History of Africa - Knowledge

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organizations began to challenge both the traditional and the new colonial structures, and finally displaced them. Leaders of nationalist movements took control when the European authorities evacuated; many ruled for decades or until they died. These structures involved political, educational, religious, and other social organizations. In recent decades, many African countries have undergone the triumph and defeat of nationalistic fervour, changing in the process the loci of the centralizing state power and patrimonial state.

5726: 699: 7026: 6962: 1240: 1672: 5101: 3489: 10838: 10558: 2525: 5983: 1981: 3352:, which were mostly those of tribal confederations in the interior, were violently oppressed and often given the ultimatum to convert to Islam or face death or enslavement. Converted natives were permitted to participate in the governing of the Muslim empire in order to quell the enormous administrative problems owing to the Arabs' lack of experience governing and rapid expansion. Unorthodox sects such as the 7265: 2639: 835:, South Africa. Beads and other personal ornamentation have been found from Morocco which might be as much as 130,000 years old; as well, the Cave of Hearths in South Africa has yielded a number of beads dating from significantly prior to 50,000 years ago, and shell beads dating to about 75,000 years ago have been found at Blombos Cave, South Africa. 7219:

communities, and the plurality and diversity of its many peoples means a historiographical approach that confines itself to the development and activity of a singular people or nation incapable of capturing the comprehensive history of African nations without a vast quantity of historical works. There have also been strides made in the

5470:, with oral histories describing bloody clashes and earlier settlers often pushed along the coast or inland. An Arab geographer wrote in 1224 that the island consisted of a great many towns and kingdoms, with kings making war on each other. Assisted by climate change, the peoples gradually transformed the island from 7065:. Most of the remaining countries gained independence throughout the 1960s, although some colonizers (Portugal in particular) were reluctant to relinquish sovereignty, resulting in bitter wars of independence which lasted for a decade or more. The last African countries to gain formal independence were 7768:

men used slavery to grab power to get around broader governing ideas about reciprocity and kinship, but were still bound by those ideas to some degree. In other parts of the continent early political centralization and commercialization led to expanded use of slaves as soldiers, officials, and workers.

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Posth C, Renaud G, Mittnik M, Drucker DG, Rougier H, Cupillard C, Valentin F, Thevenet C, Furtwängler A, Wißing C, Francken M, Malina M, Bolus M, Lari M, Gigli E, Capecchi G, Crevecoeur I, Beauval C, Flas D, Germonpré M, van der Plicht J, Cottiaux R, Gély B, Ronchitelli A, Wehrberger K, Grigorescu D,

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For most Africans between 10000 BCE to 500 CE, the use of slaves was not an optimal political or economic strategy. But in some places, Africans came to see the value of slavery. In the large parts of the continent where Africans lived in relatively decentralized and small-scale communities, some big

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led to a perception by Europeans that Africa and its people had no recorded history and little desire to create it. The historical works of the time were predominantly written by scholars of the various European powers and were confined to individual nations, leading to disparities in style, quality,

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Areas controlled by European powers in 1939. British (red) and Belgian (marroon) colonies fought with the Allies. Italian (light green) with the Axis. French colonies (dark blue) fought alongside the Allies until the Fall of France in June 1940. Vichy was in control until the Free French prevailed in

7194:. A general perception of Western superiority throughout European academics and historians prominent during the height of colonialism led to the defining traits of colonial historical works, which post-colonialists have sought to analyse and criticize. Examples of general histories of Africa include 4807:

pretext to invade and execute an Ethiopian envoy. Seven years later, Amda Seyon's forces overwhelmed Ifat's outposts, defeated Ifat's armies and killed Haqq ad-Din, with lack of unity among the Muslims proving fatal. The Ethiopian emperor raided the Muslim states and made them tributaries. Following

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being one of the earliest south of the Niger river, dating back as early as the 10th to 6th century BCE. The city gradually transitioned into a more urban center around the 4th to 7th centuries CE. By the 8th century, a powerful city-state had formed, laying the foundation for the eventual rise of

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This artistic tradition coincided with Ile-Ife's role as a major commercial hub. The Ife Empire's strategic location facilitated its participation in extensive trade networks that spanned West Africa. Of note is the evidence of a thriving glass bead industry in Ile-Ife. Archaeological excavations

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Tishkoff, Sarah A.; Reed, Floyd A.; Friedlaender, Françoise R.; Ehret, Christopher; Ranciaro, Alessia; Froment, Alain; Hirbo, Jibril B.; Awomoyi, Agnes A.; Bodo, Jean-Marie; Doumbo, Ogobara; Ibrahim, Muntaser; Juma, Abdalla T.; Kotze, Maritha J.; Lema, Godfrey; Moore, Jason H.; Mortensen, Holly;

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Acknowledgement and acceptance of African nations and peoples as individuals free of European domination has allowed African history to be approached from new perspectives and with new methods. Africa has lacked a defined means of communication or academic body due to its variety of cultures and

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The period between 1200 and 1400 is often referred to as the "golden age" of Ile-Ife, marked by exceptional artistic production, economic prosperity, and urban development. The city's artisans excelled in crafting exquisite sculptures from bronze, terracotta, and stone. These works, renowned for

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that natives learned during the world wars serving in the British, French, and other armies. It led to organizations that were not controlled by or endorsed by either the colonial powers nor the traditional local power structures that had collaborated with the colonial powers. Nationalistic

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at a time when Africa was drying up and the savanna was encroaching on forested areas. This would have occurred 10 to 5 million years ago, but these claims are controversial because biologists and genetics have humans appearing around the last 70 thousand to 200 thousand years.

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Anquandah, James (1995) The Kintampo Complex: a case study of early sedentism and food production in sub-Sahelian west Africa, pp. 255–259 in Shaw, Thurstan, Andah, Bassey W and Sinclair, Paul (1995). The Archaeology of Africa: Food, Metals and Towns. London: Routledge.

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emerging as the strongest. This prosperity led some Arab and Persian merchants to settle and assimilate into the various societies, and from the 8th to the 14th century the region gradually Islamised due to the increased trading opportunities it brought, with some

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oral traditions, although there is considerable academic debate. The eastern Bantu group would eventually meet with the southern migrants from the Great Lakes in Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe and both groups continued southward, with eastern groups continuing to

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converting to Islam in 1076. Oral sources hold that, intent on invading Ghana, which was elsewhere stated to have had a 200,000-man force, the Almoravid army found the king respectful of Islam, and he willingly adopted Islam with the exchange of gold for an

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remain contemporary, and as influential as they were during their lifetime, if not more so. In these circumstances causality operates in a forward direction from past to present and from present to future, however direct intervention can operate in any

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grew stronger. In the 1950s and 1960s the colonial holdings became independent states. The process was usually peaceful but there were several long bitter bloody civil wars, as in Algeria, Kenya, and elsewhere. Across Africa the powerful new force of

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raided the Ethiopian frontier against the sultan's wishes, and was defeated by the emperors in 1507 and finally in 1517. For the Ethiopians, the end of the 15th century saw a period of conquest and expansion come to close, and one of defence begin.

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people smelted copper independently of developments in the Nile valley between 3,000 and 2,500 BC. They used a process unique to the region, suggesting that the technology was not brought in from outside; it became more mature by about 1,500 BC.

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in 750 and attempted to reconfigure the caliphate to be multi-ethnic rather than Arab exclusive, however this wasn't enough to prevent gradual disintegration on its peripheries. Various short-lived native dynasties would form states such as the

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In these cases, time's duration is not as it affects the fate of the individual, but the pulse of the social group. It is not a river flowing in one direction from a known source to a known outlet. Generally, traditional African time involves

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Tofanelli, S.; Bertoncini, S.; Castri, L.; Luiselli, D.; Calafell, F.; Donati, G.; Paoli, G. (1 September 2009). "On the Origins and Admixture of Malagasy: New Evidence from High-Resolution Analyses of Paternal and Maternal Lineages".

3292:, who was approached prior to battle and convinced to convert to Islam. Initially having become neutral, Kusaila objected to integration into the empire and in 683 destroyed the poorly supplied Arab army and conquered the newly-found 6841:

Between 1878 and 1898, European states partitioned and conquered most of Africa. For 400 years, European nations had mainly limited their involvement to trading stations on the African coast, with few daring to venture inland. The

1183:(Holl 2009). The site of Gbabiri (in the Central African Republic) has also yielded evidence of iron metallurgy, from a reduction furnace and blacksmith workshop; with earliest dates of 896–773 BC and 907–796 BC respectively. 6266:. Between 1324 and 1325 his entourage of over 10,000, and hundreds of camels, all carrying around 12 tonnes of gold in total, travelled 2700 miles, giving gifts to the poor along the way, and fostered good relations with the 4822:

in 1332 seeking to restore prestige and rule a Muslim Ethiopia, garnering widespread support in the early stages from the Muslim states and even from nomads. They were defeated by Amda Seyon, ushering in a golden age for the

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portrays early Ghana as warlike, with horse-mounted warriors key to increasing its territory and population, although details of their expansion are extremely scarce. Wagadu made its profits from maintaining a monopoly on

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declared opposition to the Arab invasion and repelled their armies, securing her position as the uncontested ruler of the Maghreb for five years. The Arabs received reinforcements and in 701 Kahina was killed and the

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Hublin, Jean-Jacques; Ben-Ncer, Abdelouahed; Bailey, Shara E.; Freidline, Sarah E.; Neubauer, Simon; Skinner, Matthew M.; Bergmann, Inga; Le Cabec, Adeline; Benazzi, Stefano; Harvati, Katerina; Gunz, Philipp (2017).

2075:. Carthage's political institutions received rare praise from both Greeks and Romans, with its constitution and aristocratic council providing stability, with birth and wealth paramount for election. In 264 BC the 830:

designs. Using multiple dating techniques, the site was confirmed to be around 77,000 and 100–75,000 years old. Ostrich egg shell containers engraved with geometric designs dating to 60,000 years ago were found at

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their naturalism and technical mastery, were not only objects of aesthetic appreciation but also likely held religious significance, potentially reflecting the cosmology and belief systems of the Ife people.

1703:. The Ancient Egyptians initially traded via middle-men with Punt until in 2350 BC when they established direct relations. They would become close trading partners for over a millennium, with Punt exchanging 6912:

were needed for European factories. Prestige and imperial rivalries were at play. Acquiring African colonies would show rivals that a nation was powerful and significant. These contextual factors forged the

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into their empire, enjoying initial success, until a devastating ambush crippled their military leadership, and throughout the 12th century they gradually lost territory to the Christians. To the east, the

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regained total independence from Egypt, and they would persist as a major regional power until, having been weakened from internal rebellion amid worsening climatic conditions, invasions by both the

8303:"Scientists Find the Skull of Humanity's Ancestor – on a Computer – By comparing fossils and CT scans, researchers say they have reconstructed the skull of the last common forebear of modern humans" 2624:

scattered across West Africa dating to this period, it has been stipulated that relative to Wagadu there were further simultaneous and preceding kingdoms which have unfortunately been lost to time.

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defeated. They completed their conquest of the rest of the Maghreb, with large swathes of Berbers embracing Islam, and the combined Arab and Berber armies would use this territory as a springboard

6593:, revered as the first divine king of the Yoruba, the Ife Empire grew. Ile-Ife, its capital, rose to prominence, its influence extending across a vast swathe of what is now southwestern Nigeria. 5947:

resurged, reasserting suzerainty over their former vassals throughout the 12th century. This was not to reverse the climatic and economic progression however, and at the turn of the 13th century,

3029:, with finds including bronze sculptures, terracotta statues of human and animal figures, coins, funerary urns, household utensils, jewellery, highly decorated pottery, and spears. Nearby, around 4458:, and burnt their churches. It's possible that Gudit was a pagan queen who led resistance to Aksum's southward expansion. To the east in the 9th and 10th centuries, the Somali clans such as the 1047:, became a major activity in the numerous streams and lakes formed from the increased rains. Mande peoples have been credited with the independent development of agriculture about 4000–3000 BC. 2786:-speaking peoples from Central Africa to Eastern and Southern Africa and was substantial in the settling of the continent. Commencing in the 2nd millennium BC, the Bantu began to migrate from 11904:

Allibert, Claude (May 2008). "Austronesian Migration and the Establishment of the Malagasy Civilization: Contrasted Readings in Linguistics, Archaeology, Genetics and Cultural Anthropology".

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and their emergence. Abstract imagery, widened subsistence strategies, and other "modern" behaviors have been discovered from that period in Africa, especially South, North, and East Africa.

2580:, a serpent deity who was guarding a well, to sacrifice one maiden a year in exchange for assurance regarding plenty of rainfall and gold supply. Wagadu's core traversed modern-day southern 8963:

Nyambo, Thomas B.; Omar, Sabah A.; Powell, Kweli; Pretorius, Gideon S.; Smith, Michael W.; Thera, Mahamadou A.; Wambebe, Charles; Weber, James L. & Williams, Scott M. (22 May 2009).

9202: 9162: 9266: 12495: 1902:, with large inscriptions attributed to various kings, likely serving as victory monuments documenting the wars waged. The turn of the 6th century saw Aksum balanced against the 5129: 7223:. This quantity and diversity of history that has yet to be documented is better suited to the contemporary historiographical movements that incorporate the social sciences: 5401:'s administration consisted of representatives who ranged from governing their assigned cities to fulfilling the role of ambassador in the more powerful ones. Meanwhile the 14137: 7318: 3940:

and extending their rule from the western Sahara and Iberia to Ifriqiya by the turn of the 13th century. Later, the Christians capitalised on internal conflict within the

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historiography studies the relationship between European colonialism and domination in Africa and the construction of African history and representation. It has roots in

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through continuous time, and its application to Africa, has come under persistent criticism in recent decades. In African societies, the historical process is largely a

4348:, and the expulsion of the Byzantines from the region isolated them, causing their society to become introspective, drawing inspiration from biblical traditions of the 13330: 10790:

JournalInsert Hilton, John (1993-10). "Peoples of Azania". Electronic Antiquity: Communicating the Classics. 1 (5). ISSN 1320-3606. Check date values in: |date= (help)

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Africa's World War: Congo, the Rwandan Genocide, and the Making of a Continental Catastrophe: Congo, the Rwandan Genocide, and the Making of a Continental Catastrophe

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have unearthed numerous glass beads, indicating local production and pointing to the existence of specialized knowledge and technology. These beads, particularly the

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was established in 1390 after "ousting a dynasty of 32 kings". In the late 14th century the sultans began to expand eastwards into the decentralised Somali interior.

588: 1759:, with archaeological discoveries indicating the possibility of other unknown sophisticated civilisations at this time. After D'mt's fall in the 5th century BC the 972:, pottery was independently invented in Africa, with the earliest pottery there dating to about 9,400 BC from central Mali. It soon spread throughout the southern 11253: 8679:

Vanhaeren, Marian; et al. (2013). "Thinking strings: Additional evidence for personal ornament use in the Middle Stone Age at Blombos Cave, South Africa".

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Kingdoms in this era were centred around cities and cores, with variations of influence radiating out from these points, meaning there weren't fixed borders.

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in the 2nd century AD. Further to the south, settlements of Bantu peoples who were iron-using agriculturists and herdsmen were well established south of the

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Texier, PJ; Porraz, G; Parkington, J; Rigaud, JP; Poggenpoel, C; Miller, C; Tribolo, C; Cartwright, C; Coudenneau, A; Klein, R; Steele, T; Verna, C (2010).

8075: 14347: 11890: 7154:, and the domination of European powers across the continent meant African history was written from an entirely European perspective under the pretence of 2163: 8313: 8636:

d'Errico, Francesco; et al. (2005). "Nassarius kraussianus shell beads from Blombos Cave: evidence for symbolic behaviour in the Middle Stone Age".

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remain partly in place in many parts of Africa, and their roles, powers, and influence vary greatly between countries, especially regarding governance.

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FitzSimons, William. "Sizing Up the 'Small Wars' of African Empire: An Assessment of the Context and Legacies of Nineteenth-Century Colonial Warfare".

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Henshilwood, Christopher S.; d'Errico, Francesco; Watts, Ian (2009). "Engraved ochres from the Middle Stone Age levels at Blombos Cave, South Africa".

4170: 2147: 1593:. Beginning in the mid second century BC, dynastic strife and a series of foreign wars weakened the kingdom, and it became increasingly reliant on the 13383: 5951:, having come under the rule of a general and former slave following dispute within the Diarisso dynasty, united the region and conquered a weakened 14739: 14734: 14729: 14724: 14714: 14709: 14704: 14699: 14694: 14689: 14684: 14679: 10428: 6253: 5402: 2827: 8831:

Vai S, Sarno S, Lari M, Luiselli D, Manzi G, Gallinaro M, Mataich S, Hübner A, Modi A, Pilli E, Tafuri MA, Caramelli D, di Lernia S (March 2019).

14598: 13789: 13559: 11825: 10577: 9930: 5080:. This second wave possibly found the island of Madagascar sparsely populated by descendants of the first wave a few centuries earlier, with the 870:

migration waves from the Middle East, mostly affecting Northern Africa, the Horn of Africa, and wider regions of the Sahel zone and East Africa.

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from South Africa in 1990. Eritrea later split off from Ethiopia in 1993. The nascent countries decided to keep their colonial borders in the

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in the Middle East, with plague and famine eroding Mamlukian authority, until internal conflict was reconciled. The following decades saw the

7313: 251: 41: 14620: 11769: 11690: 11472:"Wolaytta's Quest for Statehood: A Historical Overview and Analysis of Contemporary Quests for Regional Statehood in Ethiopia's Federation" 10081: 9446: 4042:

attempted to alienate the victorious Mamluks, who revolted, killing him and seizing power in Egypt, with rule given to a military caste of

3296:, causing an epiphany among the Berber that this conflict was not just against the Byzantines. The Arabs returned and defeated Kusaila and 2257:

to the Romans. At the turn of the millennium they both would face the same fate as Carthage and be conquered by the Romans who established

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Carthage was forced to give up their fleet, and the subsequent collapse of their empire would produce two further polities in the Maghreb;

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in the Sahel created areas for human habitation and exploitation which had not been habitable for the best part of a millennium, with the

14635: 14142: 14075: 13481: 9259:"A Swiss-led team of archaeologists has discovered pieces of the oldest African pottery in central Mali, dating back to at least 9,400BC" 7283: 6846:

in Europe produced several technological innovations which assisted them in overcoming this 400-year pattern. One was the development of

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coordinated invasions deep into Egypt to reach its greatest extent, looting royal statues and monuments. A rival power base developed in

11396: 8490:"A Howiesons Poort tradition of engraving ostrich eggshell containers dated to 60,000 years ago at Diepkloof Rock Shelter, South Africa" 2245:

against the Romans after he had usurped the Numidian throne from a Roman ally. Together they inflicted heavy casualties that quaked the

751:(also known as "modern humans" or "anatomically modern humans") living in Africa by about 350,000–260,000 years ago. The earliest known 14337: 5332: 3768: 1020:

were also collected and domesticated. The people started capturing wild cattle and holding them in circular thorn hedges, resulting in

10336:"Background to the Ghana empire: Archaeological investigations on the transition to statehood in the Dhar Tichitt region (mauritania)" 8167:

Scerri, Eleanor M. L.; Thomas, Mark G.; Manica, Andrea; Gunz, Philipp; Stock, Jay T.; Stringer, Chris; Grove, Matt; Groucutt, Huw S.;

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By 1100, all regions of Madagascar were inhabited, although the total population remained small. Societies organised at the behest of

922:, nuts, grasses and tubers were being collected for food. By 13,000 to 11,000 BC, people began collecting wild grains. This spread to 8725:"Pleistocene Mitochondrial Genomes Suggest a Single Major Dispersal of Non-Africans and a Late Glacial Population Turnover in Europe" 8547:

McBrearty, Sally; Brooks, Allison (2000). "The revolution that wasn't: a new interpretation of the origin of modern human behavior".

6132:(king/emperor), with provinces retaining a great deal of autonomy. At the same time as Sundiata's campaigns in the north subjugating 5212: 5173: 3178: 737:

locomotion which freed their hands. This gave them a crucial advantage, enabling them to live in both forested areas and on the open

611:. Widespread conversion occurred in southern West Africa, Central Africa, and Southern Africa under European rule due to efficacious 13431: 5327:

arrived and acquired the island of Kilwa from the local inhabitants, before quarrel with the Bantu king led to the severing Kilwa's

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in an attempt to escape Ethiopia's sphere of control. To the south-west according to oral traditions, Amda Seyon expanded into the

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and the suppression of communal autonomy disrupted local customary practices and caused the irreversible transformation of Africa's

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Henshilwood, Christopher; et al. (2002). "Emergence of Modern Human Behavior: Middle Stone Age Engravings from South Africa".

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river estuaries created natural harbours whilst the yearly monsoon winds assisted trade, and the Swahili civilisation consisted of

3318: 2394:. Archaeology points to sizable urban populations in West Africa beginning in the 4th millennium BC, which had crucially developed 2317:

in the early 6th century AD. The Byzantines and the Berber kingdoms fought minor inconsequential conflicts, such as in the case of

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Whitehead, Clive. "The historiography of British Imperial education policy, Part II: Africa and the rest of the colonial empire."

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Sundiata Keita's Invention of Latin Purgatory: The West African Gold Trade's Influence on Western European Society (ca.1050-1350)

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Sundiata Keita's Invention of Latin Purgatory: The West African Gold Trade's Influence on Western European Society (ca.1050-1350)

13340: 2422:, symbiotic trade relations developed in response to the opportunities afforded by north–south diversity in ecosystems, trading 1955: 1943: 1081:, and bronze came into use after 3,000 BC at the latest in Egypt and Nubia. Nubia became a major source of copper as well as of 14513: 14342: 14235: 8890:"A Rare Deep-Rooting D0 African Y-chromosomal Haplogroup and its Implications for the Expansion of Modern Humans Out of Africa" 5275: 4138: 1167:

was already smelting iron. Archaeological sites containing iron-smelting furnaces and slag have been excavated at sites in the

139: 13353: 6787: 3080: 2620:, whose composites stood in varying relations to the core, from fully administered to nominal tribute-paying parity. Based on 1569:

in Egypt. The Hellenistic rulers, seeking legitimacy from their Egyptian subjects, gradually Egyptianized and participated in

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emerged around this time to become the dominant force in Nubia, controlling an area as large as Egypt between the 1st and 4th

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She states, "To date, Kerma-culture has been found from the region of the First Cataract to upstream of the Fourth Cataract."

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is no longer widely accepted, and some researchers believe that sub-Saharan Africans invented iron metallurgy independently.

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of the Maghreb proposed payment of annual tribute, which the Muslims, not wishing to annex the territory, accepted. After a

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using iron weapons pushed Nubians out of Egypt in 670 BC, after which the use of iron became widespread in the Nile valley.

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Zimmerman, Andrew. "Africa in Imperial and Transnational History: multi-sited historiography and the necessity of theory."

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which saw Egypt fractured into many pieces amid widespread turmoil. Egypt's disintegration liberated the more Egyptianized

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between 1,000 and 600 BC, and in West Africa around 2,000 BC, long before the technology reached Egypt. Before 500 BC, the

7859:"An Economic Rationale for the West African Scramble? The Commercial Transition and the Commodity Price Boom of 1835–1885" 6990: 6820: 4902:. The Ethiopian armies were defeated, and he and his successors expanded to regain the territory of the former sultanate. 1151:

provides possible evidence of iron working as early as the 3rd millennium BC. Iron smelting developed in the area between

14546: 13443: 11867: 10877:"'Malagasy' or 'Madagascan'? Which English term best reflects the people, the culture, and other things from Madagascar?" 9082:"Affad 23, a Late Middle Palaeolithic Site With Refitted Lithics and Animal Remains in the Southern Dongola Reach, Sudan" 7727: 6137: 5971:

and Bida's prior assurance and unleashing a curse causing drought and famine, sometimes causing gold to be discovered in

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drawn to his court. Successive sultans rebelled and struggled to shake off Ethiopian vassalage, moving Ifat’s capital to

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from north to south were crucial in the moulding of their respective societies and meant that prior to the accession of

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of antiquity, causing heavy casualties on both sides, but ending in Carthage's eventual defeat and loss of Sicily. The

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dynasties of Egypt whose efforts presumably consisted of conquest and consolidation, with unification completed by the

1214: 262:, while some developed through internal, largely isolated development. Some societies are horizontal and maintained an 11596: 6982: 6783: 3076: 14551: 14240: 13183: 13133: 13066: 13004: 12983: 12658: 12489: 12454: 12335: 11606: 11390: 10370: 10280:

35 (1994) 1–36; Minze Stuiver and N.J. Van Der Merwe, 'Radiocarbon Chronology of the Iron Age in Sub-Saharan Africa'

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flourished for over a millennium beginning in the 6th century BC, in territory that later became part of present-day

2609: 2415: 1206: 6994: 6986: 6870:. European states kept these weapons largely among themselves by refusing to sell these weapons to African leaders. 14761: 14147: 13918: 12183: 9909: 6816: 6769: 4399: 3875: 3058: 2282: 1951: 575:

developed rapidly from one-tenth of the continent being under European imperial control to over nine-tenths in the

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Aux origines de la métallurgie du fer en Afrique, Une ancienneté méconnue: Afrique de l'Ouest et Afrique centrale.

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in North Africa. Soninke traditions likely contain content from prehistory, mentioning four previous foundings of

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in Niger, and iron working was practiced there by 1,500 BC. Iron smelting has been dated to 2,000 BC in southeast

248:) across much of sub-Saharan Africa, laying the foundations for states in Central, Eastern, and Southern regions. 14610: 14387: 14332: 13474: 10859:"Was a migration of foragers from the African mainland responsible for the grassy biomes of highland Madagascar?" 7196: 6808: 6775: 6503: 5523: 3068: 2278: 11496:

Tamrat, Taddesse (1984). "The Horn of Africa: The Solomonids in Ethiopia and the states of the Horn of Africa".

8302: 8106: 5484:, thought to have been the first settlers of Madagsacar, represented as primitive dwarfs. From the 13th century 4125:

then succumbed to internal division, exacerbated by plague and financial crisis, culminating in the rise of the

1812: 14897: 13990: 13985: 13393: 12830: 10215: 9780: 9443: 9282: 7020: 6832: 6824: 5087: 5029: 4954:, with the successor sultan securing peace between the two states. In the 1440s Ethiopia conquered much of the 4055: 3095: 1511: 1363:

in which numerous nomarchs ruled simultaneously. Throughout this time, power bases were built and destroyed in

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al-Fasi, Muhammad; Hrbek, Ivan (1988). "Stages in the development of Islam and its dissemination in Africa".

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beads known for their iridescent qualities, were highly sought-after trade items, found as far afield as the

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arrived, integrating into the respective societies, and held high status owing to Islamic trading networks.

4582: 3620: 2537: 2366: 1915: 1883: 1539: 639: 323: 9692:

Stuiver, Minze; Van Der Merwe, N.J. (1968). "Radiocarbon Chronology of the Iron Age in Sub-Saharan Africa".

4537:, with traditions differing on whether he was an Aksumite general or relative of Gudit, who established the 3767:' authority collapsed due to intense internal struggle in political rivalries and religious divisions, amid 13579: 13380: 6843: 6812: 6804: 5467: 4554: 3815: 3373: 2277:

were eventually defeated in war in the 1st century AD however weren't conquered. In the 5th century AD the

2008: 1543: 620: 580: 568: 11420:"A Study of Reconstructing the Historical Link between Wolaitta and Damot Kingdom of Wolaitta in Ethiopia" 7308: 5217: 3485:, and was eventually put down after decades of violence, resulting in between 300,000 and 2,500,000 dead. 1946:. The Aksumites invaded again in 525, and with Byzantine aid conquered the kingdom, incorporating it as a 14372: 14068: 13898: 13862: 13858: 13413: 12352: 11382:

A Pastoral Democracy: A Study of Pastoralism and Politics Among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa

10335: 6909: 6208:

under his rule. The cessation of his reign culminated in a destructive civil war, only reconciled with a

3906:, with Ibn Tumart dying shortly after. The movement consolidated under the leadership of self-proclaimed 3349: 3236:

generally putting up little resistance. The Muslims' attention then turned west to the Maghreb where the

3170: 3146: 1911: 1776: 1622: 1610: 1435: 689: 481: 318:. At its peak it is estimated that Africa had up to 10,000 different states and autonomous groups having 196:

societies are generally termed oral rather than literate civilisations, owing to their reverence for the

12027: 11322:. The Cambridge History of Africa. Vol. 3. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 98–182. 8888:

Haber M, Jones AL, Connel BA, Asan, Arciero E, Huanming Y, Thomas MG, Xue Y, Tyler-Smith C (June 2019).

2612:. It is probable that Wagadu's dominance on trade allowed for the gradual consolidation of many smaller 2202: 1202: 14892: 14531: 14382: 14106: 14063: 14048: 13467: 11964: 11846: 11662:

The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century

9811:

Holl, Augustin F. C. (6 November 2009). "Early West African Metallurgies: New Data and Old Orthodoxy".

