43:. Philosophy and medicine, both beginning with the ancient Greeks, have had a long history of overlapping ideas. It was not until the nineteenth century that the professionalization of the philosophy of medicine came to be. In the late twentieth century, debates among philosophers and physicians ensued of whether the philosophy of medicine should be considered a field of its own from either philosophy or medicine. A consensus has since been reached that it is in fact a distinct discipline with its set of separate problems and questions. In recent years there have been a variety of university courses, journals, books, textbooks and conferences dedicated to the philosophy of medicine.
52:
467:), but does not permit mind to have any effect on matter. This then means that medical science has difficulty in entertaining even the possibility that placebo effects are real, exist and may be objectively determinable and finding such reports difficult if not impossible to comprehend and/or accept. Yet such reports which appear to be genuine pose a threat to Cartesian dualism which provides the ontological underpinning for biomedicine especially in its clinical domain.
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249:. Philosophers of medicine might not only be interested in how medical knowledge is generated, but also in the nature of such phenomena. Causation is of interest because the purpose of much medical research is to establish causal relationships, e.g. what causes disease, or what causes people to get better. The scientific processes used to generate causal knowledge give clues to the metaphysics of causation. For example, the defining feature of
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dominant approach to clinical research and treatment assumes the human body can be broken down or analysed in terms of its component parts and their respective functions, such as its internal and external organs, the tissues and bones of which they are composed, the cells which make up the tissues, the molecules which constitute the cell, down to the atoms (the DNA sequences) which make up the cell in the body.
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acquaintance, competence knowledge, and propositional knowledge. The knowledge of acquaintance is to be familiar with an object or event. For example, a surgeon would need to know the human anatomy before operating on the body. Competence of knowledge is to use known knowledge to perform a task skillfully. The surgeon must know how to perform the surgical procedure before executing it.
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419:(which is the classification of disease), the most powerful is the etiogically-defined approach as can be found in the monogenic conception of disease which covers not only infectious agents (bacteria, viruses. fungi, parasites, prions) but also genetics and poisons. While clinical medicine is concerned with the ill health of the individual patient when s/he has succumbed to disease,
483:(EBM) is underpinned by the study of the ways in which knowledge can be gained regarding key clinical questions, such as the effects of medical interventions, the accuracy of diagnostic tests, and the predictive value of prognostic markers. EBM provides an account of how medical knowledge can be applied to clinical care. EBM not only provides clinicians with a strategy for best
411:. For example, when a bit of solid matter such as a poison or a worm impacts upon another bit of matter (when it enters the human body), this sets off a chain of motions, giving rise to disease, just as when one billiard ball knocks into another billiard, the latter is set in motion. When the human body is exposed to the solid
498:
provides a critical defense of EBM, most philosophers have raised questions about its legitimacy. Key questions asked about hierarchies of evidence concern the legitimacy of ranking methodologies in terms of the strength of support that they supply; how instances of particular methods may move up and
442:
and placebo effects have generated years of conceptual confusion about what kinds of thing they are. Example definitions of a placebo may refer to their inertness or pharmacological inactivity in relation to the condition they are given for. Similarly, example definitions of placebo effects may refer
446:
The distinctions at work in these types of definition: between active and inactive or inert, specific and non-specific, and subjective and objective, have been problematized. For instance, if placebos are inactive or inert, then how do they cause placebo effects? More generally, there is scientific
324:
made ontological space for modern medicine by separating body from mind — while mind is superior to body as it constitutes the uniqueness of the human soul (the province of theology), body is inferior to mind as it is mere matter. Medicine simply investigated(s) the body as machine. While
Cartesian
677:
Because a flexible definition of health relates to a flexible definition of the disabled, any attempt to prohibit access to enhancement technology can be challenged as a violation of disability rights. Presented this way, disability rights are the gateway for the application of transhumanism. Any
307:. The scope of OGMS is restricted to humans, but many terms can be applied also to other organisms. OGMS provides a formal theory of disease that is elaborated further by specific disease ontologies which extend it, including the infectious disease ontology (IDO) and the mental disease ontology.
205:
is a branch in the philosophy of medicine that is concerned with knowledge. The common questions asked are "What is knowing or knowledge?", "How do we know what we know?", "What is it we know when we claim we know". Philosophers differentiate theories of knowledge into three groups: knowledge of
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Some forms of assistive reproduction previously seen as enhancement are now considered to be treatments. This vagueness in therapy is mirrored in the classification of interventions. Vaccination can be seen as a form of prevention, but also as an enhancement of the immune system. To distinguish
430:
approach to disease, based ultimately on
Cartesian dualism which says that the proper study of medicine is an investigation of the body when the latter is viewed as machine. A machine can exhaustively be broken down into its component parts and their respective functions; in the same way, the
450:
Other attempts to define placebos and placebo effects therefore shift focus away from these distinctions and onto therapeutic effects that are caused or modulated by the context in which a treatment is delivered and the meaning that different aspects of treatments have for patients.
454:
The problems arising over the definition of placebos and their effects may be said to be the heritage of
Cartesian dualism, under which mind and matter are understood as two different substances. Furthermore, Cartesian dualism endorses a form of
257:
do not. In this instance, causation can be considered as something which is counterfactually dependent, i.e. the way RCTs differ from observational studies is that they have a comparison group in which the intervention of interest is not given.
106:). This distinction, naturally, "draws a line between services or interventions meant to prevent or cure (or otherwise ameliorate) conditions that we view as diseases or disabilities and interventions that improve a condition that we view as a
678:
attempt to identify a moral or natural hazard associated with enhancement technology must also include some limitation of disability rights, which seems to go against the entire direction of human rights legislation over the last century.
499:
down a hierarchy; as well as how different types of evidence, from different levels in the hierarchies, should be combined. Critics of medical research have raised numerous questions regarding the unreliability of medical research.
189:
of the therapy–enhancement distinction. Without such a clear divide, restorative medicine and exploratory eugenics also invariably become harder to distinguish; and accordingly might one explain the matter's relevance to ongoing
181:
notion, and so much so that some consider it practically useless. And yet others focus on the boundary between these therapeutic categories and related ones from discourses of enhancement, taking it to be, at best, "fuzzy" or
274:, in general, possible, (2) Cartesian dualism which makes modern medicine, in particular, possible, (3) the monogenetic conception of disease which has informed clinical medicine for a century or so and also the chemical and
286:
The
Ontology of General Medical Science (OGMS) is an ontology of entities involved in a clinical encounter. It includes a set of logical definitions of very general terms that are used across medical disciplines, including
443:
to the subjectivity or the non-specificity of those effects. These types of definitions suggest the view that when given a placebo treatment, one may merely feel better while not in fact being better.
270:
of biomedicine, including ontological studies of all aspects of medicine. Ontologies of specific interest to the philosophy of medicine include, for instance: (1) the ontological revolution which made
210:
is explanatory; it pertains to certain truths or facts. If the surgeon is performing an operation on the heart they must know the physiological function of the heart before the surgery is performed.
447:
evidence from research investigating placebo phenomena which demonstrates that, for certain conditions (such as pain), placebo effects can be both specific and objective in the conventional sense.
325:
dualism dominates clinical approaches to medical research and treatment, the legitimacy of the split between mind and body has been consistently challenged from a variety of perspectives.
245:. The common questions asked within this branch are "What causes health?" and "What causes disease?". There is a growing interest in the metaphysics of medicine, particularly the idea of
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is concerned with the pattern of diseases in populations in order to study their causes as well as how to manage, control, ameliorate the problems identified under study.
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415:, it falls ill, giving rise to the notion of a disease entity. Later in the history of modern medicine, particularly by the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries, in
1865:
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which underlie the phenomena of health and disease in all organisms, (4) the conceptualization of entities such as 'placebos' and 'placebo effects'.
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such as "normality" or "health," which have been called "fishy", and that, vice versa, "disease" is impossible to ever conclusively define, i.e. a
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is an intervention that improves a subsystem in some way other than repairing something that is broken or remedying a specific dysfunction.
