56:
3396:
2682:
36:
2784:
2689:
3196:. Such systems lie in some sense on the boundary between ordered and disordered behaviour and cannot typically be described either by simple, smooth, mathematical functions, or by pure randomness. The spontaneous formation of interesting spatial features on a wide range of length scales is one manifestation of plasma complexity. The features are interesting, for example, because they are very sharp, spatially intermittent (the distance between features is much larger than the features themselves), or have a
3350:
76:
3362:
2792:
67:
6468:
3317:
3377:
2775:, where collisions between electrons and neutral gas atoms create more ions and electrons (as can be seen in the figure on the right). The first impact of an electron on an atom results in one ion and two electrons. Therefore, the number of charged particles increases rapidly (in the millions) only "after about 20 successive sets of collisions", mainly due to a small mean free path (average distance travelled between collisions).
1633:
2157:
47:
3331:
27:
1237:
3138:
2807:. With ample current density, the discharge forms a luminous arc, where the inter-electrode material (usually, a gas) undergoes various stages — saturation, breakdown, glow, transition, and thermal arc. The voltage rises to its maximum in the saturation stage, and thereafter it undergoes fluctuations of the various stages, while the current progressively increases throughout.
271:
1648:, electric potentials play an important role. The average potential in the space between charged particles, independent of how it can be measured, is called the "plasma potential", or the "space potential". If an electrode is inserted into a plasma, its potential will generally lie considerably below the plasma potential due to what is termed a
3336:
3335:
3332:
3337:
2991:
for vehicle drag reduction. It is also widely used in the web treatment of fabrics. The application of the discharge to synthetic fabrics and plastics functionalizes the surface and allows for paints, glues and similar materials to adhere. The dielectric barrier discharge was used in the mid-1990s to
1028:
Plasma is distinct from the other states of matter. In particular, describing a low-density plasma as merely an "ionized gas" is wrong and misleading, even though it is similar to the gas phase in that both assume no definite shape or volume. The following table summarizes some principal differences:
2174:
To completely describe the state of a plasma, all of the particle locations and velocities that describe the electromagnetic field in the plasma region would need to be written down. However, it is generally not practical or necessary to keep track of all the particles in a plasma. Therefore, plasma
1192:
The strength and range of the electric force and the good conductivity of plasmas usually ensure that the densities of positive and negative charges in any sizeable region are equal ("quasineutrality"). A plasma with a significant excess of charge density, or, in the extreme case, is composed of a
3247:
becomes important and causes a higher index of refraction in the center of the laser beam, where the laser is brighter than at the edges, causing a feedback that focuses the laser even more. The tighter focused laser has a higher peak brightness (irradiance) that forms a plasma. The plasma has an
2986:
this is a non-thermal discharge generated by the application of high voltages across small gaps wherein a non-conducting coating prevents the transition of the plasma discharge into an arc. It is often mislabeled "Corona" discharge in industry and has similar application to corona discharges. A
3334:
4081:
1652:. The good electrical conductivity of plasmas makes their electric fields very small. This results in the important concept of "quasineutrality", which says the density of negative charges is approximately equal to the density of positive charges over large volumes of the plasma (
2056:, meaning that their properties in the direction parallel to the magnetic field are different from those perpendicular to it. While electric fields in plasmas are usually small due to the plasma high conductivity, the electric field associated with a plasma moving with velocity
1912:. Plasma with a magnetic field strong enough to influence the motion of the charged particles is said to be magnetized. A common quantitative criterion is that a particle on average completes at least one gyration around the magnetic-field line before making a collision, i.e.,
234:, with the dynamics of individual particles and macroscopic plasma motion governed by collective electromagnetic fields and very sensitive to externally applied fields. The response of plasma to electromagnetic fields is used in many modern devices and technologies, such as
2219:. A kinetic description is often necessary for collisionless plasmas. There are two common approaches to kinetic description of a plasma. One is based on representing the smoothed distribution function on a grid in velocity and position. The other, known as the
261:
between the other three states of matter, the transition to plasma is not well defined and is a matter of interpretation and context. Whether a given degree of ionization suffices to call a substance "plasma" depends on the specific phenomenon being considered.
1223:
contains tiny charged particles of dust (typically found in space). The dust particles acquire high charges and interact with each other. A plasma that contains larger particles is called grain plasma. Under laboratory conditions, dusty plasmas are also called
276:
275:
272:
1895:
It is possible to produce a plasma that is not quasineutral. An electron beam, for example, has only negative charges. The density of a non-neutral plasma must generally be very low, or it must be very small, otherwise, it will be dissipated by the repulsive
3998:
1639:
as an example of plasma present at Earth's surface: Typically, lightning discharges 30 kiloamperes at up to 100 megavolts, and emits radio waves, light, X- and even gamma rays. Plasma temperatures can approach 30000 K and electron densities may exceed 10
277:
3096:
in the sense that only a tiny fraction of the gas molecules are ionized. These kinds of weakly ionized gases are also nonthermal "cold" plasmas. In the presence of magnetics fields, the study of such magnetized nonthermal weakly ionized gases involves
1605:
fields. However, because of the large difference in mass between electrons and ions, their temperatures may be different, sometimes significantly so. This is especially common in weakly ionized technological plasmas, where the ions are often near the
3680:
1165:
is much smaller than the physical size of the plasma. This criterion means that interactions in the bulk of the plasma are more important than those at its edges, where boundary effects may take place. When this criterion is satisfied, the plasma is
5180:
4372:
4167:
2795:
Avalanche effect between two electrodes. The original ionization event liberates one electron, and each subsequent collision liberates a further electron, so two electrons emerge from each collision: the ionizing electron and the liberated
2899:. These differ from glow discharges in that the sheaths are much less intense. These are widely used in the microfabrication and integrated circuit manufacturing industries for plasma etching and plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition.
4308:
2199:. A more general description is the two-fluid plasma, where the ions and electrons are described separately. Fluid models are often accurate when collisionality is sufficiently high to keep the plasma velocity distribution close to a
274:
3264:
Impermeable plasma is a type of thermal plasma which acts like an impermeable solid with respect to gas or cold plasma and can be physically pushed. Interaction of cold gas and thermal plasma was briefly studied by a group led by
1891:
2882:: non-thermal plasmas generated by the application of DC or low frequency RF (<100 kHz) electric field to the gap between two metal electrodes. Probably the most common plasma; this is the type of plasma generated within
2699:
Just like the many uses of plasma, there are several means for its generation. However, one principle is common to all of them: there must be energy input to produce and sustain it. For this case, plasma is generated when an
3248:
index of refraction lower than one, and causes a defocusing of the laser beam. The interplay of the focusing index of refraction, and the defocusing plasma makes the formation of a long filament of plasma that can be
1248:, showing oxygen, helium, and hydrogen ions that gush into space from regions near the Earth's poles. The faint yellow area shown above the north pole represents gas lost from Earth into space; the green area is the
2992:
show that low temperature atmospheric pressure plasma is effective in inactivating bacterial cells. This work and later experiments using mammalian cells led to the establishment of a new field of research known as
1176:
of the electrons) is much larger than the electron–neutral collision frequency. When this condition is valid, electrostatic interactions dominate over the processes of ordinary gas kinetics. Such plasmas are called
3191:
Although the underlying equations governing plasmas are relatively simple, plasma behaviour is extraordinarily varied and subtle: the emergence of unexpected behaviour from a simple model is a typical feature of a
1570:, is a measure of the thermal kinetic energy per particle. High temperatures are usually needed to sustain ionization, which is a defining feature of a plasma. The degree of plasma ionization is determined by the
3288:
using only an ultrahigh-pressure blanket of cold gas. While spectroscopic data on the characteristics of plasma were claimed to be difficult to obtain due to the high pressure, the passive effect of plasma on
2667:
by the magnetic field), partially magnetized (the electrons but not the ions are trapped by the magnetic field), non-magnetized (the magnetic field is too weak to trap the particles in orbits but may generate
3024:
generated at the high-side of a piezoelectric transformer (PT). This generation variant is particularly suited for high efficient and compact devices where a separate high voltage power supply is not desired.
2996:. The dielectric barrier discharge configuration was also used in the design of low temperature plasma jets. These plasma jets are produced by fast propagating guided ionization waves known as plasma bullets.
1155:
is much higher than unity. It can be readily shown that this criterion is equivalent to smallness of the ratio of the plasma electrostatic and thermal energy densities. Such plasmas are called weakly coupled.
1974:
2533:
Most artificial plasmas are generated by the application of electric and/or magnetic fields through a gas. Plasma generated in a laboratory setting and for industrial use can be generally categorized by:
2142:
3333:
1796:
5688:
Leroux, F. D. R.; Campagne, C.; Perwuelz, A.; Gengembre, L. O. (2008). "Polypropylene film chemical and physical modifications by dielectric barrier discharge plasma treatment at atmospheric pressure".
2223:(PIC) technique, includes kinetic information by following the trajectories of a large number of individual particles. Kinetic models are generally more computationally intensive than fluid models. The
3013:) to one powered electrode, with a grounded electrode held at a small separation distance on the order of 1 cm. Such discharges are commonly stabilized using a noble gas such as helium or argon.
3200:
form. Many of these features were first studied in the laboratory, and have subsequently been recognized throughout the universe. Examples of complexity and complex structures in plasmas include:
1377:
2203:. Because fluid models usually describe the plasma in terms of a single flow at a certain temperature at each spatial location, they can neither capture velocity space structures like beams or
1515:
1013:(i.e., the overall charge of a plasma is roughly zero). Although these particles are unbound, they are not "free" in the sense of not experiencing forces. Moving charged particles generate
2655:
1699:
403:
2602:
339:. Mott-Smith recalls, in particular, that the transport of electrons from thermionic filaments reminded Langmuir of "the way blood plasma carries red and white corpuscles and germs."
3252:
to kilometers in length. One interesting aspect of the filamentation generated plasma is the relatively low ion density due to defocusing effects of the ionized electrons. (See also
2048:
3077:. Research was also conducted in the field of supersonic and hypersonic aerodynamics to study plasma interaction with magnetic fields to eventually achieve passive and even active
1548:
2006:
3301:
at the plasma-gas interface could give rise to a strong secondary mode of heating (known as viscous heating) leading to different kinetics of reactions and formation of complex
1803:
273:
2098:
2076:
324:
containing very few electrons, the ionized gas contains ions and electrons in about equal numbers so that the resultant space charge is very small. We shall use the name
5420:
1459:
5241:
Gomez, E.; Rani, D. A.; Cheeseman, C. R.; Deegan, D.; Wise, M.; Boccaccini, A. R. (2009). "Thermal plasma technology for the treatment of wastes: A critical review".
2545:
The pressure they operate at—vacuum pressure (< 10 mTorr or 1 Pa), moderate pressure (≈1 Torr or 100 Pa), atmospheric pressure (760 Torr or 100 kPa)
1310:
1433:
1406:
1290:
6158:
Talebpour, A.; Abdel-Fattah, M.; Chin, S. L. (2000). "Focusing limits of intense ultrafast laser pulses in a high pressure gas: Road to new spectroscopic source".
3000:
1589:
In most cases, the electrons and heavy plasma particles (ions and neutral atoms) separately have a relatively well-defined temperature; that is, their energy
6042:
3842:"Find in a Library: On radiant matter a lecture delivered to the British Association for the Advancement of Science, at Sheffield, Friday, August 22, 1879"
3439:
2920:
5501:
4783:. National Research Council (U.S.). Panel on Opportunities in Plasma Science and Technology. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. 1995. p. 51.
309:
3802:
2948:
this is a high power thermal discharge of very high temperature (≈10,000 K). It can be generated using various power supplies. It is commonly used in
5057:
5946:"Monte Carlo model for analysis of thermal runaway electrons in streamer tips in transient luminous events and streamer zones of lightning leaders"
3845:
1725:
6343:
6333:
4065:
4924:
7152:
3297:
clearly suggested the effective confinement. They also showed that upon maintaining the impermeability for a few tens of seconds, screening of
6922:
952:
1317:
2227:
may be used to describe the dynamics of a system of charged particles interacting with an electromagnetic field. In magnetized plasmas, a
7241:
5598:
4996:
2916:: similar to a CCP and with similar applications but the electrode consists of a coil wrapped around the chamber where plasma is formed.
6405:
4133:
2215:
Kinetic models describe the particle velocity distribution function at each point in the plasma and therefore do not need to assume a
2050:
is the electron collision rate. It is often the case that the electrons are magnetized while the ions are not. Magnetized plasmas are
1915:
6020:
1125:
and vastly different masses, so that they behave differently in many circumstances, with various types of plasma-specific waves and
335:
and Harold Mott-Smith, both of whom worked with
Langmuir in the 1920s, recall that Langmuir first used the term by analogy with the
3432:
2106:
4653:"Experimental determination of the thermal, turbulent, and rotational ion motion and magnetic field profiles in imploding plasmas"
5478:
3573:
1586:. At low temperatures, ions and electrons tend to recombine into bound states—atoms—and the plasma will eventually become a gas.