8723:

Svoboda J, Semal P, Caramelli D, Bocherens H, Harvati K, Conard NJ, Haak W, Powell A, Krause J (2016).

7582: 7298: 7288: 7057:

were already independent. Many countries followed in the 1950s and 1960s, with a peak in 1960 with the

7016: 6744: 5471: 4943: 4832: 4553:, and instructed to build a second Jerusalem in Ethiopia. Accordingly this led to the commissioning of 4254: 3276:. With intentions to expand further in all directions, the Muslims returned to the Maghreb to find the 3174: 2909: 1827: 1772: 1546:, with Upper Egypt becoming a rich agricultural region whose produce Lower Egypt then sold and traded. 1527: 1419: 1404: 1264: 1050: 677: 143: 11445: 10584: 9940: 6362:

successful attempt to coerce the empire back into financial shape after the lacklustre premiership of

14630: 14436: 14162: 14157: 14152: 14091: 14020: 13941: 13871: 13126:

Born in Blackness: Africa, Africans, and the Making of the Modern World, 1471 to the Second World War

12094: 11030:

al-Fasi, Muhammad; Hrbek, Ivan (1988). "The coming of Islam and the expansion of the Muslim empire".

7293: 7202: 7147: 7089:(OAU) conference of 1964 due to fears of civil wars and regional instability, and placed emphasis on 6661: 5963:

fall is caused when a nobleman attempts to save a maiden from sacrifice against her wishes and kills

5320: 4990: 4023: 3564: 3344:

class were permitted to practice their religion and exempted from military service in exchange for a

3184: 2990:

people who are thought to have descended from the first inhabitants of Southern Africa 100,000 years

2503: 2395: 2071:

along with locally produced goods, all secured by one of the largest and most powerful navies in the

1570: 1519: 1491: 1380: 1360: 1180: 855: 626:

Following struggles for independence in many parts of the continent, and a weakened Europe after the

537: 255: 209: 13453: 11515:"The kingdom of Damot: An Inquiry into Political and Economic Power in the Horn of Africa (13th c.)" 11146:

Bianquis, Thierry (1988). "Egypt from the Arab conquest until the end of the Fatimid state (1171)".

10910: 10734: 4813: 3201: 1256: 14840: 14835: 14656: 14426: 14362: 14265: 14194: 14032: 14015: 13619: 12917: 7034: 7004: 5251: 4860: 4828: 4737: 4725: 4566: 4495: 4487: 3249: 2262: 1388: 1113: 1055: 839: 665: 545: 5478:. Oral traditions of the central highlands describe encountering an earlier population called the 1807:, with freedom from Roman interference causing Indians to give the cities a lucrative monopoly on 1339:, with Egyptian records speaking of its rich and populous agricultural regions. The height of the 669: 14831: 14421: 14416: 14306: 14101: 13854: 13729: 13719: 13524: 13150: 8590: 7914: 7429: 6882: 6490:

escaped Malian rule. Previously under Malian suzerainty and under pressure from the expansionist

4395: 4165:

reach their greatest extent with efficacious economic reforms, however the threat of the growing

3091: 2350: 2226: 1975: 1384: 1344: 1320: 1243:

Map of ancient Egypt, showing major cities and sites of the Dynastic period (c. 3150 BC to 30 BC)

1230: 707: 681: 673: 10557:

Posnansky, Merrick (1981). "The societies of Africa south of the Sahara in the Early Iron Age".

10160: 7821: 7674: 7138:

and involved the study of Africa and its history by European academics and historians. Prior to

5795:

in the early 10th century, having been nominally Muslim prior. At the turn of the 11th century,

3552: 3314: 3309: 2885:. The second thrust from the Great Lakes was eastward, also in the 1st century AD, expanding to 2423: 2298: 552:

slave trades began, many of the pre-existing local slave systems started supplying captives for

14625: 14605: 14585: 14468: 14284: 14245: 14111: 14096: 13995: 13891: 13734: 13624: 13554: 13435: 11514: 10981: 9935: 7303: 7278: 7190:

world in a patronizing manner stemming from a sense of Western superiority, first theorized by

7135: 7114: 6547: 6475: 5581: 5385:

in the interior and famous for its Zimbabwean gold, which was substantial in the usurpation of

5121: 5015: 5007: 4947: 4634: 4527: 4325: 4313: 4224: 3205: 3149:. The interior was dominated by various groupings of tribal confederations, namely the nomadic 2362: 2000: 1666: 1352: 1324: 1316: 989: 832: 596: 572: 529: 477: 283: 7235:

and other fields that closer examine the human element of History rather than constrain it to

4078: 3723:

saw their empire start to collapse in 1061, beginning with the loss of the holy cities to the

3142: 2576:, and holds that the final founding of Wagadu occurred after their first king did a deal with 2541: 1923: 14846: 14255: 13794: 13714: 13679: 13664: 13649: 13604: 13539: 13304:

Manning, Patrick (2016). "Locating Africans on the World Stage: A Problem in World History".

13157:, Lynne Rienner, Boulder (including a substantial "Annotated Bibliography" pp. 269–316). 12224:"The Conquest That Never Was: Ghana and the Almoravids, 1076. I. The External Arabic Sources" 12052: 12046: 11869:

Int'l Commerce, Snorkeling Camels, and The Indian Ocean Trade: Crash Course World History #18

11380: 11353: 10438: 9955: 8341: 8337:"Deciphering African late middle Pleistocene hominin diversity and the origin of our species" 6382:, and it later absorbed neighbouring kingdoms to form a confederacy of the Wolof kingdoms of 5764: 5734: 5061: 5011: 4542: 3783:, invaded on the pretext of defending Egypt from the Christians, and usurped the position of 3241: 2937: 2878: 2411: 1887: 1712: 1602: 1502:

would expand his power and influence by manoeuvring his daughter into a position of power in

1336: 524:

were historically widespread and commonplace in parts of Africa, as they were in much of the

513: 307: 271: 13845: 12649:

Africa's World War: Congo, the Rwandan Genocide, and the Making of a Continental Catastrophe

10940: 10502: 5975:. The Soninke generation that survived the drought were called "it has been hard for them" ( 4533:

Traditionally, Gudit's dynasty reigned until 1137 when they were overthrown or conquered by

3603:

became absorbed by the eastern realms of their empire, and in 972, after encouragement from

2233:

assuming control of many of Carthage's African ports. Towards the end of the 2nd century BC

1359:, culminating in anarchy exacerbated by drought and famine in 2200 BC, and the onset of the 258:. Most states were created through conquest, or the borrowing and assimilation of ideas and 14870: 14005: 13669: 11824:

Ichumbaki, Elgidius; Pollard, Edward (2021). "The Swahili Civilization in Eastern Africa".

10661: 10260:

Mahjoubi, Ammar; Salama, Pierre (1981). "The Roman and post-Roman period in North Africa".

10139: 9210:

From Faras to Soba: 60 years of Sudanese–Polish cooperation in saving the heritage of Sudan

9170:

From Faras to Soba: 60 years of Sudanese–Polish cooperation in saving the heritage of Sudan

8976: 8844: 8736: 8688: 8645: 8556: 8501: 8454: 8403: 8350: 8253: 8184: 8125: 6905:

and other medical innovations helped to make conquest and colonization in Africa possible.

6438:

in the Sahara to rebel. Over the next few decades they captured the main trading cities of

6229: 6157: 6087: 6055: 5874:

court for the next few decades, possibly supporting Muslim candidates for the throne, with

5407: 5188: 5065: 5037: 4646: 4039: 3903: 3863: 3851: 3827: 3707: 3481:

diverted its resources away from its other territories, devastating important ports in the

3376:, with religion being utilised as a political tool to foster organisation. In the 740s the 2941: 2728: 2294: 2151: 2143: 2134: 1553:, however later regained independence in 404 BC until 343 BC when it was re-annexed by the 1487: 1443: 1340: 1328: 804: 599:

has a long history in north and east Africa, there were few Christian states preceding the

549: 434: 291: 91: 13409: 7471: 6074:, a prince of local origin but in exile, held a position in the former Ghanaian vassal of 949:

around 6500–5500 BC. Around 7000 BC, the settlers of the Ethiopian highlands domesticated

792:

may have arisen between 350,000 and 260,000 years ago through a merging of populations in

685: 8: 14441: 14431: 14357: 14230: 14225: 14125: 14027: 14010: 13953: 13769: 13744: 13594: 13589: 13569: 13534: 13519: 13419: 13358: 13316: 12263:"The Conquest That Never Was: Ghana and the Almoravids, 1076. II. The Local Oral Sources" 10464:"The Conquest That Never Was: Ghana and the Almoravids, 1076. II. The Local Oral Sources" 10127: 8949: 8784:"A recent bottleneck of Y chromosome diversity coincides with a global change in culture" 8173:"Did Our Species Evolve in Subdivided Populations across Africa, and Why Does It Matter?" 7355: 7159: 7139: 6976: 6945: 6914: 6874: 6719: 6648: 6463: 6459: 6287: 6225: 6205: 6015: 5631: 5461: 5417: 5053: 4534: 4427: 4321: 4317: 4228: 4206: 4194: 4142: 4090: 3683: 3333: 3281: 3237: 3130: 2882: 2846: 2799: 2744: 2557: 2419: 2322: 2290: 2258: 2072: 1984: 1760: 1562: 1522:, and culture, while introducing some unique aspects of Kushite culture and overseeing a 1368: 1156: 1109: 919: 897: 885: 693: 576: 541: 442: 299: 36: 10143: 9145:"Unearthing Pan-African crossroad? Significance of the middle Nile valley in prehistory" 8980: 8848: 8740: 8692: 8649: 8560: 8505: 8458: 8407: 8354: 8257: 8188: 8129: 8031:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences

7559: 7146:

to record their history, including in cases where they had developed or had access to a

6580:

While the precise timeline is unknown, archaeological evidence points to settlements in

3992:, before finally being extinguished in 1269. Meanwhile, after defeating the Christians' 14866: 14851: 14615: 14508: 14488: 14446: 14411: 14367: 14294: 13975: 13841: 13832: 13823: 13754: 13724: 13709: 13694: 13684: 13674: 13639: 13634: 13584: 13529: 13504: 13368: 13292: 13269: 13082: 12887: 12879: 12803: 12768: 12760: 12717: 12709: 12647: 12615: 12442: 12282: 12243: 11802:

Masao, Fidelis; Mutoro, Henry (1988). "The East African coast and the Comoro Islands".

11577: 10771: 10703: 10539: 10483: 10305: 10173: 9828: 9727: 9709: 9641: 9556: 9548: 9299: 9125: 9109: 9062: 8997: 8964: 8914: 8889: 8865: 8832: 8808: 8783: 8618: 8524: 8489: 8427: 8371: 8336: 8308: 8274: 8241: 8213: 8172: 8149: 8051: 8026: 7563: 7062: 6937: 6711: 5703: 5117: 5057: 5033: 4872: 4701: 4638: 4598: 4578: 4507: 4438:, and later in the 9th century expanded southwards. The history becomes murky, however 4419: 4282: 4232: 4102: 3945: 3790: 3724: 3402: 3389: 3337: 3217: 2929: 2874: 2819: 2811: 2756: 2573: 2124: 1959: 1907: 1831: 1415: 1128: 954: 659: 533: 497: 310:, dreams, and hallucinations crafted into narrative oral traditions. Time is sometimes 193: 12854:

Tignor, Robert L. (1966). "African History: The Contribution of the Social Sciences".

11731:"Refocusing on the History of Kafa prior to 1897: A Discussion of Political Processes" 10578:"The Chronological Evidence for the Introduction of Domestic Stock in Southern Africa" 10382:

Eggert, Manfred (2014). "Early iron in West and Central Africa". In Breunig, P (ed.).

10108:

Aksum and Nubia: Warfare, Commerce, and Political Fictions in Ancient Northeast Africa

9761:

Eggert, Manfred (2014). "Early iron in West and Central Africa". In Breunig, P (ed.).

9234: 5354:

immigration. Bantu migrated to Madagascar and the Comoros from the 9th century, when

4605:

likely drew its economic power from gold production, which was exported to Zeila. The

4316:

in 613, however relations soured after Aksum made incursions along the Arab coast and

3922: 3380:

rocked the caliphate and the Berbers took control over the Maghreb, whilst revolts in

941:

A wet climatic phase in Africa turned the Ethiopian Highlands into a mountain forest.

14855: 14754: 14571: 14456: 14377: 14320: 14000: 13968: 13764: 13759: 13699: 13654: 13614: 13509: 13257:

Lonsdale, John. "States and social processes in Africa: a historiographical survey."

13179: 13139: 13129: 13062: 13054: 13040: 13019: 13000: 12979: 12971: 12957: 12933: 12925: 12891: 12871: 12836: 12826: 12772: 12752: 12701: 12654: 12485: 12450: 12400: 12377: 12331: 12308: 12162: 12133: 12108: 12056: 11884: 11803: 11775: 11750: 11696: 11666: 11602: 11497: 11386: 11359: 11323: 11269: 11236: 11201: 11184: 11167: 11147: 11130: 11113: 11067: 11051: 11031: 11009: 10946: 10916: 10810: 10442: 10404: 10366: 10351: 10311: 10301: 10276:

Duncan E. Miller and N.J. Van Der Merwe, 'Early Metal Working in Sub Saharan Africa'

10261: 10241: 10211: 10165: 10111: 10057: 10030: 9982: 9961: 9887: 9883: 9858: 9832: 9788: 9713: 9675: 9645: 9633: 9560: 9540: 9499: 9396: 9223: 9213: 9212:. Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology/University of Warsaw. pp. 187–188. 9183: 9173: 9129: 9117: 9101: 9066: 9054: 9046: 9002: 8919: 8870: 8813: 8764: 8704: 8661: 8610: 8572: 8529: 8470: 8419: 8376: 8279: 8218: 8200: 8153: 8141: 8056: 7959: 7949: 7893: 7837: 7800: 7756: 7723: 7690: 7657: 7631: 7598: 7497: 7445: 7236: 7220: 7183: 6752: 6748: 6632: 6567: 6507: 6487: 6467: 6403: 6338: 6267: 6173: 6099: 6086:

to relieve his people of the tyrannical Sosso king. Sundiata allied and pacified the

6079: 6059: 6003: 5896: 5863: 5839: 5812: 5585: 5519: 5247: 4975: 4911: 4884: 4801: 4793: 4757: 4733: 4721: 4717: 4677: 4475: 4443: 4012: 3937: 3929: 3871: 3859: 3839: 3760: 3736: 3635: 3612: 3568: 3536: 3493: 3474: 3466: 3458: 3446: 3285: 3189: 2968: 2853:

in the 2nd century BC. The Bantu then split westward to the savannahs of present-day

2832: 2823: 2815: 2760: 2507: 2386:

the rise of settled communities occurred largely as a result of the domestication of

2302: 2159: 2139: 2120: 2016: 1903: 1582: 1566: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1348: 1260: 1252: 1078: 896:, which hosts "the well-preserved remains of prehistoric camps (relics of the oldest 726: 612: 584: 521: 358: 319: 279: 275: 57: 13296: 12721: 8622: 8431: 7826:

Political Economy of Colonial Relations and Crisis of Contemporary African Diplomacy

7594: 6301:

fame being attributed to its riches in gold, Mali's prosperous economy was based on

6122: 4003: 2371: 1625:, however their rule lasted only a few years before Egypt was reintegrated into the 14541: 14478: 14270: 13819: 13739: 13689: 13644: 13629: 13609: 13599: 13574: 13514: 13374: 13284: 13114: 12863: 12795: 12744: 12693: 12607: 12477: 12325: 12274: 12235: 12104: 12100: 12001: 11941: 11913: 11742: 11526: 11261: 10891: 10763: 10715: 10475: 10434: 10347: 10177: 10155: 10147: 9879: 9820: 9701: 9625: 9532: 9476: 9291: 9093: 9036: 8992: 8984: 8909: 8901: 8860: 8852: 8803: 8795: 8754: 8744: 8696: 8653: 8602: 8564: 8519: 8509: 8462: 8411: 8366: 8358: 8269: 8261: 8208: 8192: 8133: 8046: 8038: 8000: 7995: 7926: 7870: 7829: 7748: 7682: 7590: 7555: 7437: 7151: 7102: 6933: 6756: 6727: 6669: 6644: 6640: 6383: 6379: 6306: 6152:. Sundiata saw to equip the army with horses purchased from the western kingdom of 6095: 6067: 5916: 5662:

came at the end of the 8th century, mentioning "Ghāna, the land of gold". In 826 a

5539: 5287: 5267: 5259: 5041: 4895: 4868: 4848: 4824: 4789: 4777: 4773: 4713: 4705: 4681: 4673: 4626: 4618: 4614: 4610: 4602: 4590: 4574: 4479: 4451: 4415: 4391: 4375: 4357: 4289: 4278: 4238: 4126: 4062: 4008: 3957: 3910: 3643: 3544: 3504: 3434: 3406: 3301: 3277: 3225: 3221: 3106: 3006: 2842: 2795: 2736: 2511: 2495: 2463: 2092: 2036: 1867: 1819: 1768: 1676: 1471: 942: 938:

was cultivating wheat and barley and raising sheep and cattle from Southwest Asia.

935: 808: 627: 608: 604: 557: 430: 422: 398: 394: 390: 370: 354: 287: 189: 45: 11545: 10688:

The Kitara Complex: The Historical Tradition of Western Uganda to the 16th century

10626: 9910:"Nubian identity in the Bronze Age. Patterns of cultural and biological variation" 9144: 7797:

Where the Negroes are Masters : An African Port in the Era of the Slave Trade

7656:

Hama, Boubou; Ki-Zerbo, Joseph (1981). "The place of history in African society".

7521: 6966:

late 1942. Portuguese (dark green) and Spanish (yellow) colonies remained neutral.

6609:

region, demonstrating the far-reaching commercial connections of the Ife Empire.

6120:, retained leadership of their province, whilst conquered leaders were assigned a 4089:

and Syria. To the west, the three dynasties vied for supremacy and control of the

3499: 2517:, a small kingdom founded presumably in 40 BC which would later go on to form the 2487: 1093: 993: 14860: 14770: 14642: 14523: 14503: 14498: 14493: 14483: 14182: 14053: 13980: 13963: 13749: 13659: 13549: 13447: 13387: 13034: 12994: 12951: 10804: 10686: 10398: 10051: 10024: 9629: 9450: 8700: 8657: 8466: 8168: 7752: 7717: 7441: 7171: 7098: 6898: 6847: 6798: 6411: 6399: 6348: 6291: 6104: 5695: 5651: 5491: 5398: 5374: 5370: 5359: 5312: 5283: 5149: 5105: 5091: 4955: 4903: 4891: 4852: 4630: 4519: 4353: 4074: 4051: 4019: 3997: 3899: 3835: 3512: 3414: 3385: 3265: 3038: 2987: 2951: 2783: 2779: 2748: 2633: 2605: 2549: 2455: 2443: 2218: 2076: 2060: 2020: 1963: 1843: 1634: 1630: 1590: 1578: 1535: 1531: 1523: 1495: 1479: 908: 866:

period, sometimes between 30 and 15,000 years ago, followed by pre-Neolithic and

767: 600: 469: 410: 237: 224: 169: 157: 131: 115: 83: 65: 11547:

THE OROMO OF ETHIOPIA, 1500-1850 : WITH SPECIAL EMPHASIS ON THE GIBE REGION

11200:

Hrbek, Ivan (1984). "The disintegration of the political unity of the Maghreb".

11076: 10895: 10837:

Sheriff, Abdul (1981). "The East African coast and its role in maritime trade".

10736:

The early inhabitants of the Upemba depression, the Democratic Republic of Congo

10704:"Archaeological survey, ceramic analysis, and state formation in western Uganda" 9172:. Polish Centre of Mediterranean Archaeology/University of Warsaw. p. 460. 8905: 7833: 7121:

List of kingdoms in Africa throughout history § History periods and sources

5767:, desert consumed grassland, and epicentres for trade shifted south towards the 5543: 3996:

in 1221, internal divisions involving Saladin's descendants appeared within the

1482:

into its golden age. Internal struggles, drought and famine, and invasions by a

1418:, capitalised on this fragmentation and conquered Lower Egypt, establishing the 14719: 14674: 14669: 14664: 14289: 14167: 13092: 8856: 8362: 8265: 8237: 8196: 7270: 7143: 7090: 7061:, which saw 17 African nations declare independence, including a large part of 7058: 7008: 6954: 6893:

made Africa a very inhospitable place for Europeans. The deadliest disease was

6859: 6602: 6551: 6483: 6359: 6326: 6294: 6091: 6071: 6035: 6023: 5924: 5908: 5719: 5687: 5675: 5663: 5619: 5466:

which later evolved to embody kingship, and competed with one another over the

5453: 5449: 5382: 5316: 5308: 5304: 5113: 5094: 5077: 4986: 4967: 4899: 4689: 4439: 4379: 4198: 4166: 4154: 3855: 3776: 3739:, capitalised and conquered much of their territories in the east, however the 3687: 3470: 3325: 3114: 3110: 3042: 2991: 2592: 2589: 2306: 2242: 2128: 2080: 2048: 1935: 1875: 1859: 1830:

through conquering its unfortunately unknown neighbours, gaining a monopoly on

1684: 1594: 1515: 1364: 1192: 1148: 1112:, Egypt, and Nubia. Zangato and Holl document evidence of iron-smelting in the 969: 635: 631: 592: 489: 402: 366: 350: 342: 241: 205: 201: 173: 87: 49: 30: 13288: 13143: 12867: 12697: 12611: 12005: 11959: 11841: 11566:"Il Sultanato dello Scioa nel Secondo XIII Secondo un Nuovo Documento Storico" 9824: 9227: 9187: 9121: 9041: 9024: 8749: 8724: 8004: 7874: 7686: 7350:, time is an arena where both the group and the individual struggle for their 6256:. Musa supposedly spent much of his early campaign preparing for his infamous 5725: 4875:

propagated insecurity on Ethiopia's eastern frontier, however was defeated by

3511:

This gradual bubbling of disintegration of the caliphate boiled over when the

3465:

wrestled the independence of Egypt for four decades before again coming under

2123:, only being recalled after the Romans conducted a bold naval invasion of the 1585:

lost its holdings in outside Africa, but expanded its territory by conquering

842:

launched the colonization of the planet by modern human beings. By 10,000 BC,

14886: 14775: 14536: 14220: 13440: 13118: 12947: 12875: 12756: 12705: 12481: 11917: 11754: 10169: 9544: 9105: 9050: 8204: 7930: 7256: 7158:. This lack of written history, unfamiliar mediums, and concealment behind a 7094: 7066: 6723: 6693: 6527: 6435: 6415: 6371: 6217: 6193: 6181: 6149: 6128: 5718:

in the 10th, 11th, and 12th centuries, with his bastard descendants founding

5607: 5515: 5165: 5125: 5073: 5049: 5021: 4979: 4915: 4864: 4809: 4804: 4765: 4657: 4622: 4606: 4594: 4570: 4538: 4442:

holds that Aksum's expansion brought it into conflict in 960 with the Jewish

4423: 4367: 4349: 4305: 4297: 4250: 4059: 4047: 4035: 3993: 3926: 3744: 3732: 3632: 3624: 3608: 3556: 3528: 3377: 3361: 3329: 2964: 2901: 2894: 2850: 2807: 2752: 2617: 2334: 2104: 2068: 2028: 2004: 1879: 1763:

came to be ruled by numerous smaller unknown kingdoms who experienced strong

1598: 1427: 1423: 1400: 1376: 1372: 1332: 1268: 1234: 1140: 1021: 962: 915: 643: 493: 406: 362: 346: 233: 161: 11945: 11530: 9480: 9295: 9280:

Jesse, Friederike (2010). "Early Pottery in Northern Africa – An Overview".

9097: 8988: 8606: 8514: 8415: 7963: 7025: 5048:

and linked the societies and kingdoms of the interior, such as those of the

1834:

in the region. Aksum's rise had them rule over much of the regions from the

14561: 14177: 12840: 12471: 12327:

African Dominion: A New History of Empire in Early and Medieval West Africa

12184:"Spatial-Temporal Boundaries of African Civilizations Reconsidered: Part 2" 11446:"The Kingdom of Wolaita (Ethiopia): Military Organization and War, To 1894" 9637: 9058: 9006: 8923: 8874: 8817: 8768: 8708: 8665: 8614: 8576: 8568: 8533: 8474: 8423: 8380: 8283: 8222: 8145: 8060: 8042: 7890:

Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism

7224: 7187: 7155: 7046: 6878: 6636: 6628: 6571: 6519: 6515: 6491: 6434:

central authority. This provided an opportunity for the previously subdued

6423: 6375: 6367: 6318: 6314: 6271: 6209: 6165: 6161: 6133: 6117: 6039: 6031: 6019: 5968: 5960: 5956: 5952: 5948: 5944: 5888: 5884: 5875: 5871: 5859: 5855: 5835: 5827: 5796: 5756: 5738: 5659: 5647: 5623: 5599: 5595: 5591: 5511: 5445: 5433: 5429: 5425: 5390: 5255: 5069: 4761: 4709: 4685: 4684:. In accordance with the Kebra Negast, they claimed their descent from the 4661: 4653: 4511: 4455: 3895: 3772: 3679: 3555:, resulting the eastern Maghreb coming under the control of the vassalized 3482: 3126: 3030: 2984: 2732: 2545: 2529: 2518: 2459: 2314: 2293:

and its numerous successor polities in the Maghreb, namely the kingdoms of

2246: 2222: 1947: 1931: 1871: 1823: 1788: 1688: 1626: 1614: 1392: 1280: 1136: 1105: 997: 923: 847: 819: 797: 756: 747: 718: 698: 553: 485: 462: 418: 334: 229: 148: 123: 79: 9536: 8799: 6920:

In the 1880s the European powers had carved up almost all of Africa (only

5112:

The wider region underwent a trade expansion from the 7th century, as the

4978:, resulting in their defeat and incorporation into the empire. In 1471, a 3228:

regional presence shattered, Egypt was quickly conquered by 642, with the

2849:

to Southern and East Africa. One early movement headed south to the upper

1538:

in an attempt to gain a foothold in the region. The Assyrians installed a

14556: 14473: 14187: 14172: 12473:

art and risk in ancient yoruba: ife history, power, and identity, c. 1300

9354: 8297: 7191: 7175: 6950: 6941: 6867: 6689: 6535: 6479: 6431: 6427: 6407: 6310: 6302: 6298: 6249: 6221: 6185: 6145: 6109: 6007: 5987: 5904: 5823: 5792: 5768: 5485: 5475: 5441: 5413: 5351: 5343: 5337: 5328: 5295: 5153: 5137: 5068:

from the 5th or 7th centuries AD who had proceeded through or around the

4959: 4785: 4753: 4541:. In Ethiopia tradition holds that prior to his accession to the throne, 4411: 4407: 4403: 4329: 3699: 3667: 3540: 3257: 3233: 3122: 2998: 2838: 2791: 2712: 2514: 2471: 2375: 1863: 1851: 1796: 1720: 1654: 1606: 1574: 1503: 1483: 1396: 1312: 1308: 1300: 1296: 1292: 1164: 1160: 1013: 889: 863: 793: 778: 517: 426: 338: 267: 263: 259: 219: 197: 153: 14208: 13399: 13235: 12713: 11581: 11565: 10543: 10527: 9999:"We have finally found the land of Punt, where pharaohs got their gifts" 9552: 9520: 9303: 9113: 9081: 8593:; et al. (2004). "Middle Stone Age shell beads from South Africa". 8137: 7630:. Internet Archive. Madison, Wis. : University of Wisconsin Press. 7428:

Sall, Mamadou Youry (2020). Abidogun, Jamaine M.; Falola, Toyin (eds.).

6961: 6928:

were independent). The Europeans were captivated by the philosophies of

6062:, who were early adopters of Islam, to the south where the goldfield of 2621: 1518:. The Kushites assimilated further into Egyptian society by reaffirming 1139:

in West Africa has been dated as early as 2,500 BC at Egaro west of the

14786: 12996:

The Case of Rhyme versus Reason: Ibn al-Rumi and His Poetics in Context

12764: 12735:

Roberts, A.D. (1978). "The Earlier Historiography of Colonial Africa".

12619: 12595: 12286: 12247: 11183:

Saidi, O. (1984). "The unification of the Maghreb under the Alhomads".

10775: 10751: 10719: 10601: 10487: 8759: 7795:

Sparks, Randy J. (2014). "4. The Process of Enslavement at Annamaboe".

