Phenotypic plasticity

558:. In order to escape predation, the red-eyed tree frogs have developed a form of adaptive plasticity, which can also be considered phenotypic plasticity, when it comes to hatching age; the clutch is able to hatch prematurely and survive outside of the egg five days after oviposition when faced with an immediate threat of predation. The egg clutches take in important information from the vibrations felt around them and use it to determine whether or not they are at risk of predation. In the event of a snake attack, the clutch identifies the threat by the vibrations given off which, in turn, stimulates hatching almost instantaneously. In a controlled experiment conducted by Karen Warkentin, hatching rate and ages of red-eyed tree frogs were observed in clutches that were and were not attacked by the cat-eyed snake. When a clutch was attacked at six days of age, the entire clutch hatched at the same time, almost instantaneously. However, when a clutch is not presented with the threat of predation, the eggs hatch gradually over time with the first few hatching around seven days after oviposition, and the last of the clutch hatching around day ten. Karen Warkentin's study further explores the benefits and trade-offs of hatching plasticity in the red-eyed tree frog. 205:, the plant was able to produce aerial type leaves underwater, suggesting that increased concentrations of ABA in the shoots, likely caused by air contact or a lack of water, triggers the change from the submerged type of leaf to the aerial type. This suggests ABA's role in leaf phenotypic change and its importance in regulating stress through environmental change (such as adapting from being underwater to above water). In the same study, another phytohormone, ethylene, was shown to induce the submerged leaf phenotype unlike ABA, which induced aerial leaf phenotype. Because ethylene is a gas, it tends to stay endogenously within the plant when underwater – this growth in concentration of ethylene induces a change from aerial to submerged leaves and has also been shown to inhibit ABA production, further increasing the growth of submerged type leaves. These factors (temperature, water availability, and phytohormones) contribute to changes in leaf morphology throughout a plants lifetime and are vital to maximize plant fitness. 541: 65: 113: 606:, these snails make their shell shape more rotund and reduce growth. This makes them more crush-resistant and better protected from predation. However, these snails cannot tell the difference in chemical cues between the predatory and non-predatory sunfish. Thus, the snails respond inappropriately to non-predatory sunfish by producing an altered shell shape and reducing growth. These changes, in the absence of a predator, make the snails susceptible to other predators and limit 168:

environment. Environmental factors, such as light and humidity, have been shown to affect leaf morphology, giving rise to the question of how this shape change is controlled at the molecular level. This means that different leaves could have the same gene but present a different form based on environmental factors. Plants are sessile, so this phenotypic plasticity allows the plant to take in information from its environment and respond without changing its location.

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correlated with sorghum and rice flowering time enables such predictions. Additional work is being done to support the agricultural industry, which faces severe challenges in prediction of crop phenotypic expression in changing environments. Since many crops supporting the global food supply are grown in a wide variety of environments, understanding and ability to predict crop genotype by environment interaction will be essential for future food stability.

5605: 3754: 554:, is an arboreal frog (hylid) that resides in the tropics of Central America. Unlike many frogs, the red-eyed tree frog has arboreal eggs which are laid on leaves hanging over ponds or large puddles and, upon hatching, the tadpoles fall into the water below. One of the most common predators encountered by these arboreal eggs is the cat-eyed snake, 185:

plants’ fitness. The Genetic Regulatory Network is responsible for creating this phenotypic plasticity and involves a variety of genes and proteins regulating leaf morphology. Phytohormones have been shown to play a key role in signaling throughout the plant, and changes in concentration of the phytohormones can cause a change in development.

511:, effectively flushing parasites from the system. The term "self-induced adaptive plasticity" has been used to describe situations in which a behavior under selection causes changes in subordinate traits that in turn enhance the ability of the organism to perform the behavior. For example, birds that engage in 407:. An expansion of this gene in dogs would enable early dogs to exploit a starch-rich diet as they fed on refuse from agriculture. Data indicated that the wolves and dingo had just two copies of the gene and the Siberian Husky that is associated with hunter-gatherers had just three or four copies, whereas the 613:

Given the profound ecological importance of temperature and its predictable variability over large spatial and temporal scales, adaptation to thermal variation has been hypothesized to be a key mechanism dictating the capacity of organisms for phenotypic plasticity. The magnitude of thermal variation

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to environmental variations that is reasonably predictable and occurs within the lifespan of an individual organism, as it allows individuals to 'fit' their phenotype to different environments. If the optimal phenotype in a given environment changes with environmental conditions, then the ability of

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Leaves are very important to a plant in that they create an avenue where photosynthesis and thermoregulation can occur. Evolutionarily, the environmental contribution to leaf shape allowed for a myriad of different types of leaves to be created. Leaf shape can be determined by both genetics and the

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Phenotypic plasticity is the ability of one genotype to produce more than one phenotype when exposed to different environments. Each line here represents a genotype. Horizontal lines show that the phenotype is the same in different environments; slanted lines show that there are different phenotypes

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are predicted to occur over the next 100 years as a result of human activity. Phenotypic plasticity is a key mechanism with which organisms can cope with a changing climate, as it allows individuals to respond to change within their lifetime. This is thought to be particularly important for species

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where agriculture originated had 29 copies. The results show that on average, modern dogs have a high copy number of the gene, whereas wolves and dingoes do not. The high copy number of AMY2B variants likely already existed as a standing variation in early domestic dogs, but expanded more recently

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can occur. Developing a wide blade/lamina can maximize the amount of light hitting the leaf, thereby increasing photosynthesis, however too much sunlight can damage the plant. Wide lamina can also catch wind easily which can cause stress to the plant, so finding a happy medium is imperative to the

480:) that interfere with the action of reproductive hormones on their target organs. Changes in reproductive effort during infection is also thought to be a less costly alternative to mounting resistance or defence against invading parasites, although it can occur in concert with a defence response. 345:

Poor quality diets (those that contain a large amount of non-digestible material) have lower concentrations of nutrients, so animals must process a greater total volume of poor-quality food to extract the same amount of energy as they would from a high-quality diet. Many species respond to poor

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Because of phenotypic plasticity, it is hard to explain and predict the traits when plants are grown in natural conditions unless an explicit environment index can be obtained to quantify environments. Identification of such explicit environment indices from critical growth periods being highly

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species have failed to detect a clear pattern of plasticity over latitudinal gradients, suggesting this hypothesis may not hold true across all taxa or for all traits. Some researchers propose that direct measures of environmental variability, using factors such as precipitation, are better

503:, which can be considered a form of adaptive plasticity. Various species of non-human primates infected with intestinal worms engage in leaf-swallowing, in which they ingest rough, whole leaves that physically dislodge parasites from the intestine. Additionally, the leaves irritate the 136:

shape, size, and thickness. Leaves are particularly plastic, and their growth may be altered by light levels. Leaves grown in the light tend to be thicker, which maximizes photosynthesis in direct light; and have a smaller area, which cools the leaf more rapidly (due to a thinner

732:) has experienced an increase in average temperature over this last decade of almost 2 °C. This increase in temperature has caused an increase in abundance of white spruce cones, the main food source for winter and spring reproduction. In response, the mean lifetime 698:

organisms such as plants that depend on the environmental condition(s) each metamer was developed under. Under some circumstances early exposure to specific stressors can affect how an individual plant is capable of responding to future environmental changes

254:'s subantarctic coastal waters. Due to the species plasticity they are able to express different strategies and foraging behaviors depending on the climate and environment. A main factor that has influenced the species' behavior is where food is located. 313:

composition of the diet (the proportion of lipids, proteins and carbohydrates) may occur during development (e.g. weaning) or with seasonal changes in the abundance of different food types. These diet changes can elicit plasticity in the

26:'s behavior, morphology and physiology in response to a unique environment. Fundamental to the way in which organisms cope with environmental variation, phenotypic plasticity encompasses all types of environmentally induced changes (e.g. 225:

butterflies have two morphs: one with three dots on its hindwing, and one with four dots on its hindwings. The development of the fourth dot is dependent on environmental conditions – more specifically, location and the time of year. In

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parasites produce more offspring in the early stages of exposure to compensate for future loss of reproductive success. A reduction in fecundity may also occur as a means of re-directing nutrients to an immune response, or to increase

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attempting to introduce phenotypic plasticity to artificial agents. However, the fitness benefits of plasticity can be limited by the energetic costs of plastic responses (e.g. synthesizing new proteins, adjusting expression ratio of

532:. The physiological basis for this change in behaviour is unknown; however, it is possible that, when activated, the immune system sends signals to the taste system that trigger plasticity in feeding responses during infection. 381:) increase the mass of their liver, small intestine, large intestine and cecum by 15–35%. Increases in food intake do not cause changes in the activity of digestive enzymes because nutrient concentrations in the intestinal 1885:

Cortés PA, Franco M, Sabat P, Quijano SA, Nespolo RF (October 2011). "Bioenergetics and intestinal phenotypic flexibility in the microbiotherid marsupial (Dromiciops gliroides) from the temperate forest in South America".