999:
6360:
5653:
Leroux, F.; Perwuelz, A.; Campagne, C.; Behary, N. (2006). "Atmospheric air-plasma treatments of polyester textile structures".
245:
Depending on temperature and density, a certain number of neutral particles may also be present, in which case plasma is called
7120:
5427:
3156:
6122:
5360:
5174:
5147:
5094:
5067:
4953:
4934:
4620:
4440:
4411:
4405:
4331:
4302:
4249:
4224:
4103:
3992:
3825:
3782:
3757:
3732:
3703:
3674:
3639:
3608:
3017:
2973:
this is a non-thermal discharge generated by the application of high voltage to sharp electrode tips. It is commonly used in
4201:
2183:
Fluid models describe plasmas in terms of smoothed quantities, like density and averaged velocity around each position (see
55:
3284:
In 2013, a group of materials scientists reported that they have successfully generated stable impermeable plasma with no
3160:
3148:
4292:
3425:
2831:
Plasmas find applications in many fields of research, technology and industry, for example, in industrial and extractive
5852:
4358:
2465:
Above the Earth's surface, the ionosphere is a plasma, and the magnetosphere contains plasma. Within our Solar System,
2216:
2200:
1594:
3243:
Filamentation also refers to the self-focusing of a high power laser pulse. At high powers, the nonlinear part of the
3232:. They are sometimes associated with larger current densities, and the interaction with the magnetic field can form a
1464:
6915:
5905:"Interferometric observations of filamentary structures associated with plasma instability in the auroral ionosphere"
5592:
5028:
4979:
4788:
4195:
4161:
4127:
4075:
3863:
3178:
945:
316:
and his colleagues in the 1920s. Langmuir also introduced the term "plasma" as a description of ionized gas in 1928:
154:
3098:
2607:
3645:
3395:
1714:
The magnitude of the potentials and electric fields must be determined by means other than simply finding the net
1655:
6672:
3660:
1590:
359:
6093:
2819:
is given to electrons, which, due to their great mobility and large numbers, are able to disperse it rapidly by
2554:
7287:
7068:
6742:
6667:
6398:
3492:
2258:
Plasmas can appear in nature in various forms and locations, with a few examples given in the following table:
918:
6854:
6682:
5376:
Nemchinsky, V. A.; Severance, W. S. (2006). "What we know and what we do not know about plasma arc cutting".
5164:
4348:
4151:
3523:
3058:
3054:
3038:
3034:
619:
456:
5767:
Lu, X.; Naidis, G.V.; Laroussi, M.; Ostrikov, K. (2014). "Guided ionization waves: Theory and experiments".
2015:
6908:
6864:
6737:
6482:
5532:
3798:
2981:
2929:
1520:
938:
659:
545:
219:. Plasma can be artificially generated, for example, by heating a neutral gas or subjecting it to a strong
6352:
1979:
7205:
4463:
2890:
2368:
2196:
1025:
created by the other charges. In turn, this governs collective behaviour with many degrees of variation.
614:
523:
406:
114:
5294:"Metals Recovery from Artificial Ore in Case of Printed Circuit Boards, Using Plasmatron Plasma Reactor"
7262:
7036:
7009:
4812:
4061:
3841:
3666:
3121:
3048:
2911:
2903:
2663:
The magnetization of the particles within the plasma—magnetized (both ion and electrons are trapped in
6330:
1103:: All gas particles behave in a similar way, largely influenced by collisions with one another and by
7277:
7272:
7267:
6391:
4827:
3092:
Such ionized gases used in "plasma technology" ("technological" or "engineered" plasmas) are usually
3042:
2895:: similar to glow discharge plasmas, but generated with high frequency RF electric fields, typically
2848:
2681:
530:
6144:
5459:
4217:
Plasma
Physics: An Introduction to the Theory of Astrophysical, Geophysical & Laboratory Plasmas
7142:
6889:
6788:
6418:
4878:
Roy, Subrata; Pandey, B. P. (September 2002). "Numerical investigation of a Hall thruster plasma".
3102:
1435:
the neutral density (in number of particles per unit volume). In the case of fully ionized matter,
825:
820:
609:
602:
435:
312:, in Sheffield, on Friday, 22 August 1879. Systematic studies of plasma began with the research of
4701:
3349:
2081:
2059:
6783:
5732:
Laroussi, M. (1996). "Sterilization of contaminated matter with an atmospheric pressure plasma".
4551:
Morfill, G. E.; Ivlev, Alexei V. (2009). "Complex plasmas: An interdisciplinary research field".
1800:
Differentiating this relation provides a means to calculate the electric field from the density:
1292:, that is, the number of charge-contributing electrons per unit volume. The degree of ionization
1083:
888:
883:
552:
231:
6273:"Tunable synthesis and in situ growth of silicon-carbon mesostructures using impermeable plasma"
3361:
2693:
7226:
7088:
6808:
6798:
6548:
6543:
5502:"Electrical optimization of plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition chamber cleaning plasmas"
3410:
2760:
2474:
2192:
1438:
440:
147:
104:
6057:
Zhang, Y. A.; Song, M. T.; Ji, H. S. (2002). "A rope-shaped solar filament and a IIIb flare".
5842:
5582:
5084:
5034:
4943:
3316:
7282:
7231:
7200:
7063:
6984:
5446:
4516:
Greaves, R. G.; Tinkle, M. D.; Surko, C. M. (1994). "Creation and uses of positron plasmas".
2864:
2808:
2744:
2486:
2424:
2410:
2316:
2204:
1707:
1295:
863:
481:
220:
216:
6070:
5985:
Doherty, Lowell R.; Menzel, Donald H. (1965). "Filamentary
Structure in Solar Prominences".
5876:
Dickel, J. R. (1990). "The
Filaments in Supernova Remnants: Sheets, Strings, Ribbons, or?".
4387:
4117:
3980:
3625:
7190:
7014:
6974:
6727:
6487:
6284:
6245:
6202:
6167:
6102:
6066:
5994:
5957:
5916:
5885:
5815:
5776:
5741:
5698:
5625:
5516:
5385:
5353:
Plasma
Processing of Materials : Scientific Opportunities and Technological Challenges
5305:
5250:
5210:
5008:
4887:
4664:
4638:
Advanced Non-Classical
Materials with Complex Behavior: Modeling and Applications, Volume 1
4560:
4525:
4025:
3953:
3898:
3549:
3322:
3285:
3253:
3078:
2764:
2752:
2724:
2709:
2490:
2466:
2453:
2252:
2231:
approach can substantially reduce the computational expense of a fully kinetic simulation.
2188:
1645:
1571:
1411:
1384:
1268:
701:
518:
498:
486:
430:
1461:. Because of the quasineutrality of plasma, the electron and ion densities are related by
8:
7165:
7024:
7019:
7004:
6979:
6956:
6932:
6702:
6594:
6584:
6497:
6452:
5804:"Discharge phenomena of an atmospheric pressure radio-frequency capacitive plasma source"
3376:
3244:
3110:
2856:
2748:
2482:
2417:
1897:
1622:
1607:
1579:
1265:
is necessary. The term "plasma density" by itself usually refers to the electron density
1194:
1187:
1009:
Plasma is typically an electrically quasineutral medium of unbound positive and negative
903:
751:
644:
350:
301:
289:
212:
110:
6288:
6249:
6206:
6171:
6106:
5998:
5961:
5920:
5889:
5819:
5780:
5745:
5702:
5629:
5520:
5389:
5309:
5254:
5214:
5138:
Hippler, R.; Kersten, H.; Schmidt, M.; Schoenbach, K.M., eds. (2008). "Plasma
Sources".
5012:
4891:
4668:
4564:
4529:
4029:
3957:
3902:
2160:
The complex self-constricting magnetic field lines and current paths in a field-aligned
7221:
7098:
7093:
7046:
6849:
6778:
6612:
6305:
6272:
6218:
6132:
5670:
5401:
5328:
5293:
5274:
4806:
4755:
4586:
4491:
4266:
3921:
3886:
3290:
3213:
2815:, which dissociates more gas molecules and ionizes the resulting atoms. Therefore, the
2772:
2514:
2378:
2372:
2363:
2175:
physicists commonly use less detailed descriptions, of which there are two main types:
1886:{\displaystyle {\vec {E}}={\frac {k_{\text{B}}T_{e}}{e}}{\frac {\nabla n_{e}}{n_{e}}}.}
1719:
1241:
1173:
923:
557:
513:
508:
6179:
6078:
5474:
5397:
2787:
Cascade process of ionization. Electrons are "e−", neutral atoms "o", and cations "+".
1908:
The existence of charged particles causes the plasma to generate, and be affected by,
7236:
7185:
7130:
7110:
6996:
6879:
6874:
6844:
6803:
6692:
6644:
6629:
6522:
6492:
6357:
6310:
6118:
6036:
5858:
5848:
5714:
5674:
5588:
5405:
5356:
5333:
5278:
5266:
5170:
5143:
5090:
5063:
5024:
4975:
4949:
4930:
4794:
4784:
4759:
4747:
4682:
4616:
4495:
4483:
4401:
4364:
4354:
4327:
4298:
4245:
4220:
4191:
4157:
4123:
4099:
4071:
4043:
3988:
3926:
3821:
3778:
3753:
3728:
3699:
3670:
3635:
3604:
3281:
in the plasma and subsequently lead to an unexpectedly high heat loss to the walls.
3249:
3229:
3021:
3006:
2925:
2924:: similar to CCP and ICP in that it is typically RF (or microwave). Examples include
2883:
2820:
2816:
2312:
2184:
2161:
1618:
1575:
1551:
540:
491:
246:
6222:
6092:
Chin, S. L. (2006). "Some
Fundamental Concepts of Femtosecond Laser Filamentation".
5614:"Dielectric barrier discharge actuator for vehicle drag reduction at highway speeds"
5223:
5198:
4479:
7175:
7115:
7041:
6834:
6347:
6300:
6292:
6253:
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6002:
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5924:
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5524:
5393:
5323:
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5016:
4903:
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4568:
4533:
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4393:
4033:
3961:
3916:
3906:
3418:
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2852:
2701:
2288:
2220:
1148:
1018:
1014:
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878:
853:
741:
736:
691:
258:
227:
184:
35:
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5262:
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3266:
7195:
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7051:
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6824:
6677:
6414:
6364:
6337:
6114:
5844:
Plasma
Scattering of Electromagnetic Radiation: Theory and Measurement Techniques
5137:
4185:
3724:
3631:
3274:
2993:
2988:
2836:
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2224:
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978:
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792:
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313:
196:
168:
5059:
The High Energy
Universe: Ultra-High Energy Events in Astrophysics and Cosmology
2783:
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6946:
6622:
6617:
6574:
6507:
6502:
6257:
5847:(1st ed., 2nd ed.). Burlington, MA: Academic Press/Elsevier. p. 273.
5710:
5666:
4853:
4572:
3401:
3294:
3270:
3193:
3086:
3062:
2877:
2756:
2728:
2717:
2713:
2705:
2494:
2459:
2431:
2397:
2240:
1909:
1715:
1602:
1598:
1197:. In such a plasma, electric fields play a dominant role. Examples are charged
1067:: Collective motion of particles is ubiquitous in plasma, resulting in various
1022:
873:
731:
696:
597:
503:
282:
239:
235:
126:
3859:
2548:
The degree of ionization within the plasma—fully, partially, or weakly ionized
1092:: For many purposes, the conductivity of a plasma may be treated as infinite.
7256:
7135:
6859:
6839:
6762:
6722:
6657:
6589:
6512:
5862:
4751:
4686:
4487:
4433:"Quasi-neutrality - The Plasma Universe theory (Knowledge-like Encyclopedia)"
3302:
3273:
plasma from the reactor walls. However, later it was found that the external
3233:
3106:
2943:
2669:
2350:
2337:-produced plasmas (LPP), found when high power lasers interact with materials
2322:
2101:
2009:
1583:
1198:
913:
746:
130:
101:
6900:
4798:
2538:
The type of power source used to generate the plasma—DC, AC (typically with
7160:
6884:
6757:
6752:
6747:
6712:
6662:
6579:
6314:
6236:
Braams, C.M. (1966). "Stability of Plasma Confined by a Cold-Gas Blanket".
5802:
Park, J.; Henins, I.; Herrmann, H. W.; Selwyn, G. S.; Hicks, R. F. (2001).