7567: 7543: 7343: 7070: 6715: 6586: 6559: 6555: 6322: 6275: 6245: 6213: 6153: 5940: 5936: 5867: 5851: 5819: 5804: 5788: 5772: 5746: 5627: 5615: 5611: 5598:, and such details evade our view, however the turn of 6th century saw 5178: 5132: 4963: 4951: 4693: 4642: 4459: 4337: 3933: 3883: 3780: 3711: 3691: 3675: 3394: 3372:

found fertile soil among many Berbers dissatisfied with the oppressive

3353: 3213: 3105:

The turn of the 7th century saw much of North Africa controlled by the

2980: 2956: 2772: 2581: 2561: 2447: 2274: 2270: 2234: 2206: 2191: 1756: 1700: 1671: 1565:

in 332 BC, marking the beginning of Hellenistic rule by the Macedonian

1455: 1284: 1239: 1009: 730: 438: 378: 315: 295: 111: 95: 12883: 12807: 11730: 8107:"New fossils from Jebel Irhoud, Morocco and the pan-African origin of 6589:(circa 1200-1420). Under figures like the now defied figures such as 5456:

and grew in importance due to their geographical positions for trade.

5064:, although most scholars agree that the island was further settled by 4621:

at times forced to pay tribute to the pagans. In the 13th century the

4173:

posed great challenges to the empire at the turn of the 16th century.

2107:, with Carthage initially experiencing considerable success following 822:

site in South Africa, for example, is famous for rectangular slabs of

12909: 12530:

Histories of the hanged: The dirty war in Kenya and the end of empire

11219:

The Politics of Dress in Somali Culture (African Expressive Cultures)

10151: 9410: 8965:"The Genetic Structure and History of Africans and African Americans" 8833:"Ancestral mitochondrial N lineage from the Neolithic 'green' Sahara" 7232: 7228: 7012: 6863: 6855: 6499: 6495: 6177: 5912: 5830:. During this, some of Ghana's vassals achieved independence such as 5679: 5655: 5503: 5386: 5366: 5279: 5208: 5196: 5100: 4971: 4562: 4550: 4202: 4114: 4082: 3969: 3918: 3879: 3847: 3799: 3756: 3671: 3548: 3532: 3520: 3450: 3041:

rose circa 2nd century AD, and are most notable for constructing the

3002: 2764: 2569: 2553: 2483: 2266: 2250: 2210: 2187: 2179: 2088: 2064: 2056: 2040: 1939: 1919: 1835: 1735:

beginning in 980 BC, whose people developed irrigation schemes, used

1601:, who sought to restore Ptolemaic power, Egypt became entangled in a 1586: 1152: 867: 827: 714: 458: 138:

between 0.5 and 1.8 million years ago. This was followed by the

119: 13459: 12786:

Cooper, Frederick (2000). "Africa's Pasts and Africa's Historians".

12748: 12278: 12239: 11427:

International Journal of English Language, Literature and Humanities

11266:

10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-868

10767: 10479: 7134:

arrived with the arrival of Europeans from the 16th century and the

6290:, however Musa features comparatively less than his predecessors in 6192:, forming various subordinate kingdoms. Sundiata passed in 1255 and 5001: 3890:

tribal grouping, who was considered by his followers to be the true

3810:

Following the assassination of the previous holder, the position of

3488: 3220:

won a series of crucial victories and expanded rapidly, forcing the

2442:. Various civilisations prospered in this period. From 4000 BC, the 953:, and by 4000 BC domesticated donkeys had spread to Southwest Asia. 12799: 11746: 9705: 9590: 7434:

The Palgrave Handbook of African Education and Indigenous Knowledge

7351: 7339: 7081:

from France in 1977; Zimbabwe from the United Kingdom in 1980; and

7078: 7054: 6929: 6921: 6575: 6439: 6363: 6233: 5892: 5737:(northern West Africa) c. 1200, including some successor states of 5670:, installing the Manna dynasty. To the east in northern modern-day 5643: 5639: 5507: 5394: 5204: 4669: 4586: 4558: 4523: 4503: 4491: 4374:

also converted to Islam circa 700. The Somalis were organised into

4270: 4266: 4242: 4158: 4146: 4122: 4110: 4094: 4027: 3961: 3949: 3941: 3843: 3795: 3764: 3752: 3740: 3720: 3695: 3651: 3639: 3628: 3616: 3600: 3576: 3524: 3462: 3454: 3381: 3293: 3273: 3261: 3245: 3134: 3034: 3010: 2976: 2913: 2890: 2870: 2866: 2787: 2768: 2716: 2638: 2524: 2399: 2310: 2254: 2238: 2198: 2183: 2155: 2108: 2096: 1996: 1882:

converted to Christianity and Aksum's population, who had followed

1808: 1764: 1752: 1744: 1724: 1463: 1459: 1431: 1172: 957:

speakers, partially turning away from cattle herding, domesticated

881: 859: 851: 386: 382: 374: 330: 245: 185: 13883: 12916:. Vol. 9 vols. Ed. and Trans. Charles Barbier de Meynard and 9203:"Exploring the oldest huts and the first cattle keepers in Africa" 5982: 5060:. There is much debate around the chronology of the settlement of 4149:

in the process. To the east, the turn of the 15th century saw the

3348:, which was improperly extended to include converts. Followers of 3248:

and in 647 defeated and killed Gregory and his army decisively in

2608:

due to not controlling the gold fields themselves, located in the

1980: 1723:

and wild animals. Towards the end of the ancient period, northern

12307:

Niane, Djibril (1984). "Mali and the second Mandingo expansion".

11930: 9787:. Frankfurt, Germany: Africa Magna Verlag Press. pp. 53–54. 7347: 7131: 7082: 7042: 6925: 6902: 6894: 6890: 6677: 6590: 6581: 6563: 6511: 6471: 6455: 6443: 6419: 6283: 6197: 6169: 6141: 6063: 6047: 5995: 5972: 5932: 5928: 5920: 5847: 5815: 5808: 5800: 5784: 5780: 5776: 5715: 5671: 5563: 5547: 5499: 5495: 5480: 5363: 5347: 5291: 5227: 5192: 5145: 5141: 5124:. Settlements further centralised and some major states included 5082: 4946:

attempted an invasion into the Ethiopian Highlands, supported by

4876: 4840: 4784:

splitting from the latter. He also campaigned in the north where

4781: 4749: 4741: 4697: 4483: 4467: 4383: 4345: 4333: 4274: 4258: 4246: 4190: 4182: 4162: 4150: 4134: 4118: 4106: 4098: 4066: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3973: 3965: 3887: 3831: 3823: 3803: 3748: 3663: 3655: 3647: 3560: 3516: 3442: 3426: 3422: 3418: 3398: 3365: 3357: 3289: 3253: 3193: 3166: 3162: 3158: 3154: 3138: 3046: 2972: 2946: 2845:. During the 1st millennium BC the Bantu spread further from the 2499: 2475: 2403: 2391: 2342: 2338: 2330: 2326: 2286: 2230: 2214: 2175: 2119:. In a 14 year long campaign Hannibal's forces conquered much of 2100: 1992: 1800: 1748: 1732: 1728: 1696: 1692: 1650: 1642: 1618: 1467: 1391:

oversaw advancements in irrigation and economic expansion in the

1356: 1288: 1144: 1117: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1032: 1028: 1001: 985: 904: 738: 722: 567:

From 1870 to 1914, driven by the great force and voracity of the

525: 501: 414: 303: 181: 69: 53: 11320:

The Cambridge History of Africa: Volume 3: From c.1050 to c.1600

10386:. Frankfurt, Germany: Africa Magna Verlag Press. pp. 51–59. 9765:. Frankfurt, Germany: Africa Magna Verlag Press. pp. 51–59. 9373: 7991:"Oldest Homo sapiens fossil claim rewrites our species' history" 6447: 5959:

and propelling Soninke migration. According to some traditions,

4879:. The sultan was repeatedly pursued by the Ethiopian emperor to 4855:, and had the final say on succession, with various sultans and 4422:, leading punitive raids into Aksum, with the Beja establishing 177: 33:

intended to be performed orally and not suited to literary form.

13914: 11453:

Galore International Journal of Applied Sciences and Humanities

9521:"Did They or Didn't They Invent It? Iron in Sub-Saharan Africa" 7583:"Chapter 2. Africa in History: The End of Universal Narratives" 7207: 7074: 6851: 6731: 6685: 6334: 6279: 6201: 6168:. This extended the empire to the Atlantic coast in modern-day 6051: 6043: 6011: 5991: 5843: 5711: 5667: 5610:, dominating the region, however seeing periods under Ghanaian 5603: 5559: 5555: 5437: 5378: 5324: 5239: 5200: 5184: 5157: 4994: 4931: 4856: 4836: 4769: 4729: 4471: 4312:. Muslim-Aksumite relations were initially positive with Aksum 4186: 4130: 4086: 4043: 4031: 3977: 3914: 3907: 3819: 3811: 3784: 3659: 3596: 3580: 3438: 3430: 3410: 3341: 3305: 3297: 3269: 3150: 3022: 3018: 2960: 2921: 2917: 2905: 2862: 2858: 2854: 2724: 2720: 2613: 2565: 2427: 2387: 2346: 2318: 2167: 2084: 1927: 1740: 1736: 1646: 1499: 1451: 1447: 1439: 1411: 1304: 1168: 1086: 1071: 1067: 1017: 981: 973: 950: 946: 931: 721:, the early hominids' skull anatomy was similar to that of the 505: 473: 454: 446: 135: 107: 103: 73: 10662:"The Amazing Bantu Migration and the Fascinating Bantu People" 9080:

Osypiński, Piotr; Osypińska, Marta; Gautier, Achilles (2011).

7354:. The goal is to improve their situation, thus being dynamic. 7346:

who consider eternity to operate in one direction. In African

6541: 5626:, and had at least seven kingdoms accepting their suzerainty. 4629:

on the eastern coast of the Horn and expanded, conquering the

4137:

becoming the dominant power. Throughout the 15th century, the

3743:

repelled them from encroaching on Egypt. Amid the Christians'

2019:. This caused its societies to develop contiguous to those of 1771:

in the 1st century BC. Along the Horn's coast there were many

1450:

had brought, they conducted numerous campaigns to conquer the

12684:

Manning, Patrick (2013). "African and World Historiography".

8961: 8171:; Rightmire, G. Philip; d'Errico, Francesco (1 August 2018). 8103: 7587:

Chapter 2. Africa in History: The End of Universal Narratives

7436:. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 545–557. 7050: 7038: 6705: 6673: 6665: 6606: 6395: 6387: 6343: 6263: 6189: 6160:, inflaming conflict which culminated in the conquest of the 5999: 5967:

before escaping the population's ire on horseback, annulling

5760: 5730: 5707: 5691: 5683: 5551: 5535: 5362:

expanded its influence, coming to challenge the dominance of

5299: 5263: 5243: 5223: 5169: 5161: 4927: 4923: 4919: 4907: 4880: 4844: 4818: 4745: 4665: 4546: 4515: 4499: 4463: 4447: 4435: 4371: 4361: 4341: 4309: 4293: 4262: 3948:

assuming control in the south. Following this, the embattled

3891: 3867: 3728: 3715: 3703: 3702:

by the Christian powers on the side of the endangered Muslim

3604: 3592: 3588: 3584: 3572: 3369: 3345: 3229: 3209: 3118: 2886: 2803: 2682: 2479: 2467: 2407: 2383: 2321:, however largely coexisted. Further inland to the Byzantine 2195: 2116: 2079:

began when Carthage came into conflict with the expansionary

2052: 2032: 2027:

came to dominate the most lucrative trading locations in the

1804: 1792: 1784: 1780: 1716: 1708: 1475: 1276: 1272: 1176: 1132: 1097: 1005: 977: 927: 893: 823: 734: 634:

took place across the continent. This culminated in the 1960

509: 450: 213: 165: 99: 61: 9652: 9616:

Pringle, Heather (2009). "Seeking Africa's first Iron Men".

9361: 8487: 8444: 7319:

List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Africa

5331:

to the mainland. Settlements in northern Madagascar such as

2924:

being its last stronghold by the 1st century AD, and formed

2249:, with the war only ending inconclusively when Mauretania's 733:

that also evolved in Africa, but the hominids had adopted a

13247:

Fage, John D. "The development of African historiography."

13061:(Revised 2nd ed.). New York City: Palgrave Macmillan. 11088: 9465:"On the Iron Front: New Evidence from North-Central Africa" 9427: 9425: 7496:

Vansina, Jan (1981). "Oral tradition and its methodology".

7179: 6886: 6681: 6531: 6391: 6366:, Mali's northwestern-most province broke away to form the 6352: 6278:

and he commissioned a large construction program, building

6258: 6113: 6083: 6075: 5880: 5831: 5699: 5421: 5355: 5290:. Relations between the states fluctuated and varied, with 5271: 5235: 5231: 5025: 4982: 4939: 4935: 4797: 4431: 4426:. The Aksumite population migrated further inland into the 3826:

effort repelled the Christians and after he had put down a

3478: 3026: 3014: 2933: 2601: 2597: 2585: 2491: 2451: 2439: 2435: 2431: 2349:; their composite tribes would later go onto shape much of 2012: 1891: 1855: 1847: 1839: 1704: 1638: 1507: 1498:

in Nubia, and later in the 8th century BC the Kushite king

1219: 1124: 1082: 1063: 1062:

Evidence of the early smelting of metals –

958: 703: 646:), with countries deciding to keep their colonial borders. 311: 12420:

Horton, Robin (June 1979). "Ancient Ife: A Reassessment".

12376:

Ly-Tall, Madina (1984). "The decline of the Mali empire".

11166:

Garcin, Jean-Claude (1984). "Egypt and the Muslim world".

11050:

Talbi, Mohamed (1988). "The independence of the Maghrib".

8952:

pioneered tracing the spread of modern humans from Africa.

8930: 8242:"Age of the oldest known Homo sapiens from eastern Africa" 7782:

Transformations of Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa

6274:. On Musa's return, his general reasserted dominance over 5787:, strengthening Ghana's vassals while weakening its core. 4792:. In 1321, a religious dispute between Amda Seyon and the 4788:

had been gaining prominence, and reconquered the Tigrayan

3181:, however the province was reconquered three years later. 2221:

would result in Carthage's total defeat in 146 BC and the

1534:

as reprisal for the Kushites agitating peoples within the

850:. Their dispersals are traced by linguistic, cultural and 156:

around 300,000–250,000 years ago. In the 4th millenium BC

13403: 10649:

Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East

9591:"Iron and its influence on the prehistoric site of Lejja" 9079: 8721: 7142:

in the 19th century, most African societies chose to use

6523: 6451: 6244:, gaining popularity among West African Muslims. In 1312 5635: 4942:

reportedly becoming "full of Abyssinian slaves". In 1445

3623:

to punish them, leading to their disintegration with the

2740: 1054:

9th-century bronze staff head in form of a coiled snake,

900: 11719:

Addis Ababa: Oxford University Press, Inc., 1967, p. 15.

9422: 9025:"African population history: an ancient DNA perspective" 8629: 7970: 7472:"How Timbuktu Flourished During the Golden Age of Islam" 6936:, and some attempted to justify all this by branding it 6873:

African germs took numerous European lives and deterred

6788:

History of Southern Africa § Post-classical history

6378:

tradition holds that the empire was founded by the wise

3081:

History of Southern Africa § Post-classical history

2794:, laying the foundations for the cultures preceding the 2627: 1894:, mentioning rows of throne monuments, some made out of 1074: – dates from the fourth millennium BC. 12596:"The Organization of African Unity and African Borders" 8782:

Kamin M, Saag L, Vincente M, et al. (April 2015).

8583: 8438: 7163:

language and content between the many African nations.

6821:

History of North Africa § European colonial period

6780:

History of Central Africa § Post-classical history

6462:, and with them all usurping Mali's dominance over the 6309:, as well as crafts, and they traded commonly with the 5594:'s expansion and reign, including on the vassals under 3932:, before gradually conquering the Almoravid remnant in 3073:

History of Central Africa § Post-classical history

3017:. Sao artifacts show that they were skilled workers in 2103:

whilst the Carthaginians were putting down a ferocious

877:

Pre-Neolithic and Neolithic migration events in Africa.

12626: 11025: 11023: 11021: 9393:

Ithihaasa: The Mystery of Story Is My Story of History

9310: 8166: 8080:

bones ever found shake foundations of the human story"

6999:

History of Southern Africa § Post-colonial period

6018:, outlined. The desert should extend further south to 3332:

people willingly converted to Islam, and followers of

1403:. In 1700 BC, Egypt fractured in two, ushering in the 1116:

and Cameroon that may date back to 3,000 to 2,500 BC.

12978:. Charlottesville, Virginia: University of Virginia. 11235:

Mekouria, Tekle-Tsadik (1988). "The Horn of Africa".

11129:

Hrbek, Ivan; Devisse, Jean (1988). "The Almoravids".

11112:

Hrbek, Ivan (1988). "The emergence of the Fatimids".

10240:

Warmington, Brian (1981). "The Carthaginian Period".

10210:. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p. 17. 8672: 8540: 7747:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 38. 7743:

Stilwell, Sean (2013). "Slavery in African History".

6991:

History of Central Africa § Post-colonial period

5779:

following the shifting of gold source southeast from

5654:, which was used as their currency, and controlled a 4510:

to their south, who's dynasty hailed from the Meccan

4308:

who became some of the first non-Arabs to convert to

3902:, they descended from the mountains in 1130 but were 3543:. The nascent caliphate quickly conquered the ailing 2087:, leading to what has been described as the greatest 1557:. Persian rule in Egypt ended with the defeat of the 1186: 988:

of the Sahara and Sahel in Northern West Africa, the

13454:

Kush Communications |Media Production Company London

12953:

Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies

10902: 10762:(127). South African Archaeological Society: 12–17. 10602:"Botswana History Page 1: Brief History of Botswana" 10255: 10253: 10053:

The Illustrated Timeline of the History of the World

9981:

Riad, Henry (1981). "Egypt in the Hellenistic era".

9774: 9772: 9691: 8887: 8830: 8235: 7246: 6784:

History of East Africa § Post-classical history

5686:

in the 9th century, and his descendants founded the

4883:

on the coast and killed in 1415, leaving the former

3240:

had declared independence from Constantinople under

3145:

that followed Christianity heavily syncretised with

3077:

History of East Africa § Post-classical history

2967:

by the 4th century AD, displacing and absorbing the

2552:, growing wealthy following the introduction of the 2406:

for tools and weapons. Extensive east-west belts of

1653:

in the 5th century AD, whilst the Romans managed to

1179:(Eze-Uzomaka 2009) and to 750 BC and at the site of 12908: 12021: 12019: 12017: 12015: 11684: 11682: 11082: 11018: 10942:

Cameroon History for Secondary Schools and Colleges

10329: 10327: 10128:"The Christian Topography of Cosmas Indicopleustes" 9334:

The Smithsonian Institution's Human Origins Program

9023:Vicente, Mário; Schlebusch, Carina M (2020-06-01). 6983:

