Phrenology - Knowledge

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intellectual elite of the United States found phrenology attractive because it provided a biological explanation of mental processes based on observation, yet it was not accepted uncritically. Some intellectuals accepted organology while questioning cranioscopy. Gradually the popular success of phrenology undermined its scientific merits in the United States and elsewhere, along with its materialistic underpinnings, fostering radical religious views. There was increasing evidence to refute phrenological claims, and by the 1840s it had largely lost its credibility. In the United States, especially in the South, phrenology faced an additional obstacle in the antislavery movement. While phrenologists usually claimed the superiority of the European race, they were often sympathetic to liberal causes including the antislavery movement; this sowed skepticism about phrenology among those who were pro-slavery. The rise and surge in popularity in mesmerism, phrenomesmerism, also had a hand in the loss of interest in phrenology among intellectuals and the general public.

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criminal tendencies. Diagnosis could point to the type of offender, the insane, an idiot or brute, and by knowing this an appropriate course of action could be taken. A strict system of reward and punishment, hard work and religious instruction, was thought to be able to correct those who had been abandoned and neglected with little education and moral ground works. Those who were considered intellectually disabled could be put to work and housed collectively while only criminals of intellect and vicious intent needed to be confined and isolated. Phrenology also advocated variable prison sentences, the idea being that those who were only defective in education and lacking in morals would soon be released while those who were "mentally deficient" could be watched and the truly abhorrent criminals would never be released. For other patients phrenology could help redirect impulses, one homicidal individual became a butcher to control his impulses, while another became a

1889: 1627:' experiments on the brains of pigeons indicated that the loss of parts of the brain either caused no loss of function, or the loss of a completely different function than what had been attributed to it by phrenology. Flourens' experiment, while not perfect, seemed to indicate that Gall's supposed organs were imaginary. Scientists had also become disillusioned with phrenology since its exploitation with the middle and working classes by entrepreneurs. The popularization had resulted in the simplification of phrenology and mixing in it of principles of physiognomy, which had from the start been rejected by Gall as an indicator of personality. Phrenology from its inception was tainted by accusations of promoting materialism and atheism, and being destructive of morality. These were all factors that led to the downfall of phrenology. Recent studies, using modern day technology like Magnetic Resonance Imaging have further disproven phrenology claims. 45: 1996: 1880:(a college classmate and initial partner of Orson Fowler) promoted phrenology actively as a source of psychological insight and self-knowledge. In Europe and the United States, many people visited phrenologists to have their heads analysed. After such an examination, clients received a written delineation of their character or a standardized chart with their score, combined with advice on how to improve themselves. People also consulted phrenologists for advice in matters such as hiring personnel or finding suitable marriage partners. As such, phrenology as a brain science waned but developed into the popular psychology of the 19th century. 1916:

played a role in preventing rapid spread of phrenology. In Britain phrenology had provided another tool to be used for situating demographic changes; the difference was there was less fear of revolutionary upheaval in Britain compared with France. Given that most French supporters of phrenology were liberal, left-wing or socialist, it was an objective of the social elite of France, who held a restrained vision of social change, that phrenology remain on the fringes. Another objection was that phrenology seemed to provide a built in excuse for criminal behaviour, since in its original form it was essentially

1333:, to being combative or destructive. Each of the 27 "brain organs" was located under a specific area of the skull. As a phrenologist felt the skull, he would use his knowledge of the shapes of heads and organ positions to determine the overall natural strengths and weaknesses of an individual. Phrenologists believed the head revealed natural tendencies but not absolute limitations or strengths of character. The first phrenological chart gave the names of the organs described by Gall; it was a single sheet, and sold for a cent. Later charts were more expansive. 1758: 1342: 1508:. A person's inherent faculties were clear, and no faculty was viewed as evil, though the abuse of a faculty was. Phrenology allowed for self-improvement and upward mobility, while providing fodder for attacks on aristocratic privilege. Phrenology also had wide appeal because of its being a reformist philosophy not a radical one. Phrenology was not limited to the common people, and both Queen Victoria and Prince Albert invited George Combe to read the heads of their children. 73: 1581:. Phrenology provided an attractive, biological alternative that attempted to unite all mental phenomena using consistent biological terminology. Gall's approach prepared the way for studying the mind that would lead to the downfall of his own theories. Phrenology contributed to development of physical anthropology, forensic medicine, knowledge of the nervous system and brain anatomy as well as contributing to applied psychology. 1241: 1322:. In general, instruments to measure sizes of cranium continued to be used after the mainstream phrenology had ended. The phrenologists put emphasis on using drawings of individuals with particular traits, to determine the character of the person and thus many phrenology books show pictures of subjects. From absolute and relative sizes of the skull the phrenologist would assess the character and temperament of the patient. 1988: 1237:. He contributed to the idea that the brain is spatially organized, but not in the way he proposed. There is a clear division of labor in the brain but none of which even remotely correlates to the size of the head or the structure of the skull. While it contributed to some advancements in understanding the brain and its functions, skepticism of phrenology developed over time. 1864:

dysfunctions of the cerebral organs: "The organs of the brain that may become ill in isolation or in complex get their activities infected through energy, or depression, or inertia or deficiency. So the madness can take the appearance of these three characteristic forms; i.e. for enhanced activity, or for depressed activity, or for inertia or deficiency of brain activities".

1499:, as well as the growing popularity of scientific lectures as entertainment, also helped spread phrenology to the masses. Combe created a system of philosophy of the human mind that became popular with the masses because of its simplified principles and wide range of social applications that were in harmony with the liberal Victorian world view. George Combe's book 1847:, a physician interested in psychological aspects of disease, used phrenology on his patients in an attempt to use it as a diagnostic tool. While the success of this approach is debatable, Conolly, through phrenology, introduced a more humane way of dealing with the mentally ill. The first phrenological testimony in a court of law was solicited by American lawyer 1314:, the first 19 of these "organs" he believed to exist in other animal species. Phrenologists would run their fingertips and palms over the skulls of their patients to feel for enlargements or indentations. The phrenologist would often take measurements with a tape measure of the overall head size and more rarely employ a 1181:

frequently remained small and were therefore not present on the exterior of the skull. Although both of those ideas have a basis in reality, phrenology generalizes beyond empirical knowledge in a way that departs from science. The central phrenological notion that measuring the contour of the skull can predict

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Phrenology was one of the first to bring about the idea of rehabilitation of criminals instead of vindictive punishments that would not stop criminals, only with the reorganizing a disorganized brain would bring about change. Voisin believed along with others the accuracy of phrenology in diagnosing

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was also common with phrenology. Women whose heads were generally larger in the back with lower foreheads were thought to have underdeveloped organs necessary for success in the arts and sciences while having larger mental organs relating to the care of children and religion. While phrenologists did

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species allows modern researchers to obtain information about the development of various areas of the brains of those species, and thereby infer something about their cognitive and communicative abilities, and possibly even something about their social life. Due to its limitations, this technique is

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Phrenology is today recognized as pseudoscientific. The methodological rigor of phrenology was doubtful even for the standards of its time, since many authors already regarded phrenology as pseudoscience in the 19th century. There have been various studies conducted that discredited phrenology, most

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decree that phrenology was subversive of religion and morality but also that, based on phrenology, the "Irish Catholics were sui generis a flawed and degenerate breed". Because of the lack of scientific support, along with religious and prejudicial reasons, phrenology never found a wide audience in

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who found it an attractive alternative to explain human motivations without the attached superstitions of religion. The supporters of phrenology in Ireland were relegated to scientific subcultures because the Irish scholars neglected marginal movements like phrenology, denying it scientific support

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Phrenology was introduced at a time when the old theological and philosophical understanding of the mind was being questioned and no longer seemed adequate in a society that was experiencing rapid social and demographic changes. Phrenology became one of the most popular movements of the Victorian

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Phrenology arrived in Ireland in 1815, through Spurzheim. While Ireland largely mirrored British trends, with scientific lectures and demonstrations becoming a popular pastime of the age, by 1815 phrenology had already been ridiculed in some circles priming the audiences to its skeptical claims.

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Some scientists believed phrenology affirmed European superiority over other races. By comparing skulls of different ethnic groups it was thought to allow for ranking of races from least to most evolved. Broussais, a disciple of Gall, proclaimed that the Caucasians were the most beautiful, while

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Phrenology was mostly discredited as a scientific theory by the 1840s. This was due only in part to a growing amount of evidence against phrenology. Phrenologists had never been able to agree on the most basic mental organ numbers, going from 27 to over 40, and had difficulty locating the mental

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While still not a fringe movement, there was not popular widespread support of phrenology in France. This was not only due to strong opposition to phrenology by French scholars but also once again accusations of promoting atheism, materialism and radical religious views. Politics in France also

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was one of the most popular of the time, selling over two hundred thousand copies in a ten-year period. Phrenology's success was also partly because it was introduced at a time when scientific lectures were becoming a form of middle-class entertainment, exposing a large demographic of people to

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One of the considered practical applications of phrenology was education. Due to the nature of phrenology people were naturally considered unequal, as very few people would have a naturally perfect balance between organs. Thus education would play an important role in creating a balance through

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It is, however, allowable to take as a principle, that there will be a relation betwixt vigour of intellect and perfection of form; and that, therefore, history will direct us to the original and chief family of mankind. We therefore ask, which are the nations that have excelled and figured in

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or modules. It was said that the brain was composed of different muscles, so those that were used more often were bigger, resulting in the different skull shapes. This provided reasoning for the common presence of bumps on the skull in different locations. The brain "muscles" not being used as

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Phrenological teachings had become a widespread popular movement by 1834, when Combe came to lecture in the United States. Sensing commercial possibilities men like the Fowlers became phrenologists and sought additional ways to bring phrenology to the masses. Though a popular movement, the

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In psychiatry, phrenology was proposed as a viable model in order to the disciplinary field. The South Italian psychiatrist Biagio Miraglia proposed a new classification of mental illness based on brain functions as they were described by Gall. In Miraglia's view, madness is consequent to

1597:. The benefit of combining mesmerism and phrenology was that the trance the patient was placed in was supposed to allow for the manipulation of his/her penchants and qualities. For example, if the organ of self-esteem was touched, the subject would take on a haughty expression. 1787:, while many used it to advocate for slavery. Instead they argued that through education and interbreeding the "lesser peoples" could improve. Another argument was that the natural inequality of people could be used to situate them in the most appropriate place in society. 1286:

skull—like a glove on the hand—accommodates to the different sizes of these areas of the brain, so that a person's capacity for a given personality trait could be determined simply by measuring the area of the skull that overlies the corresponding area of the brain.