5718:
5418:
5337:
5270:
5110:
4368:
4047:
3930:
3528:
3511:
3237:
3225:
3221:
3209:
3070:
2800:
2522:
2502:
2328:
2298:
2228:
1702:
1649:
1567:
1220:
1214:
1202:
1162:
1152:
898:
893:
858:
590:
336:
93:
6383:
5567:
5550:
3911:
328:
to describe this region containing balanced charges of ions and electrons.
6793:
6687:
6599:
6374:
OpenPIC3D – 3D Hybrid Particle-In-Cell simulation of plasma dynamics
5970:
5945:
5929:
5904:
4908:
3117:
3113:
3066:
2510:
2506:
2498:
2308:
2052:
1711:
are formed, the charge separation can extend some tens of Debye lengths.
1126:
908:
811:
121:
in a fire pit; fires may produce plasma if hot enough. Bottom right: The
6378:
3627:
Plasma Physics: An Introduction to Laboratory, Space, and Fusion Plasmas
3208:
Striations or string-like structures are seen in many plasmas, like the
2907:: a device to produce low temperature (≈1eV) high density plasmas (HDP).
7180:
7170:
6732:
6707:
6634:
6604:
6538:
6517:
5020:
4781:
Plasma science: from fundamental research to technological applications
4743:
3535:
3082:
3074:
2949:
2832:
2688:
2664:
2470:
2404:
2357:
2304:
1262:
830:
726:
332:
293:
75:
6296:
5841:
Sheffield, J.; Froula, D.; Glenzer, S. H.; Luhmann, N. C. Jr. (2011).
5827:
5753:
5638:
5613:
5318:
4926:
Introduction to Plasma Physics: With Space and Laboratory Applications
4899:
4677:
4652:
3965:
2803:
is a continuous electric discharge between two electrodes, similar to
7031:
6214:
5528:
4727:
4702:"Flashes in the Sky: Earth's Gamma-Ray Bursts Triggered by Lightning"
4537:
4038:
4013:
3217:
3061:
to market with commercial power plants of a new kind, converting the
2961:
2804:
2791:
2344:
2292:
1636:
1058:
802:
797:
631:
254:
250:
160:
89:
85:
66:
6467:
5803:
4096:
The Fourth State of Matter: An Introduction to the Physics of Plasma
1610:
while electrons reach thousands of kelvin. The opposite case is the
1086:
up to electric field strengths of tens of kilovolts per centimetre.
96:, illustrating some of the more complex plasma phenomena, including
6869:
6697:
6358:
How to make a glowing ball of plasma in your microwave with a grape
6006:
5140:
Low Temperature Plasmas: Fundamentals, Technologies, and Techniques
3504:
3105:, a challenging field of plasma physics where calculations require
3010:
2896:
2860:
2517:, which have been observed with accreting black holes or in active
2191:, treats the plasma as a single fluid governed by a combination of
1632:
1114:
1010:
781:
686:
666:
652:
200:
192:
6101:. Springer Series in Chemical Physics. Vol. 49. p. 281.
4353:. Chen, Francis F., 1929- (2nd ed.). New York: Plenum Press.
3269:
in 1960s and 1970s for its possible applications in insulation of
2952:
processes. For example, it is used to smelt minerals containing Al
1236:
6829:
6717:
6652:
6569:
6564:
4397:
4179:
4177:
3487:
3368:
3197:
2844:
2840:
2768:
2740:
2736:
1611:
1104:
995:
535:
305:
6193:
Alfvén, H.; Smårs, E. (1960). "Gas-Insulation of a Hot Plasma".
3081:
around vehicles or projectiles, in order to soften and mitigate
2551:
The temperature relationships within the plasma—thermal plasma (
2156:
1969:{\displaystyle \nu _{\mathrm {ce} }/\nu _{\mathrm {coll} }>1}
46:
6438:
5687:
5500:
Sobolewski, M.A.; Langan & Felker, J.G. & B.S. (1997).
4239:
3465:
2518:
2437:
1718:. A common example is to assume that the electrons satisfy the
1614:
plasma where the ion temperature may exceed that of electrons.
1563:
987:
676:
286:
176:
134:
4321:
4174:
2712:
material) as can be seen in the adjacent image, which shows a
1312:
is defined as fraction of neutral particles that are ionized:
6447:
6433:
6368:
5840:
5499:
3460:
2974:
2732:
2334:
2137:{\displaystyle \mathbf {E} =-\mathbf {v} \times \mathbf {B} }
983:
580:
292:. Note the fast moving electrons and slow ions, resembling a
172:
26:
6021:"Hubble views the Crab Nebula M1: The Crab Nebula Filaments"
5652:
4145:
4143:
2353:
contains plasma in the Earth's surrounding space environment
1791:{\displaystyle n_{e}\propto \exp(e\Phi /k_{\text{B}}T_{e}).}
183:) characterized by the presence of a significant portion of
3775:
Low Temperature Plasma Technology: Methods and Applications
3601:
Low Temperature Plasma Technology: Methods and Applications
3298:
2812:
2513:
systems. Plasma is associated with ejection of material in
2478:
2393:
2383:
204:
118:
6373:
4972:
The Earth's Ionosphere: Plasma Physics and Electrodynamics
2489:
is also filled with plasma, albeit at very low densities.
1705:, there can be charge imbalance. In the special case that
6443:
6157:
5350:
4140:
3470:
1151:Λ, representing the number of charge carriers within the
1118:
991:
716:
208:
188:
180:
122:
5984:
5944:
Moss, G. D.; Pasko, V. P.; Liu, N.; Veronis, G. (2006).
5801:
5766:
5240:
2660:
The electrode configuration used to generate the plasma
167: 'moldable substance') is one of four fundamental
257:
are examples of partially ionized plasmas. Unlike the
5551:"Inductively Coupled Plasma Sources and Applications"
5421:"Plasma torch power control for scramjet application"
5196:
4386:
Fortov, Vladimir E; Iakubov, Igor T (November 1999).
4183:
2610:
2557:
2109:
2084:
2062:
2018:
1982:
1918:
1806:
1728:
1658:
1523:
1467:
1441:
1414:
1387:
1372:{\displaystyle \alpha ={\frac {n_{i}}{n_{i}+n_{n}}},}
1320:
1298:
1271:
1252:, where plasma energy pours back into the atmosphere.
362:
92:
are commonplace generators of plasma. Center left: A
5419:
Peretich, M.A.; O'Brien, W.F.; Schetz, J.A. (2007).
4941:
4923:
Gurnett, D. A.; Bhattacharjee, A. (6 January 2005).
4922:
4350:
Introduction to plasma physics and controlled fusion
4153:
Introduction to Plasma Physics and controlled fusion
3391:
5943:
5611:
5375:
4156:. Springer International Publishing. pp. 2–3.
3981:"Chapter 1: A Short History of Gaseous Electronics"
3053:A world effort was triggered in the 1960s to study
5612:Roy, S.; Zhao, P.; Dasgupta, A.; Soni, J. (2016).
4699:
4515:
2676:
2649:
2596:
2136:
2092:
2070:
2042:
2000:
1968:
1885:
1790:
1693:
1542:
1509:
1453:
1427:
1400:
1371:
1304:
1284:
397:
310:British Association for the Advancement of Science
5587:. Cambridge University Press. 2008. p. 229.
5426:. Virginia Space Grant Consortium. Archived from
4115:
4060:
3978:
2743:increases, the current stresses the material (by
2375:, blue jets, blue starters, gigantic jets, ELVESs
7254:
6041:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (
4346:
4149:
3124:which limited these technological developments.
3009:generated by the application of RF power (e.g.,
2826:
2525:that possibly extends out to 5,000 light-years.
2234:
1510:{\displaystyle n_{e}=\langle Z_{i}\rangle n_{i}}
1256:
6270:
6095:Progress in Ultrafast Intense Laser Science III
4851:
3891:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2739:(negative electrode) pulls the nucleus. As the
2731:pull the bound electrons (negative) toward the
2331:(sometimes called plasma sphere or plasma ball)
1021:plasma particle affects and is affected by the
6023:. Archived from the original on 5 October 2009
5192:
5190:
5111:"APOD: 2004 December 11 - M87's Energetic Jet"
5083:Raine, Derek J.; Thomas, Edwin George (2010).
4322:Hastings, Daniel & Garrett, Henry (2000).
2759:, where the material transforms from being an
2473:, extending from the Sun's surface out to the
6930:
6916:
6399:
5878:Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society
5875:
5291:
5285:
4942:Scherer, K.; Fichtner, H.; Heber, B. (2005).
4385:
3944:Tonks, Lewi (1967). "The birth of "plasma"".
3718:
3687:
3572:Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert (1940).
3433:
2650:{\displaystyle T_{e}\gg T_{i}=T_{\text{gas}}}
2462:in the universe, both by mass and by volume.
970:
946:
300:Plasma was first identified in laboratory by
6344:Graduate course given by Richard Fitzpatrick
5475:"The Fluorescent Lamp: A plasma you can use"
5199:"Plasma Processing of Municipal Solid Waste"
4550:
4461:
4290:
3878:
3696:Physics of the Solar Corona. An Introduction
3571:
3120:, a critical value triggers the problematic
2251:, including several sub-disciplines such as
2151:
1694:{\displaystyle n_{e}=\langle Z\rangle n_{i}}
1678:
1672:
1537:
1524:
1494:
1481:
1231:
1147:: The plasma approximation applies when the
320:Except near the electrodes, where there are
6413:
6192:
6091:
6056:
5472:
5187:
5082:
4190:. Cambridge University Press. p. 121.
3983:. In Hirsh, Merle N.; Oskam, H. J. (eds.).
3652:
3127:
2469:is filled with the plasma expelled via the
1550:is the average ion charge (in units of the
1172:: The electron plasma frequency (measuring
398:{\displaystyle J=-D{\frac {d\varphi }{dx}}}
6923:
6909:
6406:
6392:
5655:Journal of Adhesion Science and Technology
5509:Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology B
5369:
5133:
5131:
4945:Space Weather: The Physics Behind a Slogan
4852:Alfven, H.; Arrhenius, G. (January 1976).
4240:Hazeltine, R.D.; Waelbroeck, F.L. (2004).
4011:
3693:
3592:
3440:
3426:
2870:
2597:{\displaystyle T_{e}=T_{i}=T_{\text{gas}}}
953:
939:
308:on what he called "radiant matter" to the
6304:
5969:
5928:
5902:
5637:
5566:
5327:
5317:
5222:
4907:
4877:
4676:
4610:
4604:
4284:
4037:
3920:
3910:
3766:
3179:Learn how and when to remove this message
2447:
1562:Plasma temperature, commonly measured in
1071:and other types of collective phenomena.
5731:
5691:Journal of Colloid and Interface Science
5412:
5236:
5234:
5055:
4265:Hong, Alice (2000). Elert, Glenn (ed.).
4214:
4208:
4070:(3rd ed.). New York: Plenum Press.
3884:
3809:
3741:
3658:
3155:Relevant discussion may be found on the
2790:
2782:
2687:
2680:
2155:
1631:
1235:
269:
100:. Center right: A plasma trail from the
5548:
5128:
4994:
4825:
4635:
4462:Klimontovich, Yu L. (31 January 1997).
3815:
3747:
3712:
3617:
3116:. When used in combination with a high
2987:common usage of this discharge is in a
2936:
2843:in microelectronics, metal cutting and
2692:Artificial plasma produced in air by a
7255:
7121:Atomic, molecular, and optical physics
6235:
4969:
4204:from the original on 24 December 2016.
2977:generators and particle precipitators.
2043:{\displaystyle \nu _{\mathrm {coll} }}
1140:Three factors define an ideal plasma:
994:. It is a state of matter in which an
6904:
6387:
6348:M.I.T. Introduction by I.H.Hutchinson
5601:from the original on 2 February 2017.
5378:Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics
5231:
5183:from the original on 15 January 2018.
5056:Mészáros, Péter (16 September 2010).
4725:
4650:
4375:from the original on 15 January 2018.
4311:from the original on 15 January 2018.
4170:from the original on 15 January 2018.
4136:from the original on 2 February 2017.
4084:from the original on 15 January 2018.
4001:from the original on 23 October 2017.
3943:
3772:
3683:from the original on 15 January 2018.
3598:
3565:
3259:
3018:Piezoelectric direct discharge plasma
2528:
2497:around stars or compact objects like
2207:, nor resolve wave-particle effects.
1578:(and more weakly by the density). In
1543:{\displaystyle \langle Z_{i}\rangle }
1181:
5166:Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion
5162:
5156:
4443:from the original on 26 October 2017
4264:
3648:from the original on 5 January 2016.