History of North Africa § Post-colonial period

4906:'s reign saw a sharp rise in the slave trade, with 4898:returned to the region from exile to establish the 4851:. The Ethiopian emperor ruled the Muslim states by 4613:were forced into a conditional alliance to counter 4352:. Meanwhile during the 7th, 8th, and 9th centuries 3706:, which were produced from the fall of the remnant 3571:after decades of attempts, moving their capital to 3449:sphere of influence would degrade further with the 2994:, making them one of the oldest cultures on Earth. 2190:, and assisted the Romans in the Second Punic War; 838:Around 65–50,000 years ago, the species' expansion 12646: 11654: 11652: 11650: 11648: 11221:. Indiana University Press; 1st Paperback Edition. 10235: 10233: 10231: 10229: 10227: 9931:"Tomb Reveals Ancient Egypt's Humiliating Secrets" 9200: 8301: 8240:; Asfawrossen, Asrat; et al. (January 2022). 8097: 7915:"African Christianity in the History of Religions" 7097:. During the 1990s and early 2000s there were the 6995:History of East Africa § Post-colonial period 6987:History of West Africa § Post-colonial period 6908:There were strong motives for conquest of Africa. 6482:establishing formal commercial relations, and the 3878:. To the west, there was a new domestic threat to 2900:Prior to this migration, the northern part of the 2743:who were widely scattered and also present in the 2462:social structure. Other civilisations include the 1446:in 1550 BC. Utilising the military technology the 1299:-worshipping nomes in the south coalesced to form 266:way of life while others did not centralise their 12044: 10250: 9769: 9022: 8781: 7819: 7105:Congo Wars, often termed the African World Wars. 6837:History of Southern Africa § Colonial period 6622: 6254:his predecessor had set out on an Atlantic voyage 5755:By the 10th century, the wet period that birthed 5036:and later developed local industries, with their 5002:Swahili coast, Madagascar, and the Comoro Islands 3818:(commonly referred to as Saladin). After a joint 2095:broke out when the Romans opportunistically took 1842:, and they further conquered parts of the ailing 1215:History of Southern Africa § Ancient history 854:evidence. Eurasian back-migrations, specifically 803:Evidence of a variety of behaviors indicative of 14884: 13354:Race, Evolution and the Science of Human Origins 12556:Nationalism in colonial and post-colonial Africa 12012: 11889:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ( 11823: 11679: 10647:"Mbuti, Twa, and Mbenga". In Stokes (ed.) 2009. 10422: 10420: 10384:Nok: African Sculpture in Archaeological Context 10324: 10208:Aksum: An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity 9852: 9850: 9848: 9846: 9844: 9842: 9785:Nok: African Sculpture in Archaeological Context 9763:Nok: African Sculpture in Archaeological Context 9496:Key Events in African History: A Reference Guide 8387: 6829:History of Central Africa § Colonial period 6286:, with Timbuktu becoming a centre for trade and 6066:was located. In accordance with the traditional 4708:and suffering internal strife, was conquered by 4171:Portuguese trading practices in the Indian Ocean 3638:. In the late 10th and early 11th centuries the 2877:, which would later evolve into the kingdoms of 2506:from the 3rd century BC. There is also detailed 2035:. Phoenician settlements subsequently grew into 1900:"entirely...hewn out of a single block of stone" 1886:, slowly followed. In the early 6th century AD, 1207:History of Central Africa § Ancient history 996:started to collect and domesticate wild millet, 12820: 12679: 12677: 12155:"The early states of the Western Sudan to 1500" 11645: 11314:Tamrat, Taddesse (1977). Oliver, Roland (ed.). 11258:Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History 11161: 11159: 10296: 10294: 10292: 10290: 10224: 10095:The Commerce Between the Roman Empire and India 9018: 9016: 8546: 8494:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 7822:"Colonialism in Africa: An Introductory Review" 6776:History of West Africa § Sahelian kingdoms 6422:sacked and raided the southern trading city of 5842:, with the last two being especially powerful. 5759:was faltering. With the gradual advance of the 4557:outside the capital in Roha, which was renamed 4285:and their preferential relations with India. 3944:in 1225 and conquered Iberia by 1228, with the 3069:History of West Africa § Sahelian kingdoms 3065:History of North Africa § Arrival of Islam 2043:in the 6th century BC, and they would build an 1549:In 525 BC Egypt was conquered by the expansive 1199:History of North Africa § Classical period 1089:in Egypt dates back to the predynastic period. 12302: 12300: 12298: 12296: 11107: 11105: 11103: 11045: 11043: 10430:Oxford Research Encyclopedias: African history 10259: 9674:, pp. 22–23. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 9584: 9582: 7881: 7799:. Harvard University Press. pp. 122–161. 7788: 7675:"Introduction: African Philosophy in Our Time" 7589:. Princeton University Press. pp. 40–65. 7213: 7166: 6944:ruled until after World War II when forces of 6792: 5846:thrived at this time, controlling the gold of 5575: 4498:, with the latter centred on the port city of 4073:, and over the next few decades conquered the 3759:, but then lost it again to the Christians in 3519:tribal confederation and in 909 conquered the 1542:which later gained independence and once more 14802: 13899: 13475: 13013: 12353:"The myth of Mansa Musa's enslaved entourage" 11819: 11817: 11815: 10965: 10417: 10358: 10084:", January 17, 2003 (archive.org mirror copy) 9839: 9498:. Westport, CN: Greenwood Press. p. 46. 9416: 9379: 9367: 9029:Current Opinion in Genetics & Development 7982: 7719:The Early History of the Akan States of Ghana 7314:List of kingdoms in Africa throughout history 6850:, which were easier and quicker to load than 6833:History of East Africa § Colonial period 6825:History of West Africa § Colonial period 6817:History of Southern Africa § Slave trade 6738: 6042:to accept their suzerainty, and he conquered 5606:kingdom acceded in the 6th century along the 5373:rise remain scarce. In the late 12th century 4585:. The history continues to be murky, however 3583:. From there they conquered up to modern-day 2822:. In the 7th century AD, Bantu spread to the 1954:. In the late 6th century the Aksumites were 1906:in southwestern Arabia, as part of the wider 1211:History of East Africa § Ancient history 892:region of southern Dongola Reach in northern 12924: 12825:(First ed.). New York: Pantheon Books. 12674: 12437: 12435: 12422:Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria 12260: 12221: 11537: 11230: 11228: 11156: 11128: 11029: 11007: 10909:Anton, Donald K.; Shelton, Dinah L. (2011). 10908: 10461: 10300: 10287: 9806: 9804: 9574:Iron in Africa: Revising the History, UNESCO 9194: 9136: 9013: 8635: 8328: 8290: 7892:(1st ed.). Princeton University Press. 7655: 6809:History of Central Africa § Slave trade 6514:capitalised on Mali's decline and conquered 6414:in 1387, vicious conflict ensued within the 5811:prior to their conquest of the Maghreb, the 5381:in the south, a key trading city linking to 4573:of the Wolaita-Mala dynasty established the 4398:. To the west from the 7th to 15th century, 4344:. Aksum gradually lost their control of the 4292:in the early 7th century, the north-central 3917:, swept through the Maghreb, conquering the 3735:, who saw themselves as the guardian of the 3300:in 690, and, after a set-back, expelled the 2782:constituted a major series of migrations of 286:, the conventional 'universal' narrative of 13053: 12428:(4). Historical Society of Nigeria: 69–149. 12330:. Princeton University Press. p. 106. 12293: 11827:Oxford Research Encyclopedias: Anthropology 11801: 11100: 11040: 10915:. Cambridge University Press. p. 640. 10120: 10110:(New York University Press, 2013), pp. 44. 10056:. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 131. 9857:Abu Bakr, Abdel (1981). "Pharoanic Egypt". 9658: 9579: 9487: 9462: 9201:Osypińska, Marta; Osypiński, Piotr (2021). 9163:"Animals in the history of the Middle Nile" 8936: 8589: 8393: 8334: 7976: 7820:Chukwu, Lawson; Akpowoghaha, G. N. (2023). 7673:Wiredu, Kwasi (2005). Wiredu, Kwasi (ed.). 7284:History of science and technology in Africa 6542:Within the Niger bend and the forest region 6538:, in a struggle over the crumbling empire. 6156:, however the Wolof king arrested Mandinka 5935:. After regaining full independence as the 5923:. Circa 1170, internal conflict within the 5807:. In 1054, after having united the Saharan 5602:continue their dominance. To the west, the 5494:had grown by the 15th century to encompass 5090:being revered and featuring prominently in 4985:leading a militant faction seized power in 4085:, before consolidating their rule over the 3125:faced persecution due to their 'heretical' 3052: 2912:polity, extending southwards to modern-day 1589:from its respective tribes, and subjugated 1259:. This is particularly true of the various 14809: 14795: 13906: 13892: 13482: 13468: 13128:. New York: Liveright Publishing Company. 12025: 12000:(3). Cambridge University Press: 375–391. 11872:. Archived from the original on 2019-11-07 11812: 11688: 11638:The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Archaeology 11595:Mukhtar, Mohamed Haji (25 February 2003). 11443: 11003: 11001: 10874: 10701: 10427:Gestrich, Nikolas (2019). "Ghana Empire". 10239: 9754: 8881: 8027:"The origin and evolution of Homo sapiens" 7943: 7925:(2). Edinburgh University Press: 183–203. 7715: 7125: 7029:Dates of independence of African countries 6706:Southern Great Lakes and the Zambezi Basin 6486:soon following. In the early 15th century 5358:were first brought. From the 10th century 5028:, whose economies were primarily based on 4796:which involved threats to tamper with the 4704:, which was exhausted following wars with 4577:in the 13th century, locally known as the 4101:were briefly recognised as caliphs by the 3611:changed their allegiance to recognise the 2873:in the 5th century AD, the predecessor to 2806:, which would lay the foundations for the 2556:to the western Sahel, revolutionising the 314:and social, and truth generally viewed as 236:. Between around 1000 BC and 1000 AD, the 13016:Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology 12432: 12181: 11797: 11795: 11793: 11791: 11658: 11347: 11345: 11225: 10934: 10932: 10912:Environmental Protection and Human Rights 10796: 10756:The South African Archaeological Bulletin 10556: 10205: 10159: 9801: 9250: 9160: 9154: 9142: 9073: 9040: 8996: 8913: 8864: 8807: 8758: 8748: 8678: 8523: 8513: 8370: 8273: 8212: 8050: 7651: 7649: 7647: 7093:, with the OAU later developing into the 6813:History of East Africa § Slave trade 6805:History of West Africa § Slave trade 5590:There remains ample room for research on 5428:, and was at one time led by the popular 5369:located to its north, however details of 4764:came to the throne in 1314 and conquered 4454:. Accordingly, Gudit defeated and killed 4418:'s northern territories and occupied the 4281:continued to thrive off of the lucrative 2536:Towards the end of the 3rd century AD, a 2333:, a broad grouping of three groupings of 1890:later described his visit to the city of 589:significant impacts on Africa's societies 44:, (excluding East African states such as 14816: 13410:Civilization of Africa by Richard Hooker 12992: 12517:A savage war of peace: Algeria 1954–1962 12441: 12392: 12261:Conrad, David; Fisher, Humphrey (1983). 12222:Conrad, David; Fisher, Humphrey (1983). 12152: 12127: 12092: 11984: 11903: 11234: 11145: 11094: 10684: 10525: 10462:Conrad, David; Fisher, Humphrey (1983). 10426: 9873: 9856: 9726: 9597:. University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria 9453:Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1995. 8067: 8024: 7988: 7856: 7742: 7580: 7541: 7178:, the construction of cultures from the 7024: 6960: 6270:, garnering widespread attention in the 5981: 5724: 5658:via cavalry. An early written record of 5099: 4002: 3838:in its place, choosing to recognise the 3789: 3498: 3487: 3183: 2637: 2523: 2370: 2133: 1979: 1670: 1490:'s collapse in 1069 BC, ushering in the 1238: 1220:North-East Africa and the Horn of Africa 1049: 872: 697: 35: 13303: 13267: 13032: 12946: 12734: 12683: 12644: 12632: 12375: 11641:. Oxford University Press. p. 427. 11594: 11563: 11512: 11417: 10998: 10836: 10732: 10714:. Cambridge University Press: 105–131. 10043: 9878:. The Encyclopedia of Ancient History. 9781:"Early iron in West and Central Africa" 9732:"The Origin of Iron Smelting in Africa" 9685: 9615: 9588: 9273: 9256: 9240: 8335:Mounier, Aurélien; Lahr, Marta (2019). 8229: 7887: 7779: 7623: 7495: 5990:in 1337 CE, with major gold fields, of 5529: 4022:with intent to conquer Egypt, but were 1291:-worshipping nomes of the east to form 583:partitioning the continent in the 1884 14: 14885: 13123: 13014:Nicholson, Paul T.; Shaw, Ian (2000). 12853: 12785: 12593: 12463: 12419: 12093:McIntosh, Susan (2016). "Gao Empire". 11788: 11543: 11495: 11342: 11313: 11309: 11307: 11305: 11303: 11301: 11299: 11297: 11295: 11293: 11291: 11165: 10966:Hudgens, Jim; Trillo, Richard (1999). 10929: 10856: 10521: 10519: 10439:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.396 10381: 10340:Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 9778: 9760: 9518: 9493: 8481: 8296: 8073: 7794: 7745:Slavery and Slaving in African History 7672: 7644: 6858:was being used increasingly. In 1885, 6176:continuing to campaign in the west in 5474:to grassland for cultivation and zebu 5350:also engaged in the trade, attracting 4752:among others. In the 13th century the 4462:and other groups formed states in the 4324:expanded and flourished following the 4318:Muslims settled the Dahlak archipelago 3913:and, after gaining the support of the 3417:would come to rule most of modern-day 1275:. From around 3500 BC, a coalition of 1251:is inextricably linked to that of the 1203:History of West Africa § Iron Age 926:, which domesticated its wild grains, 14790: 13887: 13489: 13463: 13426:African Kingdoms, by Khaleel Muhammad 13190:Warfare in Atlantic Africa, 1500–1800 12970: 12856:The Journal of Modern African Studies 12541:Gabriel Almond and James S. Coleman, 12469: 12323: 12306: 12204: 12075: 12028:"Transforming the island (1100-1599)" 11771:Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia 11767: 11728: 11689:Trimingham, J. Spencer (2013-09-13). 11469: 11378: 11355:Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia 11351: 11251: 11199: 11182: 11111: 11049: 10982:"Ikom Monoliths of Cross River State" 10938: 10749: 10666:www.south-africa-tours-and-travel.com 10500: 10396: 10049: 10022: 10016: 9953: 9907: 9444:Martin and O'Meara. "Africa, 3rd Ed." 9431: 9316: 9279: 9244: 8715: 7912: 7784:. London: Cambridge University Press. 4688:, and ultimately from Aksumite queen 3882:rule; a religious movement headed by 3445:. At the turn of the 9th century the 3321:to expand the Muslim empire further. 3192:at its greatest extent, under Caliph 2628:Central, Eastern, and Southern Africa 2265:as provinces of their empire, whilst 2031:, initially searching for sources of 1862:to consider Aksum as one of the four 1520:Ancient Egyptian religious traditions 333:in their respective regions, such as 13232:The Penguin Atlas of African History 13176:Africa: A Biography of the Continent 12558:(University Press of America, 1977). 12543:The Politics of the Developing Areas 11399:from the original on 23 January 2023 11316:"Ethiopia, the Red Sea and the Horn" 11216: 10802: 10503:"The Origins of the Empire of Ghana" 10333: 9980: 9947: 9810: 7681:(1 ed.). Wiley. pp. 1–27. 7430:"African Ajami: The Case of Senegal" 7427: 6763: 6098:in 1235, and conquered Kante's ally 5931:to the north, which later conquered 5020:The turn of the 7th century saw the 4867:. According to oral traditions, the 4561:in his honour, and quickly became a 4514:. On the Horn's southeast coast the 4320:. Despite having ancient roots, the 3960:and gradually lost territory to the 3469:control. Late in the 9th century, a 2916:. The Bantu populations crowded out 2289:would regain self-governance in the 2049:Greek influence in the Mediterranean 1969: 1767:, until the growth and expansion of 1657:for the rest of the ancient period. 1526:. After a century of rule they were 1224: 1175:: dating to 2,000 BC at the site of 1077:Egyptians smelted copper during the 670:Sub-Saharan Africa § Prehistory 496:assisted by Muslim dominance of the 94:, and Southern African ones such as 13913: 13241: 13202:Ajayi, A.J.F. and Michael Crowder. 13111:Journal of African Military History 13039:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 12788:Canadian Journal of African Studies 12379:General History of Africa: Volume 4 12310:General History of Africa: Volume 4 12211:(Thesis). University of New Mexico. 12082:(Thesis). University of New Mexico. 11987:"A NEW LOOK AT THE HISTORY OF PATE" 11805:General History of Africa: Volume 3 11499:General History of Africa: Volume 4 11288: 11238:General History of Africa: Volume 3 11203:General History of Africa: Volume 4 11186:General History of Africa: Volume 4 11169:General History of Africa: Volume 4 11149:General History of Africa: Volume 3 11132:General History of Africa: Volume 3 11115:General History of Africa: Volume 3 11069:General History of Africa: Volume 3 11053:General History of Africa: Volume 3 11033:General History of Africa: Volume 3 11011:General History of Africa: Volume 3 10840:General History of Africa: Volume 2 10560:General History of Africa: Volume 2 10532:Canadian Journal of African Studies 10516: 10263:General History of Africa: Volume 2 10243:General History of Africa: Volume 2 9984:General History of Africa: Volume 2 9876:The Encyclopedia of Ancient History 9860:General History of Africa: Volume 2 9736:West African Journal of Archaeology 8824: 7659:General History of Africa: Volume 1 7560:10.1146/annurev.an.03.100174.001101 7499:General History of Africa: Volume 1 7160:multitude of dialects and languages 7136:conquest and colonisation of Africa 6470:, following the development of the 5850:, and had close relations with the 5389:'s hegemony, while also conquering 4649:on the Horn's north-eastern coast. 4400:Arab tribes migrated into the Sudan 4237:At the end of the 6th century, the 4218: 4109:. Throughout the 14th century, the 3954:invasions from an Almoravid remnant 2869:in the 1st century AD, forming the 2458:in West Africa, with a four tiered 1934:on the Himyarite throne, however a 1506:, paving the way for his successor 1383:conquered all of Egypt to form the 1355:power began to decentralise to the 1031:and built stone settlements (e.g., 24: 13270:"African and World Historiography" 13076: 12932:. NY: Cambridge University Press. 12350: 11634: 11444:Tedla, Solomon; Reddy, B. (2018). 10739:(Thesis). University of Cape Town. 10538:(2). Taylor and Francis: 347–373. 10310:. NY: Cambridge University Press. 9463:Zangato, É.; Holl, A.F.C. (2010). 9257:Bradley, Simon (18 January 2007). 6700: 6655: 6297:than in modern histories. Despite 4139:Spanish colonised the Canary Isles 4117:several times, and devastated the 4018:In 1248, the Christians began the 3553:Umayyad dynasty centred in Cordoba 3268:in 661 and the capital moved from 3129:churches, paying a heavy tax. The 3100: 2810:, later producing the kingdoms of 1828:trade route between Rome and India 1617:freed the Levantine city state of 1484:confederation of seafaring peoples 1187:4th millennium BC – 6th century AD 788:). Scientists have suggested that 306:, reminiscences, and occasionally 25: 14909: 14552:Confederation of African Football 13346: 13155:The Making of Contemporary Africa 10708:The African Archaeological Review 10190: 9874:Anderson, J. R. (2012). "Kerma". 8177:Trends in Ecology & Evolution 7948:(2nd ed.). London: Longman. 7679:A Companion to African Philosophy 7108: 6970: 6617: 6430:. The internal conflict weakened 5907:, with her children founding the 5887:. Meanwhile in the 11th century, 3830:, Saladin eventually deposed the 1660: 1641:caused their disintegration into 1004:between 8000 and 6000 BC. Later, 13790:Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic 13560:Democratic Republic of the Congo 13218:The New Atlas of African History 12847: 12814: 12779: 12728: 12638: 12587: 12574: 12561: 12548: 12535: 12522: 12509: 12413: 12386: 12369: 12344: 12317: 12254: 12215: 12198: 12188:Comparative Civilisations Review 12175: 12146: 12121: 12086: 12069: 12038: 11978: 11952: 11924: 11897: 11860: 11834: 11761: 11722: 11709: 11628: 11615: 11588: 11557: 11506: 11489: 11463: 11437: 11411: 11372: 11245: 11210: 11193: 11176: 11139: 11122: 11060: 10974: 10959: 10868: 10850: 10830: 10782: 10743: 10726: 10695: 10678: 10654: 10641: 10615: 10594: 10570: 10550: 10494: 10023:Njoku, Raphael Chijioke (2013). 9884:10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah15224 9269:from the original on 2012-03-06. 7863:The Journal for Economic History 7263: 7249: 6770:Medieval and early modern Africa 5799:expanded north to encompass the 5570: 5024:continue to be inhabited by the 4569:. According to oral traditions, 4093:. Following the collapse of the 4000:, crippling the empire's unity. 3727:and exacerbated by rebellion in 3565:Fatimids finally conquered Egypt 3304:from North Africa. To the west, 3208:intent on converting peoples to 3059:Medieval and early modern Africa 2039:after gaining independence from 2015:and not coping well in the open 1884:syncretic mixes of local beliefs 1779:and transported their cargo via 717:evolved in Africa. According to 686:Horn of Africa § Prehistory 642:in 1963 (the predecessor to the 522:Systems of servitude and slavery 520:in the 18th and 19th centuries. 222:and the oral recordation of the 13162:A History of the African People 12930:A History of Sub-Saharan Africa 12498:from the original on 2022-08-27 12051:. St. Martin's press. pp. 11934:Molecular Biology and Evolution 11717:The Ethiopian Royal Chronicles. 11553:(Thesis). University of London. 10528:"Reconceptualizing Early Ghana" 10455: 10390: 10375: 10307:A History of Sub-Saharan Africa 10270: 10199: 10184: 10100: 10087: 10082:Let's Look Across the Red Sea I 10070: 9991: 9974: 9923: 9901: 9867: 9720: 9664: 9609: 9567: 9512: 9456: 9437: 9391:Swami, Bhaktivejanyana (2013), 9385: 9347: 9322: 9247:, pp. 64–75, 80–81, 87–88. 8955: 8942: 8775: 8316:from the original on 2022-01-03 8160: 8018: 7937: 7906: 7850: 7813: 7773: 7736: 7709: 7666: 7581:Feierman, Steven (1994-11-29). 7331: 7309:List of history journals#Africa 7197:The Cambridge History of Africa 6478:along the Atlantic coast, with 6030:After the death of his father, 5522:. They first made contact with 4760:north of Ethiopia. In Ethiopia 4394:, traditionally descendants of 4378:, and relations with Arabs led 4141:in the first example of modern 3862:, Palestine from the Christian 3631:, to be later displaced by the 3621:invasion by nomadic Arab tribes 3085: 2944:from 350 BC-550 AD, termed the 2747:; together they are grouped as 2560:which linked their capital and 1926:king. Following the capture of 1914:against the persecution of the 1858:. This led the Persian prophet 1695:, likely located in modern-day 1249:ancient history of North Africa 1171:region of southeast Nigeria in 302:one, with eyewitness accounts, 13366:Worldtimelines.org.uk – Africa 13277:The Journal of African History 13018:. Cambridge University Press. 12956:. W. W. Norton & Company. 12920:. Paris: Imprimerie Nationale. 12686:The Journal of African History 12569:Nationalism in Colonial Africa 12476:. Cambridge University Press. 12132:. London: Methuen. p. 3. 12105:10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe312 12034:. University of Chicago Press. 11252:Miran, Jonathan (2022-04-20). 10968:The Rough Guide to West Africa 10803:Fage, John (23 October 2013). 10161:2027/coo1.ark:/13960/t07w6zm1b 10138:(2127): 133–134. August 1910. 9939:. 29 July 2003. Archived from 9670:O'Brien, Patrick Karl (2002), 9469:Journal of African Archaeology 9283:Journal of African Archaeology 9263:Swiss Broadcasting Corporation 9086:Journal of African Archaeology 7989:Callaway, Ewan (7 June 2017). 7716:Meyerowitz, Eva L. R. (1975). 