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And yet the adequacy of such a dichotomy is highly contested in modern scholarly bioethics. One simple counterargument is that it has
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An intervention that is aimed at correcting a specific pathology or defect of a cognitive subsystem may be characterized as
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that explores issues in theory, research, and practice within the field of health sciences, more specifically in topics of
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494:, which rank different kinds of research methodology, ostensibly, by the relative evidential weight they provide. While
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2564:(September 2009). "Questioning the methodologic superiority of 'placebo' over 'active' controlled trials".
250:
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1522:"Normality, Therapy, and Enhancement: What Should Bioconservatives Say about the Medicalization of Love?"
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1814:
The
Blurred Line Between Therapy and Enhancement: A Consideration of Disability Rights and Transhumanism
1433:(2008). "Ethical Issues in Human Enhancement". In Ryberg, Jesper; Petersen, Thomas; Wolf, Clark (eds.).
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long been ignored throughout various contemporary fields of scientific study and practice such as "
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Interest in the EBM philosophy of evidence has led philosophers to consider the nature of EBM's
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Granting these assertions' validity, one may, once more, call this first and foremost a moral
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2814:"GRADE: an emerging consensus on rating quality of evidence and strength of recommendations"
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The
Journal of Medicine and Philosophy: A Forum for Bioethics and Philosophy of Medicine
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Others posit on more theoretical grounds that the notion of therapy is connected to
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724:; Reiss, Julian (2016-06-06). "Philosophy of Medicine". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.).
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that examines the fundamental nature of reality including the relationship between
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methodology have been examined, mostly notably the special place that is given to
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which permits matter to have an effect on matter, or even matter to work on mind (
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1994:
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886:"Oxford Journals | Humanities&Medicine | Journal of Medicine and Philosophy"
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Lee, Keekok (2013-02-23). "The
Philosophical Foundations of Modern Medicine".
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2678:"Reconsidering the Placebo Response from a Broad Anthropological Perspective"
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2512:"Understanding and Harnessing Placebo Effects: Clearing Away the Underbrush"
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253:(RCTs) is that they are thought to establish causal relationships, whereas
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what has been coined the "moral continuum argument" by some of its critics.
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Life interpretation and the sense of illness within the human condition
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1764:"Limits to human enhancement: nature, disease, therapy or betterment?"
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730:(Summer 2016 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.
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1281:
The Case
Against Perfection: Ethics in the Age of Genetic Engineering
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838:
635:
321:
246:
178:
40:
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1473:"Reproductive Choice, Enhancement, and the Moral Continuum Argument"
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88:
first and foremost, are known to insist on a particularly stringent
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Placebo
Effects: Understanding the mechanisms in health and disease
2433:
951:
International
Journal of Advanced Engineering and Global Technology
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412:
328:
267:
85:
502:
Additionally the epistemological virtues of particular aspects of
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4006:
4001:
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Thompson, Jennifer Jo; Ritenbaugh, Cheryl; Nichter, Mark (2009).
895:
700:
Wulff, Henrik R.; Pedersen, Stig Andur; Rosenberg, Raben (1986).
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404:
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4011:
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1979:(2011). "Causality in medicine: Getting back to the Hill top".
1373:"Cognitive Enhancement: Methods, Ethics, Regulatory Challenges"
655:
Invoking Bostrom and Roache once more, Hofmann explicates here:
230:
1317:"Normal Functioning and the Treatment-Enhancement Distinction"
4176:
3838:
3124:
3057:
1715:"Enhanced Humans versus 'Normal People': Elusive Definitions"
1205:"A Paralympian faster than Bolt? Maybe soon, researchers say"
400:
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1241:
Beyond therapy: biotechnology and the pursuit of happiness
281:
4021:
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2174:
Typecasting: On the arts and sciences of human inequality
2074:"The Environment and Disease: Association or Causation?"
1168:
Care and Cure: An Introduction To Philosophy of Medicine
744:(March 1992). "Does the philosophy of medicine exist?".
2496:
487:, but also, underlying that, a philosophy of evidence.
1901:"A Framework for Understanding Medical Epistemologies"
829:"History and Philosophy of Evidence-Based Health Care"
699:
1951:
American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language
426:
Clinical medicine, as presented above, is part of a
108:
normal function or feature of members of our species
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521:
470:
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1442:. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 120–152.
2802:
2021:"What are randomised controlled trials good for?"
1867:Epistemology and the Psychology of Human Judgment
663:and contact lenses or glasses appears artificial.
114:, in turn, define the supposed schism as follows:
5984:
2365:"'Placebos' and the logic of placebo comparison"
2324:"It's time to put the placebo out of our misery"
2225:
2223:
2128:The Philosophical Foundations of Modern Medicine
2009:
1015:
1013:
798:"History and Philosophy of Science and Medicine"
329:Nosology and the monogenic conception of disease
166:, and much else". This is one way of conducting
1681:10.1076/0360-5310(200010)25:5;1-W;FT605
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2920:British Journal for the Philosophy of Science
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649:
2991:
2939:
2761:
2720:
2642:
2142:"OGMS: Ontology for General Medical Science"
2079:Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine
1657:
1421:
1419:
2951:"What Evidence in Evidence-Based Medicine?"
2653:Meaning, Medicine, and the 'Placebo Effect'
2554:
2502:
2356:
2121:
2119:
1859:
1829:
1574:"Defining disease: much ado about nothing?"
720:
617:
367:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
5458:Reproductive endocrinology and infertility
5176:
5162:
3080:
3066:
2062:
2015:
1576:. In Tymieniecka, A-T; Agazzi, E. (eds.).
1069:
475:
317:Mind–body dualism § Cartesian dualism
5799:Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery
3020:
2839:
2703:
2608:
2537:
2392:1983/6426ce5a-ab57-419c-bc3c-e57d20608807
2390:
2315:
2099:
2041:
1916:
1789:
1779:
1519:
1470:
1416:
1026:The Philosophy of Evidence-based Medicine
387:Learn how and when to remove this message
2909:
2862:
2269:
2229:
2186:
2164:
2116:
1527:Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics
1322:Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics
1283:. Harvard University Press. p. 47.
1164:
72:Prosthesis § Prosthetic enhancement
50:
2997:
2945:
2767:
2726:
2648:
2416:"Why Most Sugar Pills are Not Placebos"
1975:
1761:
1608:
1311:
727:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
703:Philosophy of Medicine: an Introduction
282:The Ontology of General Medical Science
261:
84:Self-described opponents of historical
5985:
2808:
2560:
2413:
2362:
2130:. London/New York: Palgrave/Macmillan.
1898:
1668:The Journal of Medicine and Philosophy
1275:
1019:
982:
860:"Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy"
740:
112:proponents of the enhancement modality
46:
5157:
4819:
3561:
3099:
3061:
944:"Working Philosophy of All Medicines"
266:There is a large body of work on the
5937:
5698:Physical medicine and rehabilitation
2321:
1709:
1663:"Fuzzy Health, Illness, and Disease"
1234:
942:Bhattacharjee, Pijush Kanti (2014).
917:"Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics"
365:adding citations to reliable sources
332:
310:
5947:
3052:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
3003:"Why there's no cause to randomize"
2770:"Evidence-Based Medicine Must Be …"
2729:"Evidence-Based Medicine Can't Be…"
2125:
1127:
62:sprinters to run faster than their
13:
5834:Medical Scientist Training Program
2879:10.1093/oso/9780198747048.001.0001
2775:Journal of Medicine and Philosophy
2517:Journal of Medicine and Philosophy
1720:Journal of Medicine and Philosophy
1611:"Do we need a concept of disease?"
1478:Journal of Medicine and Philosophy
1131:Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics
14:
6014:
3040:
2414:Holman, Bennett (December 2015).