3623:
3131:
3085:, lower thermal transfer and reduce
2001:{\displaystyle \nu _{\mathrm {ce} }}
211:), but also dominating the rarefied
6331:Plasmas: the Fourth State of Matter
5734:IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science
5344:
4324:Spacecraft-Environment Interactions
3277:in this configuration could induce
2458:Plasmas are by far the most common
1627:
1582:, the relationship is given by the
13:
6271:Yaghoubi, A.; Mélinon, P. (2013).
6059:Chinese Astronomy and Astrophysics
5351:National Research Council (1991).
4700:NASA Administrator (7 June 2013).
3805:from the original on 7 April 2014.
3147:tone or style may not reflect the
2859:lamps, fuel ignition, and even in
2751:(termed strength) into a stage of
2034:
2031:
2028:
2025:
1992:
1989:
1954:
1951:
1948:
1945:
1928:
1925:
1854:
1754:
195:. It is the most abundant form of
97:
14:
7304:
6324:
4948:. Berlin: Springer. p. 138.
4464:"Physics of collisionless plasma"
4067:Plasma-The Fourth State of Matter
3866:from the original on 13 June 2006
3028:
2771:). The underlying process is the
2604:), non-thermal or "cold" plasma (
6466:
6342:Introduction to Plasma Physics:
5481:from the original on 30 May 2010
5003:. Geophysical Monograph Series.
4974:(2nd ed.). Academic Press.
4187:Plasma Physics and Fusion Energy
4098:, Publisher: Adam Hilger, 1989,
3848:from the original on 9 July 2006
3719:Chiuderi, C.; Velli, M. (2015).
3546:
3544:
3515:
3496:
3394:
3375:
3360:
3348:
3329:
3315:
3203:
3161:guide to writing better articles
3136:
2273:Space and astrophysical plasmas
2239:Plasmas are studied by the vast
2210:
2130:
2122:
2111:
2086:
2064:
1903:
265:
74:
65:
54:
45:
34:
25:
7242:Timeline of physics discoveries
6264:
6229:
6186:
6151:
6085:
6050:
6013:
5978:
5950:Journal of Geophysical Research
5937:
5896:
5869:
5834:
5795:
5760:
5725:
5681:
5646:
5605:
5575:
5542:
5493:
5466:
5224:10.1590/S0103-97332004000800015
5103:
5076:
5049:
4988:
4963:
4916:
4871:
4845:
4819:
4773:
4719:
4693:
4644:
4629:
4579:
4544:
4509:
4480:10.1070/PU1997v040n01ABEH000200
4455:
4425:
4389:The Physics of Non-Ideal Plasma
4379:
4340:
4315:
4258:
4242:The Framework of Plasma Physics
4233:
4109:
4094:Yaffa Eliezer, Shalom Eliezer,
4088:
4054:
4005:
3987:. Vol. 1. Academic Press.
3972:
3937:
3887:"Oscillations in Ionized Gases"
3834:
3818:Introduction to Plasma Dynamics
3750:Introduction to Plasma Dynamics
3065:of a high velocity plasma into
2778:
2735:(positive electrode) while the
2677:Generation of artificial plasma
2477:. Furthermore, all the distant
1597:even in the presence of strong
1208:
1135:
5555:Physics Research International
5243:Journal of Hazardous Materials
5197:Leal-Quirós, Edbertho (2004).
5062:. Cambridge University Press.
5001:Physics of Magnetic Flux Ropes
4929:. Cambridge University Press.
4832:Introduction to Plasma Physics
4732:Astrophysics and Space Science
4651:Maron, Yitzhak (1 June 2020).
4326:. Cambridge University Press.
4219:. Cambridge University Press.
4184:Freidberg, Jeffrey P. (2008).
4119:Fundamentals of Plasma Physics
4012:Mott-Smith, Harold M. (1971).
3791:
3773:Chu, P.K.; Lu, XinPel (2013).
3599:Chu, P.K.; Lu, XinPel (2013).
3099:resistive magnetohydrodynamics
3055:magnetohydrodynamic converters
2217:Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution
2201:Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution
2178:
1813:
1782:
1748:
1557:
965:
1:
6855:Macroscopic quantum phenomena
6180:10.1016/S0030-4018(00)00903-2
6079:10.1016/S0275-1062(02)00095-4
5789:10.1016/j.physrep.2014.02.006
5263:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.04.017
4613:Introduction to Plasma Theory
4611:Nicholson, Dwight R. (1983).
3801:. HowStuffWorks. April 2000.
3721:Basics of Plasma Astrophysics
3559:
3039:magnetohydrodynamic generator
3035:magnetohydrodynamic converter
2861:supersonic combustion engines
2835:, surface treatments such as
2827:Examples of industrial plasma
2235:Plasma science and technology
2164:that can develop in a plasma.
1257:Density and ionization degree
1097:Independently acting species
1002:to the point that long-range
6865:Order and disorder (physics)
6379:Plasma Formulary Interactive
6115:10.1007/978-3-540-73794-0_12
5909:Geophysical Research Letters
5355:. National Academies Press.
5203:Brazilian Journal of Physics
5086:Black Holes: An Introduction
4267:"Dielectric Strength of Air"
2982:Dielectric barrier discharge
2930:electron cyclotron resonance
2767:(as it becomes increasingly
2420:(space between star systems)
2093:{\displaystyle \mathbf {B} }
2071:{\displaystyle \mathbf {v} }
1644:Since plasmas are very good
1193:single species, is called a
1004:electric and magnetic fields
7:
7206:Quantum information science
6353:Plasma Material Interaction
6047:. The University of Arizona
5398:10.1088/0022-3727/39/22/R01
5142:(2nd ed.). Wiley-VCH.
4297:. Oxford University Press.
4215:Sturrock, Peter A. (1994).
4062:Frank-Kamenetskii, David A.
3946:American Journal of Physics
3659:Phillips, K. J. H. (1995).
3387:
2891:Capacitively coupled plasma
2369:Upper-atmospheric lightning
2187:). One simple fluid model,
1701:), but on the scale of the
115:International Space Station
10:
7309:
7037:Classical electromagnetism
6258:10.1103/PhysRevLett.17.470
5808:Journal of Applied Physics
5711:10.1016/j.jcis.2008.09.062
5667:10.1163/156856106777657788
5292:Szałatkiewicz, J. (2016).
5089:. Imperial College Press.
4573:10.1103/RevModPhys.81.1353
4116:Bittencourt, J.A. (2004).
3979:Brown, Sanborn C. (1978).
3820:. CRC Press. p. 4−5.
3694:Aschwanden, M. J. (2004).
3667:Cambridge University Press
3308:
3122:electrothermal instability
3049:Electrothermal instability
3046:
3032:
2912:Inductively coupled plasma
2904:Cascaded arc plasma source
2708:or fluid (an electrically
2451:
2167:
1616:
1212:
1185:
971:The fourth state of matter
153:
7214:
7151:
7079:
6995:
6967:
6939:
6817:
6771:
6643:
6557:
6531:
6475:
6464:
6426:
6336:30 September 2019 at the
5987:The Astrophysical Journal
5163:Chen, Francis F. (1984).
4615:. John Wiley & Sons.
4553:Reviews of Modern Physics
4347:Chen, Francis F. (1984).
4150:Chen, Francis F. (1984).
3752:. CRC Press. p. 30.
3043:magnetohydrodynamic drive
2847:; as well as in everyday
2152:Mathematical descriptions
2144:, and is not affected by
1454:{\displaystyle \alpha =1}
1232:Properties and parameters
1201:, an electron cloud in a
998:substance becomes highly
7143:Condensed matter physics
6890:Thermo-dielectric effect
6789:Enthalpy of vaporization
6483:Bose–Einstein condensate
6363:6 September 2005 at the
4640:. CRC Press. p. 10.
3603:. CRC Press. p. 3.
3128:Complex plasma phenomena
3103:magnetic Reynolds number
2823:to the heavy particles.
2460:phase of ordinary matter
2428:(space between galaxies)
1145:The plasma approximation
1076:Electrical conductivity
1057:: Two-particle (binary)
1017:, and any movement of a
1006:dominate its behaviour.
457:Clausius–Duhem (entropy)
407:Fick's laws of diffusion
6784:Enthalpy of sublimation
6238:Physical Review Letters
6071:2002ChA&A..26..442Z
4728:"A double layer review"
4726:Block, Lars P. (1978).
4636:Hamrang, Abbas (2014).
4437:www.plasma-universe.com
4122:. Springer. p. 1.
3578:A Greek-English Lexicon
2871:Low-pressure discharges
2849:vehicle exhaust cleanup
2413:(space between planets)
2303:The area in front of a
2291:(low energy lighting),
2284:, including TV screens.
2262:Common forms of plasma
2197:Navier–Stokes equations
1408:is the ion density and
1305:{\displaystyle \alpha }
1000:electrically conductive
615:Navier–Stokes equations
553:Material failure theory
232:electrically conductive
171:(the other three being
7227:Nobel Prize in Physics
7089:Relativistic mechanics
6799:Latent internal energy
6549:Color-glass condensate
5903:Grydeland, T. (2003).
5454:Cite journal requires
4995:Russell, C.T. (1990).
4970:Kelley, M. C. (2009).
4826:Fitzpatrick, Richard.
4811:: CS1 maint: others (
4014:"History of "plasmas""
3816:Morozov, A.I. (2012).
3748:Morozov, A.I. (2012).
2811:along the arc creates
2797:
2788:
2720:used for simplicity).
2696:
2685:
2651:
2598:
2448:Space and astrophysics
2267:Artificially produced
2165:
2138:
2100:is given by the usual
2094:
2078:in the magnetic field
2072:
2044:
2002:
1970:
1887:
1792:
1695:
1641:
1544:
1511:
1455:
1429:
1402:
1373:
1306:
1286:
1253:
1205:and positron plasmas.
1129:emerging as a result.
1082:: Gases are excellent
399:
330:
304:. Crookes presented a
297:
187:in any combination of
7288:Electrical conductors
7232:Philosophy of physics
6609:Magnetically ordered
6160:Optics Communications
4291:Dendy, R. O. (1990).
3912:10.1073/pnas.14.8.627
3885:Langmuir, I. (1928).
3799:"How Lightning Works"
3698:. Praxis Publishing.
3236:structure. (See also
2865:aerospace engineering
2809:Electrical resistance
2794:
2786:
2745:electric polarization
2716:as a simple example (
2691:
2684:
2652:
2599:
2493:are also observed in
2491:Astrophysical plasmas
2452:Further information:
2411:interplanetary medium
2386:(if sufficiently hot)
2159:
2139:
2095:
2073:
2045:
2003:
1971:
1888:
1793:
1696:
1646:electrical conductors
1635:
1591:distribution function
1545:
1512:
1456:
1430:
1428:{\displaystyle n_{n}}
1403:
1401:{\displaystyle n_{i}}
1374:
1307:
1287:
1285:{\displaystyle n_{e}}
1261:For plasma to exist,
1239:
975:Plasma is called the
610:Bernoulli's principle
603:Archimedes' principle
400:
318:
280:
221:electromagnetic field
109:during re-entry into
7191:Mathematical physics
6488:Fermionic condensate
5971:10.1029/2005JA011350
5930:10.1029/2002GL016362
5549:Okumura, T. (2010).
4828:"Magnetized Plasmas"
4392:. WORLD SCIENTIFIC.
4271:The Physics Factbook
3323:Hall-effect thruster
3286:magnetic confinement
3254:Filament propagation
3094:weakly ionized gases
3059:MHD power conversion
3001:Capacitive discharge
2937:Atmospheric pressure
2753:electrical breakdown
2725:potential difference
2704:is applied across a
2608:
2555:
2467:interplanetary space
2454:Astrophysical plasma
2425:Intergalactic medium
2270:Terrestrial plasmas
2253:space plasma physics
2189:magnetohydrodynamics
2107:
2082:
2060:
2016:
1980:
1916:
1804:
1726:
1656:
1572:electron temperature
1521:
1465:
1439:
1412:
1385:
1318:
1296:
1269:
702:Cohesion (chemistry)
524:Infinitesimal strain
360:
217:intergalactic medium
7166:Atmospheric physics
7005:Classical mechanics
6933:branches of physics
6703:Chemical ionization
6595:Programmable matter
6585:Quantum spin liquid
6453:Supercritical fluid
6289:2013NatSR...3E1083Y
6250:1966PhRvL..17..470B
6207:1960Natur.188..801A
6172:2000OptCo.183..479T
6107:2008pui3.book..243C
5999:1965ApJ...141..251D
5962:2006JGRA..111.2307M
5921:2003GeoRL..30.1338G
5890:1990BAAS...22..832D
5820:2001JAP....89...20P
5781:2014PhR...540..123L
5746:1996ITPS...24.1188L
5703:2008JCIS..328..412L
5630:2016AIPA....6b5322R
5568:10.1155/2010/164249
5538:on 18 January 2009.