7617: 7574: 7535: 7506: 7489: 7464: 7421: 7397: 7373: 7021:Historical African place names 6866:, the model of the modern-day 6649:Bamileke people § History 6623:The central Sahel and Cameroon 5032:, however they traded via the 4993:retaining a ceremonious role. 4700:. Fifteen years later, in the 4664:rebelled with assistance from 4314:giving refuge to early Muslims 4241:ruled over much of modern-day 4213: 4145:, causing the genocide of the 4079:civil war in the Mongol Empire 4056:Mongol invasions of the Levant 3642:would lose the Maghreb to the 3591:, securing the holy cities of 3200:The early 7th century saw the 3096:Muslim conquest of the Maghreb 2940:was possibly first settled by 2604:heading south, relying on the 2356: 2279:Vandals conquered north Africa 1942:back to power who again began 1605:, which ultimately led to its 1303:. Egypt was first united when 934:. Between 10,000 and 8000 BC, 846:had spread to most corners of 492:, and later southwards to the 320:distinct languages and customs 278:, and are rarely discussed in 13: 1: 13223:Kwamena-Poh, Michael, et al. 12910:Al-Mas'udi, Ali ibn al-Husain 12399:. Columbia University Press. 12161:. Columbia University Press. 10970:(3rd ed.). Rough Guides. 10875:Voarintsoa, Ny Riavo (2019). 10864:. Cambridge University Press. 10809:. Routledge. pp. 25–26. 10193:Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C 9960:. SBL Press. pp. 66–67. 7919:Studies in World Christianity 7595:10.1515/9781400821440.40/html 7548:Annual Review of Anthropology 7366: 7087:Organisation of African Unity 6112:. Allied kingdoms, including 5656:salt mine north in the Sahara 4950:, however he was defeated by 4724:incorporated the polities of 4720:. Over the following decades 3876:other Seljuk successor states 3471:revolt by East African slaves 2837:, which would later bear the 2775:) in the continent's south. 2711:At the 4th millennium BC the 2653: 2367:History of the Soninke people 2205:; and various tribes such as 2182:tribal federations until the 1999:were mostly cut off from the 1866:of the 3rd century alongside 1478:into the empire, sending the 1414:, a militaristic people from 911:loci some 50,000 years old". 782: 771: 760: 653: 640:Organisation of African Unity 638:and the establishment of the 78:Central African ones such as 42:pre–colonial states in Africa 13400:Wonders of the African World 12999:. Leiden and Boston: Brill. 12993:McKinney, Robert C. (2004). 12449:. Indiana University Press. 10939:Fanso, Verkijika G. (1989). 10733:Dlamini, Nonhlanhla (2014). 10623:"5.2 Historischer Überblick" 10501:Abbou, Tahar (August 2020). 10352:10.1016/0278-4165(85)90005-4 10029:. ABC-CLIO. pp. 29–31. 9957:Sennacherib, King of Assyria 9630:10.1126/science.323.5911.200 9330:"Katanda Bone Harpoon Point" 9031:. Genetics of Human Origin. 8701:10.1016/j.jhevol.2013.02.001 8658:10.1016/j.jhevol.2004.09.002 8467:10.1016/j.jhevol.2009.01.005 7944:Hargreaves, John D. (1996). 7753:10.1017/cbo9781139034999.003 7442:10.1007/978-3-030-38277-3_25 7405:"Early African Civilization" 6955:advanced militaristic skills 6901:. In 1854, the discovery of 6753:Tswana people § History 6749:Mpondo people § History 6633:Bilala people § History 6436:Tuareg tribal confederations 6398:, and the Serer kingdoms of 4847:as one vassal headed by the 4430:, moving their capital from 4113:intermittently occupied the 3834:in 1171 and established the 3828:revolt from the Fatimid army 3816:Salah ad-Din Yusuf ibn Ayyub 3769:Christian invasions of Egypt 3755:opportunistically took back 3708:Umayyad Caliphate in Cordoba 3666:, spurred on by puritanical 3551:against the remnants of the 3523:to gain control over all of 3165:in the Sahara in modern-day 2225:established the province of 1930:, the Aksumites implanted a 1908:Byzantine-Sassanian conflict 1846:, led campaigns against the 1528:forcibly driven out of Egypt 1395:, as well as expansion into 648:Traditional power structures 569:Second Industrial Revolution 7: 14280:International organisations 13422:Metropolitan Museum of Art. 13414:Washington State University 12976:The Civilizations of Africa 12554:Festus Ugboaja Ohaegbulam, 12357:www.africanhistoryextra.com 12032:Madagascar: A short history 12026:Randrianja, Solofo (2009). 11659:Pankhurst, Richard (1997). 11385:. James Currey Publishers. 11379:Lewis, I. M. (1999-01-01). 10896:10.1016/j.sciaf.2019.e00091 9813:Journal of World Prehistory 9519:Alpern, Stanley B. (2005). 9417:Nicholson & Shaw (2000) 9380:Nicholson & Shaw (2000) 9368:Nicholson & Shaw (2000) 8906:10.1534/genetics.119.302368 8591:Henshilwood, Christopher S. 8074:Sample, Ian (7 June 2017). 7834:10.1007/978-981-99-0245-3_1 7544:"State Formation in Africa" 7381:"Recordkeeping and History" 7342:in both directions, unlike 7242: 7214:Contemporary historiography 7167:Postcolonial historiography 7150:, meaning there was little 7130:The academic discipline of 6793:Colonial period (1870–1951) 6757:Xhosa people § History 6645:Tikar people § History 6466:. In the 15th century, the 5576:The western Sahel and Sudan 5116:engaged in the flourishing 4958:, placing the land under a 3854:to conquer Arabia from the 3350:traditional Berber religion 3284:and allied with the Berber 3171:traditional Berber religion 3147:traditional Berber religion 2759:-speaking peoples, and the 2474:from 1500 BC in modern-day 2466:from 2500 BC in modern-day 2456:complexly organised society 2237:fought alongside Numidia's 2138:Romanised-Berber kingdoms: 2063:, distributing an array of 2055:network reaching as far as 1611:Crisis of the Third Century 1524:revival in pyramid-building 968:During the 11th millennium 914:Around 16,000 BC, from the 690:Prehistoric Southern Africa 10: 14914: 14532:Africa Cricket Association 14338:Countries by GDP (nominal) 13337:Journal of African History 13216:Freeman-Grenville, G.S.P. 13204:Historical Atlas of Africa 13196: 12928:; Burns, James M. (2007). 12902: 12600:International Organization 12324:Gomez, Michael A. (2018). 12153:Ajayi; Ade, J. F. (1976). 12128:Levtzion, Nehemia (1973). 12096:The Encyclopedia of Empire 12045:Kevin Shillington (1995). 11994:Journal of African History 11985:Chittick, Neville (1969). 11965:World History Encyclopedia 11847:World History Encyclopedia 11735:African Historical Studies 11570:Rassegna di Studi Etiopici 10945:. Vol. 1. Macmillan. 10702:Robertshaw, Peter (1994). 10400:Kings, Magic, and Medicine 10304:; Burns, James M. (2007). 10278:Journal of African History 10206:Munro-Hay, Stuart (1991). 9150:. National Science Centre. 8857:10.1038/s41598-019-39802-1 8681:Journal of Human Evolution 8638:Journal of Human Evolution 8549:Journal of Human Evolution 8447:Journal of Human Evolution 8363:10.1038/s41467-019-11213-w 8266:10.1038/s41586-021-04275-8 8197:10.1016/j.tree.2018.05.005 7299:Economic history of Africa 7289:Military history of Africa 7118: 7112: 7017:Status of forces agreement 7002: 6980: 6974: 6802: 6796: 6773: 6767: 6745:History of Southern Africa 6742: 6739:South of the Zambezi Basin 6709: 6659: 6626: 6545: 6518:, and the old province of 6188:kings in the highlands of 6140:campaigned to the west in 6026:are located north of Lobi. 5955:from its south, occupying 5622:rose in the east to rival 5579: 5533: 5005: 4660:as illegitimate usurpers, 4652:In 1270, supported by the 4589:was contested between the 4382:to hold their lineages to 4255:ancient Somali city-states 4222: 4180: 4071:Abbasid Caliphate in Cairo 3684:trans-Saharan trade routes 3260:in the Muslim empire, the 3169:, who all mainly followed 3089: 3062: 3056: 2631: 2490:from 250 BC in modern-day 2420:trans-Saharan trade routes 2360: 2178:, a polity made up of two 1973: 1856:expanded into South Arabia 1826:into a major power on the 1773:ancient Somali city-states 1664: 1405:Second Intermediate Period 1228: 1196: 1190: 965:between 5500 and 3500 BC. 903:in the world) and diverse 862:or already earlier in the 678:Prehistoric Central Africa 663: 657: 28: 14822: 14748: 14655: 14584: 14547:Australian-rules football 14522: 14464: 14455: 14407: 14400: 14328: 14319: 14216: 14207: 14138:Countries and territories 14133: 14124: 14084: 14041: 13934: 13925: 13803: 13778: 13497: 13381:About.com:African History 13317:Philips, John Edward, ed. 13289:10.1017/S0021853713000753 13268:Manning, Patrick (2013). 13249:General history of Africa 13164:, (Waveland Press, 1998). 12868:10.1017/S0022278X00013525 12698:10.1017/S0021853713000753 12612:10.1017/S0020818300013151 12447:The Yoruba: A New History 12182:Wilkinson, David (1994). 12006:10.1017/S0021853700036331 11544:Hassen, Mohammed (1983). 10685:Buchanan, Carole (1974). 10093:Eric Herbert Warmington, 9825:10.1007/s10963-009-9030-6 9161:Osypińska, Marta (2021). 9143:Osypiński, Piotr (2020). 9042:10.1016/j.gde.2020.05.008 8750:10.1016/j.cub.2016.01.037 8005:10.1038/nature.2017.22114 7888:Mamdani, Mahmood (1996). 7875:10.1017/S0022050718000128 7780:Lovejoy, Paul E. (2012). 7687:10.1002/9780470997154.ch1 7627:Oral tradition as history 7294:Genetic history of Africa 7206:(1981–2024) published by 7203:General History of Africa 6662:History of Central Africa 6458:forming the northeastern 6240:which sought to tolerate 5862:in the west resisted the 5614:. In the 7th century the 5544:Luo peoples § Uganda 5038:iconic stone architecture 4637:, coming to dominate the 4555:eleven rock-hewn churches 4304:, intermingling with the 3779:, nominally under Seljuk 3461:rule and in 868 when the 3204:and the beginning of the 3175:Sassanids conquered Egypt 3157:of Sanhaja in modern-day 3141:, surrounded by numerous 2504:Senegambian stone circles 2345:, along with the nomadic 2127:and then defeated him in 1775:which thrived off of the 1492:Third Intermediate Period 1438:eventually expelling the 1361:First Intermediate Period 1347:who constructed numerous 1104:By the 1st millennium BC 1027:They also started making 617:syncretising Christianity 556:outside Africa, creating 468:From the 7th century CE, 252:Many kingdoms and empires 240:swept from north-western 230:adapted the Arabic script 13545:Central African Republic 13306:Journal of World History 13261:24.2–3 (1981): 139–226. 13211:Atlas of African History 13169:African Military History 13119:10.1163/24680966-0020100 13099:. Penguin, Harmondsworth 13087:The Prehistory of Africa 13033:Prunier, Gérard (2009). 12918:Abel Pavet de Courteille 12821:Said, Edward W. (1978). 12645:Prunier, Gerard (2014). 12482:10.1017/CBO9781139128872 11918:10.1177/0392192108090734 11715:Pankhurst, Richard K.P. 11564:Cerulli, Enrico (1941). 11418:Lambebo, Abesha (2016). 10752:"The Gokomere Tradition" 10526:McIntosh, Susan (2008). 10334:Holl, Augustine (1985). 10076:Pankhurst, Richard K.P. 9779:Eggert, Manfred (2014). 9419:, pp. 161–165, 170. 7946:Decolonization in Africa 7931:10.3366/swc.1996.2.2.183 7857:Frankema, Ewout (2018). 7542:Southall, Aidan (1974). 7324: 7221:study of oral traditions 7035:decolonization of Africa 7005:Decolonisation of Africa 5927:induced the founding of 5870:retained influence over 5854:. During this time, the 5452:were further settled by 4827:. Ethiopia incorporated 4506:). They neighboured the 4402:, during which time the 4176: 4153:oppose the expansionist 4147:native Berber population 4034:generals in the face of 3682:to control the affluent 3421:with the support of the 3244:. The Muslims conquered 3224:to evacuate Syria. With 3053:7th century–15th century 2904:was home to the elusive 2701:= 500–1 BC Congo nucleus 2685:nucleus of Eastern Bantu 2670: 2662: 2544:, the local name of the 2201:, home of the legendary 1991:Further north-west, the 1896:"excellent white marble" 1878:. In the 4th century AD 1629:. In the midst of this, 1442:from Egypt, forming the 1114:Central African Republic 811:, associated with early 786: 233,000 years ago 775: 259,000 years ago 764: 315,000 years ago 745:The fossil record shows 666:Prehistoric North Africa 256:regions of the continent 14594:Countries by population 14307:United States of Africa 13320:Writing African History 13225:African history in Maps 13206:(1985); 300 color maps. 13124:French, Howard (2021). 12594:Touval, Saadia (1967). 12470:blier, suzanne (2014). 12099:. Wiley. pp. 1–3. 11774:. Hurst & Company. 11768:Henze, Paul B. (2000). 11531:10.3406/ethio.2014.1572 11358:. Hurst & Company. 11352:Henze, Paul B. (2000). 10857:Blench, Robert (2021). 9954:Elayi, Josette (2018). 9908:Buzon, Michele (2011). 9783:. In Breunig, P (ed.). 9481:10.3213/1612-1651-10153 9395:, p. 98. Author House. 9296:10.3213/1612-1651-10171 9098:10.3213/2191-5784-10186 8989:10.1126/science.1172257 8607:10.1126/science.1095905 8515:10.1073/pnas.0913047107 8416:10.1126/science.1067575 7126:Colonial historiography 6530:, expanded, conquering 6347:(invitation) from some 6206:Saharan trading centres 5891:traditions hold that a 5650:through commanding the 5309:Arab or Persian descent 5046:hundreds of settlements 4970:campaigned against the 4050:, whilst the remaining 3894:. Initially fighting a 3698:and intervening in the 3627:and Arab tribes ruling 3264:were supplanted by the 3109:. Christianity was the 3092:History of North Africa 2971:. To their west in the 2341:grouping in modern-day 1976:History of North Africa 1952:minor internal conflict 1765:south Arabian influence 1571:Egyptian religious life 1231:History of North Africa 1131:via the Nubian city of 858:, started in the early 708:Naturmuseum Senckenberg 682:Prehistoric East Africa 674:Prehistoric West Africa 437:in Central Africa; and 14343:Countries by GDP (PPP) 14285:Pan-African Parliament 14076:Science and technology 13436:University of Pretoria 13339:54.3 (2013): 331–340. 13329:34.4 (2005): 441–454. 13259:African studies review 12653:. Barnes & Noble. 12582:African decolonization 12396:History of West Africa 12205:Abney, Graham (2021). 12159:History of West Africa 12130:Ancient Ghana and Mali 12076:Abney, Graham (2021). 11513:Bouanga, Ayda (2014). 11470:Hailu, Tensay (2019). 11217:Akou, Heather (2011). 10846:. UNESCO. p. 555. 10750:Vogel, Joseph (1978). 10566:. UNESCO. p. 729. 10050:Dalal, Roshen (2011). 10026:The History of Somalia 9728:Tylecote, Ronald-Frank 9672:Atlas of World History 9494:Falola, Toyin (2002). 8569:10.1006/jhev.2000.0435 8043:10.1098/rstb.2015.0237 7304:African historiography 7279:Architecture of Africa 7115:African historiography 7077:(1975) from Portugal; 7030: 6967: 6548:History of West Africa 6228:. In the 13th century 6224:'s dominance over the 6216:was conquered and the 6204:, and brought the key 6027: 5903:to the south to found 5866:and Islamisation. The 5763:at the expense of the 5752: 5630:grew rich through the 5582:History of West Africa 5315:, supposedly based on 5122:early Muslim conquests 5109: 5016:History of the Comoros 5008:History of East Africa 4716:, who established the 4567:Ethiopian Christianity 4528:Sultanate of Mogadishu 4444:Kingdom of Beta Israel 4410:. In the 8th century, 4225:History of East Africa 4121:in 1347 and 1357. The 4015: 3807: 3662:. In 1053 the Saharan 3559:, who hailed from the 3508: 3496: 3197: 3179:Byzantine-Sasanian War 2798:, and eastward to the 2708: 2707:= AD 1–1000 last phase 2533: 2532:at its greatest extent 2379: 2363:History of West Africa 2337:, one of which is the 2171: 2051:, as well as a strict 2025:Phoenician settlements 2011:being tailored to the 2001:cradle of civilisation 1988: 1944:persecuting Christians 1745:iron tools and weapons 1680: 1679:in the 6th century AD. 1667:History of East Africa 1244: 1085:. The use of gold and 1059: 878: 856:West-Eurasian backflow 759:remains from Morocco ( 710: 702:Side view of cast of " 573:colonisation of Africa 329:Many empires achieved 322:, with most following 292:technological progress 208:has historically been 127: 29:This article contains 14898:Archaeology in Africa 13996:European colonisation 13959:Pre-colonial kingdoms 13705:São Tomé and Príncipe 13565:Republic of the Congo 13356:" by Allison Hopper, 13174:Reader, John (1997). 13160:July, Robert (1998). 11946:10.1093/molbev/msp120 11729:Orent, Amnon (1970). 11665:. The Red Sea Press. 11254:"Red Sea Slave Trade" 10691:. Indiana University. 10397:Peavy, Daryl (2010). 9589:Eze–Uzomaka, Pamela. 9537:10.1353/hia.2005.0003 9355:"Mande | people" 8800:10.1101/gr.186684.114 8342:Nature Communications 8300:(10 September 2019). 8025:Stringer, C. (2016). 7624:Vansina, Jan (1985). 7028: 6981:Further information: 6964: 6897:, endemic throughout 6875:permanent settlements 6844:Industrial Revolution 6803:Further information: 6774:Further information: 6351:, and later absorbed 6242:traditional religions 6082:aided by the king of 5985: 5791:'s king converted to 5728: 5103: 5076:, to also settle the 5012:History of Madagascar 4543:Gebre Meskel Lalibela 4054:was destroyed in the 4006: 3793: 3775:in North Africa. The 3615:. In retaliation the 3531:, they established a 3502: 3491: 3425:, whilst the growing 3384:were suppressed. The 3242:Gregory the Patrician 3187: 3063:Further information: 2928:which traded via the 2751:. On the later-named 2715:was inhabited by the 2646:= 2000–1500 BC origin 2641: 2527: 2454:was the oldest known 2374: 2351:North African history 2335:tribal confederations 2137: 2125:Carthaginian homeland 2073:ancient Mediterranean 1983: 1888:Cosmas Indicopleustes 1838:to the valley of the 1674: 1486:, contributed to the 1420:15th dynasty of Egypt 1337:cataracts of the Nile 1315:, giving rise to the 1242: 1197:Further information: 1053: 990:Nilo-Saharan speakers 876: 701: 664:Further information: 593:socioeconomic systems 581:major European powers 465:in Southern Africa. 324:traditional religions 254:came and went in all 39: 14817:History by continent 14567:Stadiums by capacity 14514:World Heritage Sites 13991:European exploration 13327:History of Education 13167:Lamphear, John, ed. 12382:. UNESCO Publishing. 12313:. UNESCO Publishing. 11502:. UNESCO Publishing. 11206:. UNESCO Publishing. 11189:. UNESCO Publishing. 11172:. UNESCO Publishing. 11083:Al-Mas'udi 1861–1917 10986:World Monuments Fund 10282:Current Anthropology 10266:. UNESCO Publishing. 10246:. UNESCO Publishing. 9987:. UNESCO Publishing. 9863:. UNESCO Publishing. 9694:Current Anthropology 9243:, pp. 126–127; 7722:. Red Candle Press. 7662:. UNESCO Publishing. 7502:. UNESCO Publishing. 7200:(1975–1986) and the 6230:Al-Hajj Salim Suwari 6148:in the highlands of 6136:former vassals, the 5818:sacked and captured 5530:Northern Great Lakes 5524:Portuguese explorers 5377:wrestled control of 5088:interior's highlands 5066:Austronesian peoples 5026:Swahili civilisation 4974:with the support of 4647:Warsangali Sultanate 4583:traditional religion 4408:adopted Arab customs 3923:Hilalian Arab tribes 3864:Kingdom of Jerusalem 3700:reconquest of Iberia 3507:in the 12th century. 3340:”) constituting the 3310:Kingdom of the Aurès 3161:, and the other two 2934:Swahili civilisation 2548:, rising out of the 2398:by 1200 BC, in both 2315:Byzantine reconquest 2313:for a century until 2113:crossing of the alps 1962:with the aid of the 1912:Aksum invaded Himyar 1731:bore the Kingdom of 1353:6th dynasty of Egypt 1351:, however under the 1329:Old Kingdom of Egypt 1043:, using bone-tipped 807:date to the African 805:Behavioral modernity 755:fossils include the 587:. European rule had 210:adapted or developed 14251:Freedom of religion 14236:Heads of government 14028:Scramble for Africa 13780:States with limited 13394:The Story of Africa 13359:Scientific American 13178:. Hamish Hamilton. 13113:2#1 (2018): 63–78. 13089:. Thames and Hudson 12443:akinwumi, ogundiran 12393:Ajayi; Ade (1976). 11601:. Scarecrow Press. 11085:, v. 8: pp. 58, 61. 10806:A History of Africa 10144:1910Natur..84..133. 9943:on 5 November 2013. 9434:, pp. 136–137. 9382:, pp. 149–160. 8981:2009Sci...324.1035T 8975:(5930): 1035–1044. 8950:Luca Cavalli-Sforza 8948:Genetic studies by 8849:2019NatSR...9.3530V 8741:2016CBio...26..827P 8693:2013JHumE..64..500V 8650:2005JHumE..48....3D 8561:2000JHumE..39..453M 8506:2010PNAS..107.6180T 8459:2009JHumE..57...27H 8408:2002Sci...295.1278H 8402:(5558): 1278–1280. 8355:2019NatCo..10.3406M 8258:2022Natur.601..579V 8189:2018TEcoE..33..582S 8138:10.1038/nature22336 8130:2017Natur.546..289H 7514:"History of Africa" 7156:Western superiority 6977:Postcolonial Africa 6946:African nationalism 6938:civilising missions 6915:Scramble for Africa 6877:. Diseases such as 6720:Kingdom of Zimbabwe 6464:trans-Saharan trade 6460:Sultanate of Agadez 6410:after the death of 6333:. To the east, the 6288:Islamic scholarship 6226:trans-Saharan trade 6220:subdued, cementing 6126:subordinate to the 5925:Ouagadougou dynasty 5729:Map of the western 5632:trans-Saharan trade 5195:in the middle, and 4676:, establishing the 4581:, which followed a 4535:Mara Takla Haymanot 4522:, and the clans of 4450:and located in the 4428:Ethiopian Highlands 4322:Red Sea slave trade 4253:to its east, while 4229:History of Ethiopia 4207:Kingdom of al-Abwab 4195:Kingdom of Fazughli 4143:settler colonialism 4091:trans-Saharan trade 4069:re-established the 4024:decisively defeated 3567:against a weakened 3457:under only nominal 3334:Abrahamic religions 3280:had reinforced the 3238:Exarchate of Africa 3131:Exarchate of Africa 3113:of the empire, and 3045:and developing the 2932:, constituting the 2926:various city states 2695:= southward advance 2558:trans-Saharan trade 2323:Exarchate of Africa 2291:Mauro-Roman Kingdom 1985:Carthaginian Empire 1956:driven out of Yemen 1916:Christian community 1777:wider Red Sea trade 1691:, a kingdom on the 1563:Alexander the Great 1157:African Great Lakes 1110:Northwestern Africa 920:Ethiopian Highlands 886:archaeological site 770:from South Africa ( 694:African archaeology 577:Scramble for Africa 516:, catalysed by the 18:Pre-colonial Africa 13976:Indian Ocean trade 13446:2021-10-18 at the 13396:BBC World Service. 13386:2007-12-13 at the 13369:The British Museum 13192:(Routledge, 1999). 13188:Thornton, John K. 13171:(Routledge, 2007). 13055:Shillington, Kevin 12972:Ehret, Christopher 12926:Collins, Robert O. 12584:(E. Arnold, 1994). 11519:Annales d'Éthiopie 11097:, pp. 468–69. 10884:Scientific African 10720:10.1007/BF01953040 10629:on 16 October 2007 10302:Collins, Robert O. 9659:Shillington (2005) 9449:2007-10-11 at the 8937:Shillington (2005) 8309:The New York Times 8238:Lane, Christine S. 8236:Vidal, Celine M.; 8037:(1698): 20150237. 7977:Shillington (2005) 7356:Bygone generations 7063:French West Africa 7041:in 1951, although 7031: 6968: 6238:Suwarian tradition 6102:, proclaiming the 6054:, and subdued the 6028: 5939:lost influence in 5753: 5468:island's estuaries 5211:in the south. Via 5118:Indian Ocean trade 5110: 5058:Indian Ocean trade 5034:Indian Ocean trade 4702:Sultanate of Shewa 4686:last king of Aksum 4639:Indian Ocean trade 4599:Sultanate of Shewa 4579:Kingdom of Wolaita 4508:Sultanate of Shewa 4420:Eritrean Highlands 4396:Muhammad's cousins 4283:Indian Ocean trade 4233:History of Somalia 4133:in 1472, with the 4030:who had relied on 4016: 3946:Emirate of Granada 3936:, proclaiming the 3808: 3787:in the caliphate. 3725:Sharifate of Mecca 3694:before conquering 3625:Khurasanid dynasty 3509: 3497: 3433:culminated in the 3338:People of the Book 3218:Rashidun Caliphate 3202:inception of Islam 3198: 2930:Indian Ocean trade 2857:and eastward into 2800:Great Lakes region 2745:Great Lakes region 2709: 2618:confederated state 2600:heading north and 2534: 2496:Serer civilisation 2380: 2287:indigenous peoples 2281:precipitating the 2172: 2067:from all over the 1989: 1832:Indian Ocean trade 1681: 1399:at the expense of 1245: 1129:Sub-Saharan Africa 1079:predynastic period 1060: 879: 711: 660:Prehistoric Africa 534:early modern world 498:Indian Ocean trade 234:scholarly pursuits 212:; for example the 128: 14893:History of Africa 14880: 14879: 14784: 14783: 14651: 14650: 14580: 14579: 14396: 14395: 14373:Natural resources 14315: 14314: 14261:Linguistic rights 14203: 14202: 14120: 14119: 13881: 13880: 13807:other territories 13580:Equatorial Guinea 13491:History of Africa 13432:Mapungubwe Museum 13375:The Historyscoper 13251:1 (1981): 25–42. 13083:Clark, J. Desmond 13059:History of Africa 13046:978-0-19-970583-2 13025:978-0-521-45257-1 12963:978-0-393-03891-0 12948:Diamond, Jared M. 12939:978-0-521-68708-9 12914:Les Prairies D'Or 12737:History in Africa 12580:Henry S. Wilson, 12406:978-0-231-04103-4 12267:History in Africa 12228:History in Africa 12168:978-0-231-04103-4 12139:978-0-8419-0431-6 12114:978-1-118-44064-3 12048:History of Africa 11781:978-1-85065-393-6 11702:978-1-136-97022-1 11692:Islam in Ethiopia 11672:978-0-932415-19-6 11635:Walker, Bethany. 11365:978-1-85065-393-6 11329:978-0-521-20981-6 11275:978-0-19-027773-4 10952:978-0-333-47121-0 10922:978-0-521-76638-8 10590:on 25 March 2009. 10468:History in Africa 10448:978-0-19-027773-4 10317:978-0-521-68708-9 10191:Uhlig, Siegbert. 9967:978-0-88414-318-5 9661:, pp. 37–39. 9624:(5911): 200–202. 9525:History in Africa 9405:978-1-4772-4273-5 9319:, pp. 64–75. 