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sold more than 200,000 copies through nine editions. Combe also devoted a large portion of his book to reconciling religion and phrenology, which had long been a sticking point. Another reason for its popularity was that phrenology balanced between free will and

1370:, who concluded that mental activity occurred in the brain rather than the heart, contending that the brain, a cold, moist organ formed of sperm, was the seat of the animal soul—one of three "souls" found in the body, each associated with a principal organ. 1907:

phrenological ideas who would not have heard them otherwise. As a result of the changing times, new avenues of exposure and its multifaceted appeal, phrenology flourished in popular culture although it was discredited as scientific theory by 1840.

1566:. In 1826, out of the 120 members of the Edinburgh society an estimated one third were from a medical background. By the 1840s there were more than 28 phrenological societies in London with more than 1,000 members. Another important scholar was 1418:

The Anatomy and Physiology of the Nervous System in General, and of the Brain in Particular, with Observations upon the possibility of ascertaining the several Intellectual and Moral Dispositions of Man and Animal, by the configuration of their

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and combined the two into something he called phrenomesmerism or phrenomagnatism. Changing behaviour through mesmerism eventually won out in Elliotson's hospital, putting phrenology in a subordinate role. Others amalgamated phrenology and

1275:, each one represented in a different area of the brain. For example, the faculty of "philoprogenitiveness", from the Greek for "love of offspring", was located centrally at the back of the head (see illustration of the chart from 4530: 1662:(1902), are an appraisal of Gall's teachings. Hollander introduced a quantitative approach to the phrenological diagnosis, defining a method for measuring the skull, and comparing the measurements with statistical averages. 1544:

Phrenology came about at a time when scientific procedures and standards for acceptable evidence were still being codified. In the context of Victorian society, phrenology was a respectable scientific theory. The

1225:. He concluded that this area of the brain was responsible for language production. Between Flourens and Broca, the claims to support phrenology were dismantled. Phrenological thinking was influential in the 1729:

and savages, towards a higher form of mankind, thus perpetuating phrenology's problematic racializing of the human frame. Bouts died on March 7, 1999. His work has been continued by the Dutch foundation PPP

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The popularization of phrenology in the middle and working classes was due in part to the idea that scientific knowledge was important and an indication of sophistication and modernity. Cheap and plentiful

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founded by George and Andrew Combe was an example of the credibility of phrenology at the time, and included a number of extremely influential social reformers and intellectuals, including the publisher

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The first publication in the United States in support of phrenology was published by John Bell, who reissued Combe's essays with an introductory discourse, in 1822. The following year, John G. Wells of

1421:. It was not published until 1819. In the introduction to this main work, Gall makes the following statement in regard to his doctrinal principles, which comprise the intellectual basis of phrenology: 1221:". The patient's ability to produce language was lost while their ability to understand language remained intact. Through an autopsy examining their brains, he found that there was damage to the left 1934:

in Ireland. In 1830 George Combe came to Ireland, his self-promotion barely winning out against his lack of medical expertise, still only drawing lukewarm crowds. This was due to not only the

3564: 1529:. Meanwhile, Lorenzo spent much of his life in England, where he initiated the famous phrenological publishing house L. N. Fowler & Co. and gained considerable fame with his 1282:

These areas were said to be proportional to a person's propensities. The importance of an organ was derived from relative size compared to other organs. It was believed that the

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The pocket Lavater, or, The science of physiognomy : to which is added, An inquiry into the analogy existing between brute and human physiognomy, from the Italian of Porta

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Manual of phrenology: being an analytical summary of the system of Doctor Gall, on the faculties of man and the functions of the brain : translated from the 4th French ed

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of the 19th century. Gall's assumption that character, thoughts, and emotions are located in specific areas of the brain is considered an important historical advance toward

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would become the chief promoter of phrenology throughout the English-speaking world after he viewed a brain dissection by Spurzheim, convincing him of phrenology's merits.

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in 1796, the discipline was influential in the 19th century, especially from about 1810 until 1840. The principal British centre for phrenology was Edinburgh, where the

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Since the skull ossifies over the brain during infant development, external craniological means could be used to diagnose the internal states of the mental characters

3862: 1855:, in 1834. Neal argued unsuccessfully that the jury should take leniency on his client because the part of his brain associated with violent behavior was inflamed. 1816:

for the express purpose of correction of the mind of children who had suffered some hardship. Voisin focused on four categories of children for his reform school:

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until 1813 when for unknown reasons they had a permanent falling out. Publishing under his own name Spurzheim successfully disseminated phrenology throughout the

1329:" extensively. The number—and more detailed meanings—of organs were added later by other phrenologists. The 27 areas varied in function, from sense of color, to 2783: 1126: 1570:, the leading Italian phrenologist. He advocated that governments should embrace phrenology as a scientific means of conquering many social ills, and his 4509: 3895: 3554: 1888: 520: 1876:, phrenology as a psychology was taken seriously and permeated the literature and novels of the day. Many prominent public figures, such as the 1443:

Through careful observation and extensive experimentation, Gall believed he had established a relationship between aspects of character, called

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accomplish different functions. He found that the impacted areas never carried out the functions that were proposed through phrenology.

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not contest the existence of talented women, this minority did not provide justification for citizenship or participation in politics.

1366:, biblical and early Greek views, which based bodily primacy of control on the heart. This belief was supported by the Greek physician 1119: 195: 2717:

How to Read Character: A New Illustrated Hand-Book of Phrenology and Physiognomy, for Students and Examiners; with A Descriptive Chart

1952:"commenced an annual exposition, and recommendation of its doctrines, to his class". In 1834, John D. Godman, professor of anatomy at 5809: 5750: 240: 4204: 1929:

Because of this the general public valued it more for its comic relief than anything else; however, it did find an audience in the

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priest, became the main promoter of renewed 20th-century interest in phrenology and psychognomy in Belgium. He was also active in

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Gall was more concerned with creating a physical science, so it was through Spurzheim that phrenology was first spread throughout

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history, not only as conquerors, but as forwarding, by their improvements in arts and sciences, the progress of human knowledge?

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Phrenology is a process that involves observing and/or feeling the skull to determine an individual's psychological attributes.

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Other things being equal, the relative size of any particular mental organ is indicative of the power or strength of that organ

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would never become civilized since "they had no cerebral organ for producing great artists". Few phrenologists argued for the

1669:(1900–1999) began studying phrenology from a pedagogical background, using the phrenological analysis to define an individual 4908: 4594:. Open Content Alliance eBook Collection, Fowler, O. S. (Orson Squire) (1809–1887); Fowler, L. N. (Lorenzo Niles) (1811–1896) 2820: 1551: 1112: 769: 334: 4470: 3602: 5160: 764: 759: 610: 413: 3856: 1843:

so he could witness killings. Phrenology also provided reformist arguments for the lunatic asylums of the Victorian era.

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Les Grandioses Destinées individuelle et humaine dans la lumière de la Caractérologie et de l'Evolution cérébro-cranienne

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head showing the phrenological faculties), which has become a symbol of the discipline. Orson Fowler was known for his

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McGlone, Robert E. (March 1989). "Rescripting a Troubled Past: John Brown's Family and the Harpers Ferry Conspiracy".

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These produce ideas of relation or reflect. They minister to the direction and gratification of all the other powers:

2771: 2530: 2440: 1389:. He believed that thoughts of the mind and passions of the soul were connected with an individual's external frame. 265: 5858: 5843: 5138: 4935: 4397:

Parssinen, T. M. (Autumn 1974). "Popular Science and Society: The Phrenology Movement in Early Victorian Britain".

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saw an article in a scientific journal and the group "appropriated the term, not only for its political irony ..."

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Era. In part phrenology's success was due to George Combe tailoring phrenology for the middle class. Combe's book

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John Elliotson was a brilliant but erratic heart specialist who became a phrenologist in the 1840s. He was also a

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that involves the measurement of bumps on the skull to predict mental traits. It is based on the concept that the

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Gall's list of the "brain organs" was specific. An enlarged organ meant that the patient used that particular "

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McCandless, Peter (1992). "Mesmerism and Phrenology in Antebellum Charleston: 'Enough of the Marvellous'".

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Controlling Time and Shaping the Self: Developments in Autobiographical Writing Since the Sixteenth Century

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During the early 20th century, a revival of interest in phrenology occurred, partly because of studies of

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rigorous exercise of beneficial organs while repressing baser ones. One of the best examples of this is

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Simpson, D. (2005) "Phrenology and the Neurosciences: Contributions of F. J. Gall and J. G. Spurzheim"

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which involved reading the skull's shape as it pertained to the individual. It was Gall's collaborator

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Christison-Lagay, K. L.; Cohen, Y. E. (2013). "The Neural Representation of Vocalisation Perception".