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is known to exhibit phenotypic plasticity and has two different types of leaves, the aerial type (leaves that touch the air) and the submerged type (leaves that are underwater). When adding ABA to the underwater shoots of

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In order to understand how leaf morphology works, the anatomy of a leaf must be understood. The main part of the leaf, the blade or lamina, consists of the epidermis, mesophyll, and vascular tissue. The epidermis contains

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transport in the intestine. To compensate for this, mice increase the total mass of mucosal cells, cells responsible for glucose transport, in the intestine. This allows infected mice to maintain the same capacity for

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Temporal plasticity takes place over a time scale of minutes, days, or seasons, and in environments that are both variable and predictable within the lifespan of an individual. Temporal plasticity is considered

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IPCC, 2014: Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, 151 pp.

334:) transition from an insect diet, high in protein and lipids, to a seed based diet that contains mostly carbohydrates; this diet change is accompanied by two-fold increase in the activity of the enzyme 736:

date of this species has advanced by 18 days. Food abundance showed a significant effect on the breeding date with individual females, indicating a high amount of phenotypic plasticity in this trait.

120:, a performance-independent index, quantifies the relevant environmental input and enables a systematic framework for modelling, explaining, and predicting phenotypic values under natural conditions. 1222:

Alemán F, Nieves-Cordones M, Martínez V, Rubio F (2009). "Differential regulation of the HAK5 genes encoding the high-affinity K+ transporters of Thellungiella halophila and Arabidopsis thaliana".

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The term was originally used to describe developmental effects on morphological characters, but is now more broadly used to describe all phenotypic responses to environmental change, such as

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Overgaard J, Kristensen TN, Mitchell KA, Hoffmann AA (October 2011). "Thermal tolerance in widespread and tropical Drosophila species: does phenotypic plasticity increase with latitude?".

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Naya DE, Bozinovic F, Karasov WH (October 2008). "Latitudinal trends in digestive flexibility: testing the climatic variability hypothesis with data on the intestinal length of rodents".

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are determined by food quality and remain unaffected. Intermittent feeding also represents a temporal increase in food intake and can induce dramatic changes in the size of the gut; the

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approaches have shown that plasticity is a trait that can evolve when under direct selection and also as a correlated response to selection on the average values of particular traits.

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family, which exhibits the ability to interchange between asexual and sexual reproduction, as well as growing wings between generations when plants become too populated. Water fleas (

81:), as mobile organisms can often move away from unfavourable environments. Nevertheless, mobile organisms also have at least some degree of plasticity in at least some aspects of the 2065:

Krockenberger AK, Hume ID (2007). "A flexible digestive strategy accommodates the nutritional demands of reproduction in a free-living folivore, the Koala (Phascolarctos cinereus)".

270:, as all aspects of their physiology are directly dependent on their thermal environment. As such, thermal acclimation entails phenotypic adjustments that are found commonly across 1331:"Utilizing intraspecific variation in phenotypic plasticity to bolster agricultural and forest productivity under climate change: Phenotypic plasticity in agriculture and forestry" 366:). Poor quality diets also result in lower concentrations of nutrients in the lumen of the intestine, which can cause a decrease in the activity of several digestive enzymes. 610:. Therefore, these freshwater snails produce either an adaptive or maladaptive response to the environmental cue depending on whether predatory sunfish are present or not. 1692:

Shreeve, T.G. (1987). "The mate location behaviour of the male speckled wood butterfly, Pararge aegeria, and the effect of phenotypic differences in hind-wing spotting".

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Ahmed AM, Baggott SL, Maingon R, Hurd H (2002). "The costs of mounting an immune response are reflected in the reproductive fitness of the mosquito Anopheles gambiae".

290:. Because maintaining membrane fluidity is critical for cell function, ectotherms adjust the phospholipid composition of their cell membranes such that the strength of 3313:

Maldonado K, Bozinovic F, Rojas JM, Sabat P (2011). "Within-species digestive tract flexibility in rufous-collared sparrows and the climatic variability hypothesis".

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Liu QS, Wang DH (July 2007). "Effects of diet quality on phenotypic flexibility of organ size and digestive function in Mongolian gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus)".

5327: 373:), this is facilitated by an increase in digestive organ size and capacity, which is similar to the phenotype produced by poor quality diets. During lactation, 3172:"Latitudinal patterns in phenotypic plasticity and fitness-related traits: assessing the climatic variability hypothesis (CVH) with an invasive plant species" 124:

Phenotypic plasticity in plants includes the timing of transition from vegetative to reproductive growth stage, the allocation of more resources to the

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Kuwabara A, Ikegami K, Koshiba T, Nagata T (October 2003). "Effects of ethylene and abscisic acid upon heterophylly in Ludwigia arcuata (Onagraceae)".

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Lambers H, Poorter H (1992). "Inherent Variation in Growth Rate Between Higher Plants: A Search for Physiological Causes and Ecological Consequences".

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of the host. This particular form of plasticity has been shown in certain cases to be mediated by host-derived molecules (e.g. schistosomin in snails

1926:"Phenotypic flexibility of the avian gizzard: rapid, reversible and repeated changes of organ size in response to changes in dietary fibre content" 515:

might make "trial runs" lasting a few hours that would induce physiological changes that would improve their ability to function at high altitude.

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Sabat P, Riveros JM, López-Pinto C (January 2005). "Phenotypic flexibility in the intestinal enzymes of the African clawed frog Xenopus laevis".

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Winn AA (June 1996). "Adaptation to Fine-Grained Environmental Variation: An Analysis of Within-Individual Leaf Variation in an Annual Plant".

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Naya DE, Ebensperger LA, Sabat P, Bozinovic F (2008). "Digestive and metabolic flexibility allows female degus to cope with lactation costs".

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Phenotypic plasticity can also be observed as changes in behaviour. In response to infection, both vertebrates and invertebrates practice

99:) have shown both phenotypic plasticity and the ability to genetically evolve to deal with the heat stress of warmer, urban pond waters. 1329:

Aspinwall, Michael J.; Loik, Michael E.; Resco De Dios, Victor; Tjoelker, Mark G.; Payton, Paxton R.; Tissue, David T. (August 2015).

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change of organisms in response to changes in the environment over time. Animals can respond to short-term environmental changes with

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whose embryos exhibit phenotypic plasticity, hatching early in response to disturbance to protect themselves. Another example is the

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variants, maintaining sensory machinery to detect changes) as well as the predictability and reliability of environmental cues (see

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quality diets by increasing their food intake, enlarging digestive organs, and increasing the capacity of the digestive tract (e.g.

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habitats. Termed the "climatic variability hypothesis", this idea has been supported by several studies of plastic capacity across

575:. Hence, phenotypic plasticity can evolve if Darwinian fitness is increased by changing phenotype. A similar logic should apply in 483:

Hosts can also respond to parasitism through plasticity in physiology aside from reproduction. House mice infected with intestinal

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Kehoe FP, Ankney CD, Alisauskas RT (1988). "Effects of dietary fiber and diet diversity on digestive organs of captive Mallards (

2637:"Self-Medicative Behavior in the African Great Apes: An Evolutionary Perspective into the Origins of Human Traditional Medicine" 4386: 4315: 1150:"Plasticity in leaf traits of 38 tropical tree species in response to light; relationships with light demand and adult stature" 141:). Conversely, leaves grown in the shade tend to be thinner, with a greater surface area to capture more of the limited light. 5343: 5103: 3706: 3684: 1206: 914: 4700: 2534:"Physiological and morphological responses to simultaneous cold exposure and parasite infection by wild-derived house mice" 5426: 4346: 4280: 2095:

Hammond KA, Wunder BA (1991). "The Role of Diet Quality and Energy Need in the Nutritional Ecology of a Small Herbivore,

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for example, are able to alter their photosynthetic pathways to use less water when they become water- or salt-stressed.

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Langerhans RB, DeWit TJ (2002). "Plasticity constrained: Over-generalized induction cues cause maladaptive phenotypes".

1515:"How Do Plants and Phytohormones Accomplish Heterophylly, Leaf Phenotypic Plasticity, in Response to Environmental Cues" 149:

present in roots also change depending on the concentration of the nutrient and the salinity of the soil. Some plants,

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is thought to be directly proportional to plastic capacity, such that species that have evolved in the warm, constant

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can induce phenotypic plasticity as a means to compensate for the detrimental effects caused by parasitism. Commonly,

3825: 760: 585: 5155: 3453:"The relative advantages of plasticity and fixity in different environments: when is it good for a plant to adjust?" 2899:

de Jong G (April 2005). "Evolution of phenotypic plasticity: patterns of plasticity and the emergence of ecotypes".

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Abolishes the Stomatal Response to Blue Light and Light-Dependent Zeaxanthin Formation in Guard Cell Chloroplasts".

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are well known for exhibiting considerable plasticity in form when growing in sunny versus shaded environments. The

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allows some animals to respond to changes in dietary nutrient composition, diet quality, and energy requirements.

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Schallig HD, Hordijk PL, Oosthoek PW, Jong-Brink M (1991). "Schistosomin, a peptide present in the haemolymph of

1282:"Dynamic effects of interacting genes underlying rice flowering-time phenotypic plasticity and global adaptation" 897:

Kelly SA, Panhuis TM, Stoehr AM (2012). "Phenotypic Plasticity: Molecular Mechanisms and Adaptive Significance".

246:. Rockhopper penguins are present at a variety of climates and locations; Amsterdam Island's subtropical waters, 2653: 2636: 5533: 5400: 5180: 4924: 4722: 4626: 4515: 3794: 399:(Alpha-Amylase 2B) is a gene that codes a protein that assists with the first step in the digestion of dietary 4259: 3715:

Garland T (2011). "The Flexible Phenotype: A Body-Centred Integration of Ecology, Physiology, and Behaviour".