5521:1998JVSTB..16..173S
5390:2006JPhD...39R.423N
5310:2016Mate....9..683S
5255:2009JHzM..161..614G
5215:2004BrJPh..34.1587L
5013:1990GMS....58..439R
4892:2002PhPl....9.4052R
4669:2020PhPl...27f0901M
4565:2009RvMP...81.1353M
4530:1994PhPl....1.1439G
4106:, 226 pages, page 5
4030:1971Natur.233..219M
3985:Gaseous Electronics
3958:1967AmJPh..35..857T
3903:1928PNAS...14..627L
3448:
3245:index of refraction
2542:(RF)) and microwave
2487:intergalactic space
2418:interstellar medium
2396:(plasmas heated by
2297:Rocket exhaust and
2263:
2193:Maxwell's equations
1898:electrostatic force
1623:Anisothermal plasma
1608:ambient temperature
1580:thermal equilibrium
1188:Non-neutral plasmas
1174:plasma oscillations
620:Poiseuille equation
351:Continuum mechanics
345:Part of a series on
302:Sir William Crookes
213:intracluster medium
113:, as seen from the
7222:History of physics
6850:Leidenfrost effect
6779:Enthalpy of fusion
6544:Quark–gluon plasma
6277:Scientific Reports
5021:10.1029/GM058p0439
4997:"The Magnetopause"
4880:Physics of Plasmas
4744:10.1007/BF00642580
4657:Physics of Plasmas
4518:Physics of Plasmas
4244:. Westview Press.
3417:
3411:Quark-gluon plasma
3279:kink instabilities
3260:Impermeable plasma
3230:supernova remnants
3159:. See Knowledge's
3057:in order to bring
2921:Wave heated plasma
2821:elastic collisions
2798:
2789:
2773:Townsend avalanche
2697:
2686:
2647:
2594:
2529:Artificial plasmas
2515:astrophysical jets
2483:interstellar space
2261:
2166:
2134:
2090:
2068:
2040:
1998:
1966:
1883:
1788:
1720:Boltzmann relation
1691:
1642:
1540:
1507:
1451:
1425:
1398:
1369:
1302:
1282:
1254:
1195:non-neutral plasma
1182:Non-neutral plasma
1121:possess different
826:Magnetorheological
821:Electrorheological
558:Fracture mechanics
395:
298:
236:plasma televisions
111:Earth's atmosphere
7263:Phase transitions
7250:
7249:
7237:Physics education
7186:Materials science
7153:Interdisciplinary
7111:Quantum mechanics
6898:
6897:
6880:Superheated vapor
6875:Superconductivity
6845:Equation of state
6693:Flash evaporation
6645:Phase transitions
6630:String-net liquid
6523:Photonic molecule
6493:Degenerate matter
6297:10.1038/srep01083
6201:(4753): 801–802.
6124:978-3-540-73793-3
5828:10.1063/1.1323753
5754:10.1109/27.533129
5639:10.1063/1.4942979
5362:978-0-309-04597-1
5319:10.3390/ma9080683
5209:(4B): 1587–1593.
5176:978-0-306-41332-2
5149:978-3-527-40673-9
5096:978-1-84816-382-9
5069:978-1-139-49072-6
4955:978-3-540-22907-0
4936:978-0-521-36483-6
4900:10.1063/1.1498261
4678:10.1063/5.0009432
4622:978-0-471-09045-8
4591:pwg.gsfc.nasa.gov
4587:"Plasma Fountain"
4412:978-981-281-554-5
4407:978-981-02-3305-1
4333:978-0-521-47128-2
4304:978-0-19-852041-2
4251:978-0-7382-0047-7
4226:978-0-521-44810-9
4104:978-0-85274-164-1
3994:978-0-12-349701-7
3966:10.1119/1.1974266
3827:978-1-4398-8132-3
3784:978-1-4665-0990-0
3759:978-1-4398-8132-3
3734:978-88-470-5280-2
3705:978-3-540-22321-4
3676:978-0-521-39788-9
3641:978-3-642-10491-6
3624:Piel, A. (2010).
3610:978-1-4665-0990-0
3580:. Clarendon Press
3557:
3556:
3419:Phase transitions
3382:Laboratory plasma
3338:
3189:
3188:
3181:
3151:used on Knowledge
3149:encyclopedic tone
3022:nonthermal plasma
3007:nonthermal plasma
2926:helicon discharge
2884:fluorescent light
2817:electrical energy
2644:
2591:
2445:
2444:
2289:fluorescent lamps
2185:Plasma parameters
2162:Birkeland current
1878:
1849:
1832:
1816:
1769:
1619:Nonthermal plasma
1576:ionization energy
1552:elementary charge
1364:
1170:Collisionlessness
1159:Bulk interactions
1133:
1132:
1015:electric currents
963:
962:
838:
837:
772:
771:
541:Contact mechanics
464:
463:
393:
285:calculated by an
278:
259:phase transitions
247:partially ionized
228:charged particles
185:charged particles
117:. Bottom left: A
7300:
7278:Electromagnetism
7273:Phases of matter
7268:Plasma (physics)
7176:Chemical physics
7116:Particle physics
7042:Classical optics
6925:
6918:
6911:
6902:
6901:
6835:Compressed fluid
6470:
6415:States of matter
6408:
6401:
6394:
6385:
6384:
6319:
6318:
6308:
6268:
6262:
6261:
6233:
6227:
6226:
6215:10.1038/188801a0
6190:
6184:
6183:
6166:(5–6): 479–484.
6155:
6149:
6148:
6142:
6138:
6136:
6128:
6100:
6089:
6083:
6082:
6054:
6048:
6046:
6040:
6032:
6030:
6028:
6017:
6011:
6010:
5982:
5976:
5975:
5973:
5941:
5935:
5934:
5932:
5900:
5894:
5893:
5873:
5867:
5866:
5838:
5832:
5831:
5799:
5793:
5792:
5764:
5758:
5757:
5740:(3): 1188–1191.
5729:
5723:
5722:
5685:
5679:
5678:
5650:
5644:
5643:
5641:
5609:
5603:
5602:
5584:Plasma Chemistry
5579:
5573:
5572:
5570:
5546:
5540:
5539:
5537:
5531:. Archived from
5529:10.1116/1.589774
5506:
5497:
5491:
5490:
5488:
5486:
5473:Stern, David P.
5470:
5464:
5463:
5457:
5452:
5450:
5442:
5440:
5438:
5432:
5425:
5416:
5410:
5409:
5373:
5367:
5366:
5348:
5342:
5341:
5331:
5321:
5289:
5283:
5282:
5249:(2–3): 614–626.
5238:
5229:
5228:
5226:
5194:
5185:
5184:
5169:. Plenum Press.
5160:
5154:
5153:
5135:
5126:
5125:
5123:
5121:
5107:
5101:
5100:
5080:
5074:
5073:
5053:
5047:
5046:
5044:
5042:
5033:. Archived from
4992:
4986:
4985:
4967:
4961:
4959:
4940:
4920:
4914:
4913:
4911:
4886:(9): 4052–4060.
4875:
4869:
4868:
4866:
4864:
4858:history.nasa.gov
4849:
4843:
4842:
4840:
4838:
4823:
4817:
4816:
4810:
4802:
4777:
4771:
4770:
4768:
4766:
4723:
4717:
4716:
4714:
4712:
4697:
4691:
4690:
4680:
4648:
4642:
4641:
4633:
4627:
4626:
4608:
4602:
4601:
4599:
4597:
4583:
4577:
4576:
4559:(4): 1353–1404.
4548:
4542:
4541:
4538:10.1063/1.870693
4513:
4507:
4506:
4504:
4502:
4459:
4453:
4452:
4450:
4448:
4429:
4423:
4422:
4420:
4418:
4383:
4377:
4376:
4344:
4338:
4337:
4319:
4313:
4312:
4288:
4282:
4281:
4279:
4277:
4262:
4256:
4255:
4237:
4231:
4230:
4212:
4206:
4205:
4181:
4172:
4171:
4147:
4138:
4137:
4113:
4107:
4092:
4086:
4085:
4058:
4052:
4051:
4041:
4039:10.1038/233219a0
4009:
4003:
4002:
3976:
3970:
3969:
3941:
3935:
3934:
3924:
3914:
3882:
3876:
3875:
3873:
3871:
3860:"Radiant Matter"
3857:
3855:
3853:
3838:
3832:
3831:
3813:
3807:
3806:
3795:
3789:
3788:
3770:
3764:
3763:
3745:
3739:
3738:
3716:
3710:
3709:
3691:
3685:
3684:
3662:Guide to the Sun
3656:
3650:
3649:
3634:. pp. 4–5.
3621:
3615:
3614:
3596:
3590:
3589:
3587:
3585:
3569:
3449:
3442:
3435:
3428:
3416:
3404:
3399:
3398:
3379:
3364:
3352:
3340:
3339:
3319:
3184:
3177:
3173:
3170:
3164:
3163:for suggestions.
3140:
3139:
3132:
2969:Corona discharge
2749:dielectric limit
2702:electric current
2656:
2654:
2653:
2648:
2646:
2645:
2642:
2633:
2632:
2620:
2619:
2603:
2601:
2600:
2595:
2593:
2592:
2589:
2580:
2579:
2567:
2566:
2264:
2260:
2221:particle-in-cell
2143:
2141:
2140:
2135:
2133:
2125:
2114:
2099:
2097:
2096:
2091:
2089:
2077:
2075:
2074:
2069:
2067:
2049:
2047:
2046:
2041:
2039:
2038:
2037:
2008:is the electron
2007:
2005:
2004:
1999:
1997:
1996:
1995:
1975:
1973:
1972:
1967:
1959:
1958:
1957:
1938:
1933:
1932:
1931:
1892:
1890:
1889:
1884:
1879:
1877:
1876:
1867:
1866:
1865:
1852:
1850:
1845:
1844:
1843:
1834:
1833:
1830:
1823:
1818:
1817:
1809:
1797:
1795:
1794:
1789:
1781:
1780:
1771:
1770:
1767:
1761:
1738:
1737:
1700:
1698:
1697:
1692:
1690:
1689:
1668:
1667:
1628:Plasma potential
1574:relative to the
1549:
1547:
1546:
1541:
1536:
1535:
1516:
1514:
1513:
1508:
1506:
1505:
1493:
1492:
1477:
1476:
1460:
1458:
1457:
1452:
1434:
1432:
1431:
1426:
1424:
1423:
1407:
1405:
1404:
1399:
1397:
1396:
1378:
1376:
1375:
1370:
1365:
1363:
1362:
1361:
1349:
1348:
1338:
1337:
1328:
1311:
1309:
1308:
1303:
1291:
1289:
1288:
1283:
1281:
1280:
1149:plasma parameter
1032:
1031:
955:
948:
941:
787:
786:
752:Gay-Lussac's law
742:Combined gas law
692:Capillary action
577:
576:
420:
419:
404:
402:
401:
396:
394:
392:
384:
376:
342:
341:
279:
226:The presence of
169:states of matter
164:
157:
78:
69:
58:
49:
38:
29:
7308:
7307:
7303:
7302:
7301:
7299:
7298:
7297:
7253:
7252:
7251:
7246:
7210:
7196:Medical physics
7147:
7106:Nuclear physics
7075:
7069:Non-equilibrium
6991:
6963:
6935:
6929:
6899:
6894:
6825:Baryonic matter
6813:
6767:
6738:Saturated fluid
6678:Crystallization
6639:
6613:Antiferromagnet
6553:
6527:
6471:
6462:
6422:
6412:
6365:Wayback Machine
6338:Wayback Machine
6327:
6322:
6269:
6265:
6234:
6230:
6191:
6187:
6156:
6152:
6140:
6139:
6130:
6129:
6125:
6098:
6090:
6086:
6055:
6051:
6034:
6033:
6026:
6024:
6019:
6018:
6014:
5983:
5979:
5942:
5938:
5901:
5897:
5874:
5870:
5855:
5839:
5835:
5800:
5796:
5769:Physics Reports
5765:
5761:
5730:
5726:
5686:
5682:
5651:
5647:
5610:
5606:
5595:
5581:
5580:
5576:
5547:
5543:
5535:
5504:
5498:
5494:
5484:
5482:
5471:
5467:
5455:
5453:
5444:
5443:
5436:
5434:
5433:on 29 June 2010
5430:
5423:
5417:
5413:
5374:
5370:
5363:
5349:
5345:
5290:
5286:
5239:
5232:
5195:
5188:
5177:
5161:
5157:
5150:
5136:
5129:
5119:
5117:
5109:
5108:
5104:
5097:
5081:
5077:
5070:
5054:
5050:
5040:
5038:
5031:
4993:
4989:
4982:
4968:
4964:
4956:
4937:
4921:
4917:
4876:
4872:
4862:
4860:
4850:
4846:
4836:
4834:
4824:
4820:
4804:
4803:
4791:
4779:
4778:
4774:
4764:
4762:
4724:
4720:
4710:
4708:
4698:
4694:
4649:
4645:
4634:
4630:
4623:
4609:
4605:
4595:
4593:
4585:
4584:
4580:
4549:
4545:
4514:
4510:
4500:
4498:
4468:Physics-Uspekhi
4460:
4456:
4446:
4444:
4431:
4430:
4426:
4416:
4414:
4408:
4384:
4380:
4361:
4345:
4341:
4334:
4320:
4316:
4305:
4294:Plasma Dynamics
4289:
4285:
4275:
4273:
4263:
4259:
4252:
4238:
4234:
4227:
4213:
4209:
4198:
4182:
4175:
4164:
4148:
4141:
4130:
4114:
4110:
4093:
4089:
4078:
4059:
4055:
4010:
4006:
3995:
3977:
3973:
3942:
3938:
3883:
3879:
3869:
3867:
3858:
3851:
3849:
3840:
3839:
3835:
3828:
3814:
3810:
3797:
3796:
3792:
3785:
3771:
3767:
3760:
3746:
3742:
3735:
3717:
3713:
3706:
3692:
3688:
3677:
3669:. p. 295.