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The Zoist: A Journal of Cerebral Physiology & Mesmerism, and Their Applications to Human Welfare

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and America. Phrenology, while not universally accepted, was hardly a fringe phenomenon of the era.

5374: 5268: 5234: 5118: 4505: 3529: 2091: 1058: 225: 4093: 5781: 5699: 5451: 5133: 5072: 4843: 4305: 2740: 1385:, published between 1775 and 1778. His work was translated into English and published in 1832 as 774: 732: 660: 540: 175: 5098: 3555:"When Phrenology Was Used in Court: Lessons in Neuroscience from the 1834 Trial of a 9-year-old" 5878: 5613: 5481: 5394: 5369: 5359: 5217: 4920: 4787: 4669: 2744: 1953: 1776: 1559: 1147: 715: 705: 600: 4111: 2806: 1705:

are considered standard works in the field. In the latter work, which examines the subject of

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The brain is not a homogenous unity, but an aggregate of mental organs with specific functions

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Erik Grayson. "Weird Science, Weirder Unity: Phrenology and Physiognomy in Edgar Allan Poe"

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Propensities do not form ideas; they solely produce propensities common to animals and man.

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organs. Phrenologists relied on cranioscopic readings of the skull to find organ locations.

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Parker Jones, F. (31 January 2018). "An empirical, 21st century evaluation of phrenology".

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related to the specific character traits of individuals, rather than general types, in his

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From a Scientific Point of View: Reasoning and Evidence Beat Improvisation across Fields

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Among the first to identify the brain as the major controlling center for the body were

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Species, Serpents, Spirits, and Skulls: Science at the Margins in the Victorian Age

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An Organ of Murder: Crime, Violence, and Phrenology in Nineteenth-Century America

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An Organ of Murder: Crime, Violence, and Phrenology in Nineteenth-Century America

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Wihe, J. V. (2002). "Science and Pseudoscience: A Primer in Critical Thinking".

1809: 1780: 1574:(1836), is considered "one of the fundamental 19th-century works in the field". 1176:

is the organ of the mind, and that certain brain areas have localized, specific

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Pseudoscientific study of human characteristics according to shape of the skull

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techniques. Marie-Jean-Pierre Flourens demonstrated through ablation that the

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Phrénologie à Rouen, les moulages du musée Flaubert d'histoire de la médecine

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Johann Spurzheim was Gall's most important collaborator. He worked as Gall's

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An Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural

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believed that the brain was made up of 27 individual organs that determined

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The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland

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Baggerman, J. Arianne; Dekker, Rudolf M.; Mascuch, Michael James (2011).

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Phrenology, which focuses on personality and character, is distinct from

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Pseudoscience and the paranormal: a critical examination of the evidence

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Hollander, Bernard (1891). "A Contribution to a Scientific Phrenology".

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Phrenological skull, European, 19th century. Wellcome Collection, London

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Labeling People: French Scholars on Society, Race and Empire, 1815–1848

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Minds Behind the Brain: A History of the Pioneers and Their Discoveries

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and Nelson Sizer, ran the phrenological business and publishing house

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Several literary critics have noted the influence of phrenology (and

1710: 1631: 1534: 1459: 995: 955: 930: 635: 595: 460: 31: 4354: 4067: 4020: 3292: 1646:). The most famous British phrenologist of the 20th century was the 1251:

While phrenology itself has long been discredited, the study of the

72: 5411: 4970: 4945: 4893: 4853: 4772: 3264: 2342: 1904:

On the Constitution of Man and its Relationship to External Objects

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On the Constitution of Man and its Relationship to External Objects

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Leaney, Enda (2006). "Phrenology in Nineteenth-Century Ireland".

3588:"A new classification of mental illness based on brain functions" 1319: 1186: 1000: 918: 883: 873: 615: 5658: 4661: 4652: 4487:

Popular Fiction and Brain Science in the Late Nineteenth Century

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and his followers, inaugurating a major change in thinking from

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Phrenologists believe that the human mind has a set of various

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Traité de phrénologie humaine et comparée. (Paris, 1832–1835)

4179:. Vol. 7 (Part 2). Dordrecht: Reidel Publishing Company. 3909: 3640:"Science and self-assessment: phrenological charts 1840–1940" 3528:. New Brunswick, Camden, and Newark, New Jersey, and London: 1742: 1367: 1363: 1163: 965: 940: 821: 371: 4591:

New illustrated self-instructor in phrenology and physiology

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These are to know the external world and physical qualities

1697:, where he founded institutes for characterology. His works 1217:

also discredited the idea when he discovered and named the "

4436:

Robinson Storer, H. (1866). "Report on Insanity in Women".

2378: 1812:, who, for approximately ten years, ran a reform school in 1746: 1511:

The American brothers Lorenzo Niles Fowler (1811–1896) and

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Cooter, R. (1990). "The Conservatism of 'Pseudoscience'".

3358:"Phrenology and the Science of Race in Antebellum America" 1294:, which is the study of skull size, weight and shape, and 4610:

includes The History of Phrenology by John van Wyhe, PhD.

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Parker Jones, O.; Alfaro-Almagro, F.; Jbabdi, S. (2018).

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as well, such as the practical phrenologists Collyer and

4152:

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3821: 3770: 3316:"Applying Restorative Justice to the Genocide in Rwanda" 3073: 3071: 3069: 3067: 3054: 3052: 3050: 1741:

used phrenology to explain the purported superiority of

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during his lecture tours through 1814 and 1815 and the

903: 4531:

Journal of Psychological Medicine and Mental Pathology

4186:

Animal Communication Theory: Information and Influence

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These produce emotion or feeling lacking in animals.

3833: 3809: 3797: 2933: 2398: 1976:, travelled for a time as a lecturer on phrenology. 1829:

Children at high risk of inheriting mental disorders

3505: 3493: 3462: 3435: 3423: 3411: 3399: 3334: 3227: 3215: 3200: 3188: 3113: 3101: 2990: 2960: 2894: 2869: 2850: 2798: 1185:is discredited by empirical research. Developed by 4371: 3713: 3595:Dialogues in Philosophy, Mental and Neuro Sciences 3029: 2948: 2732: 2429:Modularity of Mind: An Essay on Faculty Psychology 1737:During the 1930s, Belgian colonial authorities in 1387:The Pocket Lavater, or, The Science of Physiognomy 4054:Hungerford, Edward (1930). "Poe and Phrenology". 3970:APA handbook of personality and social psychology 3858:Lectures on phrenology, with notes by A. Boardman 2394:. 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Mussey and Company. 4053: 3951: 3939: 3927: 3915: 3699: 3625: 3245: 3149: 2927: 2660: 1765:published by Fowlers & Wells, New York 1127: 1113: 196:Association for Research and Enlightenment 5810:The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience 5751:Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science 4543: 4396: 4243:New Hibernia Review / Iris Éireannach Nua 4151: 3776: 3764: 3752: 3665: 3655: 3278: 3272: 3263: 3088: 3086: 3023: 3011: 2984: 2915: 2701: 2643: 2633: 2569: 2498: 2488: 2121: 1725:, which he considered still prevalent in 4497: 4231: 3585: 3552: 3523: 3489:(Whole Number 386): 200–204. March 1871. 2764: 2565: 1994: 1986: 1887: 1756: 1483: 1340: 1239: 43: 5715:Suppressed research in the Soviet Union 4234:Elementary Treatise on Human Physiology 4109: 4004: 3964:Mikulincer, Mario; Shaver, Phillip R.; 3637: 3355: 2839: 2615: 2182: 1681:, he coined a global approach known as 1602:Phrenology has been psychology's great 1470:in 1832 where he would eventually die. 14: 5831: 4484: 4369: 4240: 4218: 3839: 3827: 3815: 3803: 3322:from the original on 14 September 2016 3307: 3182: 3161: 3134: 3092: 3083: 3077: 3058: 2942: 2730: 2724: 2669: 2549: 2545: 1790: 37:For the music album by the Roots, see 4665: 4448: 4277: 4196: 4174: 4041: 3854: 3850: 3848: 3791: 3711: 3511: 3499: 3468: 3456: 3444: 3429: 3417: 3405: 3351: 3349: 3340: 3233: 3221: 3209: 3194: 3122: 3107: 2996: 2969: 2954: 2900: 2875: 2863: 2713: 2541: 2455: 2426: 2407: 1377:(1741–1801) introduced the idea that 4599:The History of Phrenology on the Web 4523: 4221:Philosophy of Science and the Occult 2786:from the original on 23 October 2013 2573: 2389: 2065:These are common to man and animal. 1558:, the evolutionary environmentalist 2554:Christison-Lagay & Cohen (2013) 1732:Per Pulchritudinem in Pulchritudine 1266: 24: 5764:James Randi Educational Foundation 4225:State University of New York Press 4190:State University of New York Press 3974:American Psychological Association 3972:(First ed.). Washington, DC: 3845: 3346: 1547:Phrenological Society of Edinburgh 1426:The Brain is the organ of the mind 25: 5895: 4691: 4562: 4306:10.2979/victorianstudies.53.1.141 4288:10.2979/victorianstudies.53.1.141 4110:Venable, Malcolm (October 2002). 3567:from the original on May 16, 2021 1247:, a sketch by A.S. Hartrick, 1895 266:Chiropractic treatment techniques 5161:Strauss–Howe generational theory 5139:Moon landing conspiracy theories 4936:Electromagnetic hypersensitivity 2410:Pseudoscience and the Paranormal 2223:was named so after group member 1942: 1896: 1656:The Mental Function of the Brain 1298:, the study of facial features. 1069:Electromagnetic hypersensitivity 71: 5789:The Natural History of Quackery 5731:Committee for Skeptical Inquiry 4512:from the original on 2021-06-04 4473:from the original on 2023-02-05 4457:McGill-Queen's University Press 4374:Encyclopedia of Medical History 4343:The Journal of Southern History 4207:from the original on 2023-02-05 4144: 4103: 4082: 4047: 3998: 3957: 3898:from the original on 2021-06-03 3880: 3865:from the original on 2023-02-05 3705: 3631: 3608:from the original on 2017-01-12 3579: 3546: 3517: 3474: 3388:from the original on 2022-07-12 3313: 3251: 3155: 3095:Yasgur's Homeopathic Dictionary 2881: 2840:Lavater, Johann Caspar (1832). 2833: 2707: 2670:Hughes, Virginia (2013-03-13). 2622:Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 2263:Edinburgh Phrenological Society 2003: 1195:Edinburgh Phrenological Society 105:Alternative veterinary medicine 4498:Thompson, Courtney E. (2021). 4155:American Journal of Psychiatry 3968:; Simpson, Jeffrey A. (2015). 3638:Sysling, Fenneke (June 2018). 3524:Thompson, Courtney E. (2021). 2714:Wells, Samuel Roberts (1885). 2583: 2559: 2535: 2515: 2464: 2449: 2420: 2278:Localization of brain function 1980:Specific phrenological modules 1833: 1763:American Phrenological Journal 1752: 1347:Webster's Academic Dictionary, 728:Water fluoridation controversy 684:Big Pharma conspiracy theories 13: 1: 3586:Miraglia, Biagio G. (2014) . 3165:A Hundred Years of Psychology 2392:Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience 2371: 2348:Racial policy of Nazi Germany 2199:Influences on popular culture 2055: 1867: 1858: 1654:(1864–1934). 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Vol. 75.6; p. 475 2230: 1878:Reverend Henry Ward Beecher 760:Alternative medical systems 389:Fabunan Antiviral Injection 155:Fringe medicine and science 10: 5900: 5803:The Ragged Edge of Science 5534:Igor and Grichka Bogdanoff 5477:Pseudoscientific metrology 5001:Miracle Mineral Supplement 4491:Cambridge University Press 4278:Lyons, Sherrie L. (2009). 1972:, son of the abolitionist 1923: 1785:emancipation of the slaves 1336: 770:Biologically based therapy 330:Dental amalgam controversy 36: 29: 5723: 5687: 5514: 5417:Facilitated communication 5347: 5277: 5081: 4816: 4803: 4708: 4699: 4618:in Minneapolis, Minnesota 4449:Staum, Martin S. 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(1983). 1991:An 1883 phrenology chart 1201:of which were done with 1168: 'knowledge') is a 1059:Candida hypersensitivity 241:Fake COVID-19 treatments 55:This article is part of 30:Not to be confused with 5859:History of neuroscience 5844:Biological anthropology 5782:The Demon-Haunted World 5700:Bourgeois pseudoscience 5134:COVID-19 misinformation 5073:Young blood transfusion 4844:Anthroposophic medicine 4607:Phrenology: an Overview 4124:(10). New York: 124–128 3892:collections.nlm.nih.gov 3712:Hines, Terence (1988). 3481:"Punishing Criminals". 3356:Branson, Susan (2017). 2741:Oxford University Press 1954:Rutgers Medical College 1411:Johann Gaspar Spurzheim 733:COVID-19 misinformation 661:Young blood transfusion 541:Orthomolecular medicine 506:Mind–body interventions 176:Anthroposophic medicine 116:Rise of modern medicine 5614:Corentin Louis Kervran 5482:Rapid prompting method 5370:Biodynamic agriculture 5360:Aquatic ape hypothesis 5218:Historical negationism 4921:Doctrine of signatures 4788:True-believer syndrome 4602:by John van Wyhe, PhD. 4200:A System of Phrenology 4197:Combe, George (1851). 4092:1 (2005): 56–77. Also 3855:Combe, George (1839). 3532:. pp. 55, 191n4. 3362:Early American Studies 3162:Flugel, J. C. 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(1844). 