Prenatal cocaine exposure

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speech and language development, behavior, physical and cognitive growth, and function. The more of the substance the fetus is exposed to the more of an effect it can have on the overall development as well as running the risk of being fatal to the fetus during the prenatal stage(s) of pregnancy. The effects of cocaine uses can cause for there to be an increased chance of the baby being born premature, affecting the body weight, height and the growth of the organs and brain due to the premature state of the baby as well as the impact of the harmful substances the baby was exposed to. This can have effects on other areas such as brain development, being exposed to a stimulant such as cocaine can cause damage and issues in development over time. In behavior, cognition, memory, grasping of information, and attention are areas that are common struggles for children that were exposed to cocaine in the womb. These effects are seen in individuals reaching the age of 10 and older. Long-term studies have shown that there are alterations made in the structure and function of the brain occur when exposed to these drugs with cause change in the behaviors of the individual over time and they develop and grow. All of the effects physically and cognitively all vary for each individual based on their level of exposure to the drug, the gestational timing of the infant as it develops, determine some physical effect that might have occurred and the care they receive after being born. Studies that use

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molecular, cellular, and behavioral levels. Animal Model Studies have shown that cocaine has the ability to cross the placenta and the blood brain barrier in the body. This is yet another example of the damage that can be done that can impact and effect the brain and body function and health overall. While the animal model is not as reliable for certain tests because we function differently, this test in particular gives us the idea of the level of damage that can be cause to the fetus of a pregnant women using cocaine during her pregnancy. In research studies on pregnant rats, injected cocaine did less damage to cells than injected nicotine, and more recovery occurred between doses. Adult rats that were exposed to cocaine prenatally have deficits in learning, memory, and motor skills, and may have abnormalities in dopamine processing. Animal research has also shown that offspring of males that used cocaine while their sperm were forming may go on to have abnormalities later in life.

232:, a disproportionate publication of studies indicating more severe outcomes as the crack epidemic emerged. Scientific studies that reported PCE to have significant effects were more likely to be published than those that did not. Between 1980 and 1989, 57% of studies showing cocaine has effects on a fetus were accepted by the Society for Pediatric Research, compared with only 11% of studies showing no effects. Findings that other factors such as prematurity were behind symptoms that cocaine-exposed babies showed did not "fit within the narrative of what had become a national scare" and were given less attention. Ideas about severe effects of PCE may have been more readily embraced because they "fit in with cultural stereotypes". 124: 205: 452:, but it must be collected as soon as possible after birth. It is not known how long after exposure the markers will still show up in a newborn's urine. The mother's urine can also be tested for drugs, but it cannot detect drugs used too far in the past or determine how much or how often the drugs were used. Tests cannot generally detect cocaine use over a week prior to sample collection. Mothers are more honest about cocaine use when their urine is also tested, but many users still deny it. Both maternal and neonatal urine tests can give 708: 794:. Those PCE children who had slowed brain growth as fetuses are at higher risk for impaired brain growth and motor, language and attention problems after they are born. Studies have found that children exposed to cocaine during fetal development experience problems with language, behavior, development, and attention. However these effects are small, especially when studies control for other factors like exposure to other drugs. Cognitive and attention skills can be impacted by PCE, possibly due to effects on brain areas such as the 521: 214: 1060:. Crack addiction, like other addictions, distracts parents from the child and leads to inattentive parenting. Mothers who continue to use drugs once their babies are born have trouble forming the normal parental bonds, more often interacting with their babies with a detached, unenthusiastic, flat demeanor. Conversely, low-stress environments and responsive caregiving may provide a protective effect on the child's brain, potentially compensating for negative effects of PCE. Many drug users do not get 166:, and many were abandoned in hospitals. They were expected to be unable to form normal social bonds. Experts foresaw the development of a "biological underclass" of born criminals who would prey on the rest of the population. Crime rates were predicted to rise when the generation of crack-exposed infants grew up (instead, they dropped). The children were predicted to be difficult to console, irritable, and hyperactive, putting a strain on the school system. 1049:, and prenatal exposure to other substances. Such environmental factors are known to adversely affect children in the same areas being studied with respect to PCE. Most women who use cocaine while pregnant use other drugs too; one study found that 93% of those who use cocaine or opiates also use tobacco, marijuana, or alcohol. When researchers control for use of other drugs, many of the seeming effects of cocaine on head size, birth weight, 611: 921: 1041:; the amount of cocaine a mother takes can vary; she may take a variety of drugs during pregnancy in addition to cocaine; measurements for detecting deficits may not be sensitive enough; and results that are found may only last a short time. Studies differ in how they define heavy or light cocaine use during pregnancy, and the time period of exposure during pregnancy on which they focus (e.g. first, second, or 652: 139:. During this time, fears arose throughout the country that PCE would create a generation of youth with severe behavioral and cognitive problems. Early studies in the mid-1980s reported that cocaine use in pregnancy caused children to have severe problems, including cognitive, developmental, and emotional disruption. These early studies had methodological problems, including small 830:. PCE girls are seven times more likely to have delinquent behavioral problems, but PCE boys are no more likely than other boys. Studies from the 2000s and 2010s are conflicted on whether PCE adolescents are at greater risk for use of drugs such as cocaine, alcohol, and marijuana. A 2010 study found that PCE adolescent girls were have anxiety than their non-exposed peers. 1004:. The social stigma of the drug also complicated studies of PCE; researchers labored under the awareness that their findings would have political implications. In addition, the perceived hopelessness of 'crack babies' may have caused researchers to ignore possibilities for early intervention that could have helped them. The social stigma may turn out to be a 940:, and distribution of drugs to a minor. However these approaches have generally been rejected in the courts on the basis that a fetus is not legally a child. Between 1985 and 2001, more than 200 women in over 30 US states faced prosecution for drug use during pregnancy. In South Carolina, a woman who used crack in her third 1000:. Children who were exposed to cocaine might be teased by others who knew of the exposure, and problems these children had might be misdiagnosed by doctors or others as resulting from PCE when they may really have been due to factors like illness or abuse. Commentators have characterized the phenomenon as a 798:. Brain areas in the frontal lobe involved in dealing with stress, attention, and impulsiveness seem to be particularly impacted by PCE, as evidenced by neuroimaging studies that show abnormalities in these areas of the brain. PCE infants have been shown to be more jittery and excitable and have lower 1083:

In some cases, it is not clear whether direct results of PCE lead to behavioral problems, or whether environmental factors are at fault. For example, children who have caregiver instability may have more behavioral problems as a result, or it may be that behavioral problems manifested by PCE children

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Of all cocaine users, women of childbearing age comprise 15–17%. An estimated 0.6 to 3% of pregnant women in the developed world use cocaine. A 1995 survey in the US found that between 30,000 and 160,000 cases of prenatal exposure to cocaine occur each year. By one estimate, in the US 100,000 babies

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between 15 and 20% of the time; however another large-scale study found no difference in rates of birth anomalies in PCE and non-PCE infants. It has been suggested that some birth defects could be due to cocaine's disruption of blood vessel growth. Most PCE-related congenital defects are found in the

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cocaine exposure on children over the age of five. Some studies have found PCE-related differences in height and weight, while others have not; these differences are generally either small or are gone by the time children are of school age. Much is unknown about what factors may exist to aid children

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would be severely emotionally, mentally, and physically disabled; this belief became common in the scientific and lay communities. Fears were widespread that a generation of cocaine exposed children was going to put severe strain on society and social services as they grew up. Later studies failed to

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that are frequently associated with PCE have a much stronger influence on children's intellectual and academic abilities than does exposure to cocaine in isolation. Thus, researchers have had difficulty in determining which effects result from PCE and which result from other factors in the children's

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in animals may not be in humans and vice versa. Animals cannot be used to measure differences in abilities such as reasoning that are only found in humans. Animal studies in various species have found that cocaine impacts brain structure, function, and chemistry, and causes long-term changes at the

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disorders or conditions have been found to result for people whose mothers used cocaine while pregnant. PCE appears to have little effect on infant growth. Studies focusing on children of six years and younger have not shown any direct, long-term effects of PCE on language, growth, or development as

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on constitutional grounds in 2001. Some advocates argue that punishment for crack-using pregnant women as a means to treat their addiction is a violation of their right to privacy. According to studies, fear of prosecution and having children taken away is associated with a refusal to seek prenatal

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show poorer behavioral inhibition than those with lower levels of exposure or unexposed children. The changes in behavior and attention caused by PCE are measurable by standardized scales; however these behavioral effects seem to be mild. Children exposed to cocaine in the first trimester are less

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Cocaine causes impaired growth of the fetus's brain, an effect that is most pronounced with high levels of cocaine and prolonged duration of exposure throughout all three trimesters of pregnancy. Prenatal cocaine exposure has been found to affect the cognitive performance of individuals and affect

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As of 2013, studies had shown small deficits in behavioral, cognitive, attention, emotional, and language function in PCE infants, children, and adolescents, but in 2015, other studies attributed findings of negative effects on cognitive development to confounding factors. Studies suggest that the

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One way to address problems with uncertainty about cocaine's effects due to confounding factors is to use animal models; these allow experimenters to study the effects at specific doses and times. Studies have used mice, other rodents, rabbits, and primates. However, differences between species'