1729:"Phenotypic plasticity raises questions for taxonomically important traits: a remarkable new Andean rainfrog ( 679:

changes; plants, which are sedentary, respond to short-term environmental changes with both physiological and

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Hazel JR (1995). "Thermal adaptation in biological membranes: is homeoviscous adaptation the explanation?".

667:, also known as fine-grained environmental adaptation, is a type of phenotypic plasticity that involves the 5538: 5040: 3769: 5608: 5202: 4077: 2578:"Self-medication as adaptive plasticity: increased ingestion of plant toxins by parasitized caterpillars" 1607:

Weaver ME, Ingram DL (1969). "Morphological Changes in Swine Associated with Environmental Temperature".

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Animals often consume more food during periods of high energy demand (e.g. lactation or cold exposure in

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which allows for gas exchange and controls perspiration of the plant. The mesophyll contains most of the

2673:"Phenotypic and evolutionary plasticity of organ masses in response to voluntary exercise in house mice" 2292:

Freedman AH, Gronau I, Schweizer RM, Ortega-Del Vecchyo D, Han E, Silva PM, et al. (January 2014).

338:, which digests carbohydrates. Acclimatizing animals to high protein diets can increase the activity of 5304: 4478: 4269: 4135: 3967: 2254: 1925: 146: 5098: 4895: 4705: 4473: 4366: 3962: 1113:

Sultan SE (December 2000). "Phenotypic plasticity for plant development, function and life history".

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Miklosi, Adam. Dog Behaviour, Evolution, and Cognition. 2007 Oxford University Press, Chapter 11.3

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Phenotypic plasticity of sorghum flowering time evaluated from seven environments. The identified

5526: 5456: 5365: 5093: 4975: 4743: 4339: 4203: 4140: 4115: 3998: 3918: 3672: 770: 64: 5565: 5214: 5083: 5045: 4946: 4917: 4890: 4885: 4483: 4188: 4087: 4072: 4041: 3942: 750: 644: 576: 529: 232: 5071: 3562:"Towards an integrated framework for assessing the vulnerability of species to climate change" 1833:"Developmental adjustments of house sparrow (Passer domesticus) nestlings to diet composition" 1773:"Geographic variation in the foraging behaviour, diet and chick growth of rockhopper penguins" 1249:

Tallman G, Zhu J, Mawson BT, Amodeo G, Nouhi Z, Levy K, Zeiger E (1997). "Induction of CAM in

282:. Temperature change influences the fluidity of cell membranes by affecting the motion of the 5506: 5380: 5299: 5294: 5279: 5264: 5254: 5170: 5145: 4980: 4936: 4900: 4868: 4809: 4787: 4631: 4584: 4535: 4530: 4488: 4299: 4193: 4120: 4019: 3957: 3883: 3818: 3488: 1021:"Genomic and environmental determinants and their interplay underlying phenotypic plasticity" 765: 725: 680: 550: 512: 247: 238: 2946:"Phenotypic Plasticity Provides a Bioinspiration Framework for Minimal Field Swarm Robotics" 5480: 5375: 5309: 5110: 5025: 4941: 4853: 4836: 4763: 4753: 4463: 4371: 4355: 4208: 4051: 4046: 3928: 3923: 3910: 3519: 3464: 3183: 2725: 2589: 1032: 775: 695: 640: 433: 287: 27: 5115: 4985: 3049:

Dewitt TJ, Sih A, Wilson DS (February 1998). "Costs and limits of phenotypic plasticity".

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Journal of Comparative Physiology B: Biochemical, Systemic, and Environmental Physiology

1806: 1330: 1036: 951: 57:. The special case when differences in environment induce discrete phenotypes is termed 5516: 5468: 5461: 5058: 4970: 4831: 4792: 4616: 4560: 4550: 4510: 4424: 4419: 4414: 4332: 3993: 3732: 3645: 3632: 3612: 3588: 3561: 3480: 3433: 3413: 3386: 3348: 3295: 3254: 3206: 3171: 3152: 3136: 3101: 2972: 2945: 2881: 2877: 2802: 2612: 2577: 2555: 2514: 2479: 2369: 2344: 2320: 2293: 2204: 2144:

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Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. Part A, Molecular & Integrative Physiology

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Hurd H (August 2001). "Host fecundity reduction: a strategy for damage limitation?".

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Drobney RD (1984). "Effect of Diet on Visceral Morphology of Breeding Wood Ducks".

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The developmental effects of nutrition and temperature have been demonstrated. The

4995: 3728: 3290: 3273: 2255:"Structural flexibility of the intestine of Burmese python in response to feeding" 294:

within the membrane is changed, thereby maintaining fluidity across temperatures.

5511: 5135: 4962: 4951: 4905: 4848: 4797: 4577: 4381: 4274: 4178: 3988: 3694: 3578: 3196: 2602: 2310: 1423:"Mechanisms Underlying the Environmentally Induced Plasticity of Leaf Morphology" 983: 382: 323: 129: 50: 3492: 721:

may not produce change fast enough to mitigate the effects of a warmer climate.

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Generally, phenotypic plasticity is more important for immobile organisms (e.g.

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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

755: 713: 700: 504: 493: 386: 355: 339: 279: 181: 138: 3476: 2714:"Adaptive plasticity in hatching age: a response to predation risk trade-offs" 1977: 1577: 1398: 1381: 872: 598:), provide an example of when phenotypic plasticity can be either adaptive or 5623: 5553: 5431: 5390: 5236: 4990: 4658: 4653: 4242: 4156: 4024: 3858: 3835: 3452: 2962: 1439: 1377: 623: 599: 459: 454: 429: 327: 193: 95: 3532: 3507: 1937: 1531: 1045: 393:) can triple the size of its small intestine just a few days after feeding. 5548: 5496: 5441: 5274: 5269: 4863: 4621: 4067: 3888: 3878: 3654: 3628: 3597: 3398: 3344: 3250: 3215: 3148: 3070: 3016: 2981: 2930: 2847: 2798: 2757: 2738: 2698: 2689: 2672: 2621: 2440: 2378: 2360: 2329: 2278: 2200: 2173: 2043: 1985: 1945: 1907: 1868: 1669: 1585: 1550: 1499: 1458: 1407: 1354: 1315: 1134: 1099: 1064: 1002: 938:

Schlichting CD (1986). "The Evolution of Phenotypic Plasticity in Plants".

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Guo T, Mu Q, Wang J, Vanous AE, Onogi A, Iwata H, et al. (May 2020).

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have a lower capacity for plasticity compared to those living in variable

5575: 5446: 5175: 4710: 4540: 4446: 4404: 4003: 3983: 3414:"Shade-induced plasticity in invasive Impatiens glandulifera populations" 2291: 965:

International Aphid Genomics Consortium (February 2010). Eisen JA (ed.).

906: 745: 733: 508: 449: 263: 177: 112: 58: 46: 42:) that may or may not be permanent throughout an individual's lifespan. 5015: 3335: 2164: 2120: 2034: 1859: 1078:

Silvertown J (January 1989). "The paradox of seed size and adaptation".

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individuals to express different traits should be advantageous and thus

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increase their survival by ingesting plants containing toxins known as

525: 283: 31: 3613:"Genetic and plastic responses of a northern mammal to climate change" 3548: 3429: 3299: 3140: 2921: 2838: 2821: 1749: 1728: 1346: 5570: 5421: 5030: 4648: 4396: 4198: 4166: 3933: 3839: 668: 607: 474: 464: 441: 437: 425: 370: 359: 267: 227: 214: 142: 82: 39: 3382: 2510: 2239: 1620: 5473: 4675: 4161: 4130: 3506:

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with the development of large agriculturally based civilizations.

16:

Trait change of an organism in response to environmental variation

4858: 4572: 3893: 2453: 619: 615: 581: 488: 363: 335: 85:. One mobile organism with substantial phenotypic plasticity is 2294:"Genome sequencing highlights the dynamic early history of dogs" 806:"The role of phenotypic plasticity in driving genetic evolution" 544:

Hatch rates for red-eyed tree frog tadpoles depends on predation

444:

compensation in order to increase their reproductive output, or

3873: 1727:

Guayasamin J, Krynak T, Krynak K, Culebras J, Hutter C (2015).

408: 400: 78: 1830: 1726: 326:. For example, in the first few days after hatching, nestling 4779: 2497:

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2011: 694:. Non-reversible phenotypic changes can be observed in 507:, which promotes the secretion of gastric acid and increases 396: 275: 271: 173: 90: 74: 3312: 1563: 4171: 2654:

10.1641/0006-3568(2001)051[0651:SMBITA]2.0.CO;2

2462:, is produced only in the snail's central nervous system". 133: 125: 1831:

Brzek P, Kohl K, Caviedes-Vidal E, Karasov WH (May 2009).

717:

with long generation times, as evolutionary responses via

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Molina-Montenegro MA, Naya DE (2012). Seebacher F (ed.).

2773:"How stress selects for reversible phenotypic plasticity" 2345:"A parasite-mediated life-history shift in Daphnia magna" 860:"Urban evolution: How species adapt to survive in cities" 637:

predictors of phenotypic plasticity than latitude alone.