3483:Phrenological Journal 2782:, Early Science Lab. 2776:A History of the Body 2358:Scientific skepticism 1998: 1990: 1958: 1891: 1777:Australian Aboriginal 1760: 1719:perfecting evolution, 1660:Scientific Phrenology 1600: 1487: 1423: 1391: 1375:Johann Kaspar Lavater 1344: 1243: 1094:Vertebral subluxation 1043:Alternative diagnoses 631:Thought Field Therapy 271:Vertebral subluxation 47: 5854:History of astrology 5569:Ignatius L. Donnelly 5240:Past life regression 5099:Arabian Judah theory 5046:Traditional medicine 4839:Alternative medicine 4768:Pathological science 4633:Jean-Claude Vimont: 4580:Manual of Phrenology 4524:Winn, J. M. (1879). 4168:10.1176/ajp.16.3.249 3093:Yasgur, Jay (2003). 2572:, pp. 249–260; 2183:Reflecting faculties 2048:Philoprogenitiveness 1709:, Bouts developed a 1625:Jean Pierre Flourens 1564:William A. F. Browne 1064:Chronic Lyme disease 793:Traditional medicine 775:Manipulative methods 576:Postural Integration 439:Bach flower remedies 315:Craniosacral therapy 143:Therapeutic nihilism 88:Alternative medicine 65:Alternative medicine 5869:Human head and neck 5705:Demarcation problem 5539:Brigitte Boisselier 5168:Hollow Earth theory 5151:Generational theory 4849:Applied kinesiology 4657:Robert Todd Carroll 4056:American Literature 3918:, pp. 205–208. 3137:, pp. 259–261. 2780:Stanford University 2677:National Geographic 2114:Wit or Mirthfulness 2083:Superior sentiments 2072:Love of approbation 1931:rational dissenters 1796:Gender stereotyping 1791:Gender stereotyping 1556:John Pringle Nichol 1522:Fowlers & Wells 1517:Samuel Robert Wells 1513:Orson Squire Fowler 711:Vaccines and autism 701:Anti-vaccinationism 694:OPV AIDS hypothesis 496:Megavitamin therapy 409:Functional medicine 186:Applied kinesiology 82:General information 5775:Skeptical Inquirer 5674:Paul Joseph Watson 5649:Hans Alfred Nieper 5487:Statement analysis 5437:Intelligent design 5312:Reactionless drive 5146:Conversion therapy 5094:Ancient astronauts 4981:Leaky gut syndrome 4961:HIV/AIDS denialism 4716:Cargo cult science 4175:Bunge, M. (1985). 3830:, pp. 28, 38. 2589:Fodor, JA. (1983) 2576:, pp. 18–29; 2556:, pp. 337–354 2456:Bunge, M. (2018). 2408:Hines, T. (2002). 2268:Faculty psychology 2001: 1999:Phrenological bust 1993: 1894: 1767: 1617:J.C. Flugel (1933) 1595:Joseph R. Buchanan 1492: 1356: 1249: 1183:personality traits 1079:Leaky gut syndrome 1054:Aerotoxic syndrome 991:Prophetic medicine 689:HIV/AIDS denialism 516:Myofascial release 424:Holistic dentistry 404:Feldenkrais Method 384:Estrogen dominance 310:Conversion therapy 50: 39:Phrenology (album) 5884:Scientific racism 5826: 5825: 5737:Cults of Unreason 5710:Scientific method 5639:Ministry of Ayush 5584:Nicholas Gonzalez 5510: 5509: 5447:Law of attraction 5427:Flat Earth theory 5307:Quantum mysticism 5247:Scientific racism 5203:Pseudoarchaeology 5109:Conspiracy theory 4807:characterized as 4751:Pseudomathematics 4741:Pseudoarchaeology 4575:, 1833 p. 59 4413:10.1353/jsh/8.1.1 3794:, pp. 51–52. 3459:, pp. 79–80. 2822:978-90-04-19500-4 2353:Scientific racism 2298:Neuroepistemology 2096:Conscientiousness 2033:Concentrativeness 1841:military chaplain 1775:peoples like the 1707:paleoanthropology 1652:Bernard Hollander 1554:, the astronomer 1403:Franz Joseph Gall 1373:The Swiss pastor 1308:Franz Joseph Gall 1258:of the skulls of 1191:Franz Joseph Gall 1137: 1136: 864:Chinese herbology 621:Scientific racism 586:Psychodermatology 491:Medical intuitive 471:Lightning Process 429:Hologram bracelet 377:Therapeutic touch 278:Christian Science 251:Cancer treatments 16:(Redirected from 5891: 5679:Andrew Wakefield 5380:Creation science 5339:Water-fueled car 5301:Perpetual motion 5223:Holocaust denial 5193:Nibiru cataclysm 5188:Nazi archaeology 4991:Macrobiotic diet 4814: 4813: 4686: 4679: 4672: 4663: 4662: 4557: 4547: 4520: 4518: 4517: 4494: 4481: 4479: 4478: 4445: 4432: 4393: 4377: 4366: 4337: 4331: 4327: 4325: 4317: 4274: 4237: 4228: 4215: 4213: 4212: 4193: 4180: 4171: 4138: 4137: 4131: 4129: 4107: 4101: 4086: 4080: 4079: 4051: 4045: 4044:, pp. x–xi. 4039: 4033: 4032: 4002: 3996: 3995: 3966:Dovidio, John F. 3961: 3955: 3949: 3943: 3937: 3931: 3925: 3919: 3913: 3907: 3906: 3904: 3903: 3884: 3878: 3877: 3871: 3870: 3852: 3843: 3837: 3831: 3825: 3819: 3813: 3807: 3801: 3795: 3789: 3780: 3774: 3768: 3767:, pp. 2, 9. 3762: 3756: 3750: 3744: 3743: 3722:Prometheus Books 3719: 3709: 3703: 3697: 3688: 3687: 3669: 3659: 3635: 3629: 3623: 3617: 3616: 3614: 3613: 3607: 3592: 3583: 3577: 3576: 3574: 3572: 3550: 3544: 3543: 3521: 3515: 3509: 3503: 3497: 3491: 3490: 3478: 3472: 3466: 3460: 3454: 3448: 3442: 3433: 3427: 3421: 3415: 3409: 3403: 3397: 3396: 3394: 3393: 3353: 3344: 3338: 3332: 3331: 3329: 3327: 3311: 3305: 3304: 3276: 3270: 3269: 3267: 3255: 3249: 3243: 3237: 3231: 3225: 3219: 3213: 3207: 3198: 3192: 3186: 3180: 3174: 3173: 3159: 3153: 3147: 3138: 3132: 3126: 3120: 3111: 3105: 3099: 3098: 3090: 3081: 3075: 3062: 3056: 3045: 3044: 3033: 3027: 3021: 3015: 3009: 3000: 2994: 2988: 2982: 2973: 2967: 2958: 2952: 2946: 2940: 2931: 2925: 2919: 2913: 2904: 2898: 2892: 2885: 2879: 2873: 2867: 2861: 2848: 2847: 2837: 2831: 2830: 2815:. p. 250–. 2802: 2796: 2795: 2793: 2791: 2768: 2762: 2761: 2759:aristotle brain. 2738: 2728: 2722: 2721: 2711: 2705: 2699: 2693: 2692: 2690: 2689: 2680:. Archived from 2667: 2658: 2657: 2647: 2637: 2613: 2607: 2600: 2594: 2587: 2581: 2570:Anonymous (1860) 2563: 2557: 2539: 2533: 2519: 2513: 2512: 2502: 2492: 2468: 2462: 2461: 2453: 2447: 2446: 2424: 2418: 2417: 2414:Prometheus Books 2405: 2396: 2395: 2387: 2323:Phreno-magnetism 2248:Brodmann's areas 2061:Lower sentiments 2036:Constructiveness 1761:1848 edition of 1618: 1616: 1354: 1351: 1273:mental faculties 1267:Mental faculties 1245:The Phrenologist 1129: 1122: 1115: 879:Gill plate trade 641:Vaginal steaming 288:Colloidal silver 256:Charcoal cleanse 75: 52: 51: 21: 5899: 5898: 5894: 5893: 5892: 5890: 5889: 5888: 5829: 5828: 5827: 5822: 5719: 5695:Bogdanov affair 5683: 5663:Claude Vorilhon 5549:Robert Charroux 5524:Sucharit Bhakdi 5516: 5506: 5343: 5273: 5213:Genocide denial 5178:Japhetic theory 5173:Indigo children 5089:2012 phenomenon 5077: 5021:Patent medicine 4941:Energy medicine 4914:Colon cleansing 4899:Crystal healing 4834:Adrenal fatigue 4808: 4806: 4799: 4704: 4695: 4690: 4565: 4560: 4515: 4513: 4476: 4474: 4467: 4390: 4355:10.2307/2210860 4329: 4328: 4319: 4318: 4298: 4210: 4208: 4147: 4142: 4141: 4127: 4125: 4108: 4104: 4087: 4083: 4068:10.2307/2920231 4052: 4048: 4040: 4036: 4021:10.2307/1908635 4003: 3999: 3984: 3962: 3958: 3952:McCandless 1992 3950: 3946: 3940:McCandless 1992 3938: 3934: 3928:McCandless 1992 3926: 3922: 3916:McCandless 1992 3914: 3910: 3901: 3899: 3886: 3885: 3881: 3868: 3866: 3853: 3846: 3838: 3834: 3826: 3822: 3814: 3810: 3802: 3798: 3790: 3783: 3779:, pp. 3–9. 