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as babies and school-aged children; some experts say that the "crack baby" stigma was more harmful than the PCE. Teachers were affected by these cultural stereotypes; such biases may have negatively affected the educational experiences of children thus stigmatized. Teachers who knew that specific

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Messinger, D. S.; Bauer, C. R.; Das, A.; Seifer, R.; Lester, B. M.; Lagasse, L. L.; Wright, L. L.; Shankaran, S.; Bada, H. S.; Smeriglio, V. L.; Langer, J. C.; Beeghly, M.; Poole, W. K. (1 June 2004). "The Maternal Lifestyle Study: Cognitive, Motor, and Behavioral Outcomes of Cocaine-Exposed and

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study, cocaine-exposed children did not appear to score lower than others. Although PCE is correlated with low IQ scores, scientists generally believe that PCE alone does not cause this effect; rather, it is more likely due to associated factors. In school-aged and younger children, PCE does not

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with cocaine use. Cocaine reduces the appetite and has been linked with reduced maternal weight gain during pregnancy; in addition, constriction of the blood vessels may further limit supply of nutrients to the fetus. Using cocaine while pregnant also heightens the chances of maternal and fetal

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times mean findings in animals may not apply to humans. Mice, rats, and rabbits have shorter gestational times, so experimenters must continue giving drugs after they are born to more closely model human gestation; however this introduces more differences. Animals and humans metabolize drugs at

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Slowed growth is well documented in fetuses, but it is not as clear whether older children remain smaller or catch up to their peers. Some studies show that growth remains slowed for as many as ten years. PCE may also interfere with the way the motor system matures. Motor effects that have been

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Cocaine use during pregnancy can be discovered by asking the mother, but sometimes women will not admit to having used drugs. Mothers may lie for fear of prosecution or having their children taken away, but even when they are willing to tell the truth, their memories may not be very accurate.

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and premature birth. Cocaine has also been found to enhance the contractility of the tissue in the uterus, another factor that has been suggested as a possible mechanism for its contribution to increased prematurity rates. Increased contractility of the uterus may also be behind the increased

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and shorter bodies. PCE effects are more severe when the amounts of cocaine are greater. As many as 17–27% of cocaine-using pregnant women deliver prematurely. In association with prematurity, growth in the womb is reduced, and low birth weight is connected to PCE. Also, some data associate

309: 296:. More recently, the scientific community has begun to reach an understanding that PCE does have some important effects, but that they are not severe as was predicted in the early studies. The effects of PCE are subtle but they exist. Most people who were exposed to cocaine 806:, and a link has been found between the disorder itself and PCE. Mild deficits in language have been found in older PCE children. Language development is impaired, possibly into late adolescence, but adolescents up to age 17 may improve their receptive language skills. 481:. Whether the effects of PCE are increased once children reach adolescence was unknown in 2013, as was whether the neural rewiring that occurs during this developmental period attenuates the effects. A review of 27 studies performed between 2006 and 2012 found that 1084:

lead to greater turnover in caregivers. Other factors that make studying PCE difficult include unwillingness of mothers to tell the truth about drug history, uncertainty of dosages of street drugs and high rates of attrition (loss of participants) from studies.

1045:. Drug use by mothers puts children at high risk for exposure to toxic or otherwise dangerous environments, and PCE does not present much risk beyond these risk factors. PCE is clustered with other risk factors to the child, such as physical abuse and neglect, 2899:"Crack Babies, Moral Panic, and the Criminalization of Behavior During Pregnancy (From New War on Drugs: Symbolic Politics and Criminal Justice Policy, P 107-121, 1998, Eric L. Jensen and Jurg Gerber, eds. -- See NCJ-170568) | Office of Justice Programs" 421:

in the fetus; one study found that 6% of cocaine-exposed infants had had one or more strokes. Such prenatal strokes may be the cause of neurological problems found in some cocaine-exposed infants after birth. Blood vessel contraction can also cause

5553: 397:. The reduction in blood flow to the uterus limits the delivery of oxygen and nutrients to the fetus. Cocaine also constricts the blood vessels in the fetus, which is potentially linked to slowed fetal growth and abnormal development of the 2454:

Ostrea, Enrique M.; Knapp, D.Kirk; Tannenbaum, Libby; Ostrea, Anthony R.; Romero, Al; Salari, Valiollah; Ager, Joel (March 2001). "Estimates of illicit drug use during pregnancy by maternal interview, hair analysis, and meconium analysis".

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Bauer, Charles R.; Langer, John C.; Shankaran, Seetha; Bada, Henrietta S.; Lester, Barry; Wright, Linda L.; Krause-Steinrauf, Heidi; Smeriglio, Vincent L.; Finnegan, Loretta P.; Maza, Penelope L.; Verter, Joel (1 September 2005).

378:, and the constriction of blood vessels. The neurotransmitters affected by cocaine are involved in the development of the fetus's brain, so the drug may affect fetal development directly by altering the development of the brain's 1064:, for a variety of reasons including that they may not know they are pregnant. Many crack addicts get no medical care at all and have extremely poor diets, and children who live around crack smoking are at risk of inhaling 369:

Use of cocaine during pregnancy can negatively affect both the mother and the fetus, but the ways in which it affects the fetus are poorly understood. Three main mechanisms of cocaine exposure can harm a fetus, by altering

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At the time, the proposed mechanism by which cocaine harmed fetuses was as a stimulant— cocaine was predicted to disrupt normal development of parts of the brain that dealt with stimulation, resulting in problems such as

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A number of the effects that had been thought after early studies to be attributable to prenatal exposure to cocaine are actually due partially or wholly to other factors, such as exposure to other substances (including

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is the most harmful to the fetus in terms of neurological and developmental outcome. The effects of PCE later in a child's life are poorly understood; as of 2010 , little information was available about the effects of

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has no important effects. Almost every prenatal complication originally thought to be due directly to PCE was found to result from confounding factors such as poor maternal nutrition, use of other drugs,

102:"Crack baby" (or "cocaine baby" and "crack kid") was a term coined to describe children who were exposed to crack cocaine as fetuses, which emerged in the US during the 1980s and 1990s in the midst of a 6602: 500:

may affect the structure and function of the brain, predisposing children to developmental problems later, or these effects may be explained by children of crack-using mothers being at higher risk for

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during fetal development. School-age PCE children have been found to have trouble regulating their behavior and sustaining their attention. Children who had been exposed to high levels of cocaine

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in its system. The Supreme Court of South Carolina upheld this conviction. As of 2013, all but one of the women prosecuted in the US for drug use while pregnant have won their cases on appeal.

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As of 2014, studies had returned widely varying reports of the effects of PCE; some claimed the physical disabilities are severe and generalized, others find specific effects, others none all.

151:. For example, a 1985 study that showed harmful effects of cocaine use during pregnancy created a huge media buzz. The term "crack baby" resulted from the publicity surrounding crack and PCE. 324:

than it is in the mother's bloodstream. The skin of the fetus is able to absorb the chemical directly from the amniotic fluid until the 24th week of pregnancy. Cocaine can also show up in

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The timing of the dose of the drug is an important determinant of outcome, in addition to how much is used, for how long, and what kind of care is rendered after birth. Drug use in the

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and self-regulation; such behavioral effects may persist or worsen after 12 months of age. Children whose mothers used cocaine during pregnancy may develop symptoms akin to those of

6595: 48:. Babies whose mothers used cocaine while pregnant supposedly have increased risk of several different health issues during growth and development and are colloquially known as 184:, said, "crack babies ... won't ever achieve the intellectual development to have consciousness of God." These claims of biological inferiority played easily into existing 757:

environment in which a child grows up makes a more important contribution to outcome in cognitive, behavioral, and other outcomes than does the cocaine exposure itself.

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would never develop normally. The children were reported to be inevitably destined to be physically and mentally disabled for their whole lives. Babies exposed to crack

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PCE is very difficult to study because of a variety of factors that may confound the results: pre- and postnatal care may be poor; the pregnant mother and child may be

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Determining the purity of the drug they have taken also may not be possible. More reliable methods for detecting cocaine exposure involve testing the newborn's hair or

7560: 6588: 5573: 562:; however, by itself, cocaine exposure during fetal development has not subsequently been identified as a risk factor for the syndrome. Some PCE children experience 393:

in the fetus. Constricting blood vessels causes tissues to receive insufficient blood flow, killing cells, but this effect is less pronounced with cocaine than with

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substantiate the findings of earlier ones that PCE has severe disabling consequences; these earlier studies had been methodologically flawed (e.g. with small

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The harm to a child from PCE has implications for public policy and law. Some US states have pressed charges against pregnant women who use drugs, including

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sociable, more withdrawn, and show more anxious and depressed behaviors. Those exposed to higher doses of cocaine have been reported to show aggressive and

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appear in studies to predispose children to poorer intellectual performance. Poor performance on IQ tests could actually be due to trouble with sustaining

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and affect the nursing baby. The severity of effects depends on how much of the drug is used, how often, and the stage in the development of the fetus.

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After the early studies that reported that PCE children would be severely disabled came studies that purported to show that cocaine exposure

3400: 6094: 4051: 147:, and use of other drugs by the mothers. The results of the studies, though, sparked widespread media discussion in the context of the new 87:, and other conditions. The effects of cocaine on a fetus are thought to be similar to those of tobacco, and are less severe than those of 385:

Another possible mechanism by which cocaine harms the fetus may be in part by interfering with blood supply to the uterus. Cocaine causes

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Prenatal Exposure to Drugs/Alcohol: Characteristics And Educational Implications of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome And Cocaine/polydrug Effects

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Marrus, E (2002). "Crack babies and the Constitution: ruminations about addicted pregnant women after Ferguson v. City of Charleston".