1210:Canadian Broadcasting Corporation
1076:The Philosophy of Medicine Reborn
91:treatment-enhancement distinction
5966:
5956:
5946:
5936:
5927:
5926:
5137:
5136:
5123:
2683:Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry
2275:"Is there logic in the placebo?"
1520:Giubilini, Alberto (July 2015).
629:President's Council on Bioethics
522:Notable philosophers of medicine
471:How physicians practice medicine
463:, which is the raison d'être of
337:
5967:
2856:
2407:
2233:(1981). "The Placebo Concept".
2180:
2158:
2134:
1941:
1892:
1853:
1823:
1806:
1755:
1703:
1651:
1609:Hesslow, Germund (March 1993).
1602:
1562:
1513:
1464:
1357:
1305:
1269:
1228:
1197:
1158:
1121:
1063:
976:
668:
197:
5824:Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine
5258:Oral and maxillofacial surgery
3087:
2915:"The Virtues of Randomization"
2468:Johns Hopkins University Press
2236:Behaviour Research and Therapy
1471:Malmqvist, Erik (2014-02-01).
1381:Science and Engineering Ethics
1081:University of Notre Dame Press
935:
909:
878:
852:
821:
790:
734:
714:
693:
213:
1:
4820:
2567:American Journal of Bioethics
2293:10.1016/s0140-6736(94)92273-x
1899:Khushf, George (2013-10-01).
687:
5804:Bachelor of Medical Sciences
5571:Neurosurgical anesthesiology
5183:
4609:Ordinary language philosophy
3100:
2812:; et al. (2008-04-26).
2249:10.1016/0005-7967(81)90040-1
1818:2017 Proceedings of the CPSA
1572:; Worrall, Jennifer (2001).
1460:– via nickbostrom.com.
1412:– via nickbostrom.com.
539:Hugo Tristram Engelhardt Jr.
251:randomized controlled trials
7:
4659:Contemporary utilitarianism
4574:Internalism and externalism
2832:10.1136/bmj.39489.470347.AD
2649:Moerman, Daniel E. (2002).
1995:10.1016/j.ypmed.2011.08.009
1812:Tabachnick, David (2017). "
1586:10.1007/978-94-010-0780-1_3
1436:New Waves in Applied Ethics
1173:University of Chicago Press
627:affiliated chairman of the
10:
6019:
3923:Svatantrika and Prasangika
3562:
2659:Cambridge University Press
2458:; Shapiro, Elaine (1997).
2322:Nunn, Robin (2009-04-20).
2092:10.1177/003591576505800503
1762:Hofmann B (October 2017).
434:
314:
164:cosmetic dental procedures
69:
5922:
5844:
5782:
5543:
5471:
5426:
5335:
5206:
5191:
5117:
5069:
4969:
4931:
4878:
4845:
4836:
4832:
4815:
4765:
4677:
4515:
4506:
4439:
4222:
4213:
4191:
4146:
4088:
4040:
3994:
3985:
3948:
3819:
3684:
3631:
3622:
3572:
3568:
3557:
3496:
3468:
3425:
3377:
3334:
3287:
3259:
3211:
3183:
3145:Philosophy of mathematics
3135:Philosophy of information
3110:
3106:
3095:
2747:10.1080/02691720802559438
2696:10.1007/s11013-008-9122-2
2580:10.1080/15265160903090041
2383:10.1007/s10539-011-9289-8
2146:J. Craig Venter Institute
2043:10.1007/s11098-009-9450-2
1781:10.1186/s12910-017-0215-8
1540:10.1017/S0963180114000656
1394:10.1007/s11948-009-9142-5
1335:10.1017/S0963180100903037
1144:10.1007/s11017-013-9253-5
243:possibility and actuality
76:Human genetic enhancement
58:may allow double-amputee
5758:Transplantation medicine
5649:Clinical neurophysiology
5566:Obstetric anesthesiology
5486:Interventional radiology
5246:Digestive system surgery
2863:Stegenga, Jacob (2018).
2370:Biology & Philosophy
1165:Stegenga, Jacob (2018).
610:
399:Modern medicine, unlike
5629:Intensive care medicine
5603:Mass gathering medicine
5448:Maternal–fetal medicine
4614:Postanalytic philosophy
4555:Experimental philosophy
2871:Oxford University Press
2819:British Medical Journal
2618:Oxford University Press
2363:Turner, Andrew (2012).
2329:British Medical Journal
1872:Oxford University Press
1840:Encyclopedia Britannica
481:Evidence-based medicine
476:Evidence-based medicine
208:Propositional knowledge
94:(sometimes also called
5993:Philosophy of medicine
5221:Cardiothoracic surgery
4747:Social constructionism
3759:Hellenistic philosophy
3175:Theoretical philosophy
3150:Philosophy of religion
3140:Philosophy of language
3047:Philosophy of Medicine
2768:La Caze, Adam (2009).
2727:La Caze, Adam (2008).
2176:. Seven Stories Press.
989:Philosophy of Medicine
680:
665:
128:
67:
39:, which overlaps with
21:philosophy of medicine
6003:Philosophy of biology
5872:Personalized medicine
5731:Reproductive medicine
5656:Occupational medicine
5610:Evolutionary medicine
5130:Philosophy portal
4649:Scientific skepticism
4629:Reformed epistemology
3155:Philosophy of science
2956:Philosophy of Science
2933:10.1093/bjps/45.2.437
2421:Philosophy of Science
2196:Yale University Press
2070:Bradford Hill, Austin
2029:Philosophical Studies
1071:Pellegrino, Edmund D.
1039:10.1002/9781444342673
1031:John Wiley & Sons
675:
656:
492:hierarchy of evidence
255:observational studies
175:presumptuous concepts
156:contraceptive devices
116:
54:
5892:Traditional medicine
5852:Alternative medicine
5719:Addiction psychiatry
5533:Transfusion medicine
5528:Medical microbiology
5443:Gynecologic oncology
5295:Reproductive surgery
4550:Critical rationalism
4257:Edo neo-Confucianism
4101:Acintya bheda abheda
4080:Renaissance humanism
3791:School of the Sextii
3165:Practical philosophy
3160:Political philosophy
2462:The Powerful Placebo
2126:Lee, Keekok (2012).
1954:(5th ed.). 2011
1860:Bishop, Michael A.;
1616:Theoretical Medicine
1247:. Harper Perennial.
834:University of Oxford
747:Theoretical Medicine
584:Kenneth F. Schaffner
361:improve this section
262:Ontology of medicine
160:fertility treatments
16:Branch of philosophy
5914:History of medicine
5897:Veterinary medicine
5704:Preventive medicine
5556:Adolescent medicine
5398:Infectious diseases
4121:Nimbarka Sampradaya
4032:Korean Confucianism
3779:Academic Skepticism
3031:10.1093/bjps/axm024
2734:Social Epistemology
2610:Benedetti, Fabrizio
2504:Miller, Franklin G.
1982:Preventive Medicine
1963:The Free Dictionary
1659:Sadegh-Zadeh, Kazem
1089:10.2307/j.ctvpj7fgp
674:More impactful yet:
276:biological pathways
136:preventive medicine
47:Demarcating therapy
5862:Molecular oncology
5819:Doctor of Medicine
5809:Master of Medicine
5726:Radiation oncology
5598:Emergency medicine
5551:Addiction medicine
5518:Clinical chemistry
5513:Clinical pathology
5305:Transplant surgery
5263:Orthopedic surgery
5241:Colorectal surgery
4742:Post-structuralism
4644:Scientific realism
4599:Quinean naturalism
4579:Logical positivism
4535:Analytical Marxism
3754:Peripatetic school
3666:Chinese naturalism
3193:Aesthetic response
3120:Applied philosophy
2788:10.1093/jmp/jhp034
2530:10.1093/jmp/jhq061
2456:Shapiro, Arthur K.
2271:Gøtzsche, Peter C.
1918:10.1093/jmp/jht044
1837:. "epistemology".