8500:(14): 6180–6185. 8252:(7894): 579–583. 8124:(7657): 289–292. 7913:Walls, A (2011). 7843:978-981-99-0244-6 7828:. pp. 1–11. 7762:978-1-139-03499-9 7696:978-0-631-20751-1 7637:978-0-299-10214-2 7604:978-1-4008-2144-0 7451:978-3-030-38277-3 7237:political history 6883:sleeping sickness 6764:16th century–1870 6568:Kingdom of Dagbon 6262:or pilgrimage to 6248:came to power in 6210:militaristic coup 5586:Sahelian kingdoms 5432:. The islands of 5424:, and prosperous 5307:having rulers of 5288:Chinese porcelain 5134: 4887:fully occupied. 4885:Sultanate of Ifat 4758:Dankali Sultanate 4718:Sultanate of Ifat 4678:Solomonic dynasty 4668:and defeated the 4587:regional hegemony 4077:and, assisted by 4026:by the embattled 4013:Al-Nasir Muhammad 3938:Almohad Caliphate 3930:Kingdom of Africa 3904:crushed in battle 3872:Upper Mesopotamia 3852:prolific campaign 3842:. From there the 3840:Abbasid Caliphate 3737:Abbasid Caliphate 3714:incorporated the 3636:Kingdom of Africa 3613:Abbasid Caliphate 3569:Abbasid Caliphate 3494:Fatimid Caliphate 3492:Evolution of the 3324:Large numbers of 3286:Kingdom of Altava 3190:Umayyad Caliphate 3039:Ekoi civilisation 2910:Southern Cushitic 2824:Upemba Depression 2731:in the west, the 2542:Kingdom of Wagadu 2083:on the island of 2017:Mediterranean Sea 2007:, exacerbated by 1970:North-West Africa 1904:Himyarite Kingdom 1761:Ethiopian Plateau 1757:Macrobian Kingdom 1583:Ptolemaic Kingdom 1567:Ptolemaic dynasty 1555:Achaemenid Empire 1470:, and extinguish 1253:Ancient Near East 1225:North-East Africa 585:Berlin Conference 558:various diasporas 508:into the western 470:Islam spread west 393:in North Africa; 280:political history 276:complex societies 218:tradition in the 16:(Redirected from 14905: 14811: 14804: 14797: 14788: 14787: 14764: 14757: 14542:Afro-Asian Games 14462: 14461: 14405: 14404: 14383:Renewable energy 14348:Countries by HDI 14326: 14325: 14214: 14213: 14131: 14130: 13932: 13931: 13908: 13901: 13894: 13885: 13884: 13868: 13867:(United Kingdom) 13863:Tristan da Cunha 13859:Ascension Island 13851: 13838: 13829: 13805:Dependencies and 13498:Sovereign states 13484: 13477: 13470: 13461: 13460: 13441:Project Diaspora 13313: 13300: 13274: 13234:(2nd ed. 1996). 13230:McEvedy, Colin. 13227:(Longman, 1982). 13147: 13097:The African Past 13072: 13050: 13029: 13010: 12989: 12967: 12943: 12921: 12896: 12895: 12851: 12845: 12844: 12818: 12812: 12811: 12783: 12777: 12776: 12732: 12726: 12725: 12681: 12672: 12671: 12669: 12667: 12652: 12642: 12636: 12630: 12624: 12623: 12591: 12585: 12578: 12572: 12567:Thomas Hodgkin, 12565: 12559: 12552: 12546: 12539: 12533: 12528:David Anderson, 12526: 12520: 12515:Alistair Horne, 12513: 12507: 12506: 12504: 12503: 12467: 12461: 12460: 12439: 12430: 12429: 12417: 12411: 12410: 12390: 12384: 12383: 12373: 12367: 12366: 12364: 12363: 12348: 12342: 12341: 12321: 12315: 12314: 12304: 12291: 12290: 12258: 12252: 12251: 12219: 12213: 12212: 12202: 12196: 12195: 12179: 12173: 12172: 12150: 12144: 12143: 12125: 12119: 12118: 12090: 12084: 12083: 12073: 12067: 12066: 12042: 12036: 12035: 12023: 12010: 12009: 11991: 11982: 11976: 11975: 11973: 11972: 11956: 11950: 11949: 11940:(9): 2109–2124. 11928: 11922: 11921: 11901: 11895: 11894: 11888: 11880: 11878: 11877: 11864: 11858: 11857: 11855: 11854: 11838: 11832: 11831: 11821: 11810: 11809: 11799: 11786: 11785: 11765: 11759: 11758: 11726: 11720: 11713: 11707: 11706: 11686: 11677: 11676: 11656: 11643: 11642: 11632: 11626: 11623:Church and State 11619: 11613: 11612: 11592: 11586: 11585: 11561: 11555: 11554: 11552: 11541: 11535: 11534: 11510: 11504: 11503: 11493: 11487: 11486: 11476: 11467: 11461: 11460: 11450: 11441: 11435: 11434: 11424: 11415: 11409: 11408: 11406: 11404: 11376: 11370: 11369: 11349: 11340: 11339: 11337: 11336: 11311: 11286: 11285: 11283: 11282: 11249: 11243: 11242: 11232: 11223: 11222: 11214: 11208: 11207: 11197: 11191: 11190: 11180: 11174: 11173: 11163: 11154: 11153: 11143: 11137: 11136: 11126: 11120: 11119: 11109: 11098: 11092: 11086: 11080: 11074: 11073: 11064: 11058: 11057: 11047: 11038: 11037: 11027: 11016: 11015: 11005: 10996: 10995: 10993: 10992: 10978: 10972: 10971: 10963: 10957: 10956: 10936: 10927: 10926: 10906: 10900: 10899: 10881: 10872: 10866: 10865: 10863: 10854: 10848: 10847: 10845: 10834: 10828: 10827: 10825: 10823: 10800: 10794: 10793: 10786: 10780: 10779: 10747: 10741: 10740: 10730: 10724: 10723: 10699: 10693: 10692: 10682: 10676: 10675: 10673: 10672: 10658: 10652: 10645: 10639: 10638: 10636: 10634: 10625:. Archived from 10619: 10613: 10612: 10610: 10608: 10598: 10592: 10591: 10589: 10583:. Archived from 10582: 10574: 10568: 10567: 10565: 10554: 10548: 10547: 10523: 10514: 10513: 10507: 10498: 10492: 10491: 10459: 10453: 10452: 10424: 10415: 10414: 10394: 10388: 10387: 10379: 10373: 10362: 10356: 10355: 10331: 10322: 10321: 10298: 10285: 10274: 10268: 10267: 10257: 10248: 10247: 10237: 10222: 10221: 10203: 10197: 10196: 10188: 10182: 10181: 10163: 10152:10.1038/084133a0 10124: 10118: 10104: 10098: 10091: 10085: 10074: 10068: 10067: 10047: 10041: 10040: 10020: 10014: 10013: 10011: 10010: 9995: 9989: 9988: 9978: 9972: 9971: 9951: 9945: 9944: 9927: 9921: 9920: 9918: 9916: 9905: 9899: 9897: 9871: 9865: 9864: 9854: 9837: 9836: 9808: 9799: 9798: 9776: 9767: 9766: 9758: 9752: 9751: 9749: 9747: 9724: 9718: 9717: 9689: 9683: 9668: 9662: 9656: 9650: 9649: 9613: 9607: 9606: 9604: 9602: 9586: 9577: 9571: 9565: 9564: 9516: 9510: 9509: 9491: 9485: 9484: 9460: 9454: 9441: 9435: 9429: 9420: 9414: 9408: 9389: 9383: 9377: 9371: 9365: 9359: 9358: 9351: 9345: 9344: 9342: 9341: 9326: 9320: 9314: 9308: 9307: 9277: 9271: 9270: 9254: 9248: 9238: 9232: 9231: 9207: 9198: 9192: 9191: 9167: 9158: 9152: 9151: 9149: 9140: 9134: 9133: 9077: 9071: 9070: 9044: 9020: 9011: 9010: 9000: 8959: 8953: 8946: 8940: 8934: 8928: 8927: 8917: 8900:(4): 1421–1428. 8885: 8879: 8878: 8868: 8828: 8822: 8821: 8811: 8779: 8773: 8772: 8762: 8752: 8719: 8713: 8712: 8676: 8670: 8669: 8633: 8627: 8626: 8587: 8581: 8580: 8544: 8538: 8537: 8527: 8517: 8485: 8479: 8478: 8442: 8436: 8435: 8391: 8385: 8384: 8374: 8332: 8326: 8325: 8323: 8321: 8305: 8294: 8288: 8287: 8277: 8233: 8227: 8226: 8216: 8169:Timmermann, Axel 8164: 8158: 8157: 8115: 8101: 8095: 8094: 8092: 8090: 8071: 8065: 8064: 8054: 8022: 8016: 8015: 8013: 8011: 7986: 7980: 7974: 7968: 7967: 7941: 7935: 7934: 7910: 7904: 7903: 7885: 7879: 7878: 7854: 7848: 7847: 7817: 7811: 7810: 7792: 7786: 7785: 7777: 7771: 7770: 7740: 7734: 7733: 7713: 7707: 7706: 7704: 7703: 7670: 7664: 7663: 7653: 7642: 7641: 7621: 7615: 7614: 7612: 7611: 7578: 7572: 7571: 7539: 7533: 7532: 7530: 7529: 7520:. Archived from 7510: 7504: 7503: 7493: 7487: 7486: 7484: 7483: 7468: 7462: 7461: 7459: 7458: 7425: 7419: 7418: 7416: 7415: 7401: 7395: 7394: 7392: 7391: 7377: 7360: 7335: 7273: 7268: 7267: 7266: 7259: 7254: 7253: 7252: 7172:Post-colonialist 6934:Social Darwinism 6848:repeating rifles 6728:Kingdom of Butua 6670:Kingdom of Kongo 6641:Sao civilisation 6506:in the lands of 6380:Ndiadiane Ndiaye 6307:pastoral farming 6236:, pioneered the 6180:and against the 6144:and against the 6078:and returned to 6068:Epic of Sundiata 5822:, at the time a 5803:trading city of 5771:, and east from 5540:Empire of Kitara 5411: 5341: 5221: 5182: 5133: 4896:Walashma dynasty 4869:Kingdom of Kaffa 4849:Walashma dynasty 4825:Ethiopian Empire 4790:Enderta Province 4776:, and crucially 4714:Walashma dynasty 4682:Ethiopian Empire 4633:and vassalising 4627:Ajuran Sultanate 4625:established the 4591:Kingdom of Damot 4575:Kingdom of Damot 4518:established the 4452:Simien Mountains 4424:various kingdoms 4358:Somali Peninsula 4326:Muslim conquests 4279:Somali Peninsula 4239:Kingdom of Aksum 4127:Wattasid dynasty 4103:sharifs of Mecca 4063:Siege of Baghdad 4058:. Following the 4036:Mongol expansion 4009:Mamluk Sultanate 3860:Yemeni Hamdanids 3850:, and went on a 3692:Almoravid empire 3619:commissioned an 3545:Rustamid Imamate 3515:rose out of the 3505:Almoravid empire 3435:Rustamid Imamate 3409:, both from the 3407:Midrarid dynasty 3137:and the eastern 3133:covered much of 3107:Byzantine Empire 3007:Sao civilisation 2908:, most likely a 2871:Gokomere culture 2836: 2808:Empire of Kitara 2796:Kingdom of Kongo 2671: 2663: 2658: 2655: 2502:which built the 2464:Kintampo culture 2129:climactic battle 2093:Second Punic War 2045:extensive empire 2037:Ancient Carthage 2003:in Egypt by the 1924:Jewish Himyarite 1820:Kingdom of Aksum 1747:. In modern-day 1677:Kingdom of Aksum 1655:hold on to Egypt 1607:conquest by Rome 1573:. Following the 1474:, incorporating 1387:in 2055 BC. The 1333:Kingdom of Kerma 1331:in 2686 BC. The 1123:The theory that 936:Northeast Africa 918:to the northern 809:Middle Stone Age 787: 784: 776: 773: 765: 762: 713:The first known 628:Second World War 500:, then from the 417:in East Africa; 361:in West Africa; 21: 14913: 14912: 14908: 14907: 14906: 14904: 14903: 14902: 14883: 14882: 14881: 14876: 14818: 14815: 14785: 14780: 14767: 14760: 14753: 14744: 14647: 14643:Youth in Africa 14621:Life expectancy 14576: 14518: 14494:Africanfuturism 14451: 14392: 14388:Stock exchanges 14311: 14199: 14158:Natural history 14116: 14080: 14037: 13986:Muslim conquest 13981:Bantu expansion 13921: 13912: 13882: 13877: 13876: 13866: 13849: 13836: 13827: 13808: 13806: 13799: 13783: 13781: 13774: 13493: 13488: 13448:Wayback Machine 13388:Wayback Machine 13349: 13272: 13244: 13199: 13136: 13102:Falola, Toyin. 13093:Davidson, Basil 13079: 13077:Further reading 13069: 13047: 13026: 13007: 12986: 12964: 12940: 12905: 12900: 12899: 12852: 12848: 12833: 12819: 12815: 12784: 12780: 12749:10.2307/3171484 12733: 12729: 12682: 12675: 12665: 12663: 12661: 12643: 12639: 12631: 12627: 12592: 12588: 12579: 12575: 12566: 12562: 12553: 12549: 12540: 12536: 12527: 12523: 12514: 12510: 12501: 12499: 12492: 12468: 12464: 12457: 12440: 12433: 12418: 12414: 12407: 12391: 12387: 12374: 12370: 12361: 12359: 12351:Samuel, isaac. 12349: 12345: 12338: 12322: 12318: 12305: 12294: 12279:10.2307/3171690 12259: 12255: 12240:10.2307/3171690 12220: 12216: 12203: 12199: 12180: 12176: 12169: 12151: 12147: 12140: 12126: 12122: 12115: 12091: 12087: 12074: 12070: 12063: 12043: 12039: 12024: 12013: 11989: 11983: 11979: 11970: 11968: 11960:"Swahili Coast" 11958: 11957: 11953: 11929: 11925: 11902: 11898: 11882: 11881: 11875: 11873: 11866: 11865: 11861: 11852: 11850: 11842:"Swahili Coast" 11840: 11839: 11835: 11822: 11813: 11800: 11789: 11782: 11766: 11762: 11727: 11723: 11714: 11710: 11703: 11687: 11680: 11673: 11657: 11646: 11633: 11629: 11620: 11616: 11609: 11593: 11589: 11562: 11558: 11550: 11542: 11538: 11511: 11507: 11494: 11490: 11479:Social Sciences 11474: 11468: 11464: 11448: 11442: 11438: 11422: 11416: 11412: 11402: 11400: 11393: 11377: 11373: 11366: 11350: 11343: 11334: 11332: 11330: 11312: 11289: 11280: 11278: 11276: 11250: 11246: 11233: 11226: 11215: 11211: 11198: 11194: 11181: 11177: 11164: 11157: 11144: 11140: 11127: 11123: 11110: 11101: 11093: 11089: 11081: 11077: 11072:. UNESCO. 1988. 11066: 11065: 11061: 11048: 11041: 11028: 11019: 11006: 10999: 10990: 10988: 10980: 10979: 10975: 10964: 10960: 10953: 10937: 10930: 10923: 10907: 10903: 10879: 10873: 10869: 10861: 10855: 10851: 10843: 10835: 10831: 10821: 10819: 10817: 10801: 10797: 10788: 10787: 10783: 10768:10.2307/3888249 10748: 10744: 10731: 10727: 10700: 10696: 10683: 10679: 10670: 10668: 10660: 10659: 10655: 10646: 10642: 10632: 10630: 10621: 10620: 10616: 10606: 10604: 10600: 10599: 10595: 10587: 10580: 10576: 10575: 10571: 10563: 10555: 10551: 10524: 10517: 10505: 10499: 10495: 10480:10.2307/3171690 10460: 10456: 10449: 10425: 10418: 10411: 10395: 10391: 10380: 10376: 10363: 10359: 10332: 10325: 10318: 10299: 10288: 10275: 10271: 10258: 10251: 10238: 10225: 10218: 10204: 10200: 10189: 10185: 10126: 10125: 10121: 10105: 10101: 10092: 10088: 10075: 10071: 10064: 10048: 10044: 10037: 10021: 10017: 10008: 10006: 9997: 9996: 9992: 9979: 9975: 9968: 9952: 9948: 9929: 9928: 9924: 9914: 9912: 9906: 9902: 9894: 9872: 9868: 9855: 9840: 9809: 9802: 9795: 9777: 9770: 9759: 9755: 9745: 9743: 9725: 9721: 9690: 9686: 9669: 9665: 9657: 9653: 9614: 9610: 9600: 9598: 9587: 9580: 9572: 9568: 9517: 9513: 9506: 9492: 9488: 9461: 9457: 9451:Wayback Machine 9442: 9438: 9430: 9423: 9415: 9411: 9390: 9386: 9378: 9374: 9366: 9362: 9353: 9352: 9348: 9339: 9337: 9328: 9327: 9323: 9315: 9311: 9278: 9274: 9255: 9251: 9239: 9235: 9220: 9205: 9199: 9195: 9180: 9165: 9159: 9155: 9147: 9141: 9137: 9078: 9074: 9021: 9014: 8960: 8956: 8947: 8943: 8939:, pp. 2–3. 8935: 8931: 8886: 8882: 8829: 8825: 8788:Genome Research 8780: 8776: 8729:Current Biology 8720: 8716: 8677: 8673: 8634: 8630: 8588: 8584: 8545: 8541: 8486: 8482: 8443: 8439: 8392: 8388: 8333: 8329: 8319: 8317: 8295: 8291: 8234: 8230: 8165: 8161: 8113: 8102: 8098: 8088: 8086: 8072: 8068: 8023: 8019: 8009: 8007: 7987: 7983: 7975: 7971: 7956: 7942: 7938: 7911: 7907: 7900: 7886: 7882: 7855: 7851: 7844: 7818: 7814: 7807: 7793: 7789: 7778: 7774: 7763: 7741: 7737: 7730: 7729:978-0-608390352 7714: 7710: 7701: 7699: 7697: 7671: 7667: 7654: 7645: 7638: 7622: 7618: 7609: 7607: 7605: 7579: 7575: 7540: 7536: 7527: 7525: 7512: 7511: 7507: 7494: 7490: 7481: 7479: 7470: 7469: 7465: 7456: 7454: 7452: 7426: 7422: 7413: 7411: 7403: 7402: 7398: 7389: 7387: 7379: 7378: 7374: 7369: 7364: 7363: 7336: 7332: 7327: 7269: 7264: 7262: 7255: 7250: 7248: 7245: 7216: 7169: 7152:written history 7128: 7123: 7117: 7111: 7023: 7001: 6979: 6973: 6899:Tropical Africa 6839: 6801: 6799:Colonial Africa 6795: 6790: 6772: 6766: 6759: 6743:Main articles: 6741: 6734: 6712:Leopard's Kopje 6710:Main articles: 6708: 6703: 6701:Southern Africa 6696: 6660:Main articles: 6658: 6656:The Congo Basin 6651: 6627:Main articles: 6625: 6620: 6612: 6578: 6546:Main articles: 6544: 6526:, ruled by the 6450:, and possibly 6418:. In the 1390s 6364:his predecessor 6349:Soninke Wangara 6295:oral traditions 6234:Islamic scholar 6158:caravan traders 6138:Malian military 6134:ancient Ghana's 6108:of the nascent 6105:Kouroukan Fouga 6090:, and defeated 6002:(tended by the 5977:"a jara nununa" 5750: 5676:Hausa tradition 5666:clan conquered 5588: 5580:Main articles: 5578: 5573: 5566: 5534:Main articles: 5532: 5486:Muslim settlers 5405: 5335: 5319:, holds that a 5313:Kilwa Chronicle 5305:oral traditions 5284:Islamic pottery 5270:, and imported 5215: 5176: 5106:Kilwa Sultanate 5095:oral traditions 5074:outrigger boats 5056:, to the wider 5018: 5006:Main articles: 5004: 4904:Jamal ad-Din II 4892:Sabr ad-Din III 4873:Sa'ad ad-Din II 4853:divide and rule 4680:of the nascent 4643:Warsangali clan 4520:Tunni Sultanate 4446:, led by queen 4414:nomads invaded 4296:was settled by 4235: 4223:Main articles: 4221: 4216: 4209: 4181:Main articles: 4179: 4081:, defeated the 4075:Crusader states 4020:Seventh Crusade 3998:Ayyubid dynasty 3900:Atlas Mountains 3836:Ayyubid dynasty 3761:decisive defeat 3539:, who followed 3513:Fatimid dynasty 3415:Idrisid dynasty 3403:Ifranid dynasty 3386:Abbasid dynasty 3266:Umayyad dynasty 3258:brief civil war 3143:Berber kingdoms 3103: 3101:Northern Africa 3098: 3090:Main articles: 3088: 3083: 3061: 3055: 2988:hunter-gatherer 2979:there were the 2875:Leopard's Kopje 2830: 2780:Bantu expansion 2703: 2702: 2697: 2696: 2687: 2686: 2677: 2676: 2675:= Western Bantu 2669: 2668: 2667:= Eastern Bantu 2661: 2660: 2659:first dispersal 2656: 2648: 2647: 2642: 2636: 2634:Bantu expansion 2630: 2606:Soninke Wangara 2550:Tichitt culture 2444:Tichitt culture 2396:iron metallurgy 2382:In the western 2369: 2361:Main articles: 2359: 2219:Third Punic War 2077:First Punic War 2061:northern Europe 2021:Southern Europe 1978: 1972: 1938:in 522 brought 1844:Kingdom of Kush 1669: 1663: 1623:conquered Egypt 1603:Roman civil war 1579:Seleucid Empire 1536:Assyrian Empire 1496:Kingdom of Kush 1480:Egyptian empire 1343:came under the 1283:in the western 1237: 1229:Main articles: 1227: 1222: 1217: 1195: 1189: 1096:of present-day 943:Omotic speakers 888:located in the 785: 781:from Ethiopia ( 774: 768:Florisbad Skull 763: 696: 662: 656: 615:, with peoples 601:colonial period 562:in the Americas 504:traversing the 482:proselytisation 238:Bantu expansion 225:Kouroukan Fouga 164:, and later in 158:written history 130:Archaic humans 77: 34: 31:oral traditions 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 14911: 14901: 14900: 14895: 14878: 14877: 14875: 14874: 14864: 14858: 14849: 14844: 14838: 14829: 14823: 14820: 14819: 14814: 14813: 14806: 14799: 14791: 14782: 14781: 14779: 14778: 14773: 14766: 14765: 14758: 14750: 14749: 14746: 14745: 14743: 14742: 14737: 14732: 14727: 14722: 14717: 14712: 14707: 14702: 14697: 14692: 14687: 14682: 14677: 14672: 14667: 14661: 14659: 14653: 14652: 14649: 14648: 14646: 14645: 14640: 14639: 14638: 14633: 14623: 14618: 14613: 14608: 14603: 14602: 14601: 14590: 14588: 14582: 14581: 14578: 14577: 14575: 14574: 14572:Tour d'Afrique 14569: 14564: 14559: 14554: 14549: 14544: 14539: 14534: 14528: 14526: 14520: 14519: 14517: 14516: 14511: 14506: 14501: 14496: 14491: 14486: 14481: 14476: 14471: 14465: 14459: 14453: 14452: 14450: 14449: 14444: 14439: 14434: 14429: 14427:Climate change 14424: 14419: 14414: 14408: 14402: 14398: 14397: 14394: 14393: 14391: 14390: 14385: 14380: 14375: 14370: 14365: 14363:Infrastructure 14360: 14355: 14350: 14345: 14340: 14335: 14329: 14323: 14317: 14316: 14313: 14312: 14310: 14309: 14304: 14303: 14302: 14292: 14290:Pan-Africanism 14287: 14282: 14277: 14276: 14275: 14274: 14273: 14266:Women's rights 14263: 14258: 14253: 14243: 14241:Heads of state 14238: 14233: 14228: 14223: 14217: 14211: 14205: 14204: 14201: 14200: 14198: 14197: 14192: 14191: 14190: 14185: 14180: 14175: 14170: 14160: 14155: 14150: 14148:Impact craters 14145: 14143:Highest points 14140: 14134: 14128: 14122: 14121: 14118: 14117: 14115: 14114: 14109: 14104: 14099: 14094: 14088: 14086: 14082: 14081: 14079: 14078: 14073: 14072: 14071: 14061: 14059:Historiography 14056: 14051: 14045: 14043: 14039: 14038: 14036: 14035: 14033:Decolonisation 14030: 14025: 14024: 14023: 14018: 14013: 14008: 13998: 13993: 13988: 13983: 13978: 13973: 13972: 13971: 13966: 13956: 13951: 13950: 13949: 13938: 13936: 13929: 13923: 13922: 13911: 13910: 13903: 13896: 13888: 13879: 13878: 13875: 13874: 13872:Western Sahara 13869: 13852: 13839: 13830: 13816:Canary Islands 13812: 13811: 13809: 13804: 13801: 13800: 13798: 13797: 13792: 13786: 13784: 13779: 13776: 13775: 13773: 13772: 13767: 13762: 13757: 13752: 13747: 13742: 13737: 13732: 13727: 13722: 13717: 13712: 13707: 13702: 13697: 13692: 13687: 13682: 13677: 13672: 13667: 13662: 13657: 13652: 13647: 13642: 13637: 13632: 13627: 13622: 13617: 13612: 13607: 13602: 13597: 13592: 13587: 13582: 13577: 13572: 13567: 13562: 13557: 13552: 13547: 13542: 13537: 13532: 13527: 13522: 13517: 13512: 13507: 13501: 13499: 13495: 13494: 13487: 13486: 13479: 13472: 13464: 13458: 13457: 13451: 13438: 13429: 13423: 13417: 13407: 13397: 13391: 13378: 13372: 13363: 13362:(5 July 2021). 13348: 13347:External links 13345: 13344: 13343: 13333: 13323: 13314: 13301: 13283:(3): 319–330. 13265: 13255: 13243: 13242:Historiography 13240: 13239: 13238: 13228: 13221: 13214: 13207: 13198: 13195: 13194: 13193: 13186: 13172: 13165: 13158: 13148: 13134: 13121: 13107: 13106:, Volumes 1–5. 13100: 13090: 13078: 13075: 13074: 13073: 13067: 13051: 13045: 13030: 13024: 13011: 13005: 12990: 12984: 12968: 12962: 12944: 12938: 12922: 12904: 12901: 12898: 12897: 12862:(3): 349–357. 12846: 12831: 12813: 12800:10.2307/486417 12794:(2): 298–336. 12778: 12727: 12692:(3): 319–330. 12673: 12659: 12637: 12633:Prunier (2009) 12625: 12606:(1): 102–127. 12586: 12573: 12560: 12547: 12534: 12521: 12508: 12490: 12462: 12455: 12431: 12412: 12405: 12385: 12368: 12343: 12336: 12316: 12292: 12253: 12214: 12197: 12174: 12167: 12145: 12138: 12120: 12113: 12085: 12068: 12062:978-0312125981 12061: 12037: 12011: 11977: 11951: 11923: 11896: 11859: 11833: 11811: 11787: 11780: 11760: 11747:10.2307/216217 11741:(2): 263–293. 11721: 11708: 11701: 11678: 11671: 11644: 11627: 11614: 11607: 11587: 11556: 11536: 11525:(1): 261–264. 11505: 11488: 11462: 11436: 11410: 11391: 11371: 11364: 11341: 11328: 11287: 11274: 11244: 11224: 11209: 11192: 11175: 11155: 11138: 11121: 11099: 11087: 11075: 11059: 11039: 11017: 10997: 10973: 10958: 10951: 10928: 10921: 10901: 10867: 10849: 10829: 10816:978-1317797272 10815: 10795: 10781: 10742: 10725: 10694: 10677: 10653: 10640: 10614: 10593: 10569: 10549: 10515: 10510:Vitaminedz.com 10493: 10454: 10447: 10416: 10410:978-0557183708 10409: 10389: 10374: 10357: 10323: 10316: 10286: 10269: 10249: 10223: 10216: 10198: 10195:. p. 175. 10183: 10119: 10106:George Hatke, 10099: 10086: 10069: 10063:978-1448847976 10062: 10042: 10036:978-0313378577 10035: 10015: 9990: 9973: 9966: 9946: 9922: 9900: 9892: 9866: 9838: 9819:(4): 415–438. 9800: 9793: 9768: 9753: 9719: 9706:10.1086/200878 9684: 9663: 9651: 9608: 9578: 9566: 9511: 9504: 9486: 9455: 9436: 9421: 9409: 9384: 9372: 9370:, p. 168. 9360: 9346: 9321: 9309: 9290:(2): 219–238. 9272: 9249: 9241:Diamond (1997) 9233: 9218: 9193: 9178: 9153: 9135: 9092:(2): 177–188. 9072: 9012: 8954: 8941: 8929: 8880: 8823: 8794:(4): 459–466. 8774: 8735:(6): 827–833. 8714: 8687:(6): 500–517. 8671: 8628: 8582: 8555:(5): 453–563. 8539: 8480: 8437: 8386: 8327: 8289: 8228: 8183:(8): 582–594. 8159: 8096: 8066: 8017: 7981: 7969: 7954: 7936: 7905: 7898: 7880: 7869:(1): 231–267. 