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PCE is very difficult to study, because it rarely occurs in isolation; usually it coexists with a variety of other factors, which may

875:. Genital malformations occur at a higher-than-normal rate with PCE. The liver and lungs are also at higher risk for abnormalities. 1958: 6694: 6661: 6561: 5740: 1504: 972: 84: 528:

As of 2013, studies had found after controlling for other factors that some effects are present in pregnancies involving cocaine:

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Lamy, S.; Thibaut, F. (February 2010). "État des lieux de la consommation de substances psychoactives par les femmes enceintes".

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McCarthy DM, Kabir ZD, Bhide PG, Kosofsky BE (2014). "Effects of prenatal exposure to cocaine on brain structure and function".

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and confounding factors). Scientists have come to understand that the findings of the early studies may have been overstated.

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wrote in 1989, "heirs will be a life of certain suffering, of probable deviance, of permanent inferiority." The president of

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experienced by cocaine users is thought to be largely due to the way it prevents the serotonin from being reabsorbed by the

5828: 4743: 3549: 3424: 952: 904:. An estimated 7.5 million PCE children are living in the US. Pregnant women in urban parts of the US and who are of a low 551: 485:

was mildly to moderately affected in PCE adolescents, but how important these effects were in practical terms was unclear.

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Miller, PM; Blume, AW; Kavanaugh, DJ; Kampman, KM; Bates, ME; Larimer, ME; Petry, NM; Dewitte, P; Ball, SA (17 May 2013).

855:, arms and legs. Cocaine use by pregnant mothers may directly or indirectly contribute to defects in the formation of the 7555: 6654: 6174: 5543: 3805: 3717: 2043:

Eiden, Rina D.; McAuliffe, Shannon; Kachadourian, Lorig; Coles, Claire; Colder, Craig; Schuetze, Pamela (January 2009).

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for cocaine exposure, and a newborn may not have enough hair to test. The newborn's urine can be tested for cocaine and

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Frank, Deborah A.; Augustyn, Marilyn; Knight, Wanda Grant; Pell, Tripler; Zuckerman, Barry (28 March 2001).

971:, offers women addicted to cocaine money as an incentive to undergo long-term birth control or, frequently, 7565: 6984: 6949: 6304: 6294: 6249: 6234: 6214: 6204: 6179: 6159: 6089: 6049: 6039: 6029: 3662: 3559: 955:

tested pregnant women for cocaine, reporting those who tested positive to the police. The US Supreme Court

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Singer, Lynn T.; Arendt, R; Minnes, S; Farkas, K; Salvator, A; Kirchner, HL; Kliegman, R (17 April 2002).

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Cocaine is a small enough molecule to pass across the placental barrier into the bloodstream of the fetus.

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The US government published posters like this one in the 1980s and 1990s to warn people away from crack.

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system. The most important way cocaine affects fetal development is by binding to dopamine receptors.

67:, and those in foster care may experience problems due to unstable family situations. Factors such as 7385: 6513: 5760: 5494: 5439: 4572: 4183: 3652: 3519: 839:

documented include poorer reflexes and quality of movement in infants. PCE may have an effect on the

509: 289: 91:. No scientific evidence has shown a difference in harm to a fetus between crack and powder cocaine. 6580: 3333: 1626:"Prenatal exposure to drugs: effects on brain development and implications for policy and education" 6944: 6908: 6842: 6826: 6779: 6752: 6625: 5131: 4046: 3569: 1695: 1371: 1005: 997: 888: 872: 1474: 1163:"Developmental Consequences of Fetal Exposure to Drugs: What We Know and What We Still Must Learn" 7364: 6996: 6850: 6630: 5813: 5780: 5770: 5720: 5715: 5340: 4659: 4654: 3564: 674: 5803: 512:. As of 2008, when researchers were able to identify effects of PCE, they were typically small. 7450: 7411: 7242: 7140: 7020: 6960: 6939: 6898: 6887: 6831: 6734: 6699: 5894: 5330: 5325: 5061: 4862: 4666: 4595: 4094: 3795: 3273:

Wenzel, SL; Kosofsky, BE; Harvey, JA; Iguchi, MY; Steinberg, PS; Watkins, KE; Shaikh R (2001).

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into the bloodstream of the fetus. In fact, it may be present in a higher concentration in the

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Buckingham-Howes, Stacy; Berger, Sarah Shafer; Scaletti, Laura A.; Black, Maureen M. (2013).

1482: 840: 762: 482: 431:(the placenta tearing away from the uterine wall), which some findings have linked with PCE. 402: 2201:"Postnatal consequences of prenatal cocaine exposure and myocardial apoptosis: Does cocaine 593:; at least, such symptoms are difficult to separate in the context of other factors such as 570:), and reduced reflexes and motor function have been found in babies four to six weeks old. 492:, no set of characteristics has been discovered that results uniquely from cocaine exposure 7401: 7174: 6914: 6756: 6646: 6503: 6395: 5808: 5765: 5705: 5633: 5606: 5126: 5101: 5071: 5066: 4892: 4693: 3773: 3712: 3612: 3586: 2056: 905: 546: 398: 245: 3274: 2830: 2549:"Growth, Development, and Behavior in Early Childhood Following Prenatal Cocaine Exposure" 1231:"A Review of the Effects of Prenatal Cocaine Exposure Among School-Aged Children abstract" 8: 7434: 7319: 7263: 7253: 7096: 7007: 6861: 6856: 6748: 6719: 6473: 6410: 5978: 5914: 5648: 5350: 5272: 4719: 4703: 4649: 4533: 4041: 4026: 1768: 852: 670: 586: 529: 428: 172: 167: 20: 5169: 2287: 2260: 2060: 1696:"What ever happened to crack babies? Doctors shoot down crack baby theories and stigmas" 1528: 975:—an approach which has led to public outcry from those who consider this practice to be 721:

Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.

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Harvey JA (January 2004). "Cocaine effects on the developing brain: Current status".

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Addiction to any substance, including crack, may be a risk factor for child abuse or

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of the bowels. Early reports found that cocaine-exposed babies were at high risk for

501: 390: 336: 204: 177: 2797: 2781: 540:, and small size compared to babies of the same gestational time. PCE newborns have 63:, they may be malnourished and lacking in medical care, are at risk of violence and 7550: 7481: 6965: 6405: 5988: 5904: 5685: 5628: 5616: 5315: 5194: 5136: 5096: 5053: 4954: 4857: 4818: 4801: 4739: 4636: 3642: 3617: 2842: 2777: 2675: 2667: 2626: 2622: 2618: 2568: 2560: 2464: 2383: 2375: 2282: 2272: 2224: 2216: 2121: 2119: 2117: 2115: 2113: 2111: 2072: 2064: 2029: 2009: 1908: 1900: 1830: 1645: 1637: 1575: 1412: 1314: 1306: 1250: 1242: 1182: 1174: 876: 520: 406: 386: 237: 229: 1295:"Developmental and behavioral consequences of prenatal cocaine exposure: a review" 1161:

Ross, Emily J; Graham, Devon L; Money, Kelli M; Stanwood, Gregg D (18 June 2014).

843:, but more study is needed to determine whether it does and what the effects are. 7286: 7108: 6739: 6713: 6493: 6442: 6380: 5879: 5854: 5700: 5484: 5398: 5320: 5310: 5081: 5076: 4959: 4897: 4874: 4518: 4508: 4066: 4016: 3945: 3920: 3890: 3800: 3707: 3647: 1065: 1042: 787: 582: 505: 468: 423: 269: 2846: 2108: 1416: 7356: 7046: 6802: 6390: 6356: 6331: 5921: 5638: 5464: 5454: 5368: 5277: 5217: 5161: 4914: 4869: 4769: 4156: 4146: 4056: 3940: 3880: 3544: 3539: 3529: 3524: 3489: 1835: 1818: 1099: 453: 445: 414: 371: 347: 321: 193: 136: 103: 3351:

Drugs in pregnancy and lactation: A reference guide to fetal and neonatal risk

3207:"Claim 9: "Crack babies" can't be cured and will always have serious problems" 2831:"Testing Poor Pregnant Women for Cocaine — Physicians as Police Investigators" 2671: 2068: 887:

occurs, is also associated with PCE. Like birth defects, small head size, and

786:

have shown differences in brain structure of PCE children, for example in the

213: 7544: 6703: 6463: 6437: 6432: 6346: 5909: 5869: 5489: 5469: 5378: 5305: 5232: 5227: 5212: 5008: 4808: 4791: 4759: 4538: 4479: 4344: 4276: 4258: 4229: 4196: 4178: 4061: 4031: 4011: 3870: 3845: 3768: 3682: 3672: 3667: 3581: 3474: 3372:"Prenatal Cocaine and Marijuana Exposure: Research and Clinical Implications" 2934: 2605:

Ren, Jia-Qian; Malanga, C.J.; Tabit, Eddy; Kosofsky, Barry E. (August 2004).

