1216:
20:
383:
202:
1021:
The coating releases electrons much more readily than the underlying metal, allowing it to detect the low-energy photons in infrared radiation. The lens transmits the radiation from the object being viewed to a layer of coated glass. The photons strike the metal surface and transfer electrons to its
977:
Photocathodes divide into two broad groups; transmission and reflective. A transmission type is typically a coating upon a glass window in which the light strikes one surface and electrons exit from the opposite surface. A reflective type is typically formed on an opaque metal electrode base, where
905:
Many photocathodes require excellent vacuum conditions to function and will become "poisoned" when exposed to contaminates. Additionally, using the photocathodes in high current applications will slowly damage the compounds as they are exposed to ion back-bombardment. These effects are quantified
91:
is a unitless number that measures the sensitivity of the photocathode to light. It is the ratio of the number of electrons emitted to the number of incident photons. This property depends on the wavelength of light being used to illuminate the photocathode. For many applications, QE is the most
811:
An equivalent definition of MTE is the temperature of electrons emitted in vacuum. The MTE of electrons emitted from commonly used photocathodes, such as polycrystalline metals, is limited by the excess energy (the difference between the energy of the incident photons and the photocathode's work
1384:
Yamamoto, N., Yamamoto, M., Kuwahara, M., Sakai, R., Morino, T., Tamagaki, K., Mano, A., Utsu, A., Okumi, S., Nakanishi, T., Kuriki, M., Bo, C., Ujihara, T., & Takeda, Y. (2007). Thermal emittance measurements for electron beams produced from bulk and superlattice negative electron affinity
892:
Due to conservation of transverse momentum and energy in the photoemission process, the MTE of a clean, atomically-ordered, single crystalline photocathode is determined by the material's band structure. An ideal band structure for low MTEs is one that does not allow photoemission from large
1170:
facilities where polarized electrons are required. One of the important property of GaAs photocathode is, it can achieve
Negative Electron Affinity due to Cs deposition on the surface. However GaAs is very delicate and loses Quantum Efficiency(QE) due to couple of damage mechanism. Ion Back
812:
function) provided to the electrons. To limit MTE, photocathodes are often operated near the photoemission threshold, where the excess energy tends to zero. In this limit, the majority of photoemission comes from the tail of the Fermi distribution. Therefore, MTE is thermally limited to
914:
For many years the photocathode was the only practical method for converting light to an electron current. As such it tends to function as a form of 'electric film' and shared many characteristics of photography. It was therefore the key element in opto-electronic devices, such as
738:
896:
Outside of accelerator physics, MTE and thermal emittance play a role in the resolution of proximity-focused imaging devices that use photocathodes. This is important for applications such as image intensifiers, wavelength converters, and the now obsolete image tubes.
978:
the light enters and the electrons exit from the same side. A variation is the double reflection type, where the metal base is mirror-like, causing light that passed through the photocathode without causing emission to be bounced back for a second try. This mimics the
985:
The effectiveness of a photocathode is commonly expressed as quantum efficiency, that being the ratio of emitted electrons vs. impinging quanta (of light). The efficiency varies with construction as well, as it can be improved with a stronger electric field.
378:{\displaystyle {\text{QE}}={\frac {N_{\text{electron}}}{N_{\text{photon}}}}={\frac {I\cdot E_{\text{photon}}}{P_{\text{laser}}\cdot e}}\approx {\frac {{\overset {}{I}}\cdot 1240}{{\underset {}{P_{\text{laser}}}}\cdot {\underset {}{\lambda _{\text{laser}}}}}}}
742:
Because of the scaling of transverse emittance with MTE, it is sometimes useful to write the equation in terms of a new quantity called the thermal emittance. The thermal emittance is derived from MTE using the following equation.
1421:
Siddharth
Karkare, S., Adhikari, G., Schroeder, W. A., Nangoi, J. K., Arias, T., Maxson, J., and Padmore, H. (2020). “Ultracold Electrons via Near-Threshold Photoemission from Single-Crystal Cu(100)." Phys. Rev. Lett. 125, 054801.