1884: 69:

in different environments, and thus indicate plasticity.

3611:

Réale D, McAdam AG, Boutin S, Berteaux D (March 2003).

3411: 2391: 2141: 1147: 630:

in both plants and animals. However, recent studies of

3505: 3499: 3359: 1248: 967:"Genome sequence of the pea aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum" 3371:

Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution

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Singer MS, Mace KC, Bernays EA (2009). May RC (ed.).

2221: 1600: 221:) has wide phenotypic plasticity. Additionally, male 3118: 2670: 803: 162: 1512: 1471: 2822:"Phenotypic plasticity and experimental evolution" 2661: 896: 892: 890: 3412:Gruntman M, Segev U, Tielbörger K (23 May 2019). 2860: 2575: 2064: 1513:Nakayama H, Sinha NR, Kimura S (4 October 2017). 236:has remarkable phenotypic plasticity, as well as 5621: 3833: 707: 690:if the phenotypic response results in increased 3693: 3048: 3029: 2994: 1826: 1824: 1420: 1279: 887: 2671:Swallow JG, Rhodes JS, Garland T (June 2005). 2531: 2342: 1641: 1421:Fritz MA, Rosa S, Sicard A (24 October 2018). 1188: 804:Price TD, Qvarnström A, Irwin DE (July 2003). 4340: 3819: 3671: 2094: 1375: 2819: 2285: 1821: 1606: 1148:Rozendaal DM, Hurtado VH, Poorter L (2006). 128:in soils that contain low concentrations of 3450: 2252: 1019:Li X, Guo T, Mu Q, Li X, Yu J (June 2018). 937: 4347: 4333: 3826: 3812: 1733:) with the ability to change skin texture" 1077: 3644: 3587: 3577: 3531: 3334: 3289: 3205: 3195: 2971: 2961: 2920: 2837: 2788: 2747: 2737: 2711: 2688: 2652: 2611: 2601: 2571: 2569: 2549: 2368: 2319: 2309: 2163: 2033: 1959: 1957: 1955: 1880: 1878: 1858: 1848: 1748: 1737:Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 1659: 1540: 1530: 1489: 1448: 1438: 1397: 1305: 1191:Advances in Ecological Research Volume 23 1165: 1054: 1044: 1018: 992: 982: 871: 829: 5581:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance 4354: 3271: 2007: 2005: 2003: 1919: 1917: 1770: 1642:Ostrander EA, Wayne RK (December 2005). 940:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 853: 851: 849: 539: 111: 63: 3714: 2898: 2770: 2634: 2186: 2090: 2088: 1963: 1691: 1472:Maugarny-Calès A, Laufs P (July 2018). 566:Plasticity is usually thought to be an 318:of particular digestive enzymes on the 5622: 4316:Index of evolutionary biology articles 3791:Developmental Plasticity and Evolution 3677:Developmental Plasticity and Evolution 3083: 2566: 2496: 2246: 1952: 1923: 1875: 1112: 857: 650: 192:have been done to look at the role of 5344:Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion 4328: 3807: 3315:Physiological and Biochemical Zoology 2014:Physiological and Biochemical Zoology 2000: 1914: 1792: 1766: 1764: 1762: 1760: 1224:Environmental and Experimental Botany 846: 188:Studies on the aquatic plant species 3368: 2943: 2418: 2343:Chadwick W, Little TJ (March 2005). 2085: 1014: 1012: 22:refers to some of the changes in an 3549:https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/syr/ 3274:"The End of a World by Claude Anet" 2826:The Journal of Experimental Biology 2677:Integrative and Comparative Biology 2259:The Journal of Experimental Biology 2253:Starck JM, Beese K (January 2001). 1930:The Journal of Experimental Biology 1837:The Journal of Experimental Biology 1807:10.1146/annurev.ph.57.030195.000315 952:10.1146/annurev.es.17.110186.003315 77:) than mobile organisms (e.g. most 13: 4749:Evolutionary developmental biology 4126:Evolutionary developmental biology 3664: 2878:10.1046/j.1420-9101.1993.6010031.x 1757: 1267:10.1093/oxfordjournals.pcp.a029158 1193:. Vol. 23. pp. 187–261. 602:. In the presence of a predator, 496:and body size as uninfected mice. 14: 5651: 3745: 3051:Trends in Ecology & Evolution 2997:Trends in Ecology & Evolution 2820:Garland T, Kelly SA (June 2006). 2406:10.1034/j.1600-0706.2002.970307.x 1080:Trends in Ecology & Evolution 1009: 901:. Vol. 2. pp. 1417–39. 761:Beneficial acclimation hypothesis 586:Beneficial acclimation hypothesis 163:Phytohormones and leaf plasticity 5603: 5594: 5593: 4083:Evolution of sexual reproduction 3752: 3617:Proceedings. Biological Sciences 2913:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2005.01322.x 2790:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2005.00959.x 2551:10.1046/j.1365-2435.2003.00751.x 2349:Proceedings. Biological Sciences 2079:10.1111/j.1365-2435.2007.01279.x 1167:10.1111/j.1365-2435.2006.01105.x 810:Proceedings. Biological Sciences 656:This section is an excerpt from 5635:Extended evolutionary synthesis 5406:Extended evolutionary synthesis 4595:Gene-centered view of evolution 3782:Journal of Experimental Biology 3604: 3553: 3540: 3444: 3405: 3306: 3265: 3222: 3163: 3112: 3077: 3042: 3023: 2988: 2937: 2892: 2866:Journal of Evolutionary Biology 2854: 2813: 2777:Journal of Evolutionary Biology 2764: 2705: 2628: 2532:Kristan DM, Hammond KA (2003). 2525: 2490: 2447: 2412: 2385: 2336: 2215: 2180: 2135: 2058: 1786: 1720: 1685: 1676: 1635: 1557: 1506: 1465: 1414: 1369: 1322: 1273: 1242: 1236:10.1016/j.envexpbot.2008.09.011 1215: 1182: 487:experience decreased rates of 5534:Hologenome theory of evolution 5401:History of molecular evolution 4627:Evolutionarily stable strategy 4516:Last universal common ancestor 3854:Genotype–phenotype distinction 2113:10.1086/physzool.64.2.30158190 1141: 1106: 1071: 958: 931: 858:Bender, Eric (21 March 2022). 797: 302:Phenotypic plasticity of the 257: 1: 5328:Renaissance and Enlightenment 4111:Regulation of gene expression 3729:10.1016/j.anbehav.2011.06.012 3291:10.1525/aa.1928.30.1.02a00120 3063:10.1016/S0169-5347(97)01274-3 3032:Evolutionary Ecology Research 3009:10.1016/s0169-5347(97)01274-3 2433:10.1016/S1471-4922(01)01927-4 1706:10.1016/s0003-3472(87)80104-5 1335:Plant, Cell & Environment 1251:Mesembryanthemum crystallinum 1199:10.1016/S0065-2504(08)60148-8 1127:10.1016/S1360-1385(00)01797-0 791: 708:Plasticity and climate change 419: 152:Mesembryanthemum crystallinum 5539:Missing heritability problem 5166:Gamete differentiation/sexes 4281:Endless Forms Most Beautiful 4061:Evolution of genetic systems 3869:Gene–environment correlation 3864:Gene–environment interaction 3579:10.1371/journal.pbio.0060325 3197:10.1371/journal.pone.0047620 2950:Frontiers in Robotics and AI 2603:10.1371/journal.pone.0004796 2311:10.1371/journal.pgen.1004016 1092:10.1016/0169-5347(89)90013-x 984:10.1371/journal.pbio.1000313 561: 411:that is associated with the 342:-N, which digests proteins. 7: 4260:Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard 3701:. Oxford University Press. 3679:. Oxford University Press. 3451:Alpert P, Simms EL (2002). 2712:Warkentin KM (April 1995). 2228:Canadian Journal of Zoology 1924:Starck JM (November 1999). 