7849: 7842: 7812: 7805: 7787: 7772: 7761: 7735: 7728: 7708: 7695: 7665: 7643: 7636: 7616: 7603: 7573: 7534: 7505: 7488: 7463: 7450: 7420: 7396: 7371: 7370: 7368: 7365: 7362: 7361: 7329: 7328: 7326: 7323: 7322: 7321: 7316: 7311: 7306: 7301: 7296: 7291: 7286: 7281: 7275: 7274: 7271:History portal 7260: 7244: 7241: 7215: 7212: 7168: 7165: 7148:writing script 7144:oral tradition 7127: 7124: 7113:Main article: 7110: 7109:Historiography 7107: 7091:Pan-Africanism 7059:Year of Africa 7009:Neocolonialism 6975:Main article: 6972: 6971:1951 – present 6969: 6953:drew upon the 6862:developed the 6860:Hiram S. Maxim 6797:Main article: 6794: 6791: 6768:Main article: 6765: 6762: 6740: 6737: 6707: 6704: 6702: 6699: 6657: 6654: 6624: 6621: 6619: 6618:Central Africa 6616: 6552:Kingdom of Nri 6543: 6540: 6372:Serer kingdoms 6360:Malian mansa's 6341:in 1349 after 6331:forest regions 6212:, after which 6174:Malian general 6092:Soumaoro Kante 6072:Sundiata Keita 6056:Mandinka clans 6036:Soumaoro Kante 6024:Mossi Kingdoms 5883:relocating to 5840:Diarra/Diafunu 5720:various others 5634:route linking 5620:Songhai people 5577: 5574: 5572: 5569: 5531: 5528: 5403:Pate Chronicle 5383:Great Zimbabwe 5321:Persian prince 5317:oral tradition 5230:they exported 5152:in the north, 5120:following the 5003: 5000: 4968:Baeda Maryam I 4900:Adal Sultanate 4545:was guided by 4406:Islamised and 4360:, largely via 4290:birth of Islam 4288:Following the 4220: 4219:Horn of Africa 4217: 4215: 4212: 4199:Funj Sultanate 4178: 4175: 4052:Ayyubid empire 4046:headed by the 4040:Ayyubid sultan 4007:Extent of the 3988:in modern-day 3972:in modern-day 3964:in modern-day 3832:Fatimid caliph 3777:Zengid dynasty 3690:, forming the 3688:Western Sahara 3654:in modern-day 3646:in modern-day 3575:and deferring 3535:rivalling the 3527:. Proclaiming 3427:Ibadi movement 3390:via revolution 3388:came to power 3374:Umayyad regime 3234:Byzantine rule 3230:Egyptian Copts 3216:. The nascent 3206:Arab conquests 3111:state religion 3102: 3099: 3087: 3084: 3057:Main article: 3054: 3051: 3047:Nsibidi script 3043:Ikom monoliths 3033:in south-west 2828:Upemba culture 2826:, forming the 2802:, forming the 2681:= 1000–500 BC 2657: 1500 BC 2632:Main article: 2629: 2626: 2610:forest regions 2498:in modern-day 2446:in modern-day 2358: 2355: 2329:in modern-day 2243:Jugurthine War 2199:tribal kingdom 2186:conquered the 2121:mainland Italy 2115:into northern 2081:Roman Republic 2009:Egyptian boats 1974:Main article: 1971: 1968: 1960:Himyarite king 1755:there was the 1687:there was the 1685:Horn of Africa 1665:Main article: 1662: 1661:Horn of Africa 1659: 1609:in 30 BC. The 1595:Roman Republic 1540:puppet dynasty 1516:Kushite Empire 1385:Middle Kingdom 1349:great pyramids 1287:conquered the 1226: 1223: 1221: 1218: 1193:Ancient Africa 1191:Main article: 1188: 1185: 1149:Central Africa 826:engraved with 658:Main article: 655: 652: 636:Year of Africa 632:decolonisation 490:Horn of Africa 284:historiography 242:Central Africa 232:to be used in 206:writing system 202:oral tradition 174:Horn of Africa 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 14910: 14899: 14896: 14894: 14891: 14890: 14888: 14872: 14868: 14865: 14862: 14859: 14857: 14853: 14850: 14848: 14845: 14842: 14841:South America 14839: 14837: 14836:North America 14833: 14830: 14828: 14825: 14824: 14821: 14812: 14807: 14805: 14800: 14798: 14793: 14792: 14789: 14777: 14774: 14772: 14769: 14768: 14763: 14759: 14756: 14752: 14751: 14747: 14741: 14738: 14736: 14733: 14731: 14728: 14726: 14723: 14721: 14718: 14716: 14713: 14711: 14708: 14706: 14703: 14701: 14698: 14696: 14693: 14691: 14688: 14686: 14683: 14681: 14678: 14676: 14673: 14671: 14668: 14666: 14663: 14662: 14660: 14658: 14654: 14644: 14641: 14637: 14634: 14632: 14629: 14628: 14627: 14624: 14622: 14619: 14617: 14614: 14612: 14611:Ethnic groups 14609: 14607: 14604: 14600: 14597: 14596: 14595: 14592: 14591: 14589: 14587: 14583: 14573: 14570: 14568: 14565: 14563: 14560: 14558: 14555: 14553: 14550: 14548: 14545: 14543: 14540: 14538: 14537:African Games 14535: 14533: 14530: 14529: 14527: 14525: 14521: 14515: 14512: 14510: 14507: 14505: 14502: 14500: 14497: 14495: 14492: 14490: 14487: 14485: 14482: 14480: 14477: 14475: 14472: 14470: 14467: 14466: 14463: 14460: 14458: 14454: 14448: 14445: 14443: 14440: 14438: 14435: 14433: 14430: 14428: 14425: 14423: 14422:Caste systems 14420: 14418: 14417:Birth control 14415: 14413: 14410: 14409: 14406: 14403: 14399: 14389: 14386: 14384: 14381: 14379: 14376: 14374: 14371: 14369: 14366: 14364: 14361: 14359: 14356: 14354: 14351: 14349: 14346: 14344: 14341: 14339: 14336: 14334: 14333:Central banks 14331: 14330: 14327: 14324: 14322: 14318: 14308: 14305: 14301: 14298: 14297: 14296: 14293: 14291: 14288: 14286: 14283: 14281: 14278: 14272: 14269: 14268: 14267: 14264: 14262: 14259: 14257: 14254: 14252: 14249: 14248: 14247: 14244: 14242: 14239: 14237: 14234: 14232: 14229: 14227: 14224: 14222: 14221:African Union 14219: 14218: 14215: 14212: 14210: 14206: 14196: 14193: 14189: 14186: 14184: 14181: 14179: 14176: 14174: 14171: 14169: 14166: 14165: 14164: 14161: 14159: 14156: 14154: 14151: 14149: 14146: 14144: 14141: 14139: 14136: 14135: 14132: 14129: 14127: 14123: 14113: 14110: 14108: 14105: 14103: 14100: 14098: 14095: 14093: 14090: 14089: 14087: 14083: 14077: 14074: 14070: 14067: 14066: 14065: 14062: 14060: 14057: 14055: 14052: 14050: 14047: 14046: 14044: 14040: 14034: 14031: 14029: 14026: 14022: 14021:Trans-Saharan 14019: 14017: 14014: 14012: 14009: 14007: 14004: 14003: 14002: 13999: 13997: 13994: 13992: 13989: 13987: 13984: 13982: 13979: 13977: 13974: 13970: 13967: 13965: 13962: 13961: 13960: 13957: 13955: 13952: 13948: 13945: 13944: 13943: 13940: 13939: 13937: 13933: 13930: 13928: 13924: 13920: 13916: 13909: 13904: 13902: 13897: 13895: 13890: 13889: 13886: 13873: 13870: 13864: 13860: 13856: 13853: 13847: 13843: 13840: 13834: 13831: 13825: 13821: 13817: 13814: 13813: 13810: 13802: 13796: 13793: 13791: 13788: 13787: 13785: 13777: 13771: 13768: 13766: 13763: 13761: 13758: 13756: 13753: 13751: 13748: 13746: 13743: 13741: 13738: 13736: 13733: 13731: 13728: 13726: 13723: 13721: 13718: 13716: 13713: 13711: 13708: 13706: 13703: 13701: 13698: 13696: 13693: 13691: 13688: 13686: 13683: 13681: 13678: 13676: 13673: 13671: 13668: 13666: 13663: 13661: 13658: 13656: 13653: 13651: 13648: 13646: 13643: 13641: 13638: 13636: 13633: 13631: 13628: 13626: 13623: 13621: 13620:Guinea-Bissau 13618: 13616: 13613: 13611: 13608: 13606: 13603: 13601: 13598: 13596: 13593: 13591: 13588: 13586: 13583: 13581: 13578: 13576: 13573: 13571: 13568: 13566: 13563: 13561: 13558: 13556: 13553: 13551: 13548: 13546: 13543: 13541: 13538: 13536: 13533: 13531: 13528: 13526: 13523: 13521: 13518: 13516: 13513: 13511: 13508: 13506: 13503: 13502: 13500: 13496: 13492: 13485: 13480: 13478: 13473: 13471: 13466: 13465: 13462: 13455: 13452: 13449: 13445: 13442: 13439: 13437: 13433: 13430: 13427: 13424: 13421: 13418: 13415: 13411: 13408: 13405: 13401: 13398: 13395: 13392: 13389: 13385: 13382: 13379: 13376: 13373: 13370: 13367: 13364: 13361: 13360: 13355: 13351: 13350: 13342: 13338: 13334: 13332: 13328: 13324: 13321: 13318: 13315: 13312:(3): 605–637. 13311: 13307: 13302: 13298: 13294: 13290: 13286: 13282: 13278: 13271: 13266: 13264: 13260: 13256: 13254: 13250: 13246: 13245: 13237: 13233: 13229: 13226: 13222: 13219: 13215: 13212: 13208: 13205: 13201: 13200: 13191: 13187: 13185: 13184:0-241-13047-6 13181: 13177: 13173: 13170: 13166: 13163: 13159: 13156: 13152: 13149: 13145: 13141: 13137: 13135:9781631495823 13131: 13127: 13122: 13120: 13116: 13112: 13108: 13105: 13101: 13098: 13094: 13091: 13088: 13084: 13081: 13080: 13070: 13068:0-333-59957-8 13064: 13060: 13056: 13052: 13048: 13042: 13038: 13037: 13031: 13027: 13021: 13017: 13012: 13008: 13006:90-04-13010-1 13002: 12998: 12997: 12991: 12987: 12985:0-8139-2085-X 12981: 12977: 12973: 12969: 12965: 12959: 12955: 12954: 12949: 12945: 12941: 12935: 12931: 12927: 12923: 12919: 12915: 12912:(1861–1917). 12911: 12907: 12906: 12893: 12889: 12885: 12881: 12877: 12873: 12869: 12865: 12861: 12857: 12850: 12842: 12838: 12834: 12828: 12824: 12817: 12809: 12805: 12801: 12797: 12793: 12789: 12782: 12774: 12770: 12766: 12762: 12758: 12754: 12750: 12746: 12742: 12738: 12731: 12723: 12719: 12715: 12711: 12707: 12703: 12699: 12695: 12691: 12687: 12680: 12678: 12662: 12660:9780195374209 12656: 12651: 12650: 12641: 12635:, p. 72. 12634: 12629: 12621: 12617: 12613: 12609: 12605: 12601: 12597: 12590: 12583: 12577: 12570: 12564: 12557: 12551: 12544: 12538: 12531: 12525: 12518: 12512: 12497: 12493: 12491:9781107021662 12487: 12483: 12479: 12475: 12474: 12466: 12458: 12456:9780253051509 12452: 12448: 12444: 12438: 12436: 12427: 12423: 12416: 12408: 12402: 12398: 12397: 12389: 12381: 12380: 12372: 12358: 12354: 12347: 12339: 12337:9780691196824 12333: 12329: 12328: 12320: 12312: 12311: 12303: 12301: 12299: 12297: 12288: 12284: 12280: 12276: 12272: 12268: 12264: 12257: 12249: 12245: 12241: 12237: 12233: 12229: 12225: 12218: 12210: 12209: 12201: 12193: 12189: 12185: 12178: 12170: 12164: 12160: 12156: 12149: 12141: 12135: 12131: 12124: 12116: 12110: 12106: 12102: 12098: 12097: 12089: 12081: 12080: 12072: 12064: 12058: 12054: 12050: 12049: 12041: 12033: 12029: 12022: 12020: 12018: 12016: 12007: 12003: 11999: 11995: 11988: 11981: 11967: 11966: 11961: 11955: 11947: 11943: 11939: 11935: 11927: 11919: 11915: 11911: 11907: 11900: 11892: 11886: 11871: 11870: 11863: 11849: 11848: 11843: 11837: 11829: 11828: 11820: 11818: 11816: 11807: 11806: 11798: 11796: 11794: 11792: 11783: 11777: 11773: 11772: 11764: 11756: 11752: 11748: 11744: 11740: 11736: 11732: 11725: 11718: 11712: 11704: 11698: 11695:. Routledge. 11694: 11693: 11685: 11683: 11674: 11668: 11664: 11663: 11655: 11653: 11651: 11649: 11640: 11639: 11631: 11624: 11618: 11610: 11608:9780810866041 11604: 11600: 11599: 11591: 11583: 11579: 11575: 11571: 11567: 11560: 11549: 11548: 11540: 11532: 11528: 11524: 11520: 11516: 11509: 11501: 11500: 11492: 11484: 11480: 11473: 11466: 11458: 11454: 11447: 11440: 11432: 11428: 11421: 11414: 11398: 11394: 11392:9780852552803 11388: 11384: 11383: 11375: 11367: 11361: 11357: 11356: 11348: 11346: 11331: 11325: 11321: 11317: 11310: 11308: 11306: 11304: 11302: 11300: 11298: 11296: 11294: 11292: 11277: 11271: 11267: 11263: 11259: 11255: 11248: 11240: 11239: 11231: 11229: 11220: 11213: 11205: 11204: 11196: 11188: 11187: 11179: 11171: 11170: 11162: 11160: 11151: 11150: 11142: 11134: 11133: 11125: 11117: 11116: 11108: 11106: 11104: 11096: 11095:McKinney 2004 11091: 11084: 11079: 11071: 11070: 11063: 11055: 11054: 11046: 11044: 11035: 11034: 11026: 11024: 11022: 11013: 11012: 11004: 11002: 10987: 10983: 10977: 10969: 10962: 10954: 10948: 10944: 10943: 10935: 10933: 10924: 10918: 10914: 10913: 10905: 10897: 10893: 10889: 10885: 10878: 10871: 10860: 10853: 10842: 10841: 10833: 10818: 10812: 10808: 10807: 10799: 10791: 10785: 10777: 10773: 10769: 10765: 10761: 10757: 10753: 10746: 10738: 10737: 10729: 10721: 10717: 10713: 10709: 10705: 10698: 10690: 10689: 10681: 10667: 10663: 10657: 10650: 10644: 10628: 10624: 10618: 10603: 10597: 10586: 10579: 10573: 10562: 10561: 10553: 10545: 10541: 10537: 10533: 10529: 10522: 10520: 10511: 10504: 10497: 10489: 10485: 10481: 10477: 10473: 10469: 10465: 10458: 10450: 10444: 10440: 10436: 10432: 10431: 10423: 10421: 10412: 10406: 10402: 10401: 10393: 10385: 10378: 10372: 10371:0-415-11585-X 10368: 10361: 10353: 10349: 10346:(2): 73–115. 10345: 10341: 10337: 10330: 10328: 10319: 10313: 10309: 10308: 10303: 10297: 10295: 10293: 10291: 10283: 10279: 10273: 10265: 10264: 10256: 10254: 10245: 10244: 10236: 10234: 10232: 10230: 10228: 10219: 10213: 10209: 10202: 10194: 10187: 10179: 10175: 10171: 10167: 10162: 10157: 10153: 10149: 10145: 10141: 10137: 10133: 10129: 10123: 10117: 10116:0-7486-0106-6 10113: 10109: 10103: 10096: 10090: 10083: 10079: 10078:Addis Tribune 10073: 10065: 10059: 10055: 10054: 10046: 10038: 10032: 10028: 10027: 10019: 10004: 10003:New Scientist 10000: 9994: 9986: 9985: 9977: 9969: 9963: 9959: 9958: 9950: 9942: 9938: 9937: 9932: 9926: 9911: 9904: 9895: 9893:9781444338386 9889: 9885: 9881: 9877: 9870: 9862: 9861: 9853: 9851: 9849: 9847: 9845: 9843: 9834: 9830: 9826: 9822: 9818: 9814: 9807: 9805: 9796: 9794:9783937248462 9790: 9786: 9782: 9775: 9773: 9764: 9757: 9741: 9737: 9733: 9729: 9723: 9715: 9711: 9707: 9703: 9699: 9695: 9688: 9681: 9680:0-19-521921-X 9677: 9673: 9667: 9660: 9655: 9647: 9643: 9639: 9635: 9631: 9627: 9623: 9619: 9612: 9596: 9592: 9585: 9583: 9575: 9570: 9562: 9558: 9554: 9550: 9546: 9542: 9538: 9534: 9530: 9526: 9522: 9515: 9507: 9505:0-313-31323-7 9501: 9497: 9490: 9482: 9478: 9474: 9470: 9466: 9459: 9452: 9448: 9445: 9440: 9433: 9428: 9426: 9418: 9413: 9406: 9402: 9401:1-4772-4273-2 9398: 9394: 9388: 9381: 9376: 9369: 9364: 9356: 9350: 9335: 9331: 9325: 9318: 9313: 9305: 9301: 9297: 9293: 9289: 9285: 9284: 9276: 9268: 9264: 9260: 9253: 9246: 9242: 9237: 9229: 9225: 9221: 9219:9788395336256 9215: 9211: 9204: 9197: 9189: 9185: 9181: 9179:9788395336256 9175: 9171: 9164: 9157: 9146: 9139: 9131: 9127: 9123: 9119: 9115: 9111: 9107: 9103: 9099: 9095: 9091: 9087: 9083: 9076: 9068: 9064: 9060: 9056: 9052: 9048: 9043: 9038: 9034: 9030: 9026: 9019: 9017: 9008: 9004: 8999: 8994: 8990: 8986: 8982: 8978: 8974: 8970: 8966: 8958: 8951: 8945: 8938: 8933: 8925: 8921: 8916: 8911: 8907: 8903: 8899: 8895: 8891: 8884: 8876: 8872: 8867: 8862: 8858: 8854: 8850: 8846: 8842: 8838: 8834: 8827: 8819: 8815: 8810: 8805: 8801: 8797: 8793: 8789: 8785: 8778: 8770: 8766: 8761: 8756: 8751: 8746: 8742: 8738: 8734: 8730: 8726: 8718: 8710: 8706: 8702: 8698: 8694: 8690: 8686: 8682: 8675: 8667: 8663: 8659: 8655: 8651: 8647: 8643: 8639: 8632: 8624: 8620: 8616: 8612: 8608: 8604: 8601:(5669): 404. 8600: 8596: 8592: 8586: 8578: 8574: 8570: 8566: 8562: 8558: 8554: 8550: 8543: 8535: 8531: 8526: 8521: 8516: 8511: 8507: 8503: 8499: 8495: 8491: 8484: 8476: 8472: 8468: 8464: 8460: 8456: 8452: 8448: 8441: 8433: 8429: 8425: 8421: 8417: 8413: 8409: 8405: 8401: 8397: 8390: 8382: 8378: 8373: 8368: 8364: 8360: 8356: 8352: 8348: 8344: 8343: 8338: 8331: 8315: 8311: 8310: 8304: 8299: 8293: 8285: 8281: 8276: 8271: 8267: 8263: 8259: 8255: 8251: 8247: 8243: 8239: 8232: 8224: 8220: 8215: 8210: 8206: 8202: 8198: 8194: 8190: 8186: 8182: 8178: 8174: 8170: 8163: 8155: 8151: 8147: 8143: 8139: 8135: 8131: 8127: 8123: 8119: 8112: 8110: 8100: 8085: 8081: 8079: 8070: 8062: 8058: 8053: 8048: 8044: 8040: 8036: 8032: 8028: 8021: 8006: 8002: 7998: 7997: 7992: 7985: 7978: 7973: 7965: 7961: 7957: 7955:0-582-24917-1 7951: 7947: 7940: 7932: 7928: 7924: 7920: 7916: 7909: 7901: 7899:9780691027937 7895: 7891: 7884: 7876: 7872: 7868: 7864: 7860: 7853: 7845: 7839: 7835: 7831: 7827: 7823: 7816: 7808: 7806:9780674724877 7802: 7798: 7791: 7783: 7776: 7769: 7764: 7758: 7754: 7750: 7746: 7739: 7731: 7725: 7721: 7720: 7712: 7698: 7692: 7688: 7684: 7680: 7676: 7669: 7661: 7660: 7652: 7650: 7648: 7639: 7633: 7629: 7628: 7620: 7606: 7600: 7596: 7592: 7588: 7584: 7577: 7569: 7565: 7561: 7557: 7553: 7549: 7545: 7538: 7524:on 2020-06-04 7523: 7519: 7515: 7509: 7501: 7500: 7492: 7477: 7473: 7467: 7453: 7447: 7443: 7439: 7435: 7431: 7424: 7410: 7406: 7400: 7386: 7382: 7376: 7372: 7357: 7353: 7349: 7345: 7341: 7334: 7330: 7320: 7317: 7315: 7312: 7310: 7307: 7305: 7302: 7300: 7297: 7295: 7292: 7290: 7287: 7285: 7282: 7280: 7277: 7276: 7272: 7261: 7258: 7257:Africa portal 7247: 7240: 7238: 7234: 7230: 7226: 7222: 7211: 7209: 7205: 7204: 7199: 7198: 7193: 7189: 7188:North African 7185: 7181: 7177: 7173: 7164: 7161: 7157: 7153: 7149: 7145: 7141: 7137: 7133: 7122: 7116: 7106: 7104: 7100: 7096: 7095:African Union 7092: 7088: 7084: 7080: 7076: 7072: 7068: 7067:Guinea-Bissau 7064: 7060: 7056: 7052: 7048: 7044: 7040: 7037:started with 7036: 7027: 7022: 7018: 7014: 7010: 7006: 7000: 6996: 6992: 6988: 6984: 6978: 6963: 6959: 6956: 6952: 6947: 6943: 6939: 6935: 6931: 6927: 6923: 6918: 6916: 6911: 6910:Raw materials 6906: 6904: 6900: 6896: 6892: 6888: 6884: 6880: 6876: 6871: 6869: 6865: 6861: 6857: 6853: 6849: 6845: 6838: 6834: 6830: 6826: 6822: 6818: 6814: 6810: 6806: 6800: 6789: 6785: 6781: 6777: 6771: 6761: 6758: 6754: 6750: 6746: 6736: 6733: 6729: 6725: 6724:Mutapa Empire 6721: 6717: 6713: 6698: 6695: 6694:Mbata Kingdom 6691: 6687: 6683: 6679: 6675: 6671: 6667: 6663: 6653: 6650: 6646: 6642: 6638: 6634: 6630: 6615: 6613: 6610: 6608: 6604: 6598: 6594: 6592: 6588: 6583: 6577: 6573: 6569: 6565: 6561: 6557: 6553: 6549: 6539: 6537: 6533: 6529: 6528:Sonni dynasty 6525: 6521: 6517: 6513: 6509: 6505: 6501: 6497: 6493: 6489: 6485: 6481: 6477: 6476:trading posts 6473: 6469: 6465: 6461: 6457: 6453: 6449: 6445: 6441: 6437: 6433: 6429: 6425: 6421: 6417: 6416:Keita dynasty 6413: 6409: 6405: 6401: 6397: 6393: 6389: 6385: 6381: 6377: 6373: 6369: 6365: 6361: 6356: 6354: 6350: 6346: 6345: 6340: 6336: 6332: 6328: 6324: 6320: 6316: 6312: 6308: 6304: 6300: 6296: 6293: 6289: 6285: 6281: 6277: 6273: 6269: 6268:Mamluk sultan 6265: 6261: 6260: 6255: 6251: 6247: 6243: 6239: 6235: 6231: 6227: 6223: 6219: 6215: 6211: 6207: 6203: 6199: 6195: 6191: 6187: 6183: 6179: 6175: 6171: 6167: 6163: 6159: 6155: 6151: 6150:Fouta Djallon 6147: 6143: 6139: 6135: 6131: 6130: 6125: 6124: 6119: 6115: 6111: 6107: 6106: 6101: 6097: 6093: 6089: 6088:Madinka clans 6085: 6081: 6077: 6073: 6069: 6065: 6061: 6057: 6053: 6050:, vassalized 6049: 6045: 6041: 6037: 6033: 6025: 6021: 6017: 6013: 6009: 6005: 6001: 5997: 5993: 5989: 5984: 5980: 5978: 5974: 5970: 5966: 5962: 5958: 5954: 5950: 5946: 5942: 5938: 5934: 5930: 5926: 5922: 5918: 5917:Fada N'Gourma 5914: 5910: 5906: 5902: 5901:forest region 5898: 5894: 5890: 5886: 5882: 5877: 5873: 5869: 5865: 5861: 5857: 5853: 5849: 5845: 5841: 5837: 5833: 5829: 5825: 5821: 5817: 5814: 5810: 5806: 5802: 5798: 5794: 5790: 5786: 5782: 5778: 5774: 5770: 5766: 5762: 5758: 5748: 5744: 5740: 5736: 5732: 5727: 5723: 5721: 5717: 5713: 5709: 5705: 5701: 5697: 5693: 5689: 5685: 5681: 5677: 5673: 5669: 5665: 5661: 5657: 5653: 5652:trade of salt 5649: 5645: 5641: 5637: 5636:their capital 5633: 5629: 5625: 5621: 5617: 5613: 5609: 5608:Senegal River 5605: 5601: 5597: 5593: 5587: 5583: 5568: 5565: 5561: 5557: 5553: 5549: 5545: 5541: 5537: 5527: 5525: 5521: 5517: 5516:Grande Comore 5513: 5509: 5505: 5501: 5497: 5493: 5489: 5487: 5483: 5482: 5477: 5473: 5469: 5465: 5463: 5457: 5455: 5451: 5447: 5443: 5439: 5435: 5431: 5427: 5423: 5419: 5415: 5409: 5404: 5400: 5396: 5392: 5388: 5384: 5380: 5376: 5372: 5368: 5365: 5361: 5357: 5353: 5349: 5345: 5339: 5334: 5330: 5326: 5322: 5318: 5314: 5310: 5306: 5301: 5297: 5293: 5289: 5285: 5281: 5277: 5273: 5269: 5265: 5261: 5257: 5253: 5249: 5245: 5241: 5237: 5233: 5229: 5225: 5219: 5214: 5210: 5206: 5202: 5198: 5194: 5190: 5186: 5180: 5175: 5171: 5167: 5166:Dar es Salaam 5163: 5159: 5155: 5151: 5147: 5143: 5139: 5135: 5131: 5127: 5123: 5119: 5115: 5107: 5102: 5098: 5096: 5093: 5089: 5085: 5084: 5079: 5075: 5071: 5067: 5063: 5059: 5055: 5051: 5050:Zambezi basin 5047: 5043: 5039: 5035: 5031: 5027: 5023: 5022:Swahili coast 5017: 5013: 5009: 4999: 4996: 4995:His successor 4992: 4988: 4984: 4981: 4977: 4973: 4969: 4965: 4962:ruled by the 4961: 4957: 4953: 4949: 4945: 4941: 4937: 4933: 4929: 4925: 4921: 4917: 4913: 4909: 4905: 4901: 4897: 4893: 4888: 4886: 4882: 4878: 4874: 4870: 4866: 4862: 4858: 4854: 4850: 4846: 4842: 4838: 4834: 4830: 4826: 4821: 4820: 4815: 4811: 4810:Sabr ad-Din I 4808:this, sultan 4806: 4805:Haqq ad-Din I 4803: 4799: 4795: 4794:Mamluk sultan 4791: 4787: 4783: 4779: 4775: 4771: 4767: 4763: 4759: 4755: 4751: 4747: 4743: 4739: 4735: 4731: 4727: 4723: 4719: 4715: 4711: 4707: 4703: 4699: 4695: 4691: 4687: 4683: 4679: 4675: 4671: 4667: 4663: 4659: 4656:painting the 4655: 4650: 4648: 4644: 4640: 4636: 4632: 4628: 4624: 4620: 4616: 4612: 4608: 4604: 4600: 4596: 4592: 4588: 4584: 4580: 4576: 4572: 4571:Motolomi Sato 4568: 4564: 4560: 4556: 4552: 4549:on a tour of 4548: 4544: 4540: 4539:Zagwe dynasty 4536: 4531: 4529: 4525: 4521: 4517: 4513: 4509: 4505: 4501: 4497: 4493: 4489: 4485: 4481: 4477: 4473: 4469: 4465: 4464:Harar Plateau 4461: 4457: 4453: 4449: 4445: 4441: 4437: 4433: 4429: 4425: 4421: 4417: 4413: 4409: 4405: 4401: 4397: 4393: 4392:Sheikh Ishaaq 4389: 4385: 4381: 4377: 4376:various clans 4373: 4369: 4368:Harla Kingdom 4365: 4364: 4359: 4355: 4351: 4350:Old Testament 4347: 4343: 4339: 4335: 4331: 4327: 4323: 4319: 4315: 4311: 4307: 4303: 4299: 4298:early Muslims 4295: 4294:Harar Plateau 4291: 4286: 4284: 4280: 4276: 4272: 4268: 4264: 4260: 4256: 4252: 4251:Harla Kingdom 4248: 4244: 4240: 4234: 4230: 4226: 4211: 4208: 4204: 4200: 4196: 4192: 4188: 4184: 4174: 4172: 4168: 4164: 4160: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4144: 4140: 4136: 4132: 4128: 4124: 4120: 4116: 4112: 4108: 4104: 4100: 4096: 4092: 4088: 4084: 4080: 4076: 4072: 4068: 4065:in 1258, the 4064: 4061: 4057: 4053: 4049: 4048:Bahri dynasty 4045: 4041: 4037: 4033: 4029: 4025: 4021: 4014: 4011:under Sultan 4010: 4005: 4001: 3999: 3995: 3994:Fifth Crusade 3991: 3987: 3983: 3979: 3975: 3971: 3967: 3963: 3959: 3955: 3951: 3947: 3943: 3939: 3935: 3931: 3928: 3924: 3920: 3916: 3912: 3911:Abd al-Mu'min 3909: 3905: 3901: 3897: 3893: 3889: 3885: 3881: 3877: 3873: 3869: 3865: 3861: 3857: 3853: 3849: 3845: 3841: 3837: 3833: 3829: 3825: 3821: 3817: 3813: 3805: 3801: 3797: 3792: 3788: 3786: 3782: 3778: 3774: 3771:, creating a 3770: 3766: 3762: 3758: 3754: 3750: 3746: 3745:First Crusade 3742: 3738: 3734: 3730: 3726: 3722: 3717: 3713: 3709: 3705: 3701: 3697: 3693: 3689: 3685: 3681: 3677: 3674:and captured 3673: 3669: 3665: 3661: 3657: 3653: 3649: 3645: 3641: 3637: 3634: 3630: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3614: 3610: 3606: 3602: 3598: 3594: 3590: 3586: 3582: 3578: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3563:. In 969 the 3562: 3558: 3557:Zirid dynasty 3554: 3550: 3547:and fought a 3546: 3542: 3538: 3534: 3530: 3526: 3522: 3518: 3514: 3506: 3501: 3495: 3490: 3486: 3484: 3480: 3476: 3472: 3468: 3464: 3460: 3456: 3452: 3448: 3444: 3441:, modern-day 3440: 3437:, centred on 3436: 3432: 3428: 3424: 3420: 3416: 3412: 3408: 3404: 3400: 3396: 3391: 3387: 3383: 3379: 3378:Berber Revolt 3375: 3371: 3367: 3363: 3359: 3355: 3351: 3347: 3343: 3339: 3335: 3331: 3327: 3322: 3320: 3316: 3311: 3307: 3303: 3299: 3295: 3291: 3287: 3283: 3279: 3275: 3271: 3267: 3263: 3259: 3255: 3251: 3247: 3243: 3239: 3235: 3231: 3227: 3223: 3219: 3215: 3211: 3207: 3203: 3195: 3191: 3186: 3182: 3180: 3176: 3173:. In 618 the 3172: 3168: 3164: 3160: 3156: 3152: 3148: 3144: 3140: 3136: 3132: 3128: 3124: 3120: 3116: 3112: 3108: 3097: 3093: 3082: 3078: 3074: 3070: 3066: 3060: 3050: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3024: 3020: 3016: 3012: 3008: 3004: 3000: 2995: 2993: 2989: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2974: 2973:Tsodilo hills 2970: 2966: 2965:Limpopo River 2962: 2959:and reaching 2958: 2953: 2949: 2948: 2943: 2942:Austronesians 2939: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2923: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2907: 2903: 2902:Swahili coast 2898: 2896: 2895:Swahili coast 2892: 2888: 2884: 2880: 2876: 2872: 2868: 2864: 2860: 2856: 2852: 2851:Zambezi basin 2848: 2844: 2840: 2834: 2829: 2825: 2821: 2817: 2813: 2809: 2805: 2804:Urewe culture 2801: 2797: 2793: 2789: 2785: 2781: 2776: 2774: 2770: 2766: 2762: 2758: 2754: 2753:Swahili coast 2750: 2746: 2742: 2738: 2734: 2730: 2726: 2722: 2718: 2714: 2706: 2700: 2694: 2690: 2684: 2680: 2674: 2666: 2651: 2645: 2640: 2635: 2625: 2623: 2619: 2615: 2611: 2607: 2603: 2599: 2594: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2575: 2571: 2567: 2563: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2531: 2526: 2522: 2520: 2516: 2512: 2509: 2505: 2501: 2497: 2493: 2489: 2488:Djenné-Djenno 2486:from 550 BC, 2485: 2481: 2480:Daima culture 2477: 2473: 2469: 2465: 2461: 2457: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2441: 2437: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2421: 2417: 2413: 2409: 2405: 2401: 2397: 2393: 2389: 2385: 2377: 2373: 2368: 2364: 2354: 2352: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2336: 2332: 2328: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2312: 2308: 2304: 2300: 2296: 2292: 2288: 2285:. Swathes of 2284: 2280: 2276: 2272: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2253:sold out the 2252: 2248: 2244: 2240: 2236: 2232: 2228: 2224: 2220: 2216: 2212: 2208: 2204: 2200: 2197: 2193: 2189: 2185: 2181: 2177: 2169: 2165: 2161: 2157: 2153: 2149: 2145: 2141: 2136: 2132: 2130: 2126: 2122: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2106: 2105:Libyan revolt 2102: 2098: 2094: 2090: 2086: 2082: 2078: 2074: 2070: 2069:ancient world 2066: 2062: 2058: 2054: 2050: 2047:, countering 2046: 2042: 2038: 2034: 2030: 2029:Gulf of Tunis 2026: 2022: 2018: 2014: 2010: 2006: 2005:Libyan desert 2002: 1998: 1994: 1986: 1982: 1977: 1967: 1965: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1949: 1945: 1941: 1937: 1933: 1929: 1925: 1921: 1917: 1913: 1909: 1905: 1901: 1897: 1893: 1889: 1885: 1881: 1877: 1873: 1869: 1865: 1861: 1857: 1854:peoples, and 1853: 1849: 1845: 1841: 1837: 1833: 1829: 1825: 1821: 1816: 1814: 1813:ancient India 1810: 1806: 1802: 1798: 1794: 1790: 1786: 1782: 1778: 1774: 1770: 1766: 1762: 1758: 1754: 1750: 1746: 1742: 1738: 1734: 1730: 1726: 1722: 1718: 1714: 1710: 1706: 1702: 1698: 1694: 1690: 1686: 1678: 1673: 1668: 1658: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1644: 1640: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1612: 1608: 1604: 1600: 1599:Cleopatra VII 1596: 1592: 1588: 1584: 1580: 1576: 1572: 1568: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1552: 1547: 1545: 1544:unified Egypt 1541: 1537: 1533: 1529: 1525: 1521: 1517: 1514:and form the 1513: 1509: 1505: 1501: 1497: 1493: 1489: 1485: 1481: 1477: 1473: 1469: 1465: 1461: 1457: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1441: 1437: 1433: 1429: 1425: 1421: 1417: 1413: 1408: 1406: 1402: 1398: 1394: 1390: 1386: 1382: 1378: 1374: 1373:Mentuhotep II 1370: 1369:Heracleopolis 1366: 1362: 1358: 1354: 1350: 1346: 1342: 1338: 1334: 1330: 1326: 1322: 1318: 1314: 1310: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1279:-worshipping 1278: 1274: 1270: 1269:Ancient Egypt 1266: 1262: 1258: 1254: 1250: 1241: 1236: 1235:Ancient Egypt 1232: 1216: 1212: 1208: 1204: 1200: 1194: 1184: 1182: 1178: 1174: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1158: 1154: 1150: 1146: 1142: 1138: 1134: 1130: 1126: 1121: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1102: 1099: 1095: 1094:Aïr Mountains 1090: 1088: 1084: 1080: 1075: 1073: 1069: 1065: 1057: 1052: 1048: 1046: 1042: 1038: 1034: 1030: 1025: 1023: 1022:domestication 1019: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1003: 999: 995: 994:Mandé peoples 991: 987: 983: 979: 975: 971: 966: 964: 963:finger millet 960: 956: 952: 948: 945:domesticated 944: 939: 937: 933: 929: 925: 921: 917: 916:Red Sea Hills 912: 910: 906: 902: 899: 895: 891: 887: 883: 875: 871: 869: 865: 861: 857: 853: 849: 845: 841: 840:out of Africa 836: 834: 829: 825: 821: 816: 814: 810: 806: 801: 799: 795: 791: 780: 769: 758: 754: 750: 749: 743: 740: 736: 732: 728: 724: 720: 716: 709: 705: 700: 695: 691: 687: 683: 679: 675: 671: 667: 661: 651: 649: 645: 644:African Union 641: 637: 633: 629: 624: 622: 621:local beliefs 618: 614: 610: 606: 603:, other than 602: 598: 594: 590: 586: 582: 578: 574: 570: 565: 563: 560:, especially 559: 555: 554:slave markets 551: 547: 543: 539: 538:trans-Saharan 535: 531: 527: 523: 519: 515: 511: 507: 503: 499: 495: 494:Swahili coast 491: 487: 483: 479: 475: 471: 466: 464: 460: 456: 452: 448: 444: 440: 436: 432: 428: 424: 420: 416: 412: 408: 404: 400: 396: 392: 388: 384: 380: 376: 372: 368: 364: 363:Ancient Egypt 360: 356: 352: 348: 344: 340: 336: 332: 327: 325: 321: 317: 313: 309: 305: 301: 297: 293: 289: 285: 281: 277: 273: 269: 265: 261: 257: 253: 249: 247: 243: 239: 235: 231: 228:while having 227: 226: 221: 217: 216: 211: 207: 203: 199: 195: 191: 187: 183: 179: 175: 171: 167: 163: 162:Ancient Egypt 159: 155: 151: 150: 145: 144:modern humans 141: 137: 133: 125: 121: 117: 113: 109: 105: 101: 97: 93: 89: 85: 81: 75: 71: 67: 63: 59: 55: 51: 47: 43: 38: 32: 27: 19: 14826: 14626:Urbanization 14586:Demographics 14562:Rugby Africa 14469:Architecture 14353:Billionaires 14246:Human rights 14016:Indian Ocean 13947:North Africa 13926: 13855:Saint Helena 13826: 13730:South Africa 13720:Sierra Leone 13525:Burkina Faso 13490: 13357: 13336: 13326: 13319: 13309: 13305: 13280: 13276: 13258: 13248: 13231: 13224: 13217: 13210: 13203: 13189: 13175: 13168: 13161: 13154: 13151:Freund, Bill 13125: 13110: 13103: 13096: 13086: 13058: 13035: 13015: 12995: 12975: 12952: 12929: 12913: 12859: 12855: 12849: 12822: 12816: 12791: 12787: 12781: 12740: 12736: 12730: 12689: 12685: 12664:. Retrieved 12648: 12640: 12628: 12603: 12599: 12589: 12581: 12576: 12568: 12563: 12555: 12550: 12542: 12537: 12529: 12524: 12516: 12511: 12500:. Retrieved 12472: 12465: 12446: 12425: 12421: 12415: 12395: 12388: 12378: 12371: 12360:. Retrieved 12356: 12346: 12326: 12319: 12309: 12270: 12266: 12256: 12231: 12227: 12217: 12207: 12200: 12191: 12187: 12177: 12158: 12148: 12129: 12123: 12095: 12088: 12078: 12071: 12047: 12040: 12031: 11997: 11993: 11980: 11969:. Retrieved 11963: 11954: 11937: 11933: 11926: 11909: 11905: 11899: 11874:. Retrieved 11868: 11862: 11851:. Retrieved 11845: 11836: 11826: 11804: 11770: 11763: 11738: 11734: 11724: 11716: 11711: 11691: 11661: 11637: 11630: 11625:, pp. 135ff. 11622: 11617: 11598:Mukhtar Haji 11597: 11590: 11573: 11569: 11559: 11546: 11539: 11522: 11518: 11508: 11498: 11491: 11482: 11478: 11465: 11456: 11452: 11439: 11430: 11426: 11413: 11401:. Retrieved 11381: 11374: 11354: 11333:. Retrieved 11319: 11279:. 