3657:
3653:
3642:
3622:
3618:
3611:
3597:
3593:
3583:
3581:
3570:
3566:
3562:
3457:
3454:
3446:
3415:
3400:
3393:
3390:
3383:
3380:
3371:
3365:
3356:
3355:Plasma spraying
3353:
3344:
3341:
3330:
3325:
3320:
3311:
3275:magnetic fields
3262:
3206:
3185:
3174:
3168:
3165:
3154:
3145:This section's
3141:
3137:
3130:
3051:
3045:
3033:Main articles:
3031:
2994:plasma medicine
2989:plasma actuator
2959:
2955:
2939:
2873:
2837:plasma spraying
2829:
2781:
2755:, marked by an
2727:and subsequent
2679:
2641:
2637:
2628:
2624:
2615:
2611:
2609:
2606:
2605:
2588:
2584:
2575:
2571:
2562:
2558:
2556:
2553:
2552:
2540:radio frequency
2531:
2495:accretion disks
2456:
2450:
2432:Accretion disks
2427:
2379:St. Elmo's fire
2282:plasma displays
2237:
2225:Vlasov equation
2213:
2181:
2172:
2170:Plasma modeling
2154:
2146:Debye shielding
2129:
2121:
2110:
2108:
2105:
2104:
2102:Lorentz formula
2085:
2083:
2080:
2079:
2063:
2061:
2058:
2057:
2024:
2023:
2019:
2017:
2014:
2013:
1988:
1987:
1983:
1981:
1978:
1977:
1944:
1943:
1939:
1934:
1924:
1923:
1919:
1917:
1914:
1913:
1910:magnetic fields
1906:
1872:
1868:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1851:
1839:
1835:
1829:
1825:
1824:
1822:
1808:
1807:
1805:
1802:
1801:
1776:
1772:
1766:
1762:
1757:
1733:
1729:
1727:
1724:
1723:
1685:
1681:
1663:
1659:
1657:
1654:
1653:
1630:
1625:
1560:
1531:
1527:
1522:
1519:
1518:
1501:
1497:
1488:
1484:
1472:
1468:
1466:
1463:
1462:
1440:
1437:
1436:
1419:
1415:
1413:
1410:
1409:
1392:
1388:
1386:
1383:
1382:
1357:
1353:
1344:
1340:
1339:
1333:
1329:
1327:
1319:
1316:
1315:
1297:
1294:
1293:
1276:
1272:
1270:
1267:
1266:
1259:
1250:aurora borealis
1246:plasma fountain
1244:of the Earth's
1234:
1226:complex plasmas
1217:
1211:
1190:
1184:
1138:
1040:
1037:
979:state of matter
973:
968:
959:
930:
929:
928:
848:
840:
839:
793:Viscoelasticity
784:
774:
773:
761:
711:
707:Surface tension
671:
574:
572:Fluid mechanics
564:
563:
562:
476:
474:Solid mechanics
466:
465:
417:
409:
385:
377:
375:
361:
358:
357:
314:Irving Langmuir
270:
268:
207:(including the
197:ordinary matter
141:
140:
139:
138:
129:as seen from a
81:
80:
79:
71:
70:
61:
60:
59:
51:
50:
41:
40:
39:
31:
30:
17:
16:State of matter
12:
11:
5:
7306:
7296:
7295:
7290:
7285:
7280:
7275:
7270:
7265:
7248:
7247:
7245:
7244:
7239:
7234:
7229:
7224:
7218:
7216:
7212:
7211:
7209:
7208:
7203:
7198:
7193:
7188:
7183:
7178:
7173:
7168:
7163:
7157:
7155:
7149:
7148:
7146:
7145:
7140:
7139:
7138:
7133:
7128:
7118:
7113:
7108:
7103:
7102:
7101:
7096:
7085:
7083:
7077:
7076:
7074:
7073:
7072:
7071:
7066:
7059:Thermodynamics
7056:
7055:
7054:
7049:
7039:
7034:
7029:
7028:
7027:
7022:
7017:
7012:
7001:
6999:
6993:
6992:
6990:
6989:
6988:
6987:
6977:
6971:
6969:
6965:
6964:
6962:
6961:
6960:
6959:
6949:
6943:
6941:
6937:
6936:
6928:
6927:
6920:
6913:
6905:
6896:
6895:
6893:
6892:
6887:
6882:
6877:
6872:
6867:
6862:
6857:
6852:
6847:
6842:
6837:
6832:
6827:
6821:
6819:
6815:
6814:
6812:
6811:
6806:
6804:Trouton's rule
6801:
6796:
6791:
6786:
6781:
6775:
6773:
6769:
6768:
6766:
6765:
6760:
6755:
6750:
6745:
6740:
6735:
6730:
6725:
6720:
6715:
6710:
6705:
6700:
6695:
6690:
6685:
6680:
6675:
6673:Critical point
6670:
6665:
6660:
6655:
6649:
6647:
6641:
6640:
6638:
6637:
6632:
6627:
6626:
6625:
6620:
6615:
6607:
6602:
6597:
6592:
6587:
6582:
6577:
6575:Liquid crystal
6572:
6567:
6561:
6559:
6555:
6554:
6552:
6551:
6546:
6541:
6535:
6533:
6529:
6528:
6526:
6525:
6520:
6515:
6510:
6508:Strange matter
6505:
6503:Rydberg matter
6500:
6495:
6490:
6485:
6479:
6477:
6473:
6472:
6465:
6463:
6461:
6460:
6455:
6450:
6441:
6436:
6430:
6428:
6424:
6423:
6411:
6410:
6403:
6396:
6388:
6382:
6381:
6376:
6371:
6355:
6350:
6340:
6326:
6325:External links
6323:
6321:
6320:
6263:
6244:(9): 470–471.
6228:
6185:
6150:
6141:|journal=
6123:
6084:
6065:(4): 442–450.
6049:
6012:
6007:10.1086/148107
5977:
5956:(A2): A02307.
5936:
5895:
5868:
5854:978-0080952031
5853:
5833:
5794:
5759:
5724:
5697:(2): 412–420.
5680:
5661:(9): 939–957.
5645:
5604:
5593:
5574:
5541:
5515:(1): 173–182.
5492:
5465:
5456:|journal=
5411:
5368:
5361:
5343:
5304:(8): 683–696.
5284:
5230:
5186:
5175:
5155:
5148:
5127:
5102:
5095:
5075:
5068:
5048:
5029:
4987:
4980:
4962:
4954:
4935:
4915:
4870:
4844:
4818:
4789:
4772:
4718:
4692:
4643:
4628:
4621:
4603:
4578:
4543:
4508:
4454:
4424:
4406:
4378:
4360:978-0306413322
4359:
4339:
4332:
4314:
4303:
4283:
4257:
4250:
4232:
4225:
4207:
4196:
4173:
4162:
4139:
4128:
4108:
4087:
4076:
4053:
4004:
3993:
3971:
3952:(9): 857–858.
3936:
3897:(8): 627–637.
3877:
3833:
3826:
3808:
3790:
3783:
3765:
3758:
3740:
3733:
3727:. p. 17.
3711:
3704:
3686:
3675:
3651:
3640:
3616:
3609:
3591:
3563:
3561:
3558:
3555:
3554:
3552:
3547:
3545:
3543:
3539:
3538:
3533:
3531:
3526:
3521:
3517:
3516:
3514:
3509:
3507:
3502:
3498:
3497:
3495:
3490:
3485:
3483:
3479:
3478:
3473:
3468:
3463:
3458:
3455:
3452:
3445:
3444:
3437:
3430:
3422:
3414:
3413:
3407:
3406:
3405:
3402:Physics portal
3389:
3386:
3385:
3384:
3381:
3374:
3372:
3366:
3359:
3357:
3354:
3347:
3345:
3342:
3328:
3326:
3321:
3314:
3310:
3307:
3295:nanostructures
3261:
3258:
3205:
3202:
3194:complex system
3187:
3186:
3144:
3142:
3135:
3129:
3126:
3118:Hall parameter
3107:dyadic tensors
3063:kinetic energy
3030:
3029:MHD converters
3027:
3026:
3025:
3014:
3011:13.56 MHz
2997:
2978:
2965:
2957:
2953:
2938:
2935:
2934:
2933:
2917:
2908:
2900:
2897:13.56 MHz
2887:
2878:Glow discharge
2872:
2869:
2828:
2825:
2780:
2777:
2757:electric spark
2729:electric field
2714:discharge tube
2710:non-conducting
2706:dielectric gas
2694:Jacob's Ladder
2678:
2675:
2674:
2673:
2670:Lorentz forces
2661:
2658:
2640:
2636:
2631:
2627:
2623:
2618:
2614:
2587:
2583:
2578:
2574:
2570:
2565:
2561:
2549:
2546:
2543:
2530:
2527:
2481:, and much of
2449:
2446:
2443:
2442:
2441:
2440:
2434:
2429:
2421:
2414:
2407:
2401:
2398:nuclear fusion
2389:
2388:
2387:
2381:
2376:
2366:
2360:
2354:
2347:
2340:
2339:
2338:
2332:
2326:
2319:
2301:
2295:
2285:
2275:
2274:
2271:
2268:
2249:plasma physics
2245:plasma science
2241:academic field
2236:
2233:
2212:
2209:
2180:
2177:
2168:Main article:
2153:
2150:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2117:
2113:
2088:
2066:
2036:
2033:
2030:
2027:
2022:
1994:
1991:
1986:
1965:
1962:
1956:
1953:
1950:
1947:
1942:
1937:
1930:
1927:
1922:
1905:
1902:
1882:
1875:
1871:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1848:
1842:
1838:
1828:
1821:
1815:
1812:
1787:
1784:
1779:
1775:
1765:
1760:
1756:
1753:
1750:
1747:
1744:
1741:
1736:
1732:
1716:charge density
1688:
1684:
1680:
1677:
1674:
1671:
1666:
1662:
1629:
1626:
1593:is close to a
1559:
1556:
1539:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1480:
1475:
1471:
1450:
1447:
1444:
1422:
1418:
1395:
1391:
1368:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1347:
1343:
1336:
1332:
1326:
1323:
1301:
1279:
1275:
1258:
1255:
1233:
1230:
1213:Main article:
1210:
1207:
1199:particle beams
1186:Main article:
1183:
1180:
1179:
1178:
1177:collisionless.
1167:
1156:
1137:
1134:
1131:
1130:
1108:
1098:
1094:
1093:
1087:
1077:
1073:
1072:
1062:
1061:are the rule.