3775: 3771: 3763: 3759: 3751: 3747: 3732: 3720:. Buffalo, NY: 3710: 3706: 3700:McCandless 1992 3698: 3691: 3636: 3632: 3626:McCandless 1992 3624: 3620: 3611: 3609: 3605: 3590: 3584: 3580: 3570: 3568: 3551: 3547: 3540: 3522: 3518: 3510: 3506: 3498: 3494: 3480: 3479: 3475: 3467: 3463: 3455: 3451: 3443: 3436: 3428: 3424: 3416: 3412: 3404: 3400: 3391: 3389: 3354: 3347: 3339: 3335: 3325: 3323: 3312: 3308: 3293:10.2307/2842265 3277: 3273: 3256: 3252: 3246:McCandless 1992 3244: 3240: 3232: 3228: 3220: 3216: 3208: 3201: 3193: 3189: 3181: 3177: 3160: 3156: 3150:McCandless 1992 3148: 3141: 3133: 3129: 3121: 3114: 3106: 3102: 3091: 3084: 3076: 3065: 3057: 3048: 3035: 3034: 3030: 3022: 3018: 3010: 3003: 2995: 2991: 2983: 2976: 2968: 2961: 2953: 2949: 2941: 2934: 2928:McCandless 1992 2926: 2922: 2914: 2907: 2899: 2895: 2886: 2882: 2874: 2870: 2862: 2851: 2838: 2834: 2823: 2803: 2799: 2789: 2787: 2770: 2769: 2765: 2755: 2729: 2725: 2712: 2708: 2700: 2696: 2687: 2685: 2668: 2661: 2614: 2610: 2601: 2597: 2588: 2584: 2568:, p. 150; 2566:Flourens (1844) 2564: 2560: 2552:, p. 156; 2540: 2536: 2520: 2516: 2469: 2465: 2454: 2450: 2443: 2425: 2421: 2406: 2399: 2388: 2379: 2374: 2369: 2233: 2209:Edgar Allan Poe 2201: 2185: 2124: 2058: 2039:Destructiveness 2021:Acquisitiveness 2006: 1982: 1950:Bowdoin College 1945: 1926: 1913: 1899: 1886: 1870: 1861: 1853:Portland, Maine 1836: 1805: 1793: 1772: 1755: 1723:prehistoric man 1644:Cesare Lombroso 1642:(as pursued by 1620: 1614: 1612: 1568:Luigi Ferrarese 1552:Robert Chambers 1539:octagonal house 1531:phrenology head 1447:, with precise 1352: 1339: 1304: 1269: 1235:neuropsychology 1133: 1104: 1103: 1049:Adrenal fatigue 1044: 1036: 1035: 810:Southern Africa 795: 785: 784: 755: 753:Classifications 745: 744: 721:in chiropractic 679: 671: 670: 591:Quantum healing 581:Psychic surgery 456:Ionized jewelry 419:Herbal medicine 367:Esoteric energy 357:Energy medicine 325:Cupping therapy 320:Crystal healing 293:Colon cleansing 231:Bowen technique 201:Auriculotherapy 156: 148: 147: 83: 42: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5897: 5887: 5886: 5881: 5876: 5871: 5866: 5861: 5856: 5851: 5846: 5841: 5824: 5823: 5821: 5820: 5813: 5806: 5799: 5792: 5785: 5778: 5771: 5766: 5761: 5754: 5747: 5740: 5733: 5727: 5725: 5721: 5720: 5718: 5717: 5712: 5707: 5702: 5697: 5691: 5689: 5688:Related topics 5685: 5684: 5682: 5681: 5676: 5671: 5669:Randolph Stone 5666: 5656: 5651: 5646: 5644:Theodor Morell 5641: 5636: 5634:Joseph Mercola 5631: 5629:Jenny McCarthy 5626: 5621: 5616: 5611: 5606: 5601: 5596: 5594:Graham Hancock 5591: 5589:Goop (company) 5586: 5581: 5576: 5571: 5566: 5564:Vernon Coleman 5561: 5556: 5551: 5546: 5541: 5536: 5531: 5526: 5520: 5518: 5512: 5511: 5508: 5507: 5505: 5504: 5499: 5494: 5489: 5484: 5479: 5474: 5469: 5464: 5459: 5454: 5449: 5444: 5439: 5434: 5429: 5424: 5419: 5414: 5409: 5404: 5399: 5398: 5397: 5387: 5382: 5377: 5372: 5367: 5362: 5357: 5351: 5349: 5345: 5344: 5342: 5341: 5336: 5331: 5329:Teleportation‎ 5326: 5325: 5324: 5319: 5309: 5304: 5298: 5292: 5287: 5281: 5279: 5275: 5274: 5272: 5271: 5266: 5261: 5260: 5259: 5257:Melanin theory 5254: 5244: 5243: 5242: 5232: 5227: 5226: 5225: 5220: 5215: 5205: 5200: 5198:Parapsychology 5195: 5190: 5185: 5180: 5175: 5170: 5165: 5164: 5163: 5158: 5148: 5143: 5142: 5141: 5136: 5131: 5126: 5121: 5116: 5106: 5101: 5096: 5091: 5085: 5083: 5082:Social science 5079: 5078: 5076: 5075: 5070: 5065: 5060: 5055: 5054: 5053: 5043: 5038: 5033: 5031:Primal therapy 5028: 5023: 5018: 5013: 5008: 5003: 4998: 4996:Magnet therapy 4993: 4988: 4983: 4978: 4973: 4968: 4963: 4958: 4953: 4948: 4943: 4938: 4933: 4928: 4923: 4918: 4917: 4916: 4909:Detoxification 4906: 4901: 4896: 4891: 4886: 4881: 4876: 4871: 4866: 4861: 4856: 4851: 4846: 4841: 4836: 4831: 4826: 4820: 4818: 4811: 4801: 4800: 4798: 4797: 4794:Voodoo Science 4790: 4785: 4780: 4775: 4770: 4765: 4760: 4755: 4754: 4753: 4748: 4743: 4738: 4736:Fringe science 4728: 4723: 4718: 4712: 4710: 4706: 4705: 4700: 4697: 4696: 4689: 4688: 4681: 4674: 4666: 4660: 4659: 4650: 4647:Steven Novella 4638: 4630: 4620: 4611: 4603: 4595: 4587: 4576: 4564: 4563:External links 4561: 4559: 4558: 4521: 4495: 4482: 4466:978-0773525801 4465: 4446: 4433: 4394: 4389:978-0070450875 4388: 4382:Book Company. 4367: 4349:(2): 199–230. 4338: 4330:|journal= 4297:978-1438427973 4296: 4275: 4238: 4229: 4216: 4194: 4181: 4172: 4162:(3): 249–260. 4148: 4146: 4143: 4140: 4139: 4102: 4081: 4062:(3): 209–231. 4046: 4034: 3997: 3983:978-1433816994 3982: 3956: 3954:, p. 212. 3944: 3942:, p. 206. 3932: 3930:, p. 208. 3920: 3908: 3879: 3844: 3832: 3820: 3808: 3796: 3781: 3777:Parssinen 1974 3769: 3765:Parssinen 1974 3757: 3753:Parssinen 1974 3745: 3730: 3704: 3702:, p. 210. 3689: 3650:(2): 261–280. 3630: 3628:, p. 204. 3618: 3601:(2): 636–637. 3578: 3545: 3539:978-1978813069 3538: 3516: 3504: 3492: 3473: 3461: 3449: 3434: 3422: 3410: 3398: 3368:(1): 164–193. 3345: 3333: 3306: 3271: 3265:10.1101/243089 3250: 3248:, p. 211. 3238: 3226: 3214: 3199: 3187: 3185:, p. 259. 3175: 3154: 3152:, p. 213. 3139: 3127: 3112: 3100: 3097:. p. 184. 3082: 3080:, p. 260. 3063: 3061:, p. 261. 3046: 3043:on 2010-03-18. 3039:Archived from 3028: 3024:Parssinen 1974 3016: 3012:Parssinen 1974 3001: 2989: 2985:Parssinen 1974 2974: 2959: 2947: 2932: 2930:, p. 199. 2920: 2916:Parssinen 1974 2905: 2893: 2880: 2868: 2849: 2832: 2821: 2797: 2763: 2754:978-0195181821 2753: 2723: 2706: 2702:Parssinen 1974 2694: 2659: 2608: 2595: 2582: 2558: 2548:, p. 11; 2544:, p. 54; 2534: 2514: 2463: 2448: 2441: 2419: 2416:. p. 200. 2397: 2376: 2375: 2373: 2370: 2368: 2367: 2360: 2355: 2350: 2345: 2340: 2335: 2330: 2325: 2320: 2315: 2310: 2305: 2300: 2295: 2293:Moral insanity 2290: 2285: 2280: 2275: 2270: 2265: 2260: 2255: 2253:Characterology 2250: 2245: 2240: 2234: 2232: 2229: 2200: 2197: 2196: 2195: 2192: 2184: 2181: 2180: 2179: 2176: 2173: 2170: 2167: 2164: 2161: 2158: 2155: 2152: 2149: 2146: 2143: 2140: 2137: 2134: 2131: 2123: 2120: 2119: 2118: 2115: 2112: 2109: 2106: 2103: 2100: 2097: 2094: 2080: 2079: 2076: 2073: 2070: 2057: 2054: 2053: 2052: 2049: 2046: 2043: 2040: 2037: 2034: 2031: 2028: 2025: 2022: 2019: 2016: 2015:Alimentiveness 2013: 2005: 2002: 1981: 1978: 1970:John Brown Jr. 1944: 1941: 1925: 1922: 1912: 1909: 1898: 1895: 1885: 1882: 1869: 1866: 1860: 1857: 1835: 1832: 1831: 1830: 1827: 1824: 1821: 1804: 1801: 1792: 1789: 1771: 1768: 1754: 1751: 1715:orthogenetical 1687:Roman Catholic 1599: 1464:United Kingdom 1440: 1439: 1436: 1433: 1430: 1427: 1338: 1335: 1303: 1300: 1268: 1265: 1135: 1134: 1132: 1131: 1124: 1117: 1109: 1106: 1105: 1102: 1101: 1096: 1091: 1086: 1081: 1076: 1071: 1066: 1061: 1056: 1051: 1045: 1042: 1041: 1038: 1037: 1034: 1033: 1028: 1023: 1018: 1013: 1008: 1003: 998: 993: 988: 983: 978: 973: 968: 963: 958: 953: 948: 943: 938: 933: 928: 923: 922: 921: 916: 911: 906: 901: 899:Pressure point 896: 891: 886: 881: 876: 871: 866: 861: 851: 846: 841: 836: 831: 830: 829: 824: 814: 813: 812: 807: 796: 791: 790: 787: 786: 783: 782: 780:Energy therapy 777: 772: 767: 762: 756: 751: 750: 747: 746: 743: 742: 741: 740: 730: 725: 724: 723: 718: 713: 708: 698: 697: 696: 686: 680: 677: 676: 673: 672: 669: 668: 666:Zero balancing 663: 658: 653: 651:Vision therapy 648: 643: 638: 633: 628: 623: 618: 613: 608: 603: 598: 593: 588: 583: 578: 573: 568: 566:Parapsychology 563: 558: 553: 548: 543: 538: 533: 528: 523: 518: 513: 508: 503: 498: 493: 488: 486:Manual therapy 483: 481:Magnet therapy 478: 473: 468: 463: 458: 453: 448: 443: 442: 441: 431: 426: 421: 416: 411: 406: 401: 396: 391: 386: 381: 380: 379: 374: 369: 364: 354: 349: 344: 343: 342: 335:Detoxification 332: 327: 322: 317: 312: 307: 302: 301: 300: 290: 285: 280: 275: 274: 273: 268: 258: 253: 248: 243: 238: 233: 228: 223: 218: 213: 208: 203: 198: 193: 188: 183: 