1733:10.1093/jmp/jhq053
1629:10.1007/BF00993984
1491:10.1093/jmp/jht058
760:10.1007/BF00489220
579:Kazem Sadegh-Zadeh
529:Georges Canguilhem
510:, the notion of a
465:psychopharmacology
403:(which dealt with
68:
5980:
5979:
5814:Master of Surgery
5778:
5777:
5763:Tropical medicine
5709:Prison healthcare
5624:Hospital medicine
5588:Disaster medicine
5578:Aviation medicine
5393:Hospital medicine
5300:Surgical oncology
5285:Pediatric surgery
5279:
5226:Endocrine surgery
5151:
5150:
5113:
5112:
5109:
5108:
5105:
5104:
4811:
4810:
4807:
4806:
4803:
4802:
4530:Analytic feminism
4502:
4501:
4464:Kierkegaardianism
4426:Transcendentalism
4386:Neo-scholasticism
4232:Classical Realism
4209:
4208:
3981:
3980:
3796:Neopythagoreanism
3553:
3552:
3549:
3548:
3170:Social philosophy
2888:978-0-19-874704-8
2810:Guyatt, Gordon H.
2627:978-0-19-101516-8
2342:10.1136/bmj.b1568
2205:978-0-300-21880-0
2017:Cartwright, Nancy
1881:978-0-19-516229-5
1595:978-94-010-0780-1
1449:978-0-230-53783-5
1290:978-0-674-04306-0
1254:978-0-06-073490-9
1182:978-0-226-59503-0
1098:978-0-268-08974-0
1048:978-1-4443-4266-6
1003:978-0-444-51787-6
803:Durham University
742:Caplan, Arthur L.
722:Ankeny, Rachel A.
661:laser eye surgery
623:Examples include
599:Edmund Pellegrino
574:Randolph M. Nesse
554:Donald A. Gillies
514:and the use of a
397:
396:
389:
311:Cartesian dualism
221:is the branch of
6010:
5970:
5969:
5960:
5950:
5949:
5940:
5939:
5930:
5929:
5634:Medical genetics
5619:General practice
5496:Nuclear medicine
5371:Gastroenterology
5327:Vascular surgery
5277:
5204:
5203:
5178:
5171:
5164:
5155:
5154:
5140:
5139:
5128:
5127:
5126:
4843:
4842:
4834:
4833:
4817:
4816:
4707:Frankfurt School
4654:Transactionalism
4604:Normative ethics
4584:Legal positivism
4560:Falsificationism
4545:Consequentialism
4540:Communitarianism
4513:
4512:
4381:New Confucianism
4220:
4219:
4027:Neo-Confucianism
3992:
3991:
3801:Second Sophistic
3786:Middle Platonism
3629:
3628:
3570:
3569:
3559:
3558:
3402:Epiphenomenalism
3269:Consequentialism
3203:Institutionalism
3108:
3107:
3097:
3096:
3082:
3075:
3068:
3059:
3058:
3035:
3034:
3024:
2995:
2989:
2988:
2963:(3): S316–S330.
2943:
2937:
2936:
2907:
2901:
2900:
2866:Medical Nihilism
2860:
2854:
2853:
2843:
2806:
2800:
2799:
2765:
2759:
2758:
2724:
2718:
2717:
2707:
2673:
2667:
2666:
2656:
2646:
2640:
2639:
2606:
2600:
2599:
2558:
2552:
2551:
2541:
2500:
2494:
2493:
2465:
2452:
2446:
2445:
2411:
2405:
2404:
2394:
2360:
2354:
2353:
2319:
2313:
2312:
2267:
2261:
2260:
2227:
2218:
2217:
2184:
2178:
2177:
2162:
2156:
2155:
2153:
2152:
2138:
2132:
2131:
2123:
2114:
2113:
2103:
2066:
2060:
2059:
2045:
2025:
2013:
2007:
2006:
1973:
1967:
1966:
1960:
1959:
1945:
1939:
1938:
1920:
1896:
1890:
1889:
1857:
1851:
1850:
1848:
1847:
1827:
1821:
1810:
1804:
1803:
1793:
1783:
1759:
1753:
1752:
1707:
1701:
1700:
1655:
1649:
1648:
1606:
1600:
1599:
1566:
1560:
1559:
1517:
1511:
1510:
1468:
1462:
1461:
1441:
1423:
1414:
1413:
1377:
1369:Sandberg, Anders
1361:
1355:
1354:
1309:
1303:
1302:
1273:
1267:
1266:
1246:
1232:
1226:
1225:
1223:
1222:
1215:Associated Press
1201:
1195:
1194:
1162:
1156:
1155:
1125:
1119:
1118:
1067:
1061:
1060:
1017:
1008:
1007:
980:
974:
973:
971:
965:. Archived from
948:
939:
933:
932:
930:
929:
913:
907:
906:
904:
903:
894:. Archived from
882:
876:
875:
873:
872:
856:
850:
849:
847:
846:
837:. Archived from
825:
819:
818:
816:
815:
806:. Archived from
794:
788:
787:
738:
732:
731:
718:
712:
711:
697:
681:
672:
666:
653:
647:
631:, the perennial
621:
534:Nancy Cartwright
512:blind experiment
461:epiphenomenalism
401:Galenic medicine
392:
385:
381:
378:
372:
341:
333:
6018:
6017:
6013:
6012:
6011:
6009:
6008:
6007:
5983:
5982:
5981:
5976:
5918:
5907:Chief physician
5840:
5785:
5774:
5768:Travel medicine
5753:Sports medicine
5736:Sexual medicine
5676:Palliative care
5671:Pain management
5615:Family medicine
5593:Diving medicine
5539:
5467:
5429:
5422:
5338:
5331:
5290:Plastic surgery
5236:General surgery
5216:Cardiac surgery
5197:
5195:
5187:
5182:
5152:
5147:
5124:
5122:
5101:
5065:
4965:
4927:
4874:
4828:
4827:
4799:
4788:Russian cosmism
4761:
4757:Western Marxism
4722:New Historicism
4687:Critical theory
4673:
4669:Wittgensteinian
4565:Foundationalism
4498:
4435:
4416:Social contract
4272:Foundationalism
4205:
4187:
4171:Illuminationism
4156:Aristotelianism
4142:
4131:Vishishtadvaita
4084:
4036:
3977:
3944:
3815:
3744:Megarian school
3739:Eretrian school
3680:
3641:Agriculturalism
3618:
3564:
3545:
3492:
3464:
3421:
3373:
3330:
3314:Incompatibilism
3283:
3255:
3207:
3179:
3102:
3091:
3086:
3049:article in the
3043:
3038:
3022:10.1.1.120.7314
2996:
2992:
2944:
2940:
2911:Papineau, David
2908:
2904:
2889:
2861:
2857:
2826:(7650): 924–6.
2807:
2803:
2766:
2762:
2725:
2721:
2674:
2670:
2647:
2643:
2628:
2607:
2603:
2559:
2555:
2501:
2497:
2478:
2453:
2449:
2412:
2408:
2361:
2357:
2320:
2316:
2287:(8927): 925–6.
2268:
2264:
2231:Grünbaum, Adolf
2228:
2221:
2206:
2188:Eagleton, Terry
2185:
2181:
2166:Ewen, Elizabeth
2163:
2159:
2150:
2148:
2140:
2139:
2135:
2124:
2117:
2067:
2063:
2023:
2014:
2010:
1974:
1970:
1957:
1955:
1948:"metaphysics".
1947:
1946:
1942:
1897:
1893:
1882:
1858:
1854:
1845:
1843:
1831:Martinich, A.P.