1795:Annual Review of Physiology 739: 726:North American red squirrel 244:southern rockhopper penguin 102: 10: 5656: 5171:Life cycles/nuclear phases 4723:Trivers–Willard hypothesis 4136:Hedgehog signaling pathway 4013:Developmental architecture 2156:10.1016/j.cbpb.2004.11.010 1932:. 202 Pt 22 (22): 3171–9. 1900:10.1016/j.cbpa.2011.05.014 1519:Frontiers in Plant Science 683:(non-reversible) changes. 655: 556:Leptodeira septentrionalis 518:Woolly bear caterpillars ( 208: 5589: 5489: 5414: 5318: 5245: 5201: 5056: 4960: 4777: 4736: 4669:Parent–offspring conflict 4605: 4474:Earliest known life forms 4395: 4362: 4313: 4292: 4221: 4149: 4103: 4096: 4060: 4012: 3976: 3963:Transgressive segregation 3909: 3846: 1978:10.1007/s00360-007-0149-4 1578:10.1007/s00425-003-1062-z 1399:10.1016/j.cub.2016.02.033 1255:Plant and Cell Physiology 873:10.1146/knowable-031822-1 391:Python molurus bivittatus 274:, such as changes in the 107: 5522:Cultural group selection 5386:The eclipse of Darwinism 5358:On the Origin of Species 5333:Transmutation of species 2963:10.3389/frobt.2020.00023 2460:Trichobilharzia ocellata 1440:10.3389/fgene.2018.00478 899:Comprehensive Physiology 786:Developmental plasticity 548:The red-eyed tree frog, 478:Trichobilharzia ocellata 5527:Dual inheritance theory 5366:History of paleontology 4141:Notch signaling pathway 4116:Gene regulatory network 3999:Dual inheritance theory 3533:10.1111/1365-2745.12649 3477:10.1023/A:1019684612767 3278:American Anthropologist 3231:The American Naturalist 3121:The American Naturalist 3086:The American Naturalist 2771:Gabriel W (July 2005). 1938:10.1242/jeb.202.22.3171 1771:Tremblay, Yann (2003). 1532:10.3389/fpls.2017.01717 1115:Trends in Plant Science 1046:10.1073/pnas.1718326115 771:Evolutionary physiology 730:Tamiasciurus hudsonicus 712:Unprecedented rates of 568:evolutionary adaptation 530:pyrrolizidine alkaloids 297: 5215:Punctuated equilibrium 4536:Non-adaptive radiation 4484:Evolutionary arms race 4189:cis-regulatory element 4097:Control of development 3977:Non-genetic influences 3943:evolutionary landscape 3697:, Van Gils JA (2011). 3629:10.1098/rspb.2002.2224 3440:– via EBSCOhost. 2739:10.1073/pnas.92.8.3507 2421:Trends in Parasitology 2361:10.1098/rspb.2004.2959 822:10.1098/rspb.2003.2372 751:Allometric engineering 645:experimental evolution 545: 436:or increased parasite 233:Pristimantis mutabilis 121: 70: 5507:Evolutionary medicine 5381:Mendelian inheritance 5089:Biological complexity 5077:Programmed cell death 4769:Phenotypic plasticity 4489:Evolutionary pressure 4479:Evidence of evolution 4377:Timeline of evolution 4300:Nature versus nurture 4204:Cell surface receptor 4121:Evo-devo gene toolkit 4020:Developmental biology 3958:Polygenic inheritance 3884:Quantitative genetics 3786:phenotypic plasticity 3780:Special issue of the 3770:Phenotypic plasticity 3495:– via ProQuest. 2464:Parasitology Research 2271:10.1242/jeb.204.2.325 2101:Physiological Zoology 1427:Frontiers in Genetics 1298:10.1101/gr.255703.119 766:Developmental biology 641:Selection experiments 551:Agalychnis callidryas 543: 513:altitudinal migration 268:ectothermic organisms 262:Plastic responses to 248:Kerguelen Archipelago 239:Agalychnis callidryas 115: 67: 20:Phenotypic plasticity 5630:Evolutionary biology 5481:Teleology in biology 5376:Blending inheritance 4754:Genetic assimilation 4617:Artificial selection 4356:Evolutionary biology 4209:Transcription factor 3924:Genetic assimilation 3911:Genetic architecture 3457:Evolutionary Ecology 3272:Clements FE (1928). 2690:10.1093/icb/45.3.426 2201:10.1093/auk/101.1.93 2097:Microtus ochrogaster 907:10.1002/cphy.c110008 776:Genetic assimilation 577:artificial evolution 434:parasitic castration 292:van der Waals forces 288:glycerophospholipids 266:are essential among 5544:Molecular evolution 5502:Ecological genetics 5371:Transitional fossil 5161:Sexual reproduction 5001:endomembrane system 4930:pollinator-mediated 4886:dolphins and whales 4664:Parental investment 4305:Morphogenetic field 4222:Influential figures 3524:2017JEcol.105..176W 3469:2002EvEco..16..285A 3237:(Suppl 1): S80-96. 3188:2012PLoSO...747620M 2901:The New Phytologist 2730:1995PNAS...92.3507W 2635:Huffman MA (2001). 2594:2009PLoSO...4.4796S 1644:"The canine genome" 1037:2018PNAS..115.6679L 665:Temporal plasticity 658:Temporal plasticity 651:Temporal plasticity 87:Acyrthosiphon pisum 5517:Cultural evolution 4632:Fisher's principle 4561:Handicap principle 4551:Parallel evolution 4415:Adaptive radiation 3994:Genomic imprinting 3799:American Scientist 3795:review of the book 3512:Journal of Ecology 2832:(Pt 12): 2344–61. 2538:Functional Ecology 2476:10.1007/BF00935429 2224:Anas platyrhynchos 2067:Functional Ecology 1850:10.1242/jeb.023911 1661:10.1101/gr.3736605 1491:10.1242/dev.161646 1154:Functional Ecology 866:. Annual Reviews. 546: 521:Grammia incorrupta 252:Crozet Archipelago 147:transport proteins 122: 71: 5617: 5616: 5233:Uniformitarianism 5186:Sex-determination 4691:Sexual dimorphism 4686:Natural selection 4590:Unit of selection 4556:Signalling theory 4322: 4321: 4255:Eric F. Wieschaus 4217: 4216: 4035:Pattern formation 3939:Fitness landscape 3708:978-0-19-164015-5 3686:978-0-19-512234-3 3430:10.1111/wre.12394 2839:10.1242/jeb.02244 2458:is infected with 1843:(Pt 9): 1284–93. 1750:10.1111/zoj.12222 1484:(13): dev161646. 1347:10.1111/pce.12424 1208:978-0-12-013923-1 1031:(26): 6679–6684. 916:978-0-470-65071-4 864:Knowable Magazine 816:(1523): 1433–40. 719:natural selection 675:(reversible) and 592:Freshwater snails 470:Lymnaea stagnalis 352:Mongolian gerbils 332:Passer domesticus 118:photothermal time 5647: 5607: 5597: 5596: 5396:Modern synthesis 5156:Multicellularity 5151:Mosaic evolution 5036:auditory ossicle 4718:Social selection 4701:Flowering plants 4696:Sexual selection 4349: 4342: 4335: 4326: 4325: 4265:William McGinnis 4234:Richard Lewontin 4229:C. H. Waddington 4101: 4100: 4078:Neutral networks 3828: 3821: 3814: 3805: 3804: 3756: 3755: 3740: 3717:Animal Behaviour 3712: 3690: 3673:West-Eberhard MJ 3659: 3658: 3648: 3608: 3602: 3601: 3591: 3581: 3557: 3551: 3544: 3538: 3537: 3535: 3503: 3497: 3496: 3448: 3442: 3441: 3409: 3403: 3402: 3377:(3): 1111–1118. 3366: 3357: 3356: 3338: 3310: 3304: 3303: 3293: 3269: 3263: 3262: 3226: 3220: 3219: 3209: 3199: 3167: 3161: 3160: 3116: 3110: 3109: 3081: 3075: 3074: 3046: 3040: 3039: 3027: 3021: 3020: 2992: 2986: 2985: 2975: 2965: 2944:Hunt ER (2020). 2941: 2935: 2934: 2924: 2896: 2890: 2889: 2858: 2852: 2851: 2841: 2817: 2811: 2810: 2792: 2768: 2762: 2761: 2751: 2741: 2709: 2703: 2702: 2692: 2668: 2659: 2658: 2656: 2632: 2626: 2625: 2615: 2605: 2573: 2564: 2563: 2553: 2529: 2523: 2522: 2494: 2488: 2487: 2451: 2445: 2444: 2416: 2410: 2409: 2389: 2383: 2382: 2372: 2340: 2334: 2333: 2323: 2313: 2289: 2283: 2282: 2265:(Pt 2): 325–35. 