178: 173: 168: 163: 157: 154: 153: 150: 149: 146: 145: 140: 139: 138: 128: 123: 118: 113: 112:(health fraud) 107: 102: 101: 100: 95: 84: 81: 80: 77: 76: 68: 67: 61: 60: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5896: 5885: 5882: 5880: 5879:Pseudoscience 5877: 5875: 5872: 5870: 5867: 5865: 5862: 5860: 5857: 5855: 5852: 5850: 5847: 5845: 5842: 5840: 5837: 5836: 5834: 5819: 5818: 5814: 5812: 5811: 5807: 5805: 5804: 5800: 5798: 5797: 5793: 5791: 5790: 5786: 5784: 5783: 5779: 5777: 5776: 5772: 5770: 5767: 5765: 5762: 5760: 5759: 5758:Fortean Times 5755: 5753: 5752: 5748: 5746: 5745: 5741: 5739: 5738: 5734: 5732: 5729: 5728: 5726: 5722: 5716: 5713: 5711: 5708: 5706: 5703: 5701: 5698: 5696: 5693: 5692: 5690: 5686: 5680: 5677: 5675: 5672: 5670: 5667: 5664: 5660: 5657: 5655: 5652: 5650: 5647: 5645: 5642: 5640: 5637: 5635: 5632: 5630: 5627: 5625: 5622: 5620: 5617: 5615: 5612: 5610: 5607: 5605: 5602: 5600: 5597: 5595: 5592: 5590: 5587: 5585: 5582: 5580: 5577: 5575: 5572: 5570: 5567: 5565: 5562: 5560: 5557: 5555: 5554:Deepak Chopra 5552: 5550: 5547: 5545: 5542: 5540: 5537: 5535: 5532: 5530: 5527: 5525: 5522: 5521: 5519: 5517:pseudoscience 5513: 5503: 5500: 5498: 5495: 5493: 5490: 5488: 5485: 5483: 5480: 5478: 5475: 5473: 5470: 5468: 5465: 5463: 5460: 5458: 5455: 5453: 5450: 5448: 5445: 5443: 5440: 5438: 5435: 5433: 5430: 5428: 5425: 5423: 5420: 5418: 5415: 5413: 5410: 5408: 5405: 5403: 5400: 5396: 5393: 5392: 5391: 5388: 5386: 5385:Cryptozoology 5383: 5381: 5378: 5376: 5373: 5371: 5368: 5366: 5363: 5361: 5358: 5356: 5353: 5352: 5350: 5346: 5340: 5337: 5335: 5332: 5330: 5327: 5323: 5320: 5318: 5315: 5314: 5313: 5310: 5308: 5305: 5302: 5299: 5296: 5293: 5291: 5288: 5286: 5285:Anti-gravity‎ 5283: 5282: 5280: 5276: 5270: 5267: 5265: 5262: 5258: 5255: 5253: 5250: 5249: 5248: 5245: 5241: 5238: 5237: 5236: 5233: 5231: 5228: 5224: 5221: 5219: 5216: 5214: 5211: 5210: 5209: 5208:Pseudohistory 5206: 5204: 5201: 5199: 5196: 5194: 5191: 5189: 5186: 5184: 5181: 5179: 5176: 5174: 5171: 5169: 5166: 5162: 5159: 5157: 5156:Generationism 5154: 5153: 5152: 5149: 5147: 5144: 5140: 5137: 5135: 5132: 5130: 5127: 5125: 5122: 5120: 5117: 5115: 5114:5G conspiracy 5112: 5111: 5110: 5107: 5105: 5104:Catastrophism 5102: 5100: 5097: 5095: 5092: 5090: 5087: 5086: 5084: 5080: 5074: 5071: 5069: 5066: 5064: 5061: 5059: 5056: 5052: 5049: 5048: 5047: 5044: 5042: 5039: 5037: 5034: 5032: 5029: 5027: 5024: 5022: 5019: 5017: 5014: 5012: 5009: 5007: 5004: 5002: 4999: 4997: 4994: 4992: 4989: 4987: 4984: 4982: 4979: 4977: 4974: 4972: 4969: 4967: 4964: 4962: 4959: 4957: 4954: 4952: 4951:FasciaBlaster 4949: 4947: 4944: 4942: 4939: 4937: 4934: 4932: 4929: 4927: 4924: 4922: 4919: 4915: 4912: 4911: 4910: 4907: 4905: 4902: 4900: 4897: 4895: 4892: 4890: 4889:Correactology 4887: 4885: 4884:Chromotherapy 4882: 4880: 4877: 4875: 4872: 4870: 4867: 4865: 4862: 4860: 4857: 4855: 4852: 4850: 4847: 4845: 4842: 4840: 4837: 4835: 4832: 4830: 4827: 4825: 4822: 4821: 4819: 4815: 4812: 4810: 4809:pseudoscience 4802: 4796: 4795: 4791: 4789: 4786: 4784: 4781: 4779: 4776: 4774: 4771: 4769: 4766: 4764: 4761: 4759: 4756: 4752: 4749: 4747: 4746:Pseudohistory 4744: 4742: 4739: 4737: 4734: 4733: 4732: 4731:Fringe theory 4729: 4727: 4724: 4722: 4719: 4717: 4714: 4713: 4711: 4707: 4703: 4698: 4694: 4693:Pseudoscience 4687: 4682: 4680: 4675: 4673: 4668: 4667: 4664: 4658: 4654: 4651: 4648: 4644: 4643: 4639: 4637: 4636: 4631: 4628: 4624: 4621: 4619: 4617: 4612: 4609: 4608: 4604: 4601: 4600: 4596: 4593: 4592: 4588: 4586: 4582: 4581: 4577: 4574: 4570: 4567: 4566: 4555: 4551: 4546: 4541: 4537: 4533: 4532: 4527: 4522: 4511: 4507: 4503: 4502: 4496: 4492: 4489:. Cambridge: 4488: 4483: 4472: 4468: 4462: 4458: 4454: 4453: 4447: 4443: 4439: 4434: 4430: 4426: 4422: 4418: 4414: 4410: 4406: 4402: 4401: 4395: 4391: 4385: 4381: 4376: 4375: 4368: 4364: 4360: 4356: 4352: 4348: 4344: 4339: 4335: 4323: 4315: 4311: 4307: 4303: 4299: 4293: 4289: 4285: 4281: 4276: 4272: 4268: 4264: 4260: 4256: 4252: 4248: 4244: 4239: 4235: 4230: 4226: 4222: 4217: 4206: 4202: 4201: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4182: 4178: 4173: 4169: 4165: 4161: 4157: 4156: 4150: 4149: 4135: 4123: 4119: 4118: 4113: 4106: 4099: 4095: 4091: 4085: 4077: 4073: 4069: 4065: 4061: 4057: 4050: 4043: 4038: 4030: 4026: 4022: 4018: 4014: 4010: 4009: 4001: 3993: 3989: 3985: 3979: 3975: 3971: 3967: 3960: 3953: 3948: 3941: 3936: 3929: 3924: 3917: 3912: 3897: 3893: 3889: 3883: 3875: 3864: 3860: 3859: 3851: 3849: 3842:, p. 35. 3841: 3836: 3829: 3824: 3818:, p. 28. 3817: 3812: 3806:, p. 30. 3805: 3800: 3793: 3788: 3786: 3778: 3773: 3766: 3761: 3755:, p. 14. 3754: 3749: 3741: 3737: 3733: 3727: 3723: 3718: 3717: 3708: 3701: 3696: 3694: 3685: 3681: 3677: 3673: 3668: 3663: 3658: 3653: 3649: 3645: 3641: 3634: 3627: 3622: 3604: 3600: 3596: 3589: 3582: 3566: 3562: 3561: 3556: 3549: 3541: 3535: 3531: 3527: 3520: 3514:, p. 76. 3513: 3508: 3502:, p. 80. 3501: 3496: 3488: 3484: 3477: 3471:, p. 77. 3470: 3465: 3458: 3453: 3447:, p. 74. 3446: 3441: 3439: 3432:, p. 65. 3431: 3426: 3420:, p. 64. 3419: 3414: 3408:, p. 62. 3407: 3402: 3387: 3383: 3379: 3375: 3371: 3367: 3363: 3359: 3352: 3350: 3343:, p. 59. 3342: 3337: 3321: 3317: 3310: 3302: 3298: 3294: 3290: 3286: 3282: 3275: 3266: 3261: 3254: 3247: 3242: 3236:, p. 56. 3235: 3230: 3224:, p. 80. 3223: 3218: 3212:, p. 81. 3211: 3206: 3204: 3197:, p. 52. 3196: 3191: 3184: 3179: 3171: 3167: 3166: 3158: 3151: 3146: 3144: 3136: 3131: 3125:, p. 75. 3124: 3119: 3117: 3110:, p. 83. 3109: 3104: 3096: 3089: 3087: 3079: 3074: 3072: 3070: 3068: 3060: 3055: 3053: 3051: 3042: 3038: 3032: 3025: 3020: 3013: 3008: 3006: 2999:, p. 51. 2998: 2993: 2986: 2981: 2979: 2972:, p. 50. 2971: 2966: 2964: 2956: 2951: 2945:, p. 25. 2944: 2939: 2937: 2929: 2924: 2917: 2912: 2910: 2903:, p. 53. 2902: 2897: 2890: 2884: 2878:, p. 56. 2877: 2872: 2866:, p. 49. 2865: 2860: 2858: 2856: 2854: 2845: 2844: 2836: 2828: 2824: 2818: 2814: 2810: 2809: 2801: 2785: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2767: 2760: 2756: 2750: 2746: 2742: 2737: 2736: 2727: 2719: 2718: 2710: 2703: 2698: 2684:on 2021-06-03 2683: 2679: 2678: 2673: 2666: 2664: 2655: 2651: 2646: 2641: 2636: 2631: 2627: 2623: 2619: 2612: 2605: 2599: 2592: 2586: 2580:, p. 134 2579: 2575: 2571: 2567: 2562: 2555: 2551: 2550:Cooter (1990) 2547: 2546:Stiles (2012) 2543: 2538: 2532: 2531:0-7792-5135-0 2528: 2524: 2518: 2510: 2506: 2501: 2496: 2491: 2486: 2482: 2478: 2474: 2467: 2459: 2452: 2444: 2442:0-262-56025-9 2438: 2434: 2430: 2423: 2415: 2411: 2404: 2402: 2393: 2386: 2384: 2382: 2377: 2366: 2365: 2361: 2359: 2356: 2354: 2351: 2349: 2346: 2344: 2341: 2339: 2336: 2334: 2331: 2329: 2326: 2324: 2321: 2319: 2316: 2314: 2311: 2309: 2306: 2304: 2303:Neuro-imaging 2301: 2299: 2296: 2294: 2291: 2289: 2286: 2284: 2281: 2279: 2276: 2274: 2271: 2269: 2266: 2264: 2261: 2259: 2256: 2254: 2251: 2249: 2246: 2244: 2241: 2239: 2238:Anthropometry 2236: 2235: 2228: 2226: 2225:Black Thought 2222: 2218: 2217: 2212: 2210: 2206: 2193: 2190: 2189: 2188: 2177: 2174: 2171: 2168: 2165: 2162: 2159: 2156: 2153: 2150: 2147: 2144: 2142:Individuality 2141: 2138: 2135: 2132: 2129: 2128: 2127: 2116: 2113: 2110: 2107: 2104: 2101: 2098: 2095: 2093: 2090: 2089: 2088: 