1828:
1824:
1811:
1807:
1760:
1756:
1708:
1704:
1656:
1652:
1607:
1603:
1596:
1567:
1563:
1518:
1514:
1469:
1465:
1450:
1439:
1431:Roache, Rebecca
1424:
1417:
1375:
1362:
1358:
1313:Daniels, Norman
1310:
1306:
1291:
1277:Sandel, Michael
1274:
1270:
1255:
1244:
1233:
1229:
1220:
1218:
1203:
1202:
1198:
1183:
1163:
1159:
1126:
1122:
1099:
1068:
1064:
1049:
1018:
1011:
1004:
981:
977:
969:
946:
940:
936:
927:
925:
915:
914:
910:
901:
899:
891:Oxford Journals
884:
883:
879:
870:
868:
858:
857:
853:
844:
842:
827:
826:
822:
813:
811:
796:
795:
791:
739:
735:
719:
715:
698:
694:
690:
685:
684:
673:
669:
654:
650:
633:bioconservative
622:
618:
613:
608:
564:Hilde Lindemann
524:
516:placebo control
478:
473:
437:
393:
382:
376:
373:
358:
342:
331:
319:
313:
284:
264:
216:
200:
152:plastic surgery
148:sports medicine
140:palliative care
82:
49:
23:is a branch of
17:
12:
11:
5:
6016:
6006:
6005:
6000:
5998:Medical ethics
5995:
5978:
5977:
5975:
5974:
5964:
5954:
5944:
5934:
5923:
5920:
5919:
5917:
5916:
5911:
5910:
5909:
5899:
5894:
5889:
5884:
5879:
5874:
5869:
5864:
5859:
5854:
5848:
5846:
5845:Related topics
5842:
5841:
5839:
5838:
5837:
5836:
5826:
5821:
5816:
5811:
5806:
5801:
5796:
5794:Medical school
5790:
5788:
5780:
5779:
5776:
5775:
5773:
5772:
5771:
5770:
5760:
5755:
5750:
5748:Sleep medicine
5745:
5744:
5743:
5733:
5728:
5723:
5722:
5721:
5711:
5706:
5701:
5695:
5690:
5689:
5688:
5678:
5673:
5668:
5663:
5658:
5653:
5652:
5651:
5641:
5636:
5631:
5626:
5621:
5612:
5607:
5606:
5605:
5595:
5590:
5585:
5580:
5575:
5574:
5573:
5568:
5561:Anesthesiology
5558:
5553:
5547:
5545:
5541:
5540:
5538:
5537:
5536:
5535:
5530:
5525:
5520:
5515:
5510:
5500:
5499:
5498:
5493:
5491:Neuroradiology
5488:
5477:
5475:
5469:
5468:
5466:
5465:
5460:
5455:
5450:
5445:
5440:
5434:
5432:
5428:Obstetrics and
5424:
5423:
5421:
5420:
5415:
5410:
5405:
5400:
5395:
5390:
5385:
5380:
5379:
5378:
5368:
5363:
5358:
5353:
5343:
5341:
5333:
5332:
5330:
5329:
5324:
5323:
5322:
5312:
5310:Trauma surgery
5307:
5302:
5297:
5292:
5287:
5282:
5281:
5280:
5273:Otolaryngology
5270:
5265:
5260:
5255:
5250:
5249:
5248:
5243:
5233:
5228:
5223:
5218:
5212:
5210:
5201:
5199:subspecialties
5189:
5188:
5181:
5180:
5173:
5166:
5158:
5149:
5148:
5146:
5145:
5133:
5118:
5115:
5114:
5111:
5110:
5107:
5106:
5103:
5102:
5100:
5099:
5094:
5089:
5084:
5079:
5073:
5071:
5067:
5066:
5064:
5063:
5058:
5053:
5048:
5043:
5038:
5033:
5028:
5023:
5018:
5013:
5008:
5003:
4998:
4997:
4996:
4986:
4981:
4975:
4973:
4967:
4966:
4964:
4963:
4958:
4953:
4948:
4943:
4937:
4935:
4933:Middle Eastern
4929:
4928:
4926:
4925:
4920:
4915:
4910:
4905:
4900:
4895:
4890:
4884:
4882:
4876:
4875:
4873:
4872:
4867:
4862:
4857:
4851:
4849:
4840:
4830:
4829:
4826:
4825:
4821:
4813:
4812:
4809:
4808:
4805:
4804:
4801:
4800:
4798:
4797:
4790:
4785:
4780:
4775:
4769:
4767:
4763:
4762:
4760:
4759:
4754:
4749:
4744:
4739:
4734:
4729:
4724:
4719:
4714:
4709:
4704:
4699:
4697:Existentialism
4694:
4692:Deconstruction
4689:
4683:
4681:
4675:
4674:
4672:
4671:
4666:
4661:
4656:
4651:
4646:
4641:
4636:
4631:
4626:
4621:
4616:
4611:
4606:
4601:
4596:
4591:
4586:
4581:
4576:
4571:
4562:
4557:
4552:
4547:
4542:
4537:
4532:
4527:
4525:Applied ethics
4521:
4519:
4510:
4504:
4503:
4500:
4499:
4497:
4496:
4491:
4489:Nietzscheanism
4486:
4481:
4476:
4471:
4466:
4461:
4460:
4459:
4449:
4443:
4441:
4437:
4436:
4434:
4433:
4431:Utilitarianism
4428:
4423:
4418:
4413:
4408:
4403:
4398:
4393:
4388:
4383:
4378:
4373:
4368:
4363:
4358:
4353:
4348:
4343:
4338:
4333:
4332:
4331:
4329:Transcendental
4326:
4321:
4316:
4311:
4306:
4296:
4295:
4294:
4284:
4279:
4274:
4269:
4267:Existentialism
4264:
4259:
4254:
4249:
4244:
4239:
4234:
4229:
4223:
4217:
4211:
4210:
4207:
4206:
4204:
4203:
4197:
4195:
4189:
4188:
4186:
4185:
4180:
4173:
4168:
4163:
4158:
4152:
4150:
4144:
4143:
4141:
4140:
4135:
4134:
4133:
4128:
4123:
4118:
4113:
4108:
4103:
4092:
4090:
4086:
4085:
4083:
4082:
4077:
4072:
4067:
4062:
4057:
4055:Augustinianism
4052:
4046:
4044:
4038:
4037:
4035:
4034:
4029:
4024:
4019:
4014:
4009:
4004:
3998:
3996:
3989:
3983:
3982:
3979:
3978:
3976:
3975:
3970:
3968:Zoroastrianism
3965:
3960:
3954:
3952:
3946:
3945:
3943:
3942:
3941:
3940:
3935:
3930:
3925:
3920:
3915:
3910:
3905:
3900:
3890:
3889:
3888:
3883:
3873:
3872:
3871:
3866:
3861:
3856:
3851:
3846:
3841:
3836:
3825:
3823:
3817:
3816:
3814:
3813:
3811:Church Fathers
3808:
3803:
3798:
3793:
3788:
3783:
3782:
3781:
3776:
3771:
3766:
3756:
3751:
3746:
3741:
3736:
3731:
3726:
3725:
3724:
3719:
3714:
3709:
3704:
3693:
3691:
3682:
3681:
3679:
3678:
3673:
3668:
3663:
3658:
3653:
3648:
3643:
3637:
3635:
3626:
3620:
3619:
3617:
3616:
3615:
3614:
3609:
3604:
3599:
3594:
3584:
3578:
3576:
3566:
3565:
3555:
3554:
3551:
3550:
3547:
3546:
3544:
3543:
3538:
3533:
3528:
3523:
3518:
3513:
3508:
3502:
3500:
3494:
3493:
3491:
3490:
3485:
3480:
3474:
3472:
3466:
3465:
3463:
3462:
3457:
3452:
3447:
3442:
3437:
3431:
3429:
3423:
3422:
3420:
3419:
3414:
3409:
3404:
3399:
3394:
3389:
3383:
3381:
3375:
3374:
3372:
3371:
3366:
3361:
3356:
3351:
3346:
3340:
3338:
3332:
3331:
3329:
3328:
3326:Libertarianism
3323:
3322:
3321:
3311:
3310:
3309:
3299:
3293:
3291:
3285:
3284:
3282:
3281:
3276:
3271:
3265:
3263:
3257:
3256:
3254:
3253:
3248:
3243:
3238:
3233:
3228:
3223:
3217:
3215:
3209:
3208:
3206:
3205:
3200:
3195:
3189:
3187:
3181:
3180:
3178:
3177:
3172:
3167:
3162:
3157:
3152:
3147:
3142:
3137:
3132:
3130:Metaphilosophy
3127:
3122:
3116:
3114:
3104:
3103:
3093:
3092:
3085:
3084:
3077:
3070:
3062:
3056:
3055:
3042:
3041:External links
3039:
3037:
3036:
3015:(3): 451–488.