2564: 2277: 1061: 1057: 988: 964: 944:

was sentenced to prison for eight years when her child was born with cocaine

884: 791: 594: 533: 379: 293: 76: 64: 37: 5207: 3276:

Prenatal Cocaine Exposure: Scientific Considerations and Policy Implications

2468: 2013: 154:

Media reports commonly emphasized that babies who had been exposed to crack

7202: 6351: 5899: 5601: 5287: 5106: 5041: 4986: 4934: 4813: 4779: 4731: 4627: 4445: 4301: 4214: 3900: 3895: 3875: 3855: 3841: 3785: 3632: 3514: 3464: 2854: 2789: 2689: 2640: 2582: 2514: 2476: 2397: 2296: 2238: 2220: 2086: 2021: 1922: 1904: 1889:"Systematic Review of Prenatal Cocaine Exposure and Adolescent Development" 1844: 1659: 1597: 1424: 1328: 1264: 1246: 1196: 1038: 951:

From 1989 to 1994, in the midst of public outcry about cocaine babies, the

933: 775: 574: 541: 537: 257: 253: 185: 148: 80: 3313: 3272: 2607:"Neuropathological consequences of prenatal cocaine exposure in the mouse" 2045:"Effects of prenatal cocaine exposure on infant reactivity and regulation" 7442: 7393: 5798: 5745: 5591: 5429: 5297: 5252: 5174: 5151: 4884: 4842: 4550: 4413: 4339: 4294: 4141: 4006: 4001: 3975: 3865: 3850: 3831: 3790: 3758: 3753: 3591: 3469: 3409: 3355:. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2364:"Methodological issues in assessing the impact of prenatal drug exposure" 1178: 1050: 1001: 937: 880: 567: 325: 181: 140: 112: 4079: 3294:

Volpe, JJ (2008). "Teratogenic effects of drugs and passive addiction".

3236:

Principles of Addiction: Comprehensive Addictive Behaviors and Disorders

2379: 7529: 7086: 7040: 5874: 5611: 5345: 5237: 4710: 4555: 4503: 4133: 3985: 3930: 3925: 3915: 3910: 3763: 3637: 3499: 3494: 3450: 1624:

Thompson, Barbara L.; Levitt, Pat; Stanwood, Gregg D. (11 March 2009).

1310: 945: 909: 563: 555: 449: 389:(narrowing of blood vessels) in both mother and fetus, which can cause 163: 7423: 6610: 6385: 6341: 5889: 5884: 5459: 5444: 5419: 5267: 5262: 5247: 5242: 5202: 5179: 5116: 4973: 4946: 4830: 4688: 4671: 4644: 4560: 4523: 4513: 4486: 4457: 4418: 4405: 4383: 4354: 4151: 3970: 3836: 3815: 3697: 3622: 3574: 3504: 3459: 1379: 1094: 1077: 1031: 814: 767: 343: 144: 1641: 1505:"Former crack baby: 'It's another stigma, another box to put me in'" 106:. Early studies reported that people who had been exposed to crack 7496: 7337: 7332: 7231: 7213: 7060: 6919: 5388: 5282: 5184: 4907: 4838: 4796: 4786: 4754: 4749: 4714: 4528: 4435: 4395: 4371: 4324: 4219: 4188: 4021: 3960: 3950: 3885: 3722: 3702: 3627: 3125:

Drugs, Crime, and Justice: Contemporary Perspectives, Third Edition

2701: 2699: 1886: 976: 441: 394: 359: 339: 332: 317: 56: 3187:

Avery's Neonatology: Pathophysiology and Management of the Newborn

1764:"Once written off, 'crack babies' have grown into success stories" 817:, possibly by affecting parts of the brain that are vulnerable to 7462: 7163: 5499: 5018: 5001: 4996: 4981: 4929: 4919: 4902: 4774: 4615: 4610: 4543: 4469: 4289: 4209: 3980: 3955: 3732: 2158: 1023: 799: 351: 261: 68: 33: 3001: 2999: 2809: 2807: 2696: 2419: 2417: 2415: 2413: 2411: 2409: 2407: 920: 444:(the infant's earliest stool). Hair analysis, however, can give 308: 7275: 5449: 5383: 4852: 4698: 4678: 4440: 4364: 4329: 4268: 3905: 3692: 3677: 3440: 3279:. RAND Drug Policy Research Center and NY Academy of Sciences. 3083: 2042: 868: 813:

cocaine exposure leads to problems with behavior and sustained

578: 418: 189: 59:

a study's results. Pregnant mothers who use cocaine, often use

900:

are born each year after having been exposed to crack cocaine

4585: 4423: 4376: 4239: 3810: 2996: 2986: 2984: 2971: 2969: 2879: 2804: 2434: 2432: 2404: 2324: 2177: 2175: 2173: 2098: 2096: 1819:"Acute Neonatal Effects of Cocaine Exposure During Pregnancy" 1229:

Ackerman, John P.; Riggins, Tracy; Black, Maureen M. (2010).

860: 818: 600: 265: 196:, favoring the direst predictions and shutting out skeptics. 41: 32:), theorized in the 1970s, occurs when a pregnant woman uses 6676: 846:

A review of the literature reported that cocaine use causes

573:

While newborns who were exposed prenatally to drugs such as

5474: 4991: 4605: 4474: 4462: 4430: 4248: 4171: 4166: 3596: 2746: 2453: 1344:"Encouraging new on babies born to cocaine-abusing mothers" 859:

and is associated with abnormalities in development of the

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Maternal Substance Abuse and the Developing Nervous System

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Women have been prosecuted for using crack while pregnant.

228:

Reporting on the effects of PCE may have been affected by

5574:

Council of the European Union decisions on designer drugs

5257: 4683: 4450: 2261:"Cognitive and Motor Outcomes of Cocaine-Exposed Infants" 2148: 2146: 2144: 2142: 2140: 2138: 1982: 1980: 1978: 1976: 1974: 1972: 1440: 1438: 1436: 1434: 1073: 770:

if the tests fail to account for this factor separately.

131:

During 1980s and 1990s, a surge occurred in use of crack

3298:. Vol. 22. Philadelphia: Saunders. pp. 1–648. 2258: 1815: 3045:

The Oxford Handbook of Externalizing Spectrum Disorders

2604: 2546: 1998: 1717: 1160: 2135: 1969: 1666: 1623: 1431: 1034:) or to the environment in which the child is raised. 996:

may have expected these children to be disruptive and

2654:

Lester, Barry M.; Lagasse, Linda L. (16 April 2010).

963:

Some nonprofit organizations aim to prevent PCE with

589:), this does not happen with babies exposed to crack 2000:

Opiate-Exposed Infants Through Three Years of Age".

1228: 987:

Children who were exposed to crack prenatally faced

2947: 2611:

International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience

1068:. Cocaine using mothers also have a higher rate of 871:of the heart, and can result in potentially deadly 3348: 3342: 3340: 3211: 3205: 3161: 3088:. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing. p. 136. 2164: 7561:Congenital malformation due to exogenous toxicity 6611:Congenital malformation due to substance exposure 3164:Gender Differences in Prenatal Substance Exposure 3041: 2705: 2357: 2355: 2353: 2351: 2349: 2347: 2345: 2343: 2341: 2339: 761:is mildly affected in older children. In a 2015 7542: 7214:Acute intoxication from hallucinogens (bad trip) 1953: 1951: 1882: 1880: 1878: 1876: 1874: 1823:Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 1335: 316:Cocaine, a small molecule, is able to cross the 3180: 3042:Beauchaine, TP; Hinshaw, SP (29 October 2015). 2752: 1872: 1870: 1868: 1866: 1864: 1862: 1860: 1858: 1856: 1854: 5122:Legal history of cannabis in the United States 3369: 3214:Child Development: Myths and Misunderstandings 3121: 3005: 2885: 2813: 2423: 2336: 6662: 6596: 4095: 3935:(American 'crib' and 'cradle', British 'cot') 3425: 3232: 2724: 2722: 2720: 2718: 2716: 2714: 2653: 2125: 1948: 1619: 1617: 1615: 1613: 1611: 1609: 1607: 1565: 1563: 1561: 1559: 1557: 1555: 1553: 1551: 912:of cocaine use by pregnant women is unknown. 681:. Please discuss this issue on the article's 4122: 3143:Goldberg, R (2009). "Cocaine amphetamines". 3122:Gaines, LK; Kremling, J (11 December 2013). 3084:Connors, GJ; Maisto, SA; Galizio, M (2007). 3062: 2990: 2975: 2527: 2438: 2361: 2330: 2314: 2312: 2310: 2308: 2306: 2181: 2102: 1938: 1936: 1934: 1932: 1851: 1783: 1781: 1779: 1292: 1224: 1222: 1220: 1218: 1216: 1214: 1212: 1210: 1208: 1206: 883:has three lobes, the brain is deformed, and 863:. Heart malformations can include a missing 7219:Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder 3370:Zuckerman, B; Frank, DA (2 December 2012). 3341:Yaffe, SJ; Briggs, GG; Freeman, RA (2008). 3142: 2763: 2761: 2496: 2494: 2492: 2490: 2488: 2486: 2449: 2447: 2254: 2252: 2250: 2248: 1992: 1757: 1755: 1753: 1751: 1749: 1747: 1745: 1449:sfn error: no target: CITEREFGoldberg2009 ( 1402: 1288: 1286: 1284: 1282: 1280: 1278: 1276: 1274: 1098:different rates, and drugs that are highly 915: 639:Learn how and when to remove these messages 6669: 6655: 6603: 6589: 5850:Arguments for and against drug prohibition 4102: 4088: 3439: 3432: 3418: 3181:MacDonald, MG; Seshia, MM (29 July 2015). 3025:Meyler's Side Effects of Psychiatric Drugs 2958:sfn error: no target: CITEREFConnors2007 ( 2824: 2822: 2734: 2711: 2542: 2540: 2538: 2536: 1811: 1809: 1807: 1805: 1803: 1604: 1548: 1503:Reed, Todd; Hoye, Sarah (March 10, 2015). 1372:"Crack-vs.-powder disparity is questioned" 908:use cocaine more often. However, the real 601:Mental, emotional, and behavioral outcomes 162:were written off as doomed to be severely 4109: 3183:"Maternal Drugs and the Developing Fetus" 3048:. Oxford University Press, Incorporated. 2767: 2679: 2630: 2572: 2387: 2303: 2286: 2276: 2228: 2194: 2192: 2190: 2076: 1959:"Crack Babies: A Tale From the Drug Wars" 1929: 1912: 1834: 1776: 1649: 1522: 1520: 1518: 1496: 1472: 1318: 1254: 1203: 1186: 1156: 1154: 1152: 1150: 1148: 1146: 1144: 1142: 1140: 1138: 1136: 879:, a congenital malformation in which the 744:Learn how and when to remove this message 413:. Cocaine causes changes in the mother's 276:, and obstruction of blood supply in the 5824:Psilocybin decriminalization in the U.S. 5521: 2861: 2770:Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 2758: 2647: 2600: 2598: 2596: 2594: 2592: 2483: 2444: 2245: 1742: 1689: 1687: 1685: 1683: 1681: 1529:"Crack babies: The epidemic that wasn't" 1502: 1444: 1398: 1396: 1369: 1293:Lambert, BL; Bauer, CR (November 2012). 1271: 1134: 1132: 1130: 1128: 1126: 1124: 1122: 1120: 1118: 1116: 919: 519: 459: 307: 122: 85:attention deficit hyperactivity disorder 7349:Kindling (sedative–hypnotic withdrawal) 5860:Capital punishment for drug trafficking 4915:Neocannabinoid / synthetic cannabinoids 3401:Crack Babies: A Tale from the Drug Wars 3102: 2953: 2819: 2533: 2368:Substance Abuse: Research and Treatment 2152: 2036: 1986: 1800: 1787: 1693: 1672: 1363: 222:Powder (left) and crack cocaine (right) 7543: 7492:Chronic solvent-induced encephalopathy 5751:Office of National Drug Control Policy 5539:International drug control conventions 3203: 3063:Chandler, LS; Lane, SJ (3 June 2014). 2500: 2187: 1761: 1736: 1526: 1515: 1341: 1016: 515: 7016:Alcohol-induced respiratory reactions 6650: 6584: 5942: 5520: 5092:List of cannabis rights organizations 5039: 4121: 4083: 3413: 2828: 2589: 1678: 1468: 1466: 1464: 1462: 1460: 1393: 1113: 597:or prenatal exposure to other drugs. 374:, altering the expression of certain 118: 3550:Infant respiratory distress syndrome 3253: 3066:Children With Prenatal Drug Exposure 2198: 953:Medical University of South Carolina 833: 701: 645: 604: 417:that are thought to be the cause of 274:bleeding into the brain's ventricles 3374:. In Zagon, IS; Slotkin TA (eds.). 3022: 2740: 2728: 2318: 992:children had been exposed to crack 957:found the policy to be unacceptable 358:and evoking a stress response. The 143:, confounding factors such as poor 13: 7523:Anabolic-androgenic steroids abuse 7152:Synthetic cannabinoid use disorder 5644:Law Enforcement Action Partnership 3166:. American Psychological Society. 1762:Vargas, Theresa (April 18, 2010). 1580:10.1016/B978-0-444-63425-2.00012-X 1574:. Vol. 211. pp. 277–89. 1475:"Crack babies: Twenty years later" 1457: 354:longer, causing excitement of the 303: 14: 7577: 7072:Caffeine-induced anxiety disorder 5661:Students for Sensible Drug Policy 3394: 3293: 2923:"Opinion | Slandering the Unborn" 2869:"Sterilisation for drug addicts?" 1942: 620:This article has multiple issues. 581:frequently have symptoms of drug 7125:Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome 5666:Transform Drug Policy Foundation 5560:Other treaties addressing drugs 5040: 2829:Annas, George J. (31 May 2001). 2165:Yaffe, Briggs & Freeman 2008 1087: 982: 706: 665:to read and navigate comfortably 650: 609: 212: 203: 7082:Caffeine-induced sleep disorder 6974:Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder 6621:Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder 6499:Regulation of therapeutic goods 6423:Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder 5984:Opium production in Afghanistan 3485:Breastfeeding and mental health 3105:Concepts of Chemical Dependency 3027:. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science. 3023:Aronson, JK (2008). "Cocaine". 3015: 2915: 2891: 2835:New England Journal of Medicine 2782:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2003.11.006 2209:British Journal of Pharmacology 1070:sexually transmitted infections 894: 628:or discuss these issues on the 7476:Sudden sniffing death syndrome 7131:Intravenous marijuana syndrome 6725:Post-acute-withdrawal syndrome 6447:of tobacco or other substances 2623:10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2004.05.003 2049:Neurotoxicology and Teratology 1370:Lavoie D (December 25, 2007). 1: 7303:Opioid-induced endocrinopathy 6479:Needle and syringe programmes 6428:Long-term effects of cannabis 5829:Psilocybin mushrooms legality 5756:School district drug policies 3480:Breastfeeding and medications 3162:Lewis, M; Kestler, L (2011). 