1052:
1048:
1047:
1044:
1041:
1038:
1035:
972:
969:
967:
964:
961:
960:
958:
957:
950:
943:
935:
932:
931:
927:
926:
921:
916:
911:
906:
901:
896:
891:
886:
881:
876:
871:
866:
861:
856:
850:
849:
846:
845:
842:
841:
836:
835:
834:
833:
828:
823:
815:
814:
808:
807:
806:
805:
800:
795:
785:
780:
779:
776:
775:
770:
769:
763:
762:
760:
759:
754:
749:
744:
739:
734:
729:
723:
720:
719:
713:
712:
710:
709:
704:
699:
697:Chromatography
694:
689:
683:
680:
679:
673:
672:
670:
669:
650:
649:
648:
629:
617:
612:
600:
587:
584:
583:
575:
570:
569:
566:
565:
561:
560:
555:
550:
549:
548:
538:
533:
528:
527:
526:
521:
511:
506:
501:
496:
495:
494:
484:
478:
477:
472:
471:
468:
467:
462:
461:
460:
459:
451:
450:
446:
445:
444:
443:
438:
433:
425:
424:
418:
415:
414:
411:
410:
405:
391:
388:
383:
380:
374:
371:
368:
365:
354:
353:
347:
346:
267:
264:
240:plasma etching
83:
82:
73:
72:
64:
63:
62:
53:
52:
44:
43:
42:
33:
32:
24:
23:
22:
21:
20:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7305:
7294:
7291:
7289:
7286:
7284:
7281:
7279:
7276:
7274:
7271:
7269:
7266:
7264:
7261:
7260:
7258:
7243:
7240:
7238:
7235:
7233:
7230:
7228:
7225:
7223:
7220:
7219:
7217:
7213:
7207:
7204:
7202:
7201:Ocean physics
7199:
7197:
7194:
7192:
7189:
7187:
7184:
7182:
7179:
7177:
7174:
7172:
7169:
7167:
7164:
7162:
7159:
7158:
7156:
7154:
7150:
7144:
7141:
7137:
7136:Modern optics
7134:
7132:
7129:
7127:
7124:
7123:
7122:
7119:
7117:
7114:
7112:
7109:
7107:
7104:
7100:
7097:
7095:
7092:
7091:
7090:
7087:
7086:
7084:
7082:
7078:
7070:
7067:
7065:
7062:
7061:
7060:
7057:
7053:
7050:
7048:
7045:
7044:
7043:
7040:
7038:
7035:
7033:
7030:
7026:
7023:
7021:
7018:
7016:
7013:
7011:
7008:
7007:
7006:
7003:
7002:
7000:
6998:
6994:
6986:
6985:Computational
6983:
6982:
6981:
6978:
6976:
6973:
6972:
6970:
6966:
6958:
6955:
6954:
6953:
6950:
6948:
6945:
6944:
6942:
6938:
6934:
6926:
6921:
6919:
6914:
6912:
6907:
6906:
6903:
6891:
6888:
6886:
6883:
6881:
6878:
6876:
6873:
6871:
6868:
6866:
6863:
6861:
6860:Mpemba effect
6858:
6856:
6853:
6851:
6848:
6846:
6843:
6841:
6840:Cooling curve
6838:
6836:
6833:
6831:
6828:
6826:
6823:
6822:
6820:
6816:
6810:
6807:
6805:
6802:
6800:
6797:
6795:
6792:
6790:
6787:
6785:
6782:
6780:
6777:
6776:
6774:
6770:
6764:
6763:Vitrification
6761:
6759:
6756:
6754:
6751:
6749:
6746:
6744:
6741:
6739:
6736:
6734:
6731:
6729:
6728:Recombination
6726:
6724:
6723:Melting point
6721:
6719:
6716:
6714:
6711:
6709:
6706:
6704:
6701:
6699:
6696:
6694:
6691:
6689:
6686:
6684:
6681:
6679:
6676:
6674:
6671:
6669:
6668:Critical line
6666:
6664:
6661:
6659:
6658:Boiling point
6656:
6654:
6651:
6650:
6648:
6646:
6642:
6636:
6633:
6631:
6628:
6624:
6621:
6619:
6616:
6614:
6611:
6610:
6608:
6606:
6603:
6601:
6598:
6596:
6593:
6591:
6590:Exotic matter
6588:
6586:
6583:
6581:
6578:
6576:
6573:
6571:
6568:
6566:
6563:
6562:
6560:
6556:
6550:
6547:
6545:
6542:
6540:
6537:
6536:
6534:
6530:
6524:
6521:
6519:
6516:
6514:
6511:
6509:
6506:
6504:
6501:
6499:
6496:
6494:
6491:
6489:
6486:
6484:
6481:
6480:
6478:
6474:
6469:
6459:
6456:
6454:
6451:
6449:
6445:
6442:
6440:
6437:
6435:
6432:
6431:
6429:
6425:
6420:
6416:
6409:
6404:
6402:
6397:
6395:
6390:
6389:
6386:
6380:
6377:
6375:
6372:
6370:
6366:
6362:
6359:
6356:
6354:
6351:
6349:
6345:
6341:
6339:
6335:
6332:
6329:
6328:
6316:
6312:
6307:
6302:
6298:
6294:
6290:
6286:
6282:
6278:
6274:
6267:
6259:
6255:
6251:
6247:
6243:
6239:
6232:
6224:
6220:
6216:
6212:
6208:
6204:
6200:
6196:
6189:
6181:
6177:
6173:
6169:
6165:
6161:
6154:
6146:
6134:
6126:
6120:
6116:
6112:
6108:
6104:
6097:
6096:
6088:
6080:
6076:
6072:
6068:
6064:
6060:
6053:
6044:
6038:
6022:
6016:
6008:
6004:
6000:
5996:
5992:
5988:
5981:
5972:
5967:
5963:
5959:
5955:
5951:
5947:
5940:
5931:
5926:
5922:
5918:
5914:
5910:
5906:
5899:
5891:
5887:
5883:
5879:
5872:
5864:
5860:
5856:
5850:
5846:
5845:
5837:
5829:
5825:
5821:
5817:
5813:
5809:
5805:
5798:
5790:
5786:
5782:
5778:
5774:
5770:
5763:
5755:
5751:
5747:
5743:
5739:
5735:
5728:
5720:
5716:
5712:
5708:
5704:
5700:
5696:
5692:
5684:
5676:
5672:
5668:
5664:
5660:
5656:
5649:
5640:
5635:
5631:
5627:
5624:(2): 025322.
5623:
5619:
5615:
5608:
5600:
5596:
5594:9781139471732
5590:
5586:
5585:
5578:
5569:
5564:
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5299:
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5116:
5115:apod.nasa.gov
5112:
5106:
5098:
5092:
5088:
5087:
5079:
5071:
5065:
5061:
5060:
5052:
5037:on 3 May 2012
5036:
5032:
5030:0-87590-026-7
5026:
5022:
5018:
5014:
5010:
5006:
5002:
4998:
4991:
4983:
4981:9780120884254
4977:
4973:
4966:
4957:
4951:
4947:
4946:
4938:
4932:
4928:
4927:
4919:
4910:
4909:2027.42/70486
4905:
4901:
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4889:
4885:
4881:
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4848:
4833:
4829:
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4790:9780309052313
4786:
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4733:
4729:
4722:
4707:
4703:
4696:
4688:
4684:
4679:
4674:
4670:
4666:
4663:(6): 060901.
4662:
4658:
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4639:
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4624:
4618:
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4607:
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4588:
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4325:
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4296:
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4287:
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4261:
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4236:
4228:
4222:
4218:
4211:
4203:
4199:
4197:9781139462150
4193:
4189:
4188:
4180:
4178:
4169:
4165:
4163:9781475755954
4159:
4155:
4154:
4146:
4144:
4135:
4131:
4129:9780387209753
4125:
4121:
4120:
4112:
4105:
4101:
4097:
4091:
4083:
4079:
4077:9781468418965
4073:
4069:
4068:
4063:
4057:
4049:
4045:
4040:
4035:
4031:
4027:
4024:(5316): 219.
4023:
4019:
4015:
4008:
4000:
3996:
3990:
3986:
3982:
3975:
3967:
3963:
3959:
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3861:
3847:
3843:
3837:
3829:
3823:
3819:
3812:
3804:
3800:
3794:
3786:
3780:
3777:. CRC Press.
3776:
3769:
3761:
3755:
3751:
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3730:
3726:
3722:
3715:
3707:
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3663:
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3629:
3628:
3620:
3612:
3606:
3602:
3595:
3579:
3575:
3568:
3564:
3553:
3551:
3550:Recombination
3548:
3541:
3540:
3537:
3534:
3532:
3530:
3527:
3525:
3522:
3519:
3518:
3513:
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3408:
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3392:
3378:
3373:
3370:
3363:
3358:
3351:
3346:
3327:
3324:
3318:
3313:
3312:
3306:
3304:
3303:nanomaterials
3300:
3296:
3293:of different
3292:
3287:
3282:
3280:
3276:
3272:
3268:
3267:Hannes Alfvén
3257:
3255:
3251:
3246:
3241:
3239:
3235:
3234:magnetic rope
3231:
3227:
3223:
3222:electric arcs
3219:
3215:
3211:
3204:Filamentation
3201:
3199:
3195:
3183:
3180:
3172:
3162:
3158:
3152:
3150:
3143:
3134:
3133:
3125:
3123:
3119:
3115:
3112:
3111:7-dimensional
3108:
3104:
3100:
3095:
3090:
3088:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3050:
3044:
3040:
3036:
3023:
3019:
3015:
3012:
3008:
3004:
3002:
2998:
2995:
2990:
2985:
2983:
2979:
2976:
2972:
2970:
2966:
2963:
2951:
2950:metallurgical
2947:
2945:
2944:Arc discharge
2941:
2940:
2931:
2927:
2923:
2922:
2918:
2915:
2913:
2909:
2906:
2905:
2901:
2898:
2894:
2892:
2888:
2885:
2881:
2879:
2875:
2874:
2868:
2866:
2862:
2858:
2854:
2850:
2846:
2842:
2838:
2834:
2824:
2822:
2818:
2814:
2810:
2806:
2802:
2793:
2785:
2776:
2774:
2770:
2766:
2762:
2758:
2754:
2750:
2747:) beyond its
2746:
2742:
2738:
2734:
2730:
2726:
2721:
2719:
2715:
2711:
2707:
2703:
2695:
2690:
2683:
2671:
2666:
2665:Larmor orbits
2662:
2659:
2638:
2634:
2629:
2625:
2621:
2616:
2612:
2585:
2581:
2576:
2572:
2568:
2563:
2559:
2550:
2547:
2544:
2541:
2537:
2536:
2535:
2526:
2524:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2503:neutron stars
2500:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2468:
2463:
2461:
2455:
2439:
2436:Interstellar
2435:
2433:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2419:
2415:
2412:
2408:
2406:
2402:
2399:
2395:
2392:
2391:
2390:
2385:
2382:
2380:
2377:
2374:
2370:
2367:
2365:
2364:polar aurorae
2361:
2359:
2355:
2352:
2351:magnetosphere
2348:
2346:
2343:
2342:
2341:
2336:
2333:
2330:
2327:
2324:
2323:fusion energy
2320:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2300:
2299:ion thrusters
2296:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2283:
2279:
2278:
2277:
2276:
2272:
2269:
2266:
2265:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2242:
2232:
2230:
2226:
2222:
2218:
2211:Kinetic model
2208:
2206:
2205:double layers
2202:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2176:
2171:
2163:
2158:
2149:
2147:
2126:
2118:
2115:
2103:
2055:
2054:
2020:
2011:
2010:gyrofrequency
1984:
1963:
1960:
1940:
1935:
1920:
1911:
1904:Magnetization
1901:
1899:
1893:
1880:
1873:
1869:
1862:
1858:
1846:
1840:
1836:
1826:
1819:
1810:
1798:
1785:
1777:
1773:
1763:
1758:
1751:
1745:
1742:
1739:
1734:
1730:
1721:
1717:
1712:
1710:
1709:
1708:double layers
1704:
1686:
1682:
1675:
1669:
1664:
1660:
1651:
1647:
1638:
1634:
1624:
1620:
1615:
1613:
1609:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1587:
1585:
1584:Saha equation
1581:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1568:electronvolts
1565:
1555:
1553:
1532:
1528:
1502:
1498:
1489:
1485:
1478:
1473:
1469:
1448:
1445:
1442:
1420:
1416:
1393:
1389:
1379:
1366:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1345:
1341:
1334:
1330:
1324:
1321:
1313:
1299:
1277:
1273:
1264:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1238:
1229:
1227:
1222:
1216:
1206:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1189:
1175:
1171:
1168:
1166:quasineutral.