804:
582:
628:
396:(MTE) and thermal emittance are popular metrics for this. The MTE is the variance of the transverse momentum in a direction along the photocathode's surface and is most commonly reported in units of milli-electron volts.
965:
is broadly applied in today's manufacturing of photocathode. By using a substrate with matched lattice parameters, crystalline photocathodes can be made and electron beams can come out from the same position in lattice's
463:
1359:
Bazarov, I. V., Dunham, B. M., Li, Y., Liu, X., Ouzounov, D. G., Sinclair, C. K., Hannon, F., & Miyajima, T. (2008). Thermal emittance and response time measurements of negative electron affinity photocathodes.
906:
by the lifetime of the photocathode. Cathode death is modeled as a decaying exponential as a function of either time or emitted charge. Lifetime is then the time constant of the exponential.
1201:
and UV rays but not to visible light and are therefore referred to as solar blind. Cs-Te is insensitive to wavelengths longer than 320 nm, and Cs-I to those longer than 200 nm.
1035:. This was the first compound photocathode material, developed in 1929. Sensitivity from 300 nm to 1200 nm. Since Ag-O-Cs has a higher dark current than more modern materials,
957:
technology. Since most cathodes are sensitive to air the construction of photocathodes typically occurs after the enclosure has been evacuated. In operation the photocathode requires an
1155:
applications. The long wavelength response can be extended to 930 nm by a special photocathode activation processing. With the broadened response, this is sometimes referred to as
195:
168:
141:
489:
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748:
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Although a plain metallic cathode will exhibit photoelectric properties, the specialized coating greatly increases the effect. A photocathode usually consists of
401:
1584:
Pierce, D. T.; Celotta, R. J.; Wang, G.-C.; Unertl, W. N.; Galejs, A.; Kuyatt, C. E.; Mielczarek, S. R. (April 1980). "The GaAs spin polarized electron source".
887:
114:
1120:
since it can withstand temperatures up to 175 °C. At room temperatures, this photocathode operates with very low dark current, making it ideal for use in
1166:). This photocathode material covers a wider spectral response range than multialkali, from ultraviolet to 930 nm. GaAs photocathodes are also used in
1178:). Extended sensitivity in the infrared range compared to GaAs. Moreover, in the range between 900 nm and 1000 nm, InGaAs has a much better
808:
It is most often expressed in the ratio um/mm to express the growth of emittance in units of um as the laser spot grows (measured in units of mm).
23:
Cs-K-Sb photocathode centered on a
Molybdenum plug (a) after growth in the preparation chamber and (b) after transfer into the photoinjector
1147:. The multialkali photocathode has a wide spectral response from the ultraviolet to near infrared region. It is widely used for broad-band
733:{\displaystyle {\overset {}{\varepsilon }}\approx {\overset {}{\sigma _{x}}}{\sqrt {\frac {\overset {}{\text{MTE}}}{511\times 10^{6}}}}}
1335:
Bradley, D. J., Allenson, M. B., & Holeman, B. R. (1977). The transverse energy of electrons emitted from GaAs photocathodes.
1471:
Nuclear
Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment
1675:
Grames, J.; Suleiman, R.; Adderley, P. A.; Clark, J.; Hansknecht, J.; Machie, D.; Poelker, M.; Stutzman, M. L. (2011-04-20).
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1259:
1237:
1465:
Siggins, T; Sinclair, C; Bohn, C; Bullard, D; Douglas, D; Grippo, A; Gubeli, J; Krafft, G. A; Yunn, B (2001-12-21).
1230:
1440:
Martinelli, R. U. (1973). Effects of
Cathode Bumpiness on the Spatial Resolution of Proximity Focused Image Tubes.
999:
1736:
56:
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173:
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Sb-K-Cs). Spectral response range similar to the Sb-Cs photocathode, but with higher sensitivity and lower
92:
important property as the photocathodes are used solely for converting photons into an electrical signal.