2250: 2244: 2243: 2219: 2213: 2212: 2184: 2178: 2177: 2167: 2139: 2133: 2132: 2092: 2083: 2082: 2062: 2056: 2055: 2037: 2009: 1998: 1997: 1961: 1950: 1949: 1921: 1912: 1911: 1882: 1873: 1872: 1862: 1852: 1828: 1819: 1818: 1790: 1784: 1783: 1777: 1768: 1755: 1754: 1752: 1724: 1718: 1717: 1694:Animal Behaviour 1689: 1683: 1680: 1674: 1673: 1663: 1639: 1633: 1632: 1604: 1598: 1597: 1561: 1555: 1554: 1544: 1534: 1510: 1504: 1503: 1493: 1469: 1463: 1462: 1452: 1442: 1418: 1412: 1411: 1401: 1373: 1367: 1366: 1341:(9): 1752–1764. 1326: 1320: 1319: 1309: 1277: 1271: 1270: 1246: 1240: 1239: 1219: 1213: 1212: 1186: 1180: 1179: 1169: 1145: 1139: 1138: 1110: 1104: 1103: 1075: 1069: 1068: 1058: 1048: 1016: 1007: 1006: 996: 986: 962: 956: 955: 935: 929: 928: 894: 885: 884: 882: 880: 875: 855: 844: 843: 833: 801: 604:bluegill sunfish 524:) infected with 413:Fertile Crescent 304:digestive system 190:Ludwigia arcuata 5655: 5654: 5650: 5649: 5648: 5646: 5645: 5644: 5620: 5619: 5618: 5613: 5585: 5512:Group selection 5485: 5410: 5314: 5241: 5203:Tempo and modes 5197: 5052: 4956: 4773: 4732: 4608: 4601: 4578:Species complex 4391: 4382:History of life 4358: 4353: 4323: 4318: 4309: 4288: 4275:Sean B. Carroll 4213: 4145: 4092: 4056: 4008: 3989:Maternal effect 3972: 3905: 3842: 3832: 3777: 3776: 3775: 3757: 3753: 3748: 3743: 3709: 3687: 3667: 3665:Further reading 3662: 3623:(1515): 591–6. 3609: 3605: 3558: 3554: 3545: 3541: 3504: 3500: 3449: 3445: 3410: 3406: 3383:10.2307/2410651 3367: 3360: 3311: 3307: 3270: 3266: 3227: 3223: 3168: 3164: 3117: 3113: 3092:(919): 233–49. 3082: 3078: 3047: 3043: 3028: 3024: 2993: 2989: 2942: 2938: 2897: 2893: 2859: 2855: 2818: 2814: 2769: 2765: 2710: 2706: 2669: 2662: 2633: 2629: 2574: 2567: 2530: 2526: 2511:10.2307/3545356 2495: 2491: 2456:Lymnaea stagnal 2452: 2448: 2417: 2413: 2390: 2386: 2355:(1562): 505–9. 2341: 2337: 2304:(1): e1004016. 2290: 2286: 2251: 2247: 2240:10.1139/z88-233 2234:(7): 1597–602. 2220: 2216: 2185: 2181: 2140: 2136: 2093: 2086: 2063: 2059: 2010: 2001: 1962: 1953: 1922: 1915: 1883: 1876: 1829: 1822: 1791: 1787: 1775: 1769: 1758: 1725: 1721: 1690: 1686: 1681: 1677: 1654:(12): 1706–16. 1648:Genome Research 1640: 1636: 1621:10.2307/1936264 1605: 1601: 1562: 1558: 1511: 1507: 1470: 1466: 1419: 1415: 1392:(7): R297-306. 1386:Current Biology 1374: 1370: 1327: 1323: 1286:Genome Research 1278: 1274: 1247: 1243: 1220: 1216: 1209: 1187: 1183: 1146: 1142: 1111: 1107: 1076: 1072: 1017: 1010: 977:(2): e1000313. 963: 959: 936: 932: 917: 895: 888: 878: 876: 856: 847: 802: 798: 794: 781:Rapoport's rule 742: 710: 705: 704: 661: 653: 564: 501:self-medication 448:. For example, 424:Infection with 422: 324:small intestine 309:Changes in the 300: 278:composition of 260: 211: 165: 110: 105: 51:acclimatization 17: 12: 11: 5: 5653: 5643: 5642: 5637: 5632: 5615: 5614: 5612: 5611: 5601: 5590: 5587: 5586: 5584: 5583: 5578: 5573: 5568: 5563: 5562: 5561: 5551: 5546: 5541: 5536: 5531: 5530: 5529: 5524: 5519: 5509: 5504: 5499: 5493: 5491: 5487: 5486: 5484: 5483: 5478: 5477: 5476: 5471: 5466: 5465: 5464: 5454: 5449: 5444: 5439: 5434: 5424: 5418: 5416: 5412: 5411: 5409: 5408: 5403: 5398: 5393: 5388: 5383: 5378: 5373: 5368: 5363: 5362: 5361: 5352:Charles Darwin 5349: 5348: 5347: 5335: 5330: 5324: 5322: 5316: 5315: 5313: 5312: 5307: 5302: 5297: 5292: 5290:Non-ecological 5287: 5282: 5277: 5272: 5267: 5262: 5257: 5251: 5249: 5243: 5242: 5240: 5239: 5230: 5221: 5207: 5205: 5199: 5198: 5196: 5195: 5190: 5189: 5188: 5183: 5178: 5173: 5168: 5158: 5153: 5148: 5143: 5138: 5133: 5128: 5123: 5118: 5113: 5108: 5107: 5106: 5096: 5091: 5086: 5081: 5080: 5079: 5074: 5063: 5061: 5054: 5053: 5051: 5050: 5049: 5048: 5043: 5041:nervous system 5038: 5033: 5028: 5020: 5019: 5018: 5013: 5008: 5003: 4998: 4993: 4983: 4978: 4973: 4967: 4965: 4958: 4957: 4955: 4954: 4949: 4944: 4939: 4934: 4933: 4932: 4922: 4921: 4920: 4915: 4914: 4913: 4908: 4898: 4893: 4888: 4883: 4878: 4877: 4876: 4871: 4861: 4851: 4846: 4845: 4844: 4834: 4829: 4824: 4819: 4818: 4817: 4807: 4802: 4801: 4800: 4790: 4784: 4782: 4775: 4774: 4772: 4771: 4766: 4761: 4756: 4751: 4746: 4740: 4738: 4734: 4733: 4731: 4730: 4725: 4720: 4715: 4714: 4713: 4708: 4703: 4693: 4688: 4683: 4678: 4673: 4672: 4671: 4666: 4656: 4651: 4646: 4645: 4644: 4634: 4629: 4624: 4619: 4613: 4611: 4603: 4602: 4600: 4599: 4598: 4597: 4587: 4582: 4581: 4580: 4575: 4565: 4564: 4563: 4553: 4548: 4543: 4541:Origin of life 4538: 4533: 4528: 4526:Microevolution 4523: 4521:Macroevolution 4518: 4513: 4508: 4507: 4506: 4496: 4491: 4486: 4481: 4476: 4471: 4466: 4461: 4459:Common descent 4456: 4455: 4454: 4444: 4439: 4437:Baldwin effect 4434: 4433: 4432: 4427: 4417: 4412: 4407: 4401: 4399: 4393: 4392: 4390: 4389: 4384: 4379: 4374: 4369: 4363: 4360: 4359: 4352: 4351: 4344: 4337: 4329: 4320: 4319: 4314: 4311: 4310: 4308: 4307: 4302: 4296: 4294: 4290: 4289: 4287: 4286: 4285: 4284: 4272: 4267: 4262: 4257: 4252: 4251: 4250: 4239:François Jacob 4236: 4231: 4225: 4223: 4219: 4218: 4215: 4214: 4212: 4211: 4206: 4201: 4196: 4191: 4186: 4181: 4176: 4175: 4174: 4164: 4159: 4153: 4151: 4147: 4146: 4144: 4143: 4138: 4133: 4128: 4123: 4118: 4113: 4107: 4105: 4098: 4094: 4093: 4091: 4090: 4085: 4080: 4075: 4070: 4064: 4062: 4058: 4057: 4055: 4054: 4049: 4044: 4039: 4038: 4037: 4032: 4022: 4016: 4014: 4010: 4009: 4007: 4006: 4001: 3996: 3991: 3986: 3980: 3978: 3974: 3973: 3971: 3970: 3968:Sequence space 3965: 3960: 3955: 3950: 3945: 3936: 3931: 3926: 3921: 3915: 3913: 3907: 3906: 3904: 3903: 3898: 3897: 3896: 3886: 3881: 3876: 3871: 3866: 3861: 3856: 3850: 3848: 3844: 3843: 3831: 3830: 3823: 3816: 3808: 3802: 3801: 3788: 3758: 3751: 3750: 3749: 3747: 3746:External links 3744: 3742: 3741: 3707: 3691: 3685: 3668: 3666: 3663: 3661: 3660: 3603: 3572:(12): 2621–6. 3552: 3539: 3518:(1): 176–187. 3498: 3463:(3): 285–297. 3443: 3404: 3358: 3327:10.1086/660970 3305: 3264: 3243:10.1086/661780 3221: 3182:(10): e47620. 3162: 3133:10.1086/590957 3127:(4): E122-34. 3111: 3098:10.1086/282487 3076: 3041: 3022: 2987: 2936: 2891: 2853: 2812: 2763: 2724:(8): 3507–10. 2704: 2660: 2627: 2565: 2544:(4): 464–471. 2524: 2489: 2446: 2411: 2400:(3): 371–377. 2384: 2335: 2284: 2245: 2214: 2179: 2134: 2084: 2073:(4): 748–756. 2057: 2026:10.1086/527453 1999: 1951: 1913: 1874: 1820: 1785: 1780:Marine Ecology 1756: 1743:(4): 913–928. 1719: 1700:(3): 682–690. 1684: 1675: 1634: 1599: 1556: 1505: 1464: 1413: 1380:(April 2016). 1368: 1321: 1292:(5): 673–683. 1272: 1241: 1230:(2–3): 263–9. 1214: 1207: 1181: 1140: 1121:(12): 537–42. 