2706:Beauchaine & Hinshaw 2015 2660:Journal of Addictive Diseases 2199:Feng, Qingping (April 2005). 1106: 1053:, and prematurity disappear. 552:respiratory distress syndrome 7516:Anabolic-androgenic steroids 7043:(alcohol use disorder (AUD)) 6985:Positional alcohol nystagmus 6950:Alcohol-related brain damage 5549:1971 Psychotropic Substances 4042:Neonatal withdrawal syndrome 3663:Infant cognitive development 3560:Neonatal intensive care unit 2656:"Children of Addicted Women" 930:assault with a deadly weapon 587:neonatal abstinence syndrome 560:sudden infant death syndrome 477:who were exposed to cocaine 434: 7: 7380:Benzodiazepine use disorder 7309:Opioid-induced constipation 7297:Opioid-induced hyperalgesia 6991:Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome 6955:Alcohol withdrawal syndrome 6744:Substance-related disorders 6709:Substance-induced psychosis 6681:substance-related disorders 6337:Pharmaceutical distribution 5974:Coca production in Colombia 5425:Counterculture of the 1960s 3966:Supplemental nursing system 2847:10.1056/NEJM200105313442219 2753:MacDonald & Seshia 2015 1630:Nature Reviews Neuroscience 1527:Okie S (January 26, 2009). 1417:10.1016/j.encep.2008.12.009 1342:Okie S (February 7, 2009). 1011: 960:care or medical treatment. 673:content into sub-articles, 300:are normal or close to it. 10: 7582: 7556:Health issues in pregnancy 7077:Caffeine-induced psychosis 7008:Respiratory tract diseases 6993:(WKS, Korsakoff psychosis) 6790:Combined drug intoxication 6509:Substance abuse prevention 6484:Opioid replacement therapy 3718:Prenatal development table 3658:Irritant diaper dermatitis 3218:. Sage Publications, Inc. 3006:Zuckerman & Frank 2012 2886:Gaines & Kremling 2013 2814:Gaines & Kremling 2013 2424:Zuckerman & Frank 2012 1836:10.1001/archpedi.159.9.824 1788:Greider, K (August 1995). 1572:Progress in Brain Research 804:attention deficit disorder 780:magnetic resonance imaging 356:sympathetic nervous system 242:attention deficit disorder 99:measured by test scores. 18: 7507: 7461: 7422: 7386:Benzodiazepine dependence 7370:Benzodiazepine withdrawal 7331: 7274: 7230: 7201: 7180:Prenatal cocaine exposure 7162: 7107: 7059: 7033: 7006: 6928: 6897: 6878: 6843:Gastrointestinal diseases 6841: 6817: 6810: 6801: 6767: 6687: 6636:Prenatal cocaine exposure 6616: 6522: 6514:Supervised injection site 6456: 6371: 5997: 5964: 5953: 5949: 5943: 5938: 5842: 5804:Anabolic steroid legality 5791: 5676: 5584: 5569:Convention Against Doping 5564:Law of the Sea Convention 5531: 5527: 5516: 5495:Urban legends about drugs 5407: 5359: 5296: 5193: 5160: 5052: 5048: 5035: 4972: 4945: 4883: 4829: 4730: 4635: 4626: 4571: 4404: 4267: 4132: 4128: 4117: 4037:Prenatal cocaine exposure 3994: 3825:Infant care and equipment 3824: 3742:Socialization and Culture 3741: 3653:Infant visual development 3605: 3520:Infant and toddler safety 3448: 3258:. Charles C. Thomas Ltd. 3189:. Wolters Kluwer Health. 3145:Drugs Across the Spectrum 2672:10.1080/10550881003684921 2457:The Journal of Pediatrics 2205:imperil the adult heart?" 2069:10.1016/j.ntt.2008.08.005 1694:Ornes S (December 2006). 1473:Martin, M (May 3, 2010). 932:, corruption of a minor, 715:This section needs to be 350:. Thus, they stay in the 26:Prenatal cocaine exposure 6945:Alcoholic polyneuropathy 6909:Alcohol-related dementia 6827:Alcoholic cardiomyopathy 6780:Polysubstance dependence 6753:Psychological dependence 6626:Fetal hydantoin syndrome 6310:Turks and Caicos Islands 5819:Methamphetamine legality 5132:Marijuana Policy Project 4123:Major recreational drugs 4047:Parental child abduction 3570:Oral rehydration therapy 3296:Neurology of the Newborn 3107:. Wadsworth Publishing. 2991:Chandler & Lane 2014 2976:Chandler & Lane 2014 2565:10.1001/jama.285.12.1613 2528:Chandler & Lane 2014 2439:Chandler & Lane 2014 2331:Chandler & Lane 2014 2278:10.1001/jama.287.15.1952 2182:Chandler & Lane 2014 2103:Chandler & Lane 2014 1006:self-fulfilling prophecy 916:Legal and ethical issues 873:congestive heart failure 250:gastrointestinal systems 40:and thereby exposes her 7365:Benzodiazepine overdose 6997:Wernicke encephalopathy 6851:Alcoholic liver disease 6819:Cardiovascular diseases 6631:Fetal warfarin syndrome 5087:Cannabis rights leaders 4052:Parental responsibility 3565:Newborn care and safety 2469:10.1067/mpd.2001.111429 2362:Konijnenberg C (2015). 2014:10.1542/peds.113.6.1677 1299:Journal of Perinatology 1167:Neuropsychopharmacology 998:developmentally delayed 967:. One such initiative, 809:Evidence suggests that 411:musculoskeletal systems 75:PCE is associated with 61:other drugs in addition 7451:Amphetamine dependence 7412:Barbiturate dependence 7243:Green Tobacco Sickness 7141:Amotivational syndrome 7021:Alcoholic lung disease 6961:Alcoholic hallucinosis 6940:Alcoholic hallucinosis 6888:Alcoholic ketoacidosis 6832:Alcohol flush reaction 6700:Substance intoxication 5895:Politics of drug abuse 4863:Mandragora officinarum 3796:Grandparent visitation 2221:10.1038/sj.bjp.0706130 1905:10.1542/peds.2012-0945 1247:10.1542/peds.2009-0637 942:trimester of pregnancy 925: 550:vitamin deficiencies, 525: 490:fetal alcohol syndrome 313: 278:central nervous system 192:. Reporting was often 128: 7146:Cannabis use disorder 6869:Auto-brewery syndrome 6255:Saint Kitts and Nevis 5554:1988 Drug Trafficking 5147:Cannabis and religion 4111:Recreational drug use 3555:Infant sleep training 3403:, a documentary from 1483:National Public Radio 923: 867:and defects with the 841:neuroendocrine system 523: 483:cognitive development 460:Effects and prognosis 331:Cocaine prevents the 311: 126: 19:Further information: 7402:Barbiturate overdose 7175:Cocaine intoxication 6915:Alcohol intoxication 6757:Substance dependence 6504:Responsible drug use 6315:United Arab Emirates 5634:Drug Policy Alliance 5522:Legality of drug use 5127:Legality of cannabis 5102:Cannabis Social Club 5072:Cannabis cultivation 5067:Cannabis consumption 4898:Cannabis (Marijuana) 4720:Psilocybin mushrooms 3713:Prenatal development 3613:Attachment parenting 3587:Shaken baby syndrome 3103:Doweiko, HE (2008). 2503:Villanova Law Review 1700:discovermagazine.com 1179:10.1038/npp.2014.147 906:socioeconomic status 828:disruptive behaviors 547:spontaneous abortion 7566:Drugs and pregnancy 7435:Stimulant psychosis 7320:Opioid use disorder 7264:Nicotine dependence 7254:Nicotine withdrawal 7097:Caffeine dependence 6857:Alcoholic hepatitis 6749:Physical dependence 6720:Neonatal withdrawal 6562:Tobacco consumption 6532:Alcohol consumption 6474:Drug rehabilitation 6411:Effects of cannabis 6135:Indian Ocean region 5915:Philippine drug war 5544:1961 Narcotic Drugs 4225:nail polish remover 4027:Infant ear piercing 2380:10.4137/SART.S23544 2061:2009NTxT...31...60E 1769:The Washington Post 1017:Confounding factors 853:genitourinary tract 516:Pregnancy and birth 510:maternal depression 496:. Cocaine exposure 429:placental abruption 173:The Washington Post 168:Charles Krauthammer 21:Neonatal withdrawal 7249:Nicotine poisoning 7191:Cocaine dependence 7120:Cannabis arteritis 6980:Korsakoff syndrome 6880:Endocrine diseases 6418:Drug-related crime 6095:Dominican Republic 6005:Illegal drug trade 5480:Religion and drugs 5435:Drug paraphernalia 5415:Chasing the dragon 5374:Fashion cigarettes 4955:Calea zacatechichi 4650:Psychoactive toads 4360:Mitragyna speciosa 4312:Dextropropoxyphene 4254:Nonbenzodiazepines 4162:Alcoholic beverage 3535:Infant food safety 3405:The New York Times 3239:. Academic Press. 