2990:
2969:10.1086/341855
2938:
2927:(2): 437–450.
2902:
2887:
2855:
2801:
2782:(5): 509–527.
2760:
2741:(4): 353–379.
2719:
2690:(1): 112–152.
2668:
2641:
2626:
2601:
2562:Howick, Jeremy
2553:
2495:
2476:
2447:
2434:10.1086/683817
2428:(5): 1330–43.
2406:
2377:(3): 419–432.
2355:
2314:
2273:(1994-10-01).
2262:
2243:(2): 157–167.
2219:
2204:
2179:
2157:
2133:
2115:
2086:(5): 295–300.
2061:
2008:
1989:(4–5): 235–8.
1968:
1940:
1911:(5): 461–486.
1891:
1880:
1852:
1822:
1805:
1768:BMC Med Ethics
1754:
1727:(6): 641–655.
1713:(2010-12-01).
1702:
1675:(5): 605–638.
1661:(2000-10-01).
1650:
1601:
1594:
1561:
1534:(3): 347–354.
1512:
1463:
1448:
1415:
1356:
1329:(3): 309–322.
1304:
1289:
1268:
1253:
1227:
1196:
1181:
1157:
1138:(5): 437–440.
1120:
1097:
1062:
1047:
1023:(2011-02-23).
1021:Howick, Jeremy
1009:
1002:
994:Science Direct
986:(2011-02-23).
984:Gabbay, Dov M.
975:
972:on 2015-04-03.
934:
908:
877:
851:
820:
789:
733:
713:
691:
689:
686:
683:
682:
667:
648:
644:Michael Sandel
625:George W. Bush
615:
614:
612:
609:
607:
606:
601:
596:
594:David Papineau
591:
589:Miriam Solomon
586:
581:
576:
571:
566:
561:
556:
551:
546:
541:
536:
531:
525:
523:
520:
504:clinical trial
477:
474:
472:
469:
436:
433:
395:
394:
345:
343:
336:
330:
327:
322:René Descartes
315:Main article:
312:
309:
297:disease course
283:
280:
272:modern science
263:
260:
215:
212:
199:
196:
56:Leg prostheses
48:
45:
37:medical ethics
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6015:
6004:
6001:
5999:
5996:
5994:
5991:
5990:
5988:
5973:
5965:
5963:
5959:
5955:
5953:
5945:
5943:
5935:
5933:
5925:
5924:
5921:
5915:
5912:
5908:
5905:
5904:
5903:
5900:
5898:
5895:
5893:
5890:
5888:
5885:
5883:
5880:
5878:
5877:Public health
5875:
5873:
5870:
5868:
5865:
5863:
5860:
5858:
5857:Allied health
5855:
5853:
5850:
5849:
5847:
5843:
5835:
5832:
5831:
5830:
5827:
5825:
5822:
5820:
5817:
5815:
5812:
5810:
5807:
5805:
5802:
5800:
5797:
5795:
5792:
5791:
5789:
5787:
5781:
5769:
5766:
5765:
5764:
5761:
5759:
5756:
5754:
5751:
5749:
5746:
5742:
5739:
5738:
5737:
5734:
5732:
5729:
5727:
5724:
5720:
5717:
5716:
5715:
5712:
5710:
5707:
5705:
5702:
5699:
5696:
5694:
5691:
5687:
5684:
5683:
5682:
5679:
5677:
5674:
5672:
5669:
5667:
5666:Oral medicine
5664:
5662:
5661:Ophthalmology
5659:
5657:
5654:
5650:
5647:
5646:
5645:
5642:
5640:
5637:
5635:
5632:
5630:
5627:
5625:
5622:
5620:
5616:
5613:
5611:
5608:
5604:
5601:
5600:
5599:
5596:
5594:
5591:
5589:
5586:
5584:
5581:
5579:
5576:
5572:
5569:
5567:
5564:
5563:
5562:
5559:
5557:
5554:
5552:
5549:
5548:
5546:
5542:
5534:
5531:
5529:
5526:
5524:
5523:Cytopathology
5521:
5519:
5516:
5514:
5511:
5509:
5506:
5505:
5504:
5501:
5497:
5494:
5492:
5489:
5487:
5484:
5483:
5482:
5479:
5478:
5476:
5474:
5470:
5464:
5463:Urogynecology
5461:
5459:
5456:
5454:
5451:
5449:
5446:
5444:
5441:
5439:
5436:
5435:
5433:
5431:
5425:
5419:
5416:
5414:
5411:
5409:
5406:
5404:
5401:
5399:
5396:
5394:
5391:
5389:
5386:
5384:
5381:
5377:
5374:
5373:
5372:
5369:
5367:
5366:Endocrinology
5364:
5362:
5359:
5357:
5354:
5352:
5348:
5345:
5344:
5342:
5340:
5334:
5328:
5325:
5321:
5318:
5317:
5316:
5313:
5311:
5308:
5306:
5303:
5301:
5298:
5296:
5293:
5291:
5288:
5286:
5283:
5276:
5275:
5274:
5271:
5269:
5266:
5264:
5261:
5259:
5256:
5254:
5251:
5247:
5244:
5242:
5239:
5238:
5237:
5234:
5232:
5229:
5227:
5224:
5222:
5219:
5217:
5214:
5213:
5211:
5209:
5205:
5202:
5200:
5194:
5190:
5186:
5179:
5174:
5172:
5167:
5165:
5160:
5159:
5156:
5144:
5143:
5134:
5132:
5131:
5120:
5119:
5116:
5098:
5095:
5093:
5090:
5088:
5085:
5083:
5080:
5078:
5075:
5074:
5072:
5070:Miscellaneous
5068:
5062:
5059:
5057:
5054:
5052:
5049:
5047:
5044:
5042:
5039:
5037:
5034:
5032:
5029:
5027:
5024:
5022:
5019:
5017:
5014:
5012:
5009:
5007:
5004:
5002:
4999:
4995:
4992:
4991:
4990:
4987:
4985:
4982:
4980:
4977:
4976:
4974:
4972:
4968:
4962:
4959:
4957:
4954:
4952:
4949:
4947:
4944:
4942:
4939:
4938:
4936:
4934:
4930:
4924:
4921:
4919:
4916:
4914:
4911:
4909:
4906:
4904:
4901:
4899:
4896:
4894:
4891:
4889:
4886:
4885:
4883:
4881:
4877:
4871:
4868:
4866:
4863:
4861:
4858:
4856:
4853:
4852:
4850:
4848:
4844:
4841:
4839:
4835:
4831:
4823:
4822:
4818:
4814:
4796:
4795:
4791:
4789:
4786:
4784:
4781:
4779:
4776:
4774:
4771:
4770:
4768:
4766:Miscellaneous
4764:
4758:
4755:
4753:
4752:Structuralism
4750:
4748:
4745:
4743:
4740:
4738:
4737:Postmodernism
4735:
4733:
4730:
4728:
4727:Phenomenology
4725:
4723:
4720:
4718:
4715:
4713:
4710:
4708:
4705:
4703:
4700:
4698:
4695:
4693:
4690:
4688:
4685:
4684:
4682:
4680:
4676:
4670:
4667:
4665:
4664:Vienna Circle
4662:
4660:
4657:
4655:
4652:
4650:
4647:
4645:
4642:
4640:
4637:
4635:
4632:
4630:
4627:
4625:
4622:
4620:
4617:
4615:
4612:
4610:
4607:
4605:
4602:
4600:
4597:
4595:
4594:Moral realism
4592:
4590:
4587:
4585:
4582:
4580:
4577:
4575:
4572:
4570:
4566:
4563:
4561:
4558:
4556:
4553:
4551:
4548:
4546:
4543:
4541:
4538:
4536:
4533:
4531:
4528:
4526:
4523:
4522:
4520:
4518:
4514:
4511:
4509:
4505:
4495:
4492:
4490:
4487:
4485:
4482:
4480:
4477:
4475:
4472:
4470:
4467:
4465:
4462:
4458:
4455:
4454:
4453:
4450:
4448:
4445:
4444:
4442:
4438:
4432:
4429:
4427:
4424:
4422:
4419:
4417:
4414:
4412:
4409:
4407:
4404:
4402:
4399:
4397:
4396:Phenomenology
4394:
4392:
4389:
4387:
4384:
4382:
4379:
4377:
4374:
4372:
4369:
4367:
4364:
4362:
4359:
4357:
4354:
4352:
4349:
4347:
4344:
4342:
4339:
4337:
4336:Individualism
4334:
4330:
4327:
4325:
4322:
4320:
4317:
4315:
4312:
4310:
4307:
4305:
4302:
4301:
4300:
4297:
4293:
4290:
4289:
4288:
4285:
4283:
4280:
4278:
4275:
4273:
4270:
4268:
4265:
4263:
4260:
4258:
4255:
4253:
4250:
4248:
4245:
4243:
4240:
4238:
4235:
4233:
4230:
4228:
4225:
4224:
4221:
4218:
4216:
4212:
4202:
4201:Judeo-Islamic
4199:
4198:
4196:
4194:
4190:
4184:
4181:
4179:
4178:
4177:ʿIlm al-Kalām
4174:
4172:
4169:
4167:
4164:
4162:
4159:
4157:
4154:
4153:
4151:
4149:
4145:
4139:
4136:
4132:
4129:
4127:
4126:Shuddhadvaita
4124:
4122:
4119:
4117:
4114:
4112:
4109:
4107:
4104:
4102:
4099:
4098:
4097:
4094:
4093:
4091:
4087:
4081:
4078:
4076:
4073:
4071:
4068:
4066:
4063:
4061:
4060:Scholasticism
4058:
4056:
4053:
4051:
4048:
4047:
4045:
4043:
4039:
4033:
4030:
4028:
4025:
4023:
4020:
4018:
4015:
4013:
4010:
4008:
4005:
4003:
4000:
3999:
3997:
3993:
3990:
3988:
3984:
3974:
3971:
3969:
3966:
3964:
3961:
3959:
3956:
3955:
3953:
3951:
3947:
3939:
3936:
3934:
3931:
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3527:
3524:
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3519:
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3514:
3512:
3511:Conceptualism
3509:
3507:
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3503:
3501:
3499:
3495:
3489:
3486:
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3481:
3479:
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3461:
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3456:
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3451:
3448:
3446:
3443:
3441:
3440:Particularism
3438:
3436:
3433:
3432:
3430:
3428:
3424:
3418:
3415:
3413:
3410:
3408:
3407:Functionalism
3405:
3403:
3400:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3392:Eliminativism
3390:
3388:
3385:
3384:
3382:
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3376:
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3333:
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3320:
3317:
3316:
3315:
3312:
3308:
3305:
3304:
3303:
3300:
3298:
3297:Compatibilism
3295:
3294:
3292:
3290:
3286:
3280:
3277:
3275:
3272:
3270:
3267:
3266:
3264:
3262:
3258:
3252:
3249:
3247:
3244:
3242:
3239:
3237:
3236:Particularism
3234:
3232:
3229:
3227:
3224:
3222:
3219:
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3214:
3210:
3204:
3201:
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3141:
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3128:
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3118:
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3115:
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3109:
3105:
3098:
3094:
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3083:
3078:
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3064:
3063:
3060:
3054:
3053:
3048:
3045:
3044:
3032:
3028:
3023:
3018:
3014:
3010:
3009:
3004:
3000:
2999:Worrall, John
2994:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2970:
2966:
2962:
2958:
2957:
2952:
2948:
2947:Worrall, John
2942:
2934:
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2922:
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2916:
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2898:
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2890:
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2597:
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2557:
2549:
2545:
2540:
2535:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2518:
2513:
2509:
2508:Brody, Howard
2505:
2499:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2477:1-4214-0134-7
2473:
2469:
2464:
2463:
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2427:
2423:
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2246:
2242:
2238:
2237:
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2226:
2224:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2201:
2197:
2194:. New Haven:
2193:
2189:
2183:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2161:
2147:
2143:
2137:
2129:
2122:
2120:
2111:
2107:
2102:
2097:
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2071:
2065:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2044:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2030:
2022:
2018:
2012:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1983:
1978:
1977:Worrall, John
1972:
1964:
1953:
1952:
1944:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1919:
1914:
1910:
1906:
1902:
1895:
1887:
1883:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1868:
1863:
1856:
1842:
1841:
1836:
1835:Stroll, Avrum
1832:
1826:
1819:
1815:
1809:
1801:
1797:
1792:
1787:
1782:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1758:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1721:
1716:
1712:
1711:Bess, Michael
1706:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1669:
1664:
1660:
1654:
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1622:
1618:
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1612:
1605:
1597:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1570:Worrall, John
1565:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1528:
1523:
1516:
1508:
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1496:
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1484:
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1479:
1474:
1467:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1445:
1438:
1437:
1432:
1428:
1427:Bostrom, Nick
1422:
1420:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1382:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1365:Bostrom, Nick
1360:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1323:
1318:
1315:(July 2000).
1314:
1308:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1272:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1250:
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1242:
1237:
1231:
1216:
1212:
1211:
1206:
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1192:
1188:
1184:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1169:
1161:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1132:
1124:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1077:
1072:
1066:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1044:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1027:
1022:
1016:
1014:
1005:
999:
995:
991:
990:
985:
979:
968:
964:
960:
956:
952:
945:
938:
924:
923:
918:
912:
898:on 2008-05-09
897:
893:
892:
887:
881:
867:
866:
861:
855:
841:on 2012-09-05
840:
836:
835:
830:
824:
810:on 2012-01-20
809:
805:
804:
799:
793:
785:
781:
777:
773:
769:
765:
761:
757:
753:
749:
748:
743:
737:
729:
728:
723:
717:
709:
705:
704:
696:
692:
679:
671:
664:
662:
652:
645:
641:
640:communitarian
637:
634:
630:
626:
620:
616:
605:
602:
600:
597:
595:
592:
590:
587:
585:
582:
580:
577:
575:
572:
570:
567:
565:
562:
560:
559:Jeremy Howick
557:
555:
552:
550:
547:
545:
542:
540:
537:
535:
532:
530:
527:
526:
519:
517:
513:
509:
508:randomisation
505:
500:
497:
496:Jeremy Howick
493:
488:
486:
482:
468:
466:
462:
458:
452:
448:
444:
441:
432:
429:
424:
422:
418:
414:
410:
406:
402:
391:
388:
380:
377:February 2015
370:
366:
362:
356:
355:
351:
346:This section
344:
340:
335:
334:
326:
323:
318:
308:
306:
302:
298:
294:
290:
279:
277:
273:
269:
259:
256:
252:
248:
244:
240:
236:
232:
228:
224:
220:
211:
209:
204:
195:
193:
192:transhumanist
188:
183:
180:
176:
171:
169:
165:
161:
157:
153:
149:
145:
141:
137:
133:
127:
125:
121:
115:
113:
109:
105:
104:
99:
98:
93:
92:
87:
81:
77:
73:
66:counterparts.