1105: 1070: 1008: 957: 930: 915: 886: 845: 795: 793: 790: 789: 788: 783: 778: 773: 768: 763: 758: 756:Baldwin effect 753: 748: 741: 738: 714:climate change 709: 706: 701:Metaplasticity 662: 654: 652: 649: 563: 560: 526:tachinid flies 505:gastric mucosa 494:glucose uptake 473:infected with 460:microsporidian 458:), exposed to 421: 418: 387:Burmese python 356:Japanese quail 340:aminopeptidase 328:house sparrows 299: 296: 280:cell membranes 259: 256: 210: 207: 182:photosynthesis 164: 161: 139:boundary layer 109: 106: 104: 101: 53:), as well as 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5652: 5641: 5638: 5636: 5633: 5631: 5628: 5627: 5625: 5610: 5606: 5602: 5600: 5592: 5591: 5588: 5582: 5579: 5577: 5574: 5572: 5569: 5567: 5564: 5560: 5557: 5556: 5555: 5554:Phylogenetics 5552: 5550: 5547: 5545: 5542: 5540: 5537: 5535: 5532: 5528: 5525: 5523: 5520: 5518: 5515: 5514: 5513: 5510: 5508: 5505: 5503: 5500: 5498: 5495: 5494: 5492: 5488: 5482: 5479: 5475: 5472: 5470: 5467: 5463: 5460: 5459: 5458: 5457:Structuralism 5455: 5453: 5450: 5448: 5445: 5443: 5440: 5438: 5435: 5433: 5432:Catastrophism 5430: 5429: 5428: 5425: 5423: 5420: 5419: 5417: 5413: 5407: 5404: 5402: 5399: 5397: 5394: 5392: 5391:Neo-Darwinism 5389: 5387: 5384: 5382: 5379: 5377: 5374: 5372: 5369: 5367: 5364: 5360: 5359: 5355: 5354: 5353: 5350: 5346: 5345: 5341: 5340: 5339: 5336: 5334: 5331: 5329: 5326: 5325: 5323: 5321: 5317: 5311: 5308: 5306: 5305:Reinforcement 5303: 5301: 5298: 5296: 5293: 5291: 5288: 5286: 5283: 5281: 5278: 5276: 5273: 5271: 5268: 5266: 5263: 5261: 5258: 5256: 5253: 5252: 5250: 5248: 5244: 5238: 5237:Catastrophism 5234: 5231: 5229: 5228:Macromutation 5225: 5224:Micromutation 5222: 5220: 5216: 5212: 5209: 5208: 5206: 5204: 5200: 5194: 5191: 5187: 5184: 5182: 5179: 5177: 5174: 5172: 5169: 5167: 5164: 5163: 5162: 5159: 5157: 5154: 5152: 5149: 5147: 5144: 5142: 5139: 5137: 5134: 5132: 5131:Immune system 5129: 5127: 5124: 5122: 5119: 5117: 5114: 5112: 5109: 5105: 5102: 5101: 5100: 5097: 5095: 5092: 5090: 5087: 5085: 5082: 5078: 5075: 5073: 5070: 5069: 5068: 5065: 5064: 5062: 5060: 5055: 5047: 5044: 5042: 5039: 5037: 5034: 5032: 5029: 5027: 5024: 5023: 5021: 5017: 5014: 5012: 5009: 5007: 5004: 5002: 4999: 4997: 4994: 4992: 4991:symbiogenesis 4989: 4988: 4987: 4984: 4982: 4979: 4977: 4974: 4972: 4969: 4968: 4966: 4964: 4959: 4953: 4950: 4948: 4945: 4943: 4940: 4938: 4935: 4931: 4928: 4927: 4926: 4923: 4919: 4916: 4912: 4909: 4907: 4904: 4903: 4902: 4899: 4897: 4894: 4892: 4889: 4887: 4884: 4882: 4879: 4875: 4872: 4870: 4867: 4866: 4865: 4862: 4860: 4857: 4856: 4855: 4852: 4850: 4847: 4843: 4840: 4839: 4838: 4835: 4833: 4830: 4828: 4825: 4823: 4820: 4816: 4813: 4812: 4811: 4808: 4806: 4803: 4799: 4796: 4795: 4794: 4791: 4789: 4786: 4785: 4783: 4781: 4776: 4770: 4767: 4765: 4762: 4760: 4757: 4755: 4752: 4750: 4747: 4745: 4742: 4741: 4739: 4735: 4729: 4726: 4724: 4721: 4719: 4716: 4712: 4709: 4707: 4704: 4702: 4699: 4698: 4697: 4694: 4692: 4689: 4687: 4684: 4682: 4679: 4677: 4674: 4670: 4667: 4665: 4662: 4661: 4660: 4659:Kin selection 4657: 4655: 4654:Genetic drift 4652: 4650: 4647: 4643: 4640: 4639: 4638: 4635: 4633: 4630: 4628: 4625: 4623: 4620: 4618: 4615: 4614: 4612: 4610: 4604: 4596: 4593: 4592: 4591: 4588: 4586: 4583: 4579: 4576: 4574: 4571: 4570: 4569: 4566: 4562: 4559: 4558: 4557: 4554: 4552: 4549: 4547: 4544: 4542: 4539: 4537: 4534: 4532: 4529: 4527: 4524: 4522: 4519: 4517: 4514: 4512: 4509: 4505: 4502: 4501: 4500: 4497: 4495: 4492: 4490: 4487: 4485: 4482: 4480: 4477: 4475: 4472: 4470: 4467: 4465: 4462: 4460: 4457: 4453: 4450: 4449: 4448: 4445: 4443: 4440: 4438: 4435: 4431: 4428: 4426: 4423: 4422: 4421: 4418: 4416: 4413: 4411: 4408: 4406: 4403: 4402: 4400: 4398: 4394: 4388: 4385: 4383: 4380: 4378: 4375: 4373: 4370: 4368: 4365: 4364: 4361: 4357: 4350: 4345: 4343: 4338: 4336: 4331: 4330: 4327: 4317: 4312: 4306: 4303: 4301: 4298: 4297: 4295: 4291: 4283: 4282: 4278: 4277: 4276: 4273: 4271: 4268: 4266: 4263: 4261: 4258: 4256: 4253: 4249: 4246: 4245: 4244: 4243:Jacques Monod 4240: 4237: 4235: 4232: 4230: 4227: 4226: 4224: 4220: 4210: 4207: 4205: 4202: 4200: 4197: 4195: 4192: 4190: 4187: 4185: 4182: 4180: 4177: 4173: 4170: 4169: 4168: 4165: 4163: 4160: 4158: 4157:Homeotic gene 4155: 4154: 4152: 4148: 4142: 4139: 4137: 4134: 4132: 4129: 4127: 4124: 4122: 4119: 4117: 4114: 4112: 4109: 4108: 4106: 4102: 4099: 4095: 4089: 4086: 4084: 4081: 4079: 4076: 4074: 4071: 4069: 4066: 4065: 4063: 4059: 4053: 4050: 4048: 4045: 4043: 4040: 4036: 4033: 4031: 4028: 4027: 4026: 4025:Morphogenesis 4023: 4021: 4018: 4017: 4015: 4011: 4005: 4002: 4000: 3997: 3995: 3992: 3990: 3987: 3985: 3982: 3981: 3979: 3975: 3969: 3966: 3964: 3961: 3959: 3956: 3954: 3951: 3949: 3946: 3944: 3940: 3937: 3935: 3932: 3930: 3927: 3925: 3922: 3920: 3917: 3916: 3914: 3912: 3908: 3902: 3899: 3895: 3892: 3891: 3890: 3887: 3885: 3882: 3880: 3877: 3875: 3872: 3870: 3867: 3865: 3862: 3860: 3859:Reaction norm 3857: 3855: 3852: 3851: 3849: 3845: 3841: 3837: 3829: 3824: 3822: 3817: 3815: 3810: 3809: 3806: 3800: 3796: 3792: 3789: 3787: 3783: 3779: 3778: 3773: 3772: 3771: 3765: 3761: 3738: 3734: 3730: 3726: 3723:(3): 609–10. 3722: 3718: 3710: 3704: 3700: 3696: 3692: 3688: 3682: 3678: 3674: 3670: 3669: 3656: 3652: 3647: 3642: 3638: 3634: 3630: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3614: 3607: 3599: 3595: 3590: 3585: 3580: 3575: 3571: 3567: 3563: 3556: 3550: 3543: 3534: 3529: 3525: 3521: 3517: 3513: 3509: 3502: 3494: 3490: 3486: 3482: 3478: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3462: 3458: 3454: 3447: 3439: 3435: 3431: 3427: 3423: 3419: 3418:Weed Research 3415: 3408: 3400: 3396: 3392: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3372: 3365: 3363: 3354: 3350: 3346: 3342: 3337: 3332: 3328: 3324: 3321:(4): 377–84. 3320: 3316: 3309: 3301: 3297: 3292: 3287: 3283: 3279: 3275: 3268: 3260: 3256: 3252: 3248: 3244: 3240: 3236: 3232: 3225: 3217: 3213: 3208: 3203: 3198: 3193: 3189: 3185: 3181: 3177: 3173: 3166: 3158: 3154: 3150: 3146: 3142: 3138: 3134: 3130: 3126: 3122: 3115: 3107: 3103: 3099: 3095: 3091: 3087: 3080: 3072: 3068: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3052: 3045: 3037: 3033: 3026: 3018: 3014: 3010: 3006: 3002: 2998: 2991: 2983: 2979: 2974: 2969: 2964: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2947: 2940: 2932: 2928: 2923: 2918: 2914: 2910: 2907:(1): 101–17. 2906: 2902: 2895: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2867: 2863: 2857: 2849: 2845: 2840: 2835: 2831: 2827: 2823: 2816: 2808: 2804: 2800: 2796: 2791: 2786: 2783:(4): 873–83. 2782: 2778: 2774: 2767: 2759: 2755: 2750: 2745: 2740: 2735: 2731: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2715: 2708: 2700: 2696: 2691: 2686: 2683:(3): 426–37. 