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Retrieved 9903: 9875: 9869: 9859: 9816: 9812: 9784: 9762: 9756: 9744:. Retrieved 9739: 9735: 9722: 9697: 9693: 9687: 9671: 9666: 9654: 9621: 9617: 9611: 9599:. Retrieved 9595:Academia.edu 9594: 9569: 9528: 9524: 9514: 9495: 9489: 9472: 9468: 9458: 9439: 9432:Ehret (2002) 9412: 9392: 9387: 9375: 9363: 9349: 9338:. Retrieved 9336:. 2010-01-22 9333: 9324: 9317:Ehret (2002) 9312: 9287: 9281: 9275: 9262: 9252: 9245:Ehret (2002) 9236: 9209: 9196: 9169: 9156: 9138: 9089: 9085: 9075: 9032: 9028: 8972: 8968: 8957: 8944: 8932: 8897: 8893: 8883: 8840: 8836: 8826: 8791: 8787: 8777: 8732: 8728: 8717: 8684: 8680: 8674: 8641: 8637: 8631: 8598: 8594: 8585: 8552: 8548: 8542: 8497: 8493: 8483: 8453:(1): 27–47. 8450: 8446: 8440: 8399: 8395: 8389: 8346: 8340: 8330: 8320:10 September 8318:. Retrieved 8307: 8298:Zimmer, Carl 8292: 8249: 8245: 8231: 8180: 8176: 8162: 8121: 8117: 8109:Homo sapiens 8108: 8099: 8087:. Retrieved 8084:The Guardian 8083: 8078:Homo sapiens 8077: 8069: 8034: 8030: 8020: 8008:. Retrieved 7994: 7984: 7979:, p. 2. 7972: 7945: 7939: 7922: 7918: 7908: 7889: 7883: 7866: 7862: 7852: 7825: 7815: 7796: 7790: 7781: 7775: 7766: 7744: 7738: 7718: 7711: 7700:. Retrieved 7678: 7668: 7658: 7626: 7619: 7608:. Retrieved 7586: 7576: 7551: 7547: 7537: 7526:. Retrieved 7522:the original 7518:Visit Africa 7517: 7508: 7498: 7491: 7480:. Retrieved 7478:. 2022-06-06 7475: 7466: 7455:. Retrieved 7433: 7423: 7412:. Retrieved 7408: 7399: 7388:. Retrieved 7385:Khan Academy 7384: 7375: 7333: 7225:anthropology 7217: 7201: 7195: 7170: 7140:colonisation 7129: 7047:South Africa 7033:The wave of 7032: 6919: 6907: 6879:yellow fever 6872: 6840: 6760: 6735: 6697: 6652: 6637:Wadai Empire 6629:Kanem Empire 6614: 6611: 6599: 6595: 6579: 6572:Benin Empire 6522:. Meanwhile 6510:circa 1450. 6498:migrated to 6492:Jolof Empire 6368:Jolof Empire 6357: 6342: 6272:Muslim world 6257: 6232:, a Soninke 6127: 6121: 6103: 6029: 6016:trade routes 5976: 5964: 5754: 5742: 5648:North Africa 5592:Ghana/Wagadu 5589: 5567: 5490: 5479: 5472:dense forest 5460: 5458: 5430:Fumo Liyongo 5256:cotton cloth 5111: 5081: 5070:Indian Ocean 5019: 4889: 4817: 4762:Amda Seyon I 4756:founded the 4710:Umar Walasma 4662:Yekuno Amlak 4654:Kebra Nagast 4651: 4641:, while the 4532: 4512:Banu Makhzum 4502:(previously 4466:, including 4456:Aksum's king 4362: 4356:through the 4354:Islam spread 4340:exported to 4287: 4236: 4210: 4017: 3896:guerilla war 3814:passed onto 3809: 3773:power vacuum 3747:against the 3733:Seljuk Turks 3680:Ghana Empire 3670:, conquered 3658:, both from 3510: 3483:Persian Gulf 3477:homeland of 3453:controlling 3323: 3199: 3121:subjects in 3104: 3086:North Africa 3031:Lake Ejagham 2996: 2985:semi-nomadic 2945: 2899: 2777: 2710: 2704: 2698: 2692: 2688: 2678: 2672: 2664: 2649: 2643: 2622:large tumuli 2584:and western 2577: 2546:Ghana Empire 2535: 2530:Ghana Empire 2519:Benin Empire 2460:hierarchical 2381: 2283:fall of Rome 2247:Roman Senate 2173: 2111:'s infamous 1990: 1948:vassal state 1899: 1895: 1880:Aksum's king 1864:great powers 1824:principality 1822:grew from a 1817: 1789:frankincense 1783:, exporting 1699:or northern 1689:Land of Punt 1682: 1627:Roman Empire 1615:Roman Empire 1548: 1436:18th dynasty 1409: 1393:Faiyum Oasis 1389:12th dynasty 1381:11th dynasty 1327:to form the 1246: 1137:Metalworking 1122: 1108:had reached 1106:iron working 1103: 1091: 1076: 1061: 1026: 1014:castor beans 998:African rice 967: 940: 924:Western Asia 913: 880: 848:Afro-Eurasia 844:Homo sapiens 843: 837: 820:Blombos Cave 817: 813:Homo sapiens 812: 802: 798:South Africa 790:Homo sapiens 789: 757:Jebel Irhoud 753:Homo sapiens 752: 748:Homo sapiens 746: 744: 719:paleontology 712: 625: 597:Christianity 566: 546:Indian Ocean 486:North Africa 467: 347:Bamana/Ségou 328: 270:further and 268:proto-states 260:institutions 250: 244:(modern day 223: 214: 204:even when a 149:Homo sapiens 147: 129: 26: 14636:urban areas 14557:FIBA Africa 14256:LGBT rights 13954:Archaeology 13782:recognition 13735:South Sudan 13625:Ivory Coast 13420:African Art 13209:Fage, J.D. 12823:Orientalism 12743:: 153–167. 11912:(2): 7–16. 9936:Daily Times 9601:12 December 9475:(1): 7–23. 8843:(1): 3530. 8760:2440/114930 8644:(1): 3–24. 8349:(1): 3406. 7554:: 153–165. 7192:Edward Said 7176:Orientalism 7073:(1975) and 6951:nationalism 6942:Imperialism 6868:machine gun 6690:Mpemba Kasi 6504:Futa Kingui 6502:, founding 6456:some tribes 6317:, and with 6172:, with the 6110:Mali Empire 6008:Lobi people 5988:Mali Empire 5905:Ouagadougou 5793:Sunni Islam 5769:Niger river 5678:holds that 5571:West Africa 5476:pastoralism 5416:conquering 5406: [ 5336: [ 5329:land bridge 5216: [ 5177: [ 5154:Unguja Ukuu 5054:Great Lakes 5030:agriculture 4786:Beta Israel 4645:formed the 4623:Ajuran clan 4526:formed the 4302:persecution 4249:, with the 4214:East Africa 3668:Sunni Islam 3541:Sunni Islam 3319:into Iberia 3177:during the 3123:Roman Egypt 2999:Chari River 2847:Great Lakes 2839:Luba Empire 2831: [ 2792:Congo Basin 2755:there were 2713:Congo Basin 2515:Igodomigodo 2472:Nok culture 2357:West Africa 2131:in 202 BC. 2065:commodities 1950:after some 1936:coup d'état 1743:, and made 1707:, aromatic 1575:Syrian Wars 1559:Achaemenids 1551:Achaemenids 1512:Lower Egypt 1510:to conquer 1504:Upper Egypt 1488:New Kingdom 1444:New Kingdom 1397:Lower Nubia 1345:4th dynasty 1341:Old Kingdom 1325:3rd dynasty 1313:Lower Egypt 1309:Upper Egypt 1301:Upper Egypt 1293:Lower Egypt 1165:Jos Plateau 1161:Nok culture 1010:watermelons 864:Paleolithic 794:East Africa 779:Omo remains 777:), and the 630:, waves of 619:with their 579:, with the 571:, European 536:. When the 518:Fula jihads 419:Kanem-Bornu 264:egalitarian 220:Mali Empire 200:and use of 194:Sub-Saharan 154:East Africa 14887:Categories 14847:Antarctica 14606:Emigration 14509:Philosophy 14489:Literature 13935:Chronology 13837:(Portugal) 13795:Somaliland 13715:Seychelles 13680:Mozambique 13665:Mauritania 13650:Madagascar 13605:The Gambia 13540:Cape Verde 13144:1268921040 12832:0394428145 12666:20 October 12502:2021-11-06 12362:2024-08-12 11971:2019-11-14 11876:2019-10-30 11853:2019-11-14 11621:Taddesse, 11335:2024-09-03 11281:2024-09-08 10991:2024-09-11 10890:: e00091. 10822:20 January 10671:2020-05-24 10651:, Volume 1 10217:0748601066 10009:2023-10-28 9340:2019-02-19 9228:1374884636 9188:1374884636 9122:7787802958 7702:2024-09-14 7610:2024-09-13 7528:2020-05-27 7482:2024-09-10 7457:2024-09-10 7414:2023-01-22 7390:2023-01-22 7367:References 7359:direction. 7344:Christians 7119:See also: 7071:Mozambique 7003:See also: 6716:Mapungubwe 6587:Ife Empire 6560:Oyo Empire 6556:Ife Empire 6496:Fula chief 6468:Portuguese 6337:converted 6246:Mansa Musa 6196:conquered 6006:and later 5941:Aoudaghost 5937:Almoravids 5868:Almoravids 5864:Almoravids 5852:Almoravids 5824:royal seat 5820:Aoudaghost 5805:Aoudaghost 5773:Aoudaghost 5616:Gao Empire 5612:suzerainty 5520:Mozambique 5226:and later 5189:Mozambique 5062:Madagascar 4964:Bahr Negus 4952:Zara Yaqob 4670:Zagwe king 4597:, and the 4516:Tunni clan 4338:Ethiopians 3980:, and the 3976:, both of 3934:Al-Andalus 3925:, and the 3884:Ibn Tumart 3781:suzerainty 3712:Almoravids 3676:Aoudaghost 3529:Isma'ilism 3429:among the 3405:, and the 3395:Barghawata 3302:Byzantines 3278:Byzantines 3232:odious of 3222:Byzantines 3214:monotheism 3127:Miaphysite 2957:Mozambique 2938:Madagascar 2893:, and the 2879:Mapungubwe 2739:, and the 2582:Mauritania 2562:Aoudaghost 2538:wet period 2494:, and the 2448:Mauritania 2412:grasslands 2275:Garamantes 2271:Tacfarinas 2259:Mauretania 2235:Mauretania 2207:Garamantes 2203:King Atlas 2192:Mauretania 2053:mercantile 1910:. In 518, 1701:Somaliland 1456:Canaanites 1311:conquered 1285:Nile Delta 1127:spread to 731:great apes 727:chimpanzee 654:Prehistory 439:Mapungubwe 379:Almoravids 359:Toucouleur 357:, and the 316:relativist 296:capitalism 180:, and the 112:Uukwanyama 96:Mapungubwe 14871:Australia 14442:Languages 14432:Etiquette 14358:Education 14231:Democracy 14226:Elections 14126:Geography 14085:By region 14069:conflicts 13942:Antiquity 13670:Mauritius 12892:143559797 12876:0022-278X 12773:162869454 12757:0361-5413 12706:0021-8537 12273:: 53–78. 11755:0001-9992 11576:(1): 26. 11241:. UNESCO. 11152:. UNESCO. 11135:. UNESCO. 11118:. UNESCO. 11056:. UNESCO. 11036:. UNESCO. 11014:. UNESCO. 10474:: 53–78. 10170:0028-0836 10097:, p. 187. 9833:161611760 9714:145379030 9700:: 54–58. 9646:206583802 9561:162880295 9545:0361-5413 9531:: 41–94. 9130:161078189 9106:1612-1651 9067:219974966 9051:0959-437X 8205:0169-5347 8154:256771372 7409:Study.com 7233:geography 7229:sociology 7013:CFA franc 6864:maxim gun 6856:Artillery 6500:Futa Toro 6474:, set up 6335:Kano king 6178:Casamance 5913:Tenkodogo 5813:Almoravid 5680:Bayajidda 5526:in 1497. 5504:Inhambane 5387:Mogadishu 5367:Mogadishu 5280:jewellery 5276:glassware 5209:Inhambane 5197:Quelimane 4989:with the 4948:Mogadishu 4814:rebellion 4694:Israelite 4635:Mogadishu 4563:holy city 4551:Jerusalem 4440:tradition 4380:tradition 4203:Banu Kanz 4115:Zayyanids 3970:Zayyanids 3958:Balearics 3919:Hammadids 3898:from the 3886:from the 3880:Almoravid 3848:Cyrenaica 3846:captured 3800:Zayyanids 3757:Jerusalem 3678:from the 3672:Sijilmasa 3644:Hammadids 3549:proxy war 3533:caliphate 3521:Aghlabids 3475:Abbasid's 3451:Aghlabids 3447:Abbasids' 3366:Nukkarite 3354:Kharijite 3282:Exarchate 3226:Byzantine 3003:Lake Chad 3001:south of 2765:neologism 2593:tradition 2570:Sijilmasa 2484:Lake Chad 2378:sculpture 2325:were the 2295:Ouarsenis 2269:, led by 2267:Musulamii 2251:Bocchus I 2211:Musulamii 2188:Masaesyli 2144:Ouarsenis 2089:naval war 2057:west Asia 2041:Phoenicia 1987:in 323 BC 1964:Sassanids 1940:Dhu Nuwas 1920:Dhu Nuwas 1836:Lake Tana 1713:blackwood 1635:Aksumites 1587:Cyrenaica 1577:with the 1532:Assyrians 1454:from the 1422:, whilst 1416:Palestine 1367:, and in 1295:, whilst 1265:dynasties 1153:Lake Chad 1118:Assyrians 1058:, Nigeria 1056:Igbo-Ukwu 986:savannahs 980:. In the 909:gathering 868:Neolithic 833:Diepkloof 828:geometric 706:" in the 459:Mthwakazi 198:oral word 160:arose in 140:emergence 120:Mthwakazi 14832:Americas 14771:Category 14616:HIV/AIDS 14447:Religion 14412:Abortion 14368:Internet 14295:Politics 14271:feminism 14209:Politics 14064:Military 14042:By topic 14006:Atlantic 13969:Sahelian 13919:articles 13861: / 13857: / 13850:(France) 13844: / 13822: / 13818: / 13770:Zimbabwe 13745:Tanzania 13595:Ethiopia 13590:Eswatini 13570:Djibouti 13535:Cameroon 13520:Botswana 13444:Archived 13384:Archived 13297:33615987 13153:(1998). 13095:(1964). 13085:(1970). 13057:(2005). 12974:(2002). 12950:(1997). 12722:33615987 12714:43305130 12496:Archived 12445:(2020). 11906:Diogenes 11885:citation 11582:41460159 11397:Archived 10544:40380172 9915:30 March 9730:(1975). 9638:19131604 9553:20065735 9447:Archived 9304:43135518 9267:Archived 9114:43135549 9059:32563853 9035:: 8–15. 9007:19407144 8924:31196864 8894:Genetics 8875:30837540 8818:25770088 8769:26853362 8709:23498114 8666:15656934 8623:32356688 8615:15087540 8577:11102266 8534:20194764 8475:19487016 8432:31169551 8424:11786608 8381:31506422 8314:Archived 8284:35022610 8223:30007846 8146:28593953 8076:"Oldest 8061:27298468 7964:33131573 7352:vitality 7340:eternity 7243:See also 7079:Djibouti 7069:(1974), 7055:Ethiopia 6930:eugenics 6922:Ethiopia 6603:dichroic 6576:Denkyira 6440:Timbuktu 6370:and the 6339:to Islam 6292:Mandinka 6284:madrasas 5961:Wagadu's 5909:kingdoms 5893:princess 5688:kingdoms 5682:came to 5644:Kairouan 5640:Tadmekka 5508:Zanzibar 5448:and the 5438:Zanzibar 5395:Zanzibar 5364:Somalian 5333:Mahilaka 5205:Chibuene 5158:Zanzibar 5092:Malagasy 5052:and the 5042:Forested 4976:Dankalia 4890:In 1415 4692:and the 4559:Lalibela 4524:Sarapion 4504:Avalites 4492:Kwelgora 4300:fleeing 4271:Avalites 4267:Sarapion 4257:such as 4243:Ethiopia 4167:Ottomans 4159:Timurids 4155:Ottomans 4123:Marinids 4111:Marinids 4105:and the 4095:Abbasids 4028:Ayyubids 3962:Marinids 3950:Almohads 3942:Almohads 3858:and the 3844:Ayyubids 3796:Marinids 3765:Fatimids 3753:Fatimids 3741:Fatimids 3721:Fatimids 3696:Maghrawa 3652:Maghrawa 3650:and the 3640:Fatimids 3629:Ifriqiya 3617:Fatimids 3601:Fatimids 3577:Ifriqiya 3537:Abbasids 3525:Ifriqiya 3463:Tulunids 3455:Ifriqiya 3382:Ifriqiya 3362:Isma'ili 3294:Kairouan 3274:Damascus 3262:Rashidun 3246:Ifriqiya 3196:, c. 720 3135:Ifriqiya 3035:Cameroon 3011:Cameroon 2977:Botswana 2952:Malagasy 2914:Tanzania 2891:Tanzania 2883:Zimbabwe 2867:Zimbabwe 2788:Cameroon 2769:Khoekhoe 2767:for the 2757:Cushitic 2717:Bambenga 2614:polities 2400:smelting 2311:Ifriqiya 2255:Jugurtha 2239:Jugurtha 2184:Massylii 2180:Numidian 2156:Nemencha 2109:Hannibal 2097:Sardinia 2023:, until 1997:Ifriqiya 1809:cinnamon 1753:Djibouti 1725:Ethiopia 1637:and the 1597:. Under 1464:Hittites 1460:Amorites 1432:Ahmose I 1379:and the 1357:nomarchs 1261:cultures 1173:Igboland 1155:and the 1045:harpoons 955:Cushitic 898:open-air 882:Affad 23 860:Holocene 725:and the 715:hominids 613:missions 605:Ethiopia 595:. While 550:Atlantic 530:medieval 488:and the 478:conquest 443:Zimbabwe 399:Ethiopia 387:Ayyubids 383:Almohads 375:Fatimids 371:Carthage 331:hegemony 312:mythical 300:communal 294:towards 272:stratify 246:Cameroon 190:Carthage 186:Ifrikiya 116:Mthethwa 14867:Oceania 14852:Eurasia 14755:Outline 14657:By year 14599:density 14484:Cuisine 14457:Culture 14401:Society 14378:Poverty 14321:Economy 14300:parties 14168:Central 14163:Regions 14153:Islands 14092:Central 14054:Empires 14049:Economy 14011:Barbary 14001:Slavery 13964:Empires 13927:History 13846:Réunion 13842:Mayotte 13833:Madeira 13828:(Spain) 13824:Melilla 13755:Tunisia 13725:Somalia 13710:Senegal 13695:Nigeria 13685:Namibia 13675:Morocco 13640:Liberia 13635:Lesotho 13585:Eritrea 13555:Comoros 13530:Burundi 13505:Algeria 13434:at the 13236:excerpt 13220:(1991). 13197:Atlases 12903:Sources 12841:4004102 12765:3171484 12620:2705705 12532:(2005). 12519:(1977). 12287:3171690 12248:3171690 10776:3888249 10488:3171690 10178:3942233 10140:Bibcode 9618:Science 8998:2947357 8977:Bibcode 8969:Science 8915:6707464 8866:6401177 8845:Bibcode 8837:Sci Rep 8809:4381518 8737:Bibcode 8689:Bibcode 8646:Bibcode 8595:Science 8557:Bibcode 8525:2851956 8502:Bibcode 8455:Bibcode 8404:Bibcode 8396:Science 8372:6736881 8351:Bibcode 8275:8791829 8254:Bibcode 8214:6092560 8185:Bibcode 8126:Bibcode 8052:4920294 8010:11 June 7568:2949286 7476:HISTORY 7348:animism 7184:Arabian 7132:history 7083:Namibia 7043:Liberia 6926:Liberia 6903:quinine 6895:malaria 6891:leprosy 6852:muskets 6678:Kakongo 6591:Oduduwa 6582:Ile-Ife 6564:Bonoman 6512:Yatenga 6484:Spanish 6472:caravel 6454:, with 6444:Oualata 6420:Yatenga 6412:Musa II 6358:Amid a 6329:in the 6280:mosques 6198:Gajaaga 6194:his son 6170:Senegal 6142:Bambouk 6048:Gajaaga 6038:forced 6010:), and 5933:Zondoma 5929:Yatenga 5921:Zondoma 5899:in the 5872:Ghana's 5816:Sanhaja 5809:Sanhaja 5801:Sanhaja 5781:Bambouk 5777:Oualata 5743:Songhai 5704:Katsina 5672:Nigeria 5664:Soninke 5618:of the 5564:Bunyoro 5548:Buganda 5500:Malindi 5496:Mombasa 5481:Vazimba 5454:Shirazi 5450:Comoros 5371:Kilwa's 5348:Iharana 5292:Mombasa 5252:pottery 5228:ngalawa 5213:mtumbwi 5193:Angoche 5174:Kiswere 5146:Mombasa 5142:Malindi 5130:Ungwana 5114:Swahili 5108:in 1310 5086:of the 5083:Vazimba 5078:Comoros 4894:of the 4877:Dawit I 4857:sheikhs 4841:Fatagar 4782:Ennarea 4780:, with 4750:Fatagar 4742:Hargaya 4712:of the 4698:Solomon 4617:, with 4484:Hargaya 4468:Fatagar 4388:Daarood 4384:Samaale 4346:Red Sea 4334:Nubians 4277:on the 4275:Aromata 4259:Mosylon 4247:Eritrea 4191:Nobatia 4183:Makuria 4163:Mamluks 4151:Mamluks 4135:Hafsids 4119:Hafsids 4107:Mamluks 4099:Hafsids 4083:Mongols 4067:Mamluks 4044:Mamluks 3990:Tunisia 3986:Masmuda 3982:Hafsids 3974:Algeria 3966:Morocco 3956:in the 3888:Masmuda 3856:Zengids 3824:Fatimid 3806:c. 1360 3804:Hafsids 3749:Seljuks 3686:in the 3664:Sanhaja 3656:Morocco 3648:Algeria 3579:to the 3561:Sanhaja 3517:Bavares 3473:in the 3467:Abbasid 3459:Abbasid 3443:Algeria 3423:Masmuda 3419:Morocco 3399:Masmuda 3370:Sufrite 3315:kingdom 3308:of the 3290:Kusaila 3254:Berbers 3194:Umar II 3167:Algeria 3163:Sanhaja 3159:Morocco 3155:Masmuda 3139:Maghreb 3115:Semitic 2997:By the 2969:Khoisan 2947:Vazimba 2920:, with 2820:Burundi 2812:Buganda 2790:to the 2761:Khoisan 2749:Pygmies 2735:in the 2733:Bambuti 2729:Babongo 2616:into a 2590:Soninke 2500:Senegal 2482:around 2476:Nigeria 2416:forests 2408:deserts 2404:forging 2392:sorghum 2390:and of 2343:Morocco 2339:Masmuda 2331:Algeria 2327:Sanhaja 2307:Vandals 2263:Numidia 2241:in the 2231:Numidia 2229:, with 2215:Bavares 2176:Numidia 2164:Dorsale 2101:Corsica 1993:Maghreb 1958:by the 1801:incense 1749:Somalia 1739:, grew 1737:ploughs 1729:Eritrea 1697:Eritrea 1693:Red Sea 1683:In the 1651:Nobatia 1643:Makuria 1619:Palmyra 1613:in the 1530:by the 1468:Mitanni 1434:of the 1371:, when 1365:Memphis 1289:Andjety 1271:and of 1163:in the 1145:Nigeria 1092:In the 1041:Fishing 1037:Oualata 1033:Tichitt 1029:pottery 1002:sorghum 982:steppes 951:donkeys 905:hunting 852:genetic 766:), the 739:savanna 735:bipedal 723:gorilla 542:Red Sea 526:ancient 502:Maghreb 435:Utetera 415:Imerina 391:Mamluks 351:Massina 343:Songhai 308:visions 304:hearsay 184:'s and 182:Maghreb 134:out of 132:emerged 92:Utetera 84:Kasanje 70:Imerina 54:Buganda 14856:Europe 14827:Africa 14776:Portal 14631:cities 14479:Cinema 14437:Health 14195:Rivers 13917: 13915:Africa 13865: 13848: 13835: 13765:Zambia 13760:Uganda 13700:Rwanda 13655:Malawi 13615:Guinea 13510:Angola 13371:. 2005 13341:online 13331:online 13322:(2005) 13295: 13263:online 13253:online 13213:(1978) 13182: 13142: 13132: 13104:Africa 13065: 13043: 13022: 13003: 12982: 12960: 12936: 12890: 12884:159205 12882: 12874: 12839: 12829: 12808:486417 12806: 12771: 12763: 12755: 12720: 12712: 12704: 12657: 12618: 12571:(1956) 12545:(1971) 12488: 12453: 12403: 12334: 12285: 12246: 12165: 12136: 12111: 12059: 11778: 11753: 11699: 11669: 11605: 11580: 11403:12 May 11389: 11362: 11326: 11272: 10949: 10919: 10813: 10774: 10633:13 May 10607:13 May 10542: 10486: 10445: 10407: 10369: 10314: 10214: 10176: 10168: 10132:Nature 10114: 10060: 10033: 9964: 9890: 9831: 9791: 9746:16 May 9712: 9678: 9644: 9636: 9559: 9551: 9543: 9502: 9399: 9302: 9226: 9216: 9186: 9176: 9128: 9120: 9112: 9104: 9065: 9057: 9049: 9005: 8995: 8922: 8912: 8873: 8863: 8816: 8806: 8767: 8707: 8664: 8621: 8613: 8575: 8532: 8522: 8473: 8430: 8422: 8379: 8369: 8282: 8272: 8246:Nature 8221: 8211: 8203: 8152: 8144: 8118:Nature 8089:7 June 8059: 8049: 7996:Nature 7962: 7952: 7896: 7840: 7803: 7759: 7726: 7693: 7634: 7601: 7566: 7448: 7208:UNESCO 7103:Second 7075:Angola 7019:, and 6997:, and 6889:, and 6835:, and 6786:, and 6755:, and 6732:Maravi 6730:, and 6692:, and 6686:Nsundi 6647:, and 6574:, and 6520:Wagadu 6516:Macina 6508:Diarra 6488:Diarra 6432:Mali's 6424:Macina 6404:Saloum 6394:, and 6344:da'wah 6325:, and 6303:arable 6299:Mali's 6252:after 6218:Tuareg 6202:Takrur 6182:Bainuk 6118:Wagadu 6100:Diarra 6096:battle 6080:Manden 6060:Manden 6052:Takrur 6044:Diarra 6040:Wagadu 6022:. The 6020:Koumbi 6014:, and 5992:Bambuk 5969:Wagadu 5957:Wagadu 5919:, and 5897:Dagbon 5844:Takrur 5838:, and 5714:, and 5712:Zazzau 5668:Takrur 5604:Takrur 5562:, and 5560:Busoga 5556:Rwanda 5518:, and 5462:hasina 5418:Shanga 5379:Sofala 5346:, and 5325:Shiraz 5311:. The 5298:, and 5286:, and 5266:, and 5248:slaves 5240:copper 5207:, and 5201:Sofala 5191:, and 5185:Monapo 5148:, and 5014:, and 4991:sultan 4980:Harari 4972:Dobe'a 4960:vassal 4956:Tigray 4944:Badlay 4940:Persia 4938:, and 4932:Greece 4916:Hormuz 4912:Arabia 4865:Gurage 4843:, and 4837:Dawaro 4833:Hadiya 4812:led a 4802:Ifat's 4774:Hadiya 4770:Gojjam 4748:, and 4730:Gidaya 4690:Makeda 4674:battle 4593:, the 4547:Christ 4494:, and 4480:Hadiya 4472:Dawaro 4366:. The 4363:da'wah 4336:, and 4306:Somali 4273:, and 4231:, and 4205:, and 4187:Alodia 4131:Zenata 4097:, the 4087:Levant 4060:Mongol 4038:. The 4032:Mamluk 3978:Zenata 3968:, the 3952:faced 3927:Norman 3921:, the 3915:Zenata 3908:caliph 3866:, and 3820:Zengid 3812:vizier 3802:, and 3785:vizier 3763:. The 3751:, the 3731:. The 3716:taifas 3710:. The 3704:taifas 3660:Zenata 3633:Norman 3609:Zirids 3607:, the 3605:faqirs 3599:. The 3597:Medina 3581:Zirids 3439:Tahert 3431:Zenata 3413:. The 3411:Zenata 3401:, the 3342:Dhimmi 3330:Coptic 3326:Berber 3306:Kahina 3298:Altava 3288:under 3270:Medina 3252:. The 3250:battle 3153:, the 3151:Zenata 3119:Coptic 3079:, and 3037:, the 3025:, and 3023:copper 3019:bronze 2961:Maputo 2922:Rhapta 2918:Azania 2906:Azania 2865:, and 2863:Zambia 2859:Malawi 2855:Angola 2818:, and 2816:Rwanda 2727:, and 2725:Bakoya 2721:Bayaka 2588:, and 2574:Wagadu 2566:Tahert 2508:record 2478:, the 2470:, the 2438:, and 2428:copper 2414:, and 2388:millet 2347:Zenata 2319:Garmul 2309:ruled 2305:. The 2303:Altava 2301:, and 2273:, and 2227:Africa 2223:Romans 2217:. The 2213:, and 2168:Cabaon 2160:Capsus 2140:Altava 2085:Sicily 1932:puppet 1928:Najran 1922:, the 1874:, and 1868:Persia 1803:, and 1793:spices 1741:millet 1709:resins 1649:, and 1647:Alodia 1581:, the 1500:Kashta 1466:, and 1452:Levant 1448:Hyksos 1440:Hyksos 1428:Thebes 1412:Hyksos 1377:Thebes 1305:Narmer 1257:Europe 1213:, and 1169:Nsukka 1141:Termit 1087:silver 1072:bronze 1070:, and 1068:copper 1018:cotton 1016:, and 1006:gourds 974:Sahara 932:barley 884:is an 692:, and 532:, and 506:Sahara 474:Arabia 461:, and 455:Maravi 447:Mutapa 433:, and 413:, and 407:Kitara 389:, and 373:, the 355:Sokoto 288:social 172:, the 136:Africa 122:, and 108:Mutapa 104:Maravi 90:, and 88:Mbunda 74:Iboina 72:, and 58:Rwanda 46:Ajuran 40:Major 14762:Index 14524:Sport 14504:Music 14499:Media 14183:South 14178:North 14107:South 14102:North 13820:Ceuta 13740:Sudan 13690:Niger 13645:Libya 13630:Kenya 13610:Ghana 13600:Gabon 13575:Egypt 13515:Benin 13293:S2CID 13273:(PDF) 12888:S2CID 12880:JSTOR 12804:JSTOR 12769:S2CID 12761:JSTOR 12718:S2CID 12710:JSTOR 12616:JSTOR 12283:JSTOR 12244:JSTOR 12194:(31). 11990:(PDF) 11578:JSTOR 11551:(PDF) 11475:(PDF) 11449:(PDF) 11423:(PDF) 10880:(PDF) 10862:(PDF) 10844:(PDF) 10772:JSTOR 10588:(PDF) 10581:(PDF) 10564:(PDF) 10540:JSTOR 10506:(PDF) 10484:JSTOR 10284:1968. 10174:S2CID 9829:S2CID 9742:: 1–9 9710:S2CID 9642:S2CID 9557:S2CID 9549:JSTOR 9300:JSTOR 9206:(PDF) 9166:(PDF) 9148:(PDF) 9126:S2CID 9110:JSTOR 9063:S2CID 8619:S2CID 8428:S2CID 8150:S2CID 8114:(PDF) 7564:JSTOR 7325:Notes 7180:Asian 7099:First 7051:Egypt 7039:Libya 6674:Ngoyo 6666:Vungu 6607:Sahel 6534:from 6406:. 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