3204:Mercer, J (2009). 3128:. Waveland Press. 3086:Drug Use and Abuse 2927:The New York Times 2374:(Suppl 2): 39–44. 1963:The New York Times 1899:(6): e1917–e1936. 1534:The New York Times 1509:Al Jazeera America 1349:The New York Times 1311:10.1038/jp.2012.90 969:Project Prevention 926: 891:are risks in PCE. 857:circulatory system 848:congenital defects 759:School performance 554:for the baby, and 526: 506:deadbeat parenting 366:that released it. 364:presynaptic neuron 314: 170:, a columnist for 129: 119:Historical context 7538: 7537: 7292:Opioid withdrawal 7055: 7054: 7029: 7028: 6644: 6643: 6578: 6577: 6574: 6573: 6570: 6569: 6489:Pharmacovigilance 6469:Drug legalization 6367: 6366: 5934: 5933: 5930: 5929: 5865:Cognitive liberty 5809:Cannabis legality 5597:Decriminalization 5512: 5511: 5508: 5507: 5394:Smoking fetishism 5031: 5030: 5027: 5026: 4968: 4967: 4848:Atropa belladonna 4215:contact adhesives 4157:Ethanol (alcohol) 4077: 4076: 3937: 3774:Children's rights 3688:Object permanence 3510:Failure to thrive 3385:978-0-08-092667-4 3362:978-0-7817-7876-3 3305:978-1-4160-3995-2 3286:978-0-8330-3001-6 3265:978-0-398-07635-1 3254:Soby, JM (2006). 3246:978-0-12-398361-9 3225:978-1-4129-5646-8 3196:978-1-4963-1868-8 3173:978-1-4338-1033-6 3154:978-0-495-55793-7 3135:978-1-4786-1318-3 3114:978-0-495-50580-8 3095:978-0-495-09207-0 3076:978-1-317-82688-0 3055:978-0-19-932467-5 3034:978-0-444-53266-4 2875:. 10 August 2010. 2841:(22): 1729–1732. 2333:, pp. 24–25. 1965:. 15 August 2013. 1739:, pp. 62–64. 1704:Discover Magazine 1589:978-0-444-63425-2 1047:domestic violence 834:Physical outcomes 796:prefrontal cortex 754: 753: 746: 736: 735: 700: 699: 643: 530:abruptio placenta 502:domestic violence 337:neurotransmitters 178:Boston University 7573: 7482:Toluene toxicity 6966:Delirium tremens 6862:Zieve's syndrome 6815: 6814: 6808: 6807: 6671: 6664: 6657: 6648: 6647: 6605: 6598: 6591: 6582: 6581: 6406:Drug harmfulness 6401:Driving impaired 6220:Papua New Guinea 5989:Rolling meth lab 5962: 5961: 5951: 5950: 5940: 5939: 5905:Mexican drug war 5814:Cocaine legality 5799:Alcohol legality 5629:Demand reduction 5617:Supply reduction 5529: 5528: 5518: 5517: 5195:Drinking culture 5137:Medical cannabis 5097:Cannabis smoking 5054:Cannabis culture 5050: 5049: 5037: 5036: 5013:recreational use 4858:Hyoscyamus niger 4819:Salvia divinorum 4802:Amanita muscaria 4764:recreational use 4744:recreational use 4633: 4632: 4201:recreational use 4130: 4129: 4119: 4118: 4104: 4097: 4090: 4081: 4080: 3933: 3618:Baby-led weaning 3434: 3427: 3420: 3411: 3410: 3389: 3366: 3354: 3346: 3337: 3331: 3327: 3325: 3317: 3290: 3269: 3250: 3229: 3217: 3209: 3200: 3177: 3158: 3139: 3118: 3099: 3080: 3059: 3038: 3009: 3003: 2994: 2988: 2979: 2973: 2964: 2963: 2951: 2945: 2944: 2942: 2941: 2919: 2913: 2912: 2910: 2909: 2895: 2889: 2883: 2877: 2876: 2865: 2859: 2858: 2826: 2817: 2811: 2802: 2801: 2765: 2756: 2750: 2744: 2738: 2732: 2726: 2709: 2703: 2694: 2693: 2683: 2651: 2645: 2644: 2634: 2617:(5–6): 309–320. 2602: 2587: 2586: 2576: 2544: 2531: 2525: 2519: 2518: 2498: 2481: 2480: 2451: 2442: 2436: 2427: 2421: 2402: 2401: 2391: 2359: 2334: 2328: 2322: 2316: 2301: 2300: 2290: 2280: 2256: 2243: 2242: 2232: 2196: 2185: 2179: 2168: 2162: 2156: 2150: 2133: 2123: 2106: 2100: 2091: 2090: 2080: 2040: 2034: 2033: 2008:(6): 1677–1685. 1996: 1990: 1984: 1967: 1966: 1955: 1946: 1940: 1927: 1926: 1916: 1884: 1849: 1848: 1838: 1813: 1798: 1797: 1790:"Crackpot ideas" 1785: 1774: 1773: 1759: 1740: 1734: 1715: 1714: 1712: 1710: 1691: 1676: 1670: 1664: 1663: 1653: 1621: 1602: 1601: 1567: 1546: 1545: 1543: 1541: 1524: 1513: 1512: 1500: 1494: 1493: 1491: 1489: 1470: 1455: 1454: 1442: 1429: 1428: 1400: 1391: 1390: 1388: 1386: 1367: 1361: 1360: 1358: 1356: 1339: 1333: 1332: 1322: 1290: 1269: 1268: 1258: 1226: 1201: 1200: 1190: 1158: 877:Cloverleaf skull 749: 742: 731: 728: 722: 710: 709: 702: 695: 692: 686: 654: 653: 646: 635: 613: 612: 605: 387:vasoconstriction 238:bipolar disorder 230:publication bias 216: 207: 16:Medical syndrome 7581: 7580: 7576: 7575: 7574: 7572: 7571: 7570: 7541: 7540: 7539: 7534: 7503: 7464: 7457: 7418: 7336: 7327: 7287:Opioid overdose 7270: 7226: 7197: 7158: 7103: 7051: 7025: 7002: 6931: 6924: 6901:system diseases 6900: 6893: 6874: 6837: 6797: 6769: 6763: 6740:Substance abuse 6683: 6675: 6645: 6640: 6612: 6609: 6579: 6566: 6524: 6518: 6494:Reagent testing 6452: 6443:Passive smoking 6373: 6363: 5993: 5979:Drug precursors 5966: 5957: 5955: 5945: 5926: 5880:Drug possession 5855:Cannabis rights 5838: 5834:Salvia legality 5787: 5678: 5672: 5580: 5523: 5504: 5485:Self-medication 5403: 5399:Tobacco smoking 5361:Smoking culture 5355: 5292: 5189: 5156: 5112:Cannabis vaping 5082:Cannabis rights 5077:Cannabis edible 5044: 5023: 4964: 4960:Silene capensis 4941: 4879: 4875:Diphenhydramine 4825: 4726: 4622: 4567: 4519:Methylphenidate 4509:Methamphetamine 4400: 4263: 4147:Benzodiazepines 4124: 4113: 4108: 4078: 4073: 4067:Paternity fraud 4017:Closed adoption 3990: 3946:Infant clothing 3921:Haberman Feeder 3891:Car seat safety 3820: 3801:Infant swimming 3779:UN Child rights 3737: 3648:Gestational age 3601: 3444: 3438: 3397: 3392: 3386: 3363: 3329: 3328: 3319: 3318: 3306: 3287: 3266: 3247: 3226: 3197: 3174: 3155: 3147:. Brooks Cole. 3136: 3115: 3096: 3077: 3056: 3035: 3018: 3013: 3012: 3004: 2997: 2989: 2982: 2974: 2967: 2957: 2952: 2948: 2939: 2937: 2921: 2920: 2916: 2907: 2905: 2897: 2896: 2892: 2884: 2880: 2867: 2866: 2862: 2827: 2820: 2812: 2805: 2766: 2759: 2751: 2747: 2739: 2735: 2727: 2712: 2704: 2697: 2652: 2648: 2603: 2590: 2559:(12): 1613–25. 2545: 2534: 2526: 2522: 2499: 2484: 2452: 2445: 2437: 2430: 2422: 2405: 2360: 2337: 2329: 2325: 2317: 2304: 2271:(15): 1952–60. 2257: 2246: 2197: 2188: 2180: 2171: 2163: 2159: 2151: 2136: 2124: 2109: 2101: 2094: 2041: 2037: 1997: 1993: 1985: 1970: 1957: 1956: 1949: 1941: 1930: 1885: 1852: 1814: 1801: 1786: 1777: 1760: 1743: 1735: 1718: 1708: 1706: 1692: 1679: 1671: 1667: 1642:10.1038/nrn2598 1622: 1605: 1590: 1568: 1549: 1539: 1537: 1525: 1516: 1501: 1497: 1487: 1485: 1471: 1458: 1448: 1443: 1432: 1401: 1394: 1384: 1382: 1368: 1364: 1354: 1352: 1340: 1336: 1305:(11): 819–828. 1291: 1272: 1227: 1204: 1159: 1114: 1109: 1093:physiology and 1090: 1066:secondary smoke 1043:third trimester 1019: 1014: 985: 918: 897: 836: 788:cerebral cortex 750: 739: 738: 737: 732: 726: 723: 720: 711: 707: 696: 690: 687: 668: 655: 651: 614: 610: 603: 518: 469:first trimester 462: 454:false negatives 446:false positives 437: 424:premature labor 372:brain chemistry 306: 304:Pathophysiology 270:cerebral cortex 258:small head size 226: 225: 224: 223: 219: 218: 217: 209: 208: 121: 77:premature birth 23: 17: 12: 11: 5: 7579: 7569: 7568: 7563: 7558: 7553: 7536: 7535: 7533: 7532: 7527: 7526: 7525: 7511: 7509: 7505: 7504: 7502: 7501: 7500: 7499: 7497:Inhalant abuse 7494: 7486: 7485: 7484: 7479: 7469: 7467: 7459: 7458: 7456: 7455: 7454: 7453: 7439: 7438: 7437: 7428: 7426: 7420: 7419: 7417: 7416: 7415: 7414: 7406: 7405: 7404: 7390: 7389: 7388: 7383: 7374: 7373: 7372: 7367: 7357:benzodiazepine 7353: 7352: 7351: 7342: 7340: 7329: 7328: 7326: 7325: 7324: 7323: 7314: 7313: 7312: 7306: 7300: 7294: 7289: 7280: 7278: 7272: 7271: 7269: 7268: 7267: 7266: 7258: 7257: 7256: 7251: 7246: 7236: 7234: 7228: 7227: 7225: 7224: 7223: 7222: 7216: 7207: 7205: 7199: 