proc. for BCPC Conference
503:Other application methods
480:World Health Organization
40:Grubbs Vocational College
1369:Pesticide Action Network
1289:Non-pesticide management
701:Optimising Pesticide Use
545:to the particular pest.
388:Herbicide volatilisation
383:Herbicide volatilisation
246:conventional agriculture
1468:Pest control techniques
1269:Biological pest control
323:Spraying inefficiencies
1382:The Pesticide Question
1064:Matthews G.A. (2006)
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332:
298:industrial agriculture
240:status of the plant.
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16:Delivery of pesticides
1284:Maximum residue limit
1254:Environmental effects
1103:Stewardship Community
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201:pesticide formulation
175:and other beneficial
47:Pesticide application
38:
30:
22:
1442:Pesticide categories
916:on December 21, 2012
268:, which will injure
1097:Tsubo-en Zen garden
526:agricultural drones
520:spray application,
360:hydraulic atomisers
276:) but leave behind
123:information science
888:The New York Times
625:aerial application
508:Aerial application
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418:Improved targeting
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87:multi-disciplinary
71:biological targets
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33:
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1068:Blackwell, Oxford
1041:reviewjournal.com
788:978-1-56670-296-6
543:active ingredient
183:Spray application
168:layer—containing
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304:is a method of
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840:281: 163-179.
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630:Aerosol spray
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461:corn earworms
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56:
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41:
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29:
21:
1380:
1373:
1359:Bee toxicity
1303:
1299:Pest control
1204:Molluscicide
1177:Biopesticide
1172:Bioherbicide
1072:
1065:
1044:. Retrieved
1040:
1031:
1002:
996:
987:
979:
975:
970:
962:
957:
949:
944:
930:
918:. Retrieved
914:the original
903:
891:. Retrieved
887:
866:
861:
853:
850:
845:
837:
832:
824:
821:
816:
805:. Retrieved
795:
779:
774:
737:
731:
724:
716:
700:
695:
681:spray nozzle
666:Weed control
646:Pest control
613:
609:tetramethrin
602:
564:—most often
559:
538:
535:
522:crop dusting
511:
494:
485:
454:
450:
440:
433:
387:
386:
364:
347:
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314:
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306:top dressing
263:
242:Pre-emergent
235:
205:spray nozzle
186:
140:
132:
74:
70:
63:insecticides
46:
45:
1414:New Zealand
1319:Degradation
1314:Formulation
1304:Application
1219:Rodenticide
1199:Insecticide
1162:Bactericide
1046:23 February
1009:: 207–231.
952:. FAO, Rome
744:: 593–614.
656:Insecticide
635:Formulation
586:cockroaches
574:house flies
396:sublimation
392:evaporation
238:germination
210:spray drift
107:meteorology
103:engineering
53:(including
1463:Pesticides
1457:Categories
1397:By country
1354:Resurgence
1349:Resistance
1259:Fumigation
1209:Nematicide
1140:Pesticides
807:2023-06-15
790:) pp. 326.
687:References
615:children.
605:permethrin
588:and other
390:refers to
258:glyphosate
158:phosphorus
80:organism,
59:fungicides
55:herbicides
51:pesticides
1334:Poisoning
1224:Slimicide
1214:Piscicide
1192:Defoliant
1187:Herbicide
1182:Fungicide
1157:Acaricide
1148:Pesticide
1023:0066-4162
982:: 311-316
920:April 25,
893:April 25,
758:0066-4286
661:Fungicide
651:Pesticide
592:and also
578:blowflies
570:arachnids
539:targeting
400:herbicide
170:symbiotic
166:rhizobial
162:potassium
150:nutrients
95:chemistry
1339:Research
856:153-172.
827:919-925.
766:12730386
619:See also
598:termites
294:Bt maize
282:monocots
250:atrazine
189:sprayers
173:bacteria
154:nitrogen
99:agronomy
67:nematode
1344:Residue
1167:Biocide
676:sprayer
594:spiders
590:insects
566:insects
555:aerosol
408:dicamba
337:droplet
316:Foggers
278:grasses
146:coating
91:biology
1404:Canada
1324:Misuse
1021:
786:
764:
756:
568:, and
428:locust
378:drift.
274:dicots
160:, and
97:with:
1309:Drift
1150:types
1005:(1).
740:(1).
642:(IPM)
562:pests
512:See:
476:IPARC
404:2,4-D
286:wheat
65:, or
1048:2014
1019:ISSN
922:2012
895:2012
784:ISBN
762:PMID
754:ISSN
607:and
582:ants
541:the
524:and
441:i.e.
406:and
352:pest
350:the
348:i.e.
292:and
254:corn
197:pump
195:, a
193:tank
164:, a
121:and
113:and
93:and
82:crop
78:pest
75:e.g.
1011:doi
854:14:
825:62:
746:doi
553:or
394:or
341:e.g
1459::
1039:.
1017:.
1003:29
1001:.
980:99
978:,
886:.
874:^
760:.
752:.
738:41
736:.
708:^
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580:,
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1013::
924:.
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810:.
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748::
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