2085: 2084: 2077: 2074: 2071: 2068: 2067: 2066: 2063: 2062: 2051:Secretiveness 2050: 2047: 2044: 2041: 2038: 2035: 2032: 2030:Combativeness 2029: 2026: 2023: 2020: 2017: 2014: 2011: 2010: 2009: 1997: 1989: 1985: 1977: 1975: 1971: 1967: 1962: 1957: 1955: 1951: 1943:United States 1940: 1937: 1932: 1921: 1919: 1918:deterministic 1908: 1905: 1897:Great Britain 1890: 1881: 1879: 1875: 1874:Victorian era 1865: 1856: 1854: 1850: 1846: 1842: 1828: 1825: 1822: 1820:Slow learners 1819: 1818: 1817: 1815: 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Bouts, a 1683:psychognomy 1658:(1901) and 1636:criminology 1506:determinism 1407:cranioscopy 1379:physiognomy 1360:Hippocrates 1353: 1895 1331:religiosity 1316:craniometer 1312:personality 1296:physiognomy 1292:craniometry 976:Mien Shiang 894:Moxibustion 606:Reflexology 531:Oil pulling 526:Naturopathy 466:Jilly Juice 246:Camel urine 216:Black salve 166:Acupuncture 161:Acupressure 126:Antiscience 98:Terminology 5839:Phrenology 5833:Categories 5769:Quackwatch 5599:David Icke 5579:Max Gerson 5574:Gaia, Inc. 5462:Numerology 5457:Lysenkoism 5452:Levitation 5432:Graphology 5317:Dean drive 5252:Aryan race 5183:Mediumship 5058:Trepanning 5026:Phrenology 4966:Homeopathy 4864:Biorhythms 4763:Paranormal 4516:2021-06-25 4477:2016-01-27 4211:2012-06-10 4042:Combe 1851 3902:2020-09-25 3869:2020-11-19 3792:Staum 2003 3731:0879754192 3612:2016-11-11 3512:Staum 2003 3500:Lyons 2009 3469:Staum 2003 3457:Lyons 2009 3445:Staum 2003 3430:Staum 2003 3418:Staum 2003 3406:Staum 2003 3392:2022-07-12 3341:Staum 2003 3234:Staum 2003 3222:Staum 2003 3210:Staum 2003 3195:Staum 2003 3123:Lyons 2009 3108:Lyons 2009 2997:Staum 2003 2970:Staum 2003 2955:Combe 1851 2901:Lyons 2009 2876:Lyons 2009 2864:Staum 2003 2743:. p. 2688:2021-03-30 2523:Phrenology 2372:References 2318:Pathognomy 2219:(2002) by 2216:Phrenology 2194:Comparison 2111:Veneration 2056:Sentiments 1974:John Brown 1868:Psychology 1859:Psychiatry 1717:view on a 1679:graphology 1667:Paul Bouts 1231:psychology 1227:psychiatry 1215:Paul Broca 1211:cerebellum 1189:physician 1146:(from 1144:craniology 1140:Phrenology 1074:Heavy legs 1031:Vietnamese 1011:Sri Lankan 571:Phrenology 556:Osteopathy 546:Orthopathy 434:Homeopathy 340:Foot detox 236:Breathwork 181:Apitherapy 136:Scientific 131:Skepticism 5724:Resources 5654:Mehmet Oz 5472:Polygraph 5422:Feng shui 5390:Dianetics 5365:Astrology 5230:Pseudolaw 5036:Radionics 5011:Palmistry 4976:Iridology 4778:Snake oil 4721:Charlatan 4332:ignored ( 4322:cite book 4314:141992807 4271:144035028 3992:862928518 3676:0007-0874 3485:. Num 3. 3374:1543-4273 3037:"Oops..." 2483:: 26–35. 2433:MIT Press 2313:Palmistry 2221:The Roots 2191:Causality 2108:Imitation 2024:Causality 1939:Ireland. 1936:Vatican's 1884:Reception 1849:John Neal 1803:Education 1727:criminals 1632:evolution 1591:mesmerism 1586:mesmerist 1497:pamphlets 1460:anatomist 1445:faculties 1178:functions 996:Shamanism 981:Mongolian 956:Kayakalpa 931:Curandero 849:Cambodian 839:Brazilian 636:Urophagia 596:Radionics 501:Mesmerism 461:Iridology 32:Phenology 5412:Eugenics 5395:Auditing 4971:Humorism 4946:Fad diet 4894:Cryonics 4854:Ayurveda 4817:Medicine 4773:Quackery 4554:28906933 4510:Archived 4471:Archived 4429:11632363 4263:20558078 4205:Archived 3896:Archived 3863:Archived 3740:17462273 3684:29576034 3603:Archived 3571:April 4, 3565:Archived 3386:Archived 3382:90000339 3320:Archived 2784:Archived 2654:28878641 2509:29864593 2343:Quackery 2231:See also 2148:Locality 2145:Language 2130:Coloring 2105:Ideality 2099:Firmness 2042:Ideality 1675:typology 1671:pedagogy 1605:faux pas 1364:Egyptian 1207:cerebrum 1203:ablation 966:Japanese 909:San Jiao 889:Meridian 817:Ayurveda 656:Vitalism 221:Bodywork 110:Quackery 57:a series 5559:Clonaid 5492:Ufology 5402:Dowsing 5355:Alchemy 5322:EMDrive 5278:Physics 4904:Cupping 4805:Topics 4545:5122056 4421:3786523 4363:2210860 4128:May 24, 4098:archive 4076:2920231 4029:1908635 3326:10 June 3301:2842265 3260:bioRxiv 2645:5572361 2628:: 427. 2500:6143440 2139:Hearing 1924:Ireland 1872:In the 1615: 1451:in the 1337:History 1320:caliper 1284:cranial 1256:surface 1155:(phrēn) 1021:Tibetan 1001:Shiatsu 946:Iranian 926:Chumash 919:Zang-fu 884:Long gu 874:Gua sha 854:Chinese 800:African 616:Rolfing 93:History 5467:Orgone 4552: 4542: 4463: 4444:: 134. 4427: 4419: 4386: 4361: 4312: 4304: 4294: 4269: 4261: 4094:online 4074: 4027: 3990: 3980: 3738: 3728: 3682: 3674: 3536: 3380: 3372: 3299: 3262: 2887:1833, 2819: 2751: 2652: 2642: 2529: 2507: 2497: 2477:Cortex 2439: 2178:Weight 2151:Number 2117:Wonder 1911:France 1770:Racism 1743:Tutsis 1739:Rwanda 1695:Canada 1691:Brazil 1648:London 1475:Europe 1449:organs 1302:Method 1187:German 1089:PANDAS 1006:Siddha 971:Korean 914:Tui na 869:Dit da 536:Orgone 5348:Other 5041:Reiki 4726:Crank 4645:– by 4417:JSTOR 4359:JSTOR 4310:S2CID 4302:JSTOR 4267:S2CID 4259:JSTOR 4072:JSTOR 4025:JSTOR 3606:(PDF) 3591:(PDF) 3560:Slate 3378:JSTOR 3297:JSTOR 2813:Brill 2207:) in 2172:Touch 2166:Taste 2163:Smell 2157:Sight 2154:Order 1781:Māori 1747:Hutus 1745:over 1535:china 1453:brain 1419:Heads 1368:Galen 1327:organ 1254:inner 1174:brain 1164:logos 1160:λόγος 1150: 1026:Unani 961:Kambo 941:Hilot 822:Dosha 372:Reiki 5659:Raël 4550:PMID 4461:ISBN 4425:PMID 4384:ISBN 4334:help 4292:ISBN 4130:2019 4117:Vibe 4090:Mode 3988:OCLC 3978:ISBN 3736:OCLC 3726:ISBN 3680:PMID 3672:ISSN 3573:2021 3534:ISBN 3370:ISSN 3328:2012 2817:ISBN 2792:2013 2749:ISBN 2650:PMID 2527:ISBN 2505:PMID 2437:ISBN 2175:Tune 2169:Time 2160:Size 2136:Form 2102:Hope 1814:Issy 1779:and 1713:and 1701:and 1693:and 1677:and 1638:and 1229:and 1209:and 1153:φρήν 951:Jamu 827:MVAH 805:Muti 611:RBOP 521:NAET 4655:by 4540:PMC 4409:doi 4351:doi 4284:doi 4251:doi 4164:doi 4064:doi 4017:doi 3662:hdl 3652:doi 3487:LII 3289:doi 2640:PMC 2630:doi 2495:PMC 2485:doi 2481:106 1851:in 1533:(a 1525:in 1279:). 1142:or 511:MMS 5835:: 4649:MD 4625:: 4571:, 4548:. 4534:. 4528:. 4508:. 4504:. 4469:. 4459:. 4442:16 4440:. 4423:. 4415:. 4403:. 4357:. 4347:58 4345:. 4326:: 4324:}} 4320:{{ 4308:. 4300:. 4290:. 4265:. 4257:. 4247:10 4245:. 4160:16 4158:. 4122:10 4120:. 4114:. 4100:). 4070:. 4058:. 4023:. 4013:75 4011:. 3986:. 3976:. 3894:. 3890:. 3861:. 3847:^ 3784:^ 3734:. 3724:. 3692:^ 3678:. 3670:. 3660:. 3648:51 3646:. 3642:. 3597:. 3593:. 3557:. 3437:^ 3384:. 3376:. 3366:15 3364:. 3360:. 3348:^ 3318:. 3295:. 3285:20 3283:. 3202:^ 3142:^ 3115:^ 3085:^ 3066:^ 3049:^ 3004:^ 2977:^ 2962:^ 2935:^ 2908:^ 2852:^ 2811:. 2778:. 2774:. 2757:. 2747:. 2745:29 2674:. 2662:^ 2648:. 2638:. 2626:11 2624:. 2620:. 2503:. 2493:. 2479:. 2475:. 2400:^ 2380:^ 1749:. 1634:, 1608:. 1541:. 1455:. 1350:c. 904:Qi 59:on 5665:) 5661:( 5303:‎ 5297:‎ 4685:e 4678:t 4671:v 4556:. 4536:5 4519:. 4493:. 4480:. 4431:. 4411:: 4405:8 4392:. 4365:. 4353:: 4336:) 4316:. 4286:: 4273:. 4253:: 4227:. 4214:. 4192:. 4170:. 4166:: 4136:. 4096:( 4078:. 4066:: 4060:2 4031:. 4019:: 3994:. 3905:. 3876:. 3742:. 3686:. 3664:: 3654:: 3615:. 3599:7 3575:. 3542:. 3395:. 3330:. 3303:. 3291:: 3268:. 3172:. 2846:. 2829:. 2794:. 2691:. 2656:. 2632:: 2511:. 2487:: 2445:. 1730:( 1613:— 1166:) 1162:( 1128:e 1121:t 1114:v 41:. 34:. 20:)

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