1164:
1160:
1157:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1143:
1142:
1141:
1128:
1127:instabilities
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1109:
1106:
1102:
1099:
1096:
1095:
1091:
1088:
1085:
1081:
1078:
1075:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1063:
1060:
1056:
1053:
1051:Interactions
1050:
1049:
1045:
1042:
1034:
1033:
1030:
1026:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1007:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
985:
981:
980:
956:
951:
949:
944:
942:
937:
936:
934:
933:
925:
922:
920:
917:
915:
912:
910:
907:
905:
902:
900:
897:
895:
892:
890:
887:
885:
882:
880:
877:
875:
872:
870:
867:
865:
862:
860:
857:
855:
852:
851:
844:
843:
832:
829:
827:
824:
822:
819:
818:
817:
816:
813:
810:
809:
804:
801:
799:
796:
794:
791:
790:
789:
788:
783:
778:
777:
768:
765:
764:
758:
755:
753:
750:
748:
745:
743:
740:
738:
737:Charles's law
735:
733:
730:
728:
725:
724:
722:
721:
718:
715:
714:
708:
705:
703:
700:
698:
695:
693:
690:
688:
685:
684:
682:
681:
678:
675:
674:
668:
665:
661:
658:
654:
651:
646:
645:non-Newtonian
643:
639:
635:
634:
633:
630:
628:
625:
621:
618:
616:
613:
611:
608:
604:
601:
599:
596:
592:
589:
588:
586:
585:
582:
579:
578:
573:
568:
567:
559:
556:
554:
551:
547:
544:
543:
542:
539:
537:
534:
532:
531:Compatibility
529:
525:
522:
520:
519:Finite strain
517:
516:
515:
512:
510:
507:
505:
502:
500:
497:
493:
490:
489:
488:
485:
483:
480:
479:
475:
470:
469:
458:
455:
454:
453:
452:
448:
447:
442:
439:
437:
434:
432:
429:
428:
427:
426:
423:Conservations
422:
421:
413:
412:
408:
389:
386:
381:
378:
372:
369:
366:
363:
356:
355:
352:
349:
348:
344:
343:
340:
338:
334:
329:
327:
323:
317:
315:
311:
307:
303:
295:
291:
288:
284:
266:Early history
263:
260:
256:
252:
248:
243:
241:
237:
233:
230:makes plasma
229:
224:
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
198:
194:
190:
186:
182:
178:
174:
170:
166:
163:
156:
152:
149:
148:Ancient Greek
145:
136:
132:
131:solar eclipse
128:
124:
120:
116:
112:
108:
107:
103:
102:Space Shuttle
99:
98:filamentation
95:
91:
87:
77:
68:
57:
48:
37:
28:
19:
7283:Astrophysics
7161:Astrophysics
6975:Experimental
6885:Superheating
6758:Vaporization
6753:Triple point
6748:Supercooling
6713:Lambda point
6663:Condensation
6580:Time crystal
6558:Other states
6498:Quantum Hall
6457:
6369:More (Video)
6280:
6276:
6266:
6241:
6237:
6231:
6198:
6194:
6188:
6163:
6159:
6153:
6094:
6087:
6062:
6058:
6052:
6025:. Retrieved
6015:
5990:
5986:
5980:
5953:
5949:
5939:
5912:
5908:
5898:
5881:
5877:
5871:
5843:
5836:
5811:
5807:
5797:
5772:
5768:
5762:
5737:
5733:
5727:
5694:
5690:
5683:
5658:
5654:
5648:
5621:
5618:AIP Advances
5617:
5607:
5583:
5577:
5558:
5554:
5544:
5533:the original
5512:
5508:
5495:
5483:. Retrieved
5468:
5447:cite journal
5435:. Retrieved
5428:the original
5414:
5384:(22): R423.
5381:
5377:
5371:
5352:
5346:
5301:
5297:
5287:
5246:
5242:
5206:
5202:
5165:
5158:
5139:
5118:. Retrieved
5114:
5105:
5085:
5078:
5058:
5051:
5039:. Retrieved
5035:the original
5004:
5000:
4990:
4971:
4965:
4944:
4925:
4918:
4883:
4879:
4873:
4861:. Retrieved
4857:
4854:"chapter 15"
4847:
4835:. Retrieved
4831:
4821:
4780:
4775:
4763:. Retrieved
4738:(1): 59–83.
4735:
4731:
4721:
4709:. Retrieved
4705:
4695:
4660:
4656:
4646:
4637:
4631:
4612:
4606:
4594:. Retrieved
4590:
4581:
4556:
4552:
4546:
4521:
4517:
4511:
4499:. Retrieved
4474:(1): 21–51.
4471:
4467:
4457:
4445:. Retrieved
4436:
4427:
4415:. Retrieved
4398:10.1142/3634
4388:
4381:
4349:
4342:
4323:
4317:
4293:
4286:
4274:. Retrieved
4270:
4260:
4241:
4235:
4216:
4210:
4186:
4152:
4118:
4111:
4095:
4090:
4066:
4056:
4021:
4017:
4007:
3984:
3974:
3949:
3945:
3939:
3894:
3890:
3880:
3868:. Retrieved
3850:. Retrieved
3836:
3817:
3811:
3793:
3774:
3768:
3749:
3743:
3720:
3714:
3695:
3689:
3661:
3654:
3626:
3619:
3600:
3594:
3582:. Retrieved
3577:
3567:
3529:Condensation
3512:Vaporization
3475:
3367:Plasma in a
3343:Solar plasma
3283:
3263:
3242:
3238:Plasma pinch
3226:solar flares
3207:
3190:
3175:
3166:
3146:
3093:
3091:
3079:flow control
3071:moving parts
3052:
2999:
2980:
2967:
2942:
2919:
2910:
2902:
2889:
2876:
2830:
2801:Electric arc
2799:
2779:Electric arc
2722:
2698:
2532:
2499:white dwarfs
2464:
2457:
2371:, including
2329:Plasma globe
2257:
2248:
2244:
2238:
2214:
2182:
2173:
2051:
1907:
1894:
1799:
1713:
1706:
1703:Debye length
1650:Debye sheath
1643:
1588:
1561:
1380:
1314:
1260:
1225:
1221:dusty plasma
1218:
1215:Dusty plasma
1209:Dusty plasma
1203:Penning trap
1191:
1169:
1163:Debye length
1158:
1153:Debye sphere
1144:
1139:
1136:Ideal plasma
1110:
1100:
1089:
1079:
1064:
1054:
1027:
1008:
976:
974:
812:Smart fluids
766:
757:Graham's law
663:
656:
641:
627:Pascal's law
623:
606:
594:
449:Inequalities
337:blood plasma
331:
325:
321:
319:
299:
294:bodily fluid
244:
225:
203:, mostly in
161:
158:
151:
143:
142:
105:
94:plasma globe
18:
7064:Statistical
6980:Theoretical
6957:Engineering
6794:Latent heat
6743:Sublimation
6688:Evaporation
6623:Ferromagnet
6618:Ferrimagnet
6600:Dark matter
6532:High energy
5915:(6): 1338.
5120:10 February
5007:: 439–453.
4863:10 February
4837:10 February
4711:10 February
4596:10 February
4524:(5): 1439.
3584:10 February
3493:Sublimation
3421:of matter (
3250:micrometers
3210:plasma ball
3114:phase space
3083:shock waves
3067:electricity
2960:to produce
2857:luminescent
2853:fluorescent
2839:(coating),
2511:binary star
2507:black holes
2321:Plasmas in
2309:heat shield
2229:gyrokinetic
2179:Fluid model
2053:anisotropic
1558:Temperature
1111:Two or more
1055:Short-range
966:Definitions
831:Ferrofluids
732:Boyle's law
504:Hooke's law
482:Deformation
283:microfields
90:neon lights
7257:Categories
7181:Geophysics
7171:Biophysics
7015:Analytical
6968:Approaches
6809:Volatility
6772:Quantities
6733:Regelation
6708:Ionization
6683:Deposition
6635:Superglass
6605:Antimatter
6539:QCD matter
6518:Supersolid
6513:Superfluid
6476:Low energy
6027:26 January
5775:(3): 123.
4447:25 October
3560:References
3536:Ionization
3524:Deposition
3075:efficiency
3073:at a high
3047:See also:
3005:this is a
2833:metallurgy
2475:heliopause
2471:solar wind
2405:solar wind
2358:ionosphere
2317:atmosphere
2305:spacecraft
2293:neon signs
1617:See also:
1595:Maxwellian
1263:ionization
1084:insulators
1065:Long-range
1059:collisions
884:Gay-Lussac
847:Scientists
747:Fick's law
727:Atmosphere
546:frictional
499:Plasticity
487:Elasticity
333:Lewi Tonks
290:simulation
251:Neon signs
146:(from
7131:Molecular
7032:Acoustics
7025:Continuum
7020:Celestial
7010:Newtonian
6997:Classical
6940:Divisions
6143:ignored (
6133:cite book
5863:690642377
5814:(1): 20.
5675:137392051
5406:116995929
5298:Materials
5279:206069219
5041:25 August
4807:cite book
4760:122977170
4752:1572-946X
4687:1070-664X
4496:250739485
4488:1063-7869
4064:(1972) .
3291:synthesis
3218:lightning
3169:June 2024
3157:talk page
3101:with low
2962:aluminium
2805:lightning
2796:electron.
2765:conductor
2761:insulator
2622:≫
2523:M87's jet
2509:in close
2345:Lightning
2315:into the
2127:×
2119:−
2021:ν
1985:ν
1941:ν
1921:ν
1855:∇
1814:→
1755:Φ
1746:
1740:∝
1679:⟩
1673:⟨
1637:Lightning
1538:⟩
1525:⟨
1495:⟩
1482:⟨
1443:α
1322:α
1300:α
1242:rendition
1240:Artist's
1115:Electrons
1090:Very high
1011:particles
924:Truesdell
854:Bernoulli
803:Rheometer
798:Rheometry
638:Newtonian
632:Viscosity
382:φ
370:−
255:lightning
193:electrons
86:Lightning
6870:Spinodal
6818:Concepts
6698:Freezing
6361:Archived
6334:Archived
6315:23330064
6283:: 1083.
6223:26797662
6037:cite web
5719:18930244
5599:Archived
5561:: 1–14.
5479:Archived
5437:12 April
5338:28773804
5271:18499345
5181:Archived
4799:42854229
4501:19 March
4441:Archived
4417:19 March
4373:Archived
4309:Archived
4202:Archived
4168:Archived
4134:Archived
4082:Archived
4048:16063290
3999:Archived
3931:16587379
3864:Archived
3846:Archived
3803:Archived
3725:Springer
3681:Archived
3646:Archived
3632:Springer
3574:"πλάσμα"
3505:Freezing
3388:See also
3069:with no
3020::" is a
2519:galaxies
2325:research
2313:re-entry
2195:and the
1976:, where
1603:magnetic
1599:electric
1517:, where
1080:Very low
1039:Property
782:Rheology
687:Adhesion
667:Pressure
653:Buoyancy
598:Dynamics
436:Momentum
201:universe
106:Atlantis
7215:Related
7099:General
7094:Special
6952:Applied
6830:Binodal
6718:Melting
6653:Boiling
6570:Crystal
6565:Colloid
6306:3547321
6285:Bibcode
6246:Bibcode
6203:Bibcode
6168:Bibcode
6103:Bibcode
6067:Bibcode
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5329:5512349
5306:Bibcode
5251:Bibcode
5211:Bibcode
5009:Bibcode
4888:Bibcode
4765:15 July
4665:Bibcode
4561:Bibcode
4526:Bibcode
4369:9852700
4026:Bibcode
3954:Bibcode
3922:1085653
3899:Bibcode
3542:Plasma
3501:Liquid
3488:Melting
3369:tokamak
3309:Gallery
3198:fractal
2880:plasmas
2845:welding
2841:etching
2769:ionized
2763:into a
2741:voltage
2737:cathode
2438:nebulae
2373:sprites
2311:during
2287:Inside
1612:z-pinch
1123:charges
1105:gravity
1046:Plasma
1019:charged
996:ionized
977:fourth
869:Charles
677:Liquids
591:Statics
536:Bending
322:sheaths
306:lecture
281:Plasma
199:in the
7126:Atomic
7081:Modern
6931:Major
6458:Plasma
6439:Liquid
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3852:24 May
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3476:Plasma
3466:Liquid
3271:fusion
3228:, and
3214:aurora
3212:, the
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2984:(DBD):
2932:(ECR).
2886:tubes.
1564:kelvin
1381:where
1161:: The
1023:fields
990:, and
988:liquid
982:after
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899:Newton
889:Graham
864:Cauchy
767:Plasma
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660:Mixing
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514:Strain
509:Stress
492:linear
441:Energy
326:plasma
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6448:Vapor
6434:Solid
6427:State
6219:S2CID
6099:(PDF)
5671:S2CID
5536:(PDF)
5505:(PDF)
5431:(PDF)
5424:(PDF)
5402:S2CID
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4756:S2CID
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1069:waves
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874:Euler
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6947:Pure
6419:list
6311:PMID
6145:help
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