65:
61:
57:
53:
44:
42:
38:
34:
30:
26:
22:
5882:Rural health
5867:Nanomedicine
5418:Rheumatology
5349: /
5268:Hand surgery
5253:Neurosurgery
5135:
5121:
4792:
4783:Postcritique
4773:Kyoto School
4732:Posthumanism
4712:Hermeneutics
4567: /
4508:Contemporary
4484:Newtonianism
4447:Cartesianism
4406:Reductionism
4242:Conservatism
4237:Collectivism
4175:
3903:Sarvāstivadā
3881:Anekantavada
3806:Neoplatonism
3774:Epicureanism
3707:Pythagoreans
3646:Confucianism
3612:Contemporary
3602:Early modern
3506:Anti-realism
3460:Universalism
3417:Subjectivism
3213:Epistemology
3050:
3012:
3006:
2993:
2960:
2954:
2941:
2924:
2918:
2905:
2865:
2858:
2823:
2817:
2804:
2779:
2773:
2763:
2738:
2732:
2722:
2687:
2681:
2671:
2661:– via
2652:
2644:
2613:
2604:
2574:(9): 34–48.
2571:
2565:
2556:
2524:(1): 69–78.
2521:
2515:
2498:
2488:– via
2461:
2450:
2425:
2419:
2409:
2374:
2368:
2358:
2333:
2327:
2317:
2284:
2278:
2265:
2240:
2234:
2191:
2182:
2173:
2170:Ewen, Stuart
2160:
2149:. Retrieved
2145:
2136:
2127:
2083:
2077:
2064:
2056:eScholarship
2054:– via
2036:(1): 59–70.
2033:
2027:
2011:
1986:
1980:
1971:
1961:– via
1956:. Retrieved
1950:
1943:
1908:
1904:
1894:
1886:Google Books
1884:– via
1866:
1862:Trout, J. D.
1855:
1844:. Retrieved
1839:
1825:
1817:
1808:
1771:
1767:
1757:
1724:
1718:
1705:
1672:
1666:
1653:
1620:
1614:
1604:
1577:
1564:
1531:
1525:
1515:
1482:
1476:
1466:
1435:
1385:
1379:
1359:
1326:
1320:
1307:
1280:
1271:
1240:
1230:
1219:. Retrieved
1217:. 2012-08-28
1208:
1199:
1167:
1160:
1135:
1129:
1123:
1075:
1065:
1025:
988:
978:
967:the original
957:(7): 823–7.
954:
950:
937:
926:. Retrieved
922:SpringerLink
920:
911:
900:. Retrieved
896:the original
889:
880:
869:. Retrieved
865:SpringerLink
863:
854:
843:. Retrieved
839:the original
832:
823:
812:. Retrieved
808:the original
801:
792:
754:(1): 67–77.
751:
745:
736:
726:
716:
706:– via
702:
695:
676:
670:
657:
651:
642:philosopher
619:
604:John Worrall
569:David Magnus
544:Fred Gifford
501:
489:
479:
453:
449:
445:
438:
428:reductionist
425:
421:epidemiology
398:
383:
374:
359:Please help
347:
320:
304:
300:
296:
292:
288:
285:
265:
217:
203:Epistemology
201:
198:Epistemology
186:
184:
172:
131:
129:
123:
119:
117:
102:
101:
96:
95:
90:
89:
83:
80:New eugenics
29:epistemology
20:
18:
5952:Wikiproject
5741:Venereology
5686:Neonatology
5583:Dermatology
5438:Gynaecology
5430:gynaecology
5413:Pulmonology
5231:Eye surgery
5193:Specialties
4778:Objectivism
4717:Neo-Marxism
4679:Continental
4589:Meta-ethics
4569:Coherentism
4474:Hegelianism
4411:Rationalism
4371:Natural law
4351:Materialism
4277:Historicism
4247:Determinism
4138:Navya-Nyāya
3913:Sautrāntika
3908:Pudgalavada
3844:Vaisheshika
3697:Presocratic
3597:Renaissance
3536:Physicalism
3521:Materialism
3427:Normativity
3412:Objectivism
3397:Emergentism
3387:Behaviorism
3336:Metaphysics
3302:Determinism
3241:Rationalism
2663:Archive.org
2490:Archive.org
2192:Materialism
1623:(1): 1–14.
1107:j.ctvpj7fgp
457:materialism
409:mechanistic
219:Metaphysics
214:Metaphysics
194:discourse.
168:ostensively
124:enhancement
120:therapeutic
33:metaphysics
5987:Categories
5714:Psychiatry
5700:(PM&R)
5693:Phlebology
5681:Pediatrics
5508:Anatomical
5473:Diagnostic
5453:Obstetrics
5403:Nephrology
5388:Hematology
5383:Geriatrics
5376:Hepatology
5361:Cardiology
5351:Immunology
5077:Amerindian
4984:Australian
4923:Vietnamese
4903:Indonesian
4452:Kantianism
4401:Positivism
4391:Pragmatism
4366:Naturalism
4346:Liberalism
4324:Subjective
4262:Empiricism
4166:Avicennism
4111:Bhedabheda
3995:East Asian
3918:Madhyamaka
3898:Abhidharma
3764:Pyrrhonism
3531:Nominalism
3526:Naturalism
3455:Skepticism
3445:Relativism
3435:Absolutism
3364:Naturalism
3274:Deontology
3246:Skepticism
3231:Naturalism
3221:Empiricism
3185:Aesthetics
3089:Philosophy
2897:1028894449
2636:1030228476
2280:The Lancet
2151:2024-07-21
1958:2019-05-01
1846:2019-05-01
1820:, abstract
1458:1408785912
1388:(3): 312.
1299:1041148369
1263:1091186133
1236:Kass, Leon
1221:2024-07-21
1191:1028894449
1115:1120125536
928:2024-07-21
902:2024-07-21
871:2024-07-21
845:2024-07-21
814:2024-07-21
708:PhilPapers
688:References
549:Havi Carel
223:philosophy
144:obstetrics
70:See also:
60:Paralympic
25:philosophy
5902:Physician
5786:education
5644:Neurology
5639:Narcology
5503:Pathology
5481:Radiology
5356:Angiology
5320:Andrology
4956:Pakistani
4918:Taiwanese
4865:Ethiopian
4838:By region
4824:By region
4639:Scientism
4634:Systemics
4494:Spinozism
4421:Socialism
4356:Modernism
4319:Objective
4227:Anarchism
4161:Averroism
4050:Christian
4002:Neotaoism
3973:Zurvanism
3963:Mithraism
3958:Mazdakism
3729:Cyrenaics
3656:Logicians
3289:Free will
3251:Solipsism
3198:Formalism
3017:CiteSeerX
2755:219693849
2486:605056625
2442:123784995
2336:: b1568.
2214:967270750
1927:0360-5310
1774:(1): 56.
1741:0360-5310
1689:0360-5310
1637:0167-9902
1548:0963-1801
1499:0360-5310
1485:(1): 43.
1402:1353-3452
1343:0963-1801
1152:141742194
1057:716208689
963:2309-4893
768:0167-9902
636:Leon Kass
348:does not
301:diagnosis
247:causality
239:attribute
235:substance
182:relative.
41:bioethics
5932:Category
5408:Oncology
5339:medicine
5337:Internal
5185:Medicine
5142:Category
5097:Yugoslav
5087:Romanian
4994:Scottish
4979:American
4908:Japanese
4888:Buddhist
4870:Africana
4860:Egyptian
4702:Feminist
4624:Rawlsian
4619:Quietism
4517:Analytic
4469:Krausism
4376:Nihilism
4341:Kokugaku
4304:Absolute
4299:Idealism
4287:Humanism
4075:Occamism
4042:European
3987:Medieval
3933:Yogacara
3893:Buddhist
3886:Syādvāda
3769:Stoicism
3734:Cynicism
3722:Sophists
3717:Atomists
3712:Eleatics
3651:Legalism
3592:Medieval
3516:Idealism
3470:Ontology
3450:Nihilism
3354:Idealism
3112:Branches
3101:Branches
3001:(2007).
2985:55078796
2949:(2002).
2913:(1994).
2850:18436948
2796:19690324
2714:19107582
2612:(2009).
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