945:
has reduced the use of photocathodes to cases where they still remain superior to semiconductor devices.
146:
1431:
Parzyck et al. (2022). “Single-Crystal Alkali
Antimonide Photocathodes.” Phys. Rev. Lett. 128, 114801.
119:
1752:
1677:"Charge and fluence lifetime measurements of a dc high voltage GaAs photogun at high average current"
1466:
1182:
than Ag-O-Cs. With special manufacturing techniques this photocathode can operate up to 1700 nm.
1661:
1727:
1299:"A photoemission model for low work function coated metal surfaces and its experimental validation"
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For some applications, the initial momentum distribution of emitted electrons is important and the
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1039:
tubes with this photocathode material are nowadays used only in the infrared region with cooling.
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Basics and
Applications and a list of EIA "S" spectral-response designations on pages 21 and 88
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1086:
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The surface of photocathodes can be characterized by various surface sensitive techniques like
962:
393:
1648:
1190:
1179:
1098:
815:
1688:
1627:"The optimization of (Cs,O) activation of NEA photocathode - IEEE Conference Publication".
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1525:
1478:
1310:
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Jensen, Kevin L.; Feldman, Donald W.; Moody, Nathan A.; O’Shea, Patrick G. (15 June 2006).
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8:
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52:
40:
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of the beam which is the area in phase space occupied by the electrons. The emittance (
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1473:. FEL2000: Proc. 22nd Int. Free Electron Laser Conference and 7th F EL Users Workshop.
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electron beams. Electron beams generated with photocathodes are commonly used for
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1676:
1152:
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979:
924:
799:{\displaystyle \varepsilon _{\text{th}}={\sqrt {\frac {\text{MTE}}{m_{e}c^{2}}}}}
64:
1512:
Mamun, M. A.; Hernandez-Garcia, C.; Poelker, M.; Elmustafa, A. A. (2015-06-01).
577:{\displaystyle \varepsilon =\sigma _{x}{\sqrt {\frac {\text{MTE}}{m_{e}c^{2}}}}}
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rear side. The freed electrons are then collected to produce the final image.
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is the rest mass of an electron. In commonly used units, this is as follows.
1746:
1710:
1613:
1498:
1410:
1015:
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458:{\displaystyle {\text{MTE}}={\frac {\langle p_{\perp }^{2}\rangle }{2m_{e}}}}
44:
1117:
1090:
1011:
491:) can be calculated from MTE and the laser spot size on the photocathode (
467:
In high brightness photoinjectors, the MTE helps to determine the initial
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954:
16:
Surface which converts light into electrons via the photoelectric effect
942:
1605:
1538:
1513:
1398:
1373:
1322:
1514:"Correlation of CsK2Sb photocathode lifetime with antimony thickness"
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1467:"Performance of a DC GaAs photocathode gun for the Jefferson lab FEL"
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Phototubes have been used for years in movie projectors to read the
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1113:
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1062:
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The more recent development of solid state optical devices such as
1089:
than Sb-Cs. They have sensitivity well matched to the most common
1186:
1140:
1082:
1070:
1047:
59:. Photocathodes are also commonly used as the negatively charged
1409:
Musumeci et al. (2018). “Advances in Bright
Electron Sources.”
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1105:
32:
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Bombardment is one of the main cause of GaAs cathode QE decay.
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Photocathodes operate in a vacuum, so their design parallels
1674:
1464:
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with a nearby positive anode to assure electron emission.
919:
like the orthicon and vidicon, and in image tubes such as
1556:
A Technological
History of Motion Pictures and Television
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96:
Quantum efficiency may be calculated from photocurrent (
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Physical Review
Special Topics: Accelerators and Beams
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and is mainly used in reflection-mode photocathodes.
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388:Mean Transverse Energy (MTE) and Thermal Emittance
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108:
1104:High temperature bialkali or low noise bialkali (
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889:is the temperature of electrons in the solid.