2682: 2678: 2674: 2667: 2665: 2655: 2650: 2647:(8): 651–61. 2646: 2642: 2638: 2631: 2623: 2619: 2614: 2609: 2604: 2599: 2595: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2572: 2570: 2561: 2557: 2552: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2535: 2528: 2520: 2516: 2512: 2508: 2505:(3): 444–50. 2504: 2500: 2493: 2485: 2481: 2477: 2473: 2469: 2465: 2461: 2457: 2450: 2442: 2438: 2434: 2430: 2426: 2422: 2415: 2407: 2403: 2399: 2395: 2388: 2380: 2376: 2371: 2366: 2362: 2358: 2354: 2350: 2346: 2339: 2331: 2327: 2322: 2317: 2312: 2307: 2303: 2299: 2298:PLOS Genetics 2295: 2288: 2280: 2276: 2272: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2249: 2241: 2237: 2233: 2229: 2225: 2218: 2210: 2206: 2202: 2198: 2194: 2190: 2183: 2175: 2171: 2166: 2161: 2157: 2153: 2149: 2145: 2138: 2130: 2126: 2122: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2107:(2): 541–67. 2106: 2102: 2098: 2091: 2089: 2080: 2076: 2072: 2068: 2061: 2053: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2036: 2031: 2027: 2023: 2020:(2): 186–94. 2019: 2015: 2008: 2006: 2004: 1995: 1991: 1987: 1983: 1979: 1975: 1972:(5): 509–18. 1971: 1967: 1960: 1958: 1956: 1947: 1943: 1939: 1935: 1931: 1927: 1920: 1918: 1909: 1905: 1901: 1897: 1894:(2): 117–24. 1893: 1889: 1881: 1879: 1870: 1866: 1861: 1856: 1851: 1846: 1842: 1838: 1834: 1827: 1825: 1816: 1812: 1808: 1804: 1800: 1796: 1789: 1781: 1774: 1767: 1765: 1763: 1761: 1751: 1746: 1742: 1738: 1734: 1732: 1723: 1715: 1711: 1707: 1703: 1699: 1695: 1688: 1679: 1671: 1667: 1662: 1657: 1653: 1649: 1645: 1638: 1630: 1626: 1622: 1618: 1614: 1610: 1603: 1595: 1591: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1560: 1552: 1548: 1543: 1538: 1533: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1509: 1501: 1497: 1492: 1487: 1483: 1479: 1475: 1468: 1460: 1456: 1451: 1446: 1441: 1436: 1432: 1428: 1424: 1417: 1409: 1405: 1400: 1395: 1391: 1387: 1383: 1379: 1376:Chitwood DH, 1372: 1364: 1360: 1356: 1352: 1348: 1344: 1340: 1336: 1332: 1325: 1317: 1313: 1308: 1303: 1299: 1295: 1291: 1287: 1283: 1276: 1268: 1264: 1261:(3): 236–42. 1260: 1256: 1252: 1245: 1237: 1233: 1229: 1225: 1218: 1210: 1204: 1200: 1196: 1192: 1185: 1177: 1173: 1168: 1163: 1160:(2): 207–16. 1159: 1155: 1151: 1144: 1136: 1132: 1128: 1124: 1120: 1116: 1109: 1101: 1097: 1093: 1089: 1085: 1081: 1074: 1066: 1062: 1057: 1052: 1047: 1042: 1038: 1034: 1030: 1026: 1022: 1015: 1013: 1004: 1000: 995: 990: 985: 980: 976: 972: 968: 961: 953: 949: 945: 941: 934: 926: 922: 918: 912: 908: 904: 900: 893: 891: 874: 869: 865: 861: 854: 852: 850: 841: 837: 832: 827: 823: 819: 815: 811: 807: 800: 796: 787: 784: 782: 779: 777: 774: 772: 769: 767: 764: 762: 759: 757: 754: 752: 749: 747: 744: 743: 737: 735: 731: 727: 722: 720: 715: 702: 697: 693: 689: 684: 682: 681:developmental 678: 674: 673:physiological 670: 666: 659: 648: 646: 642: 638: 635: 634: 629: 625: 621: 617: 611: 609: 605: 601: 597: 596:Physa virgata 593: 589: 587: 583: 578: 574: 569: 559: 557: 553: 552: 542: 538: 537: 533: 531: 527: 523: 522: 516: 514: 510: 506: 502: 497: 495: 490: 486: 481: 479: 476: 472: 471: 466: 461: 457: 456: 455:Daphnia magna 451: 447: 443: 439: 435: 431: 430:invertebrates 427: 417: 414: 410: 406: 402: 398: 394: 392: 388: 384: 380: 379:Octodon degus 376: 372: 367: 365: 361: 357: 353: 349: 348:prairie voles 343: 341: 337: 333: 329: 325: 321: 317: 312: 307: 305: 295: 293: 289: 285: 281: 277: 273: 269: 265: 255: 253: 249: 245: 241: 240: 235: 234: 229: 224: 223:speckled wood 220: 216: 206: 204: 199: 195: 194:abscisic acid 191: 186: 183: 179: 175: 169: 160: 156: 154: 153: 148: 144: 140: 135: 131: 127: 119: 114: 100: 98: 97: 96:Daphnia magna 92: 88: 84: 80: 76: 66: 62: 60: 56: 52: 48: 43: 41: 37: 33: 32:physiological 29: 28:morphological 25: 21: 5566:Polymorphism 5549:Astrobiology 5497:Biogeography 5452:Saltationism 5442:Orthogenesis 5427:Alternatives 5356: 5342: 5275:Cospeciation 5270:Cladogenesis 5219:Saltationism 5176:Mating types 5099:Color vision 5084:Avian flight 5006:mitochondria 4768: 4744:Canalisation 4622:Biodiversity 4367:Introduction 4279: 4172:eyeless gene 4068:Evolvability 4042:Segmentation 3952: 3919:Canalisation 3889:Heterochrony 3879:Heritability 3847:Key concepts 3798: 3790: 3781: 3768: 3767: 3766:profile for 3763: 3720: 3716: 3698: 3676: 3620: 3616: 3606: 3569: 3566:PLOS Biology 3565: 3555: 3542: 3515: 3511: 3501: 3460: 3456: 3446: 3421: 3417: 3407: 3374: 3370: 3336:10533/133358 3318: 3314: 3308: 3281: 3277: 3267: 3234: 3230: 3224: 3179: 3175: 3165: 3124: 3120: 3114: 3089: 3085: 3079: 3057:(2): 77–81. 3054: 3050: 3044: 3038:(6): 857–70. 3035: 3031: 3025: 3003:(2): 77–81. 3000: 2996: 2990: 2953: 2949: 2939: 2904: 2900: 2894: 2869: 2865: 2856: 2829: 2825: 2815: 2780: 2776: 2766: 2721: 2717: 2707: 2680: 2676: 2644: 2640: 2630: 2588:(3): e4796. 2585: 2581: 2541: 2537: 2527: 2502: 2498: 2492: 2470:(2): 152–6. 2467: 2463: 2459: 2455: 2449: 2427:(8): 363–8. 2424: 2420: 2414: 2397: 2393: 2387: 2352: 2348: 2338: 2301: 2297: 2287: 2262: 2258: 2248: 2231: 2227: 2223: 2217: 2192: 2188: 2182: 2165:10533/176304 2150:(1): 135–9. 2147: 2143: 2137: 2104: 2100: 2096: 2070: 2066: 2060: 2035:10533/139094 2017: 2013: 1969: 1965: 1929: 1891: 1887: 1860:11336/130698 1840: 1836: 1798: 1794: 1788: 1779: 1740: 1736: 1731:Pristimantis 1730: 1722: 1697: 1693: 1687: 1678: 1651: 1647: 1637: 1615:(4): 710–3. 1612: 1608: 1602: 1572:(6): 880–7. 1569: 1565: 1559: 1522: 1518: 1508: 1481: 1477: 1467: 1430: 1426: 1416: 1389: 1385: 1371: 1338: 1334: 1324: 1289: 1285: 1275: 1258: 1254: 1250: 1244: 1227: 1223: 1217: 1190: 1184: 1157: 1153: 1143: 1118: 1114: 1108: 1083: 1079: 1073: 1028: 1024: 974: 971:PLOS Biology 970: 960: 943: 939: 933: 898: 877:. Retrieved 863: 813: 809: 799: 729: 723: 711: 663: 639: 631: 612: 595: 590: 573:selected for 565: 555: 549: 547: 536:Reproduction 535: 534: 519: 517: 509:gut motility 498: 482: 477: 468: 453: 423: 395: 390: 378: 375:common degus 368: 344: 331: 320:brush border 308: 301: 261: 237: 231: 218: 212: 202: 197: 189: 187: 170: 166: 157: 150: 123: 94: 86: 72: 44: 40:phenological 19: 18: 5576:Systematics 5447:Mutationism 5265:Catagenesis 5193:Snake venom 5126:Eusociality 5104:in primates 5094:Cooperation 5022:In animals 4842:butterflies 4815:Cephalopods 4805:Brachiopods 4737:Development 4711:Mate choice 4464:Convergence 4447:Coevolution 4405:Abiogenesis 4270:Mike Levine 4179:Distal-less 4004:Polyphenism 3984:Epigenetics 3836:development 3784:concerning 2862:Gavrilets S 2195:(1): 93–8. 1478:Development 1086:(1): 24–6. 746:Acclimation 734:parturition 600:maladaptive 450:water fleas 432:respond to 264:temperature 258:Temperature 219:Canis lupus 178:chloroplast 59:polyphenism 47:acclimation 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