931:were used for motion detectors and counters.
434:
416:
1559:. University of California Press. pp.
1116:, Na-K-Sb). This material is often used in
1411:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nima.2018.03.019
83:
31:is a surface engineered to convert light (
1700:
1537:
1260:Learn how and when to remove this message
1093:materials and so are frequently used for
1025:
1552:
1223:This article includes a list of general
18:
190:{\displaystyle \lambda _{\text{laser}}}
78:
1745:
1285:An engineering guide to photoinjectors
63:in a light detection device such as a
1337:Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics
1287:. CreateSpace Independent Publishing.
1283:Rao, T., & Dowell, D. H. (2013).
1279:
1277:
1209:
1197:). These materials are sensitive to
996:scanning tunneling microscopy (STM)
989:
13:
1229:it lacks sufficient corresponding
39:. Photocathodes are important in
14:
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1721:
1274:
163:{\displaystyle E_{\text{photon}}}
143:), and either the photon energy (
1586:Review of Scientific Instruments
1214:
1000:X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
518:) using the following equation.
197:) using the following equation.
136:{\displaystyle P_{\text{laser}}}
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1730:Basics and Applications from
1702:10.1103/physrevstab.14.043501
1491:10.1016/S0168-9002(01)01596-0
1205:
893:transverse momentum states.
43:where they are utilised in a
484:{\displaystyle \varepsilon }
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1143:, Na-K-Sb-Cs), also called
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938:on the edge of movie film.
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511:{\displaystyle \sigma _{x}}
35:) into electrons using the
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1737:RCA Technical Manual PT-60
1633:10.1109/IVESC.2004.1414231
1553:Fielding, Raymond (1983).
1387:Journal of Applied Physics
1362:Journal of Applied Physics
1349:10.1088/0022-3727/10/1/013
1303:Journal of Applied Physics
616:{\displaystyle m_{e}c^{2}}
1309:(12): 124905–124905–19.
1244:more precise citations.
1176:indium gallium arsenide
909:
170:) or laser wavelength (
84:Quantum Efficiency (QE)
1656:Cite journal requires
1099:scintillation counters
1026:Photocathode materials
963:Molecular beam epitaxy
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835:{\displaystyle k_{B}T}
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1728:Photomultiplier Tubes
1180:signal-to-noise ratio
1031:Ag-O-Cs, also called
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862:{\displaystyle k_{B}}
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79:Important Properties
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37:photoelectric effect
1732:Hamamatsu Photonics
1693:2011PhRvS..14d3501G
1598:1980RScI...51..478P
1530:2015APLM....3f6103M
1483:2001NIMPA.475..549S
1315:2006JAP....99l4905J
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41:accelerator physics
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1095:ionizing radiation
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1374:10.1063/1.2838209
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1126:
1124:applications.
1123:
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1250:October 2008
1247:
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1091:scintillator
1087:dark current
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1020:
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970:to get high
952:
949:Construction
940:
936:sound tracks
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921:intensifiers
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1242:introducing
1168:accelerator
955:vacuum tube
943:photodiodes
1225:references
1206:References
1073:Sb-Rb-Cs,
1061:Bialkali (
972:brightness
929:phototubes
925:dissectors
49:brightness
1711:1098-4402
1614:0034-6748
1499:0168-9002
1199:vacuum UV
1191:telluride
1133:potassium
1110:potassium
1079:potassium
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714:×
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1044:antimony
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901:Lifetime
842:, where
222:electron
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1594:Bibcode
1526:Bibcode
1479:Bibcode
1311:Bibcode
1238:improve
1187:caesium
1141:caesium
1083:caesium
1071:caesium
1056:visible
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1042:Sb-Cs (
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256:photon
232:photon
156:photon
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353:laser
333:watts
323:laser
268:laser
183:laser
129:laser
1707:ISSN
1662:help
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1565:ISBN
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