7198: 7196: 7195: 7194: 7193: 7185: 7184: 7183: 7177: 7168: 7166: 7160: 7159: 7157: 7156: 7155: 7154: 7149: 7143: 7135: 7134: 7133: 7128: 7122: 7113: 7111: 7105: 7104: 7102: 7101: 7100: 7099: 7091: 7090: 7089: 7084: 7079: 7074: 7065: 7063: 7057: 7056: 7053: 7052: 7050: 7049: 7047:Binge drinking 7044: 7037: 7035: 7031: 7030: 7027: 7026: 7024: 7023: 7018: 7012: 7010: 7004: 7003: 7001: 7000: 6994: 6988: 6982: 6977: 6971: 6970: 6969: 6963: 6952: 6947: 6942: 6936: 6934: 6926: 6925: 6923: 6922: 6917: 6912: 6905: 6903: 6895: 6894: 6892: 6891: 6884: 6882: 6876: 6875: 6873: 6872: 6866: 6865: 6864: 6859: 6847: 6845: 6839: 6838: 6836: 6835: 6829: 6823: 6821: 6812: 6805: 6799: 6798: 6796: 6795: 6794: 6793: 6784: 6783: 6782: 6773: 6771: 6765: 6764: 6762: 6761: 6760: 6759: 6746: 6732: 6731: 6730: 6729: 6728: 6722: 6711: 6706: 6691: 6689: 6685: 6684: 6674: 6673: 6666: 6659: 6651: 6642: 6641: 6639: 6638: 6633: 6628: 6623: 6617: 6614: 6613: 6608: 6607: 6600: 6593: 6585: 6576: 6575: 6572: 6571: 6568: 6567: 6565: 6564: 6559: 6554: 6553: 6552: 6547: 6539: 6534: 6528: 6526: 6520: 6519: 6517: 6516: 6511: 6506: 6501: 6496: 6491: 6486: 6481: 6476: 6471: 6466: 6460: 6458: 6457:Harm reduction 6454: 6453: 6451: 6450: 6449: 6448: 6440: 6435: 6430: 6425: 6420: 6415: 6414: 6413: 6403: 6398: 6393: 6391:Date rape drug 6388: 6383: 6377: 6375: 6369: 6368: 6365: 6364: 6362: 6361: 6360: 6359: 6357:Liquor license 6354: 6349: 6344: 6334: 6332:Darknet market 6329: 6328: 6327: 6322: 6317: 6312: 6307: 6302: 6297: 6292: 6287: 6282: 6277: 6272: 6267: 6262: 6257: 6252: 6247: 6242: 6237: 6232: 6227: 6222: 6217: 6212: 6207: 6202: 6197: 6192: 6187: 6182: 6177: 6172: 6167: 6162: 6157: 6152: 6147: 6142: 6137: 6132: 6127: 6122: 6117: 6112: 6107: 6102: 6097: 6092: 6087: 6082: 6077: 6072: 6067: 6062: 6057: 6052: 6047: 6042: 6037: 6032: 6027: 6022: 6017: 6012: 6001: 5999: 5995: 5994: 5992: 5991: 5986: 5981: 5976: 5970: 5968: 5959: 5947: 5946: 5936: 5935: 5932: 5931: 5928: 5927: 5925: 5924: 5922:Zero tolerance 5919: 5918: 5917: 5912: 5907: 5897: 5892: 5887: 5882: 5877: 5872: 5867: 5862: 5857: 5852: 5846: 5844: 5840: 5839: 5837: 5836: 5831: 5826: 5821: 5816: 5811: 5806: 5801: 5795: 5793: 5789: 5788: 5786: 5785: 5784: 5783: 5778: 5773: 5768: 5763: 5758: 5753: 5748: 5738: 5733: 5728: 5723: 5718: 5713: 5708: 5703: 5698: 5696:Czech Republic 5693: 5688: 5682: 5680: 5674: 5673: 5671: 5670: 5669: 5668: 5663: 5658: 5657: 5656: 5649:Liberalization 5646: 5641: 5639:Harm reduction 5636: 5631: 5621: 5620: 5619: 5614: 5609: 5604: 5599: 5588: 5586: 5582: 5581: 5579: 5578: 5577: 5576: 5571: 5566: 5558: 5557: 5556: 5551: 5546: 5535: 5533: 5525: 5524: 5514: 5513: 5510: 5509: 5506: 5505: 5503: 5502: 5497: 5492: 5487: 5482: 5477: 5472: 5467: 5465:Party and play 5462: 5457: 5455:Needle sharing 5452: 5447: 5442: 5437: 5432: 5427: 5422: 5417: 5411: 5409: 5405: 5404: 5402: 5401: 5396: 5391: 5386: 5381: 5376: 5371: 5369:Cigarette card 5365: 5363: 5357: 5356: 5354: 5353: 5348: 5343: 5338: 5333: 5328: 5323: 5318: 5313: 5308: 5302: 5300: 5294: 5293: 5291: 5290: 5285: 5280: 5278:Tailgate party 5275: 5270: 5265: 5260: 5255: 5250: 5245: 5240: 5235: 5230: 5228:Drinking games 5225: 5220: 5218:Binge drinking 5215: 5210: 5205: 5199: 5197: 5191: 5190: 5188: 5187: 5182: 5177: 5172: 5166: 5164: 5162:Coffee culture 5158: 5157: 5155: 5154: 5149: 5144: 5139: 5134: 5129: 5124: 5119: 5114: 5109: 5104: 5099: 5094: 5089: 5084: 5079: 5074: 5069: 5064: 5058: 5056: 5046: 5045: 5033: 5032: 5029: 5028: 5025: 5024: 5022: 5021: 5016: 5006: 5005: 5004: 4999: 4989: 4984: 4978: 4976: 4970: 4969: 4966: 4965: 4963: 4962: 4957: 4951: 4949: 4943: 4942: 4940: 4939: 4938: 4937: 4932: 4927: 4922: 4912: 4911: 4910: 4905: 4900: 4889: 4887: 4881: 4880: 4878: 4877: 4872: 4870:Dimenhydrinate 4867: 4866: 4865: 4860: 4855: 4850: 4835: 4833: 4827: 4826: 4824: 4823: 4822: 4821: 4811: 4806: 4805: 4804: 4794: 4789: 4784: 4783: 4782: 4777: 4772: 4770:alkyl nitrites 4767: 4752: 4747: 4736: 4734: 4728: 4727: 4725: 4724: 4723: 4722: 4708: 4707: 4706: 4701: 4696: 4694:Peruvian torch 4686: 4681: 4676: 4675: 4674: 4664: 4663: 4662: 4657: 4652: 4641: 4639: 4630: 4624: 4623: 4621: 4620: 4619: 4618: 4613: 4603: 4598: 4593: 4592: 4591: 4583: 4577: 4575: 4569: 4568: 4566: 4565: 4564: 4563: 4558: 4548: 4547: 4546: 4541: 4536: 4526: 4521: 4516: 4511: 4506: 4501: 4496: 4495: 4494: 4484: 4483: 4482: 4477: 4467: 4466: 4465: 4455: 4454: 4453: 4448: 4443: 4433: 4428: 4427: 4426: 4416: 4410: 4408: 4402: 4401: 4399: 4398: 4393: 4392: 4391: 4381: 4380: 4379: 4369: 4368: 4367: 4357: 4352: 4351: 4350: 4342: 4337: 4336: 4335: 4327: 4322: 4321: 4320: 4317: 4309: 4308: 4307: 4299: 4298: 4297: 4287: 4286: 4285: 4282: 4273: 4271: 4265: 4264: 4262: 4261: 4259:Quinazolinones 4256: 4251: 4246: 4245: 4244: 4243: 4242: 4234: 4233: 4232: 4227: 4222: 4217: 4206: 4205: 4204: 4186: 4181: 4179:Gabapentinoids 4176: 4175: 4174: 4169: 4164: 4154: 4149: 4144: 4138: 4136: 4126: 4125: 4115: 4114: 4107: 4106: 4099: 4092: 4084: 4075: 4074: 4072: 4071: 4070: 4069: 4059: 4057:Parenting plan 4054: 4049: 4044: 4039: 4034: 4029: 4024: 4019: 4014: 4009: 4004: 3998: 3996: 3992: 3991: 3989: 3988: 3983: 3978: 3973: 3968: 3963: 3958: 3953: 3948: 3943: 3941:Infant carrier 3938: 3928: 3923: 3918: 3913: 3908: 3903: 3898: 3893: 3888: 3883: 3881:Baby transport 3878: 3873: 3868: 3863: 3858: 3853: 3848: 3839: 3834: 3828: 3826: 3822: 3821: 3819: 3818: 3813: 3808: 3803: 3798: 3793: 3788: 3783: 3782: 3781: 3771: 3766: 3761: 3756: 3751: 3745: 3743: 3739: 3738: 3736: 3735: 3730: 3725: 3720: 3715: 3710: 3705: 3700: 3695: 3690: 3685: 3680: 3675: 3670: 3665: 3660: 3655: 3650: 3645: 3640: 3635: 3630: 3625: 3620: 3615: 3609: 3607: 3603: 3602: 3600: 3599: 3594: 3589: 3584: 3579: 3578: 3577: 3567: 3562: 3557: 3552: 3547: 3545:Infant massage 3542: 3540:Infant formula 3537: 3532: 3530:Infant feeding 3527: 3525:Infant bathing 3522: 3517: 3512: 3507: 3502: 3497: 3492: 3490:Bottle feeding 3487: 3482: 3477: 3472: 3467: 3462: 3456: 3454: 3446: 3445: 3443:and their care 3437: 3436: 3429: 3422: 3414: 3408: 3407: 3396: 3395:External links 3393: 3391: 3390: 3384: 3367: 3361: 3338: 3330:|journal= 3304: 3291: 3285: 3270: 3264: 3251: 3245: 3230: 3224: 3201: 3195: 3178: 3172: 3159: 3153: 3140: 3134: 3119: 3113: 3100: 3094: 3081: 3075: 3060: 3054: 3039: 3033: 3019: 3017: 3014: 3011: 3010: 3008:, p. 125. 2995: 2980: 2965: 2946: 2929:. 2018-12-28. 2914: 2890: 2888:, p. 452. 2878: 2860: 2818: 2816:, p. 453. 2803: 2757: 2745: 2733: 2710: 2708:, p. 427. 2695: 2666:(2): 259–276. 2646: 2588: 2532: 2520: 2509:(2): 299–340. 2482: 2463:(3): 344–348. 2443: 2428: 2426:, p. 127. 2403: 2335: 2323: 2302: 2244: 2215:(7): 887–888. 2186: 2169: 2167:, p. 417. 2157: 2155:, p. 241. 2134: 2132:, p. 197. 2107: 2092: 2035: 1991: 1989:, p. 240. 1968: 1947: 1928: 1850: 1799: 1775: 1741: 1716: 1677: 1675:, p. 239. 1665: 1636:(4): 303–312. 1603: 1588: 1547: 1514: 1495: 1456: 1447:, p. 228. 1430: 1392: 1362: 1334: 1270: 1241:(3): 554–565. 1202: 1111: 1110: 1108: 1105: 1089: 1086: 1018: 1015: 1013: 1010: 984: 981: 917: 914: 896: 893: 851:brain, heart, 835: 832: 752: 751: 734: 733: 714: 712: 705: 698: 697: 677:it, or adding 658: 656: 649: 644: 618: 617: 615: 608: 602: 599: 524:Premature baby 517: 514: 461: 458: 436: 433: 427:likelihood of 415:blood pressure 403:cardiovascular 348:norepinephrine 322:amniotic fluid 305: 302: 292:, and lack of 221: 220: 211: 210: 202: 201: 200: 199: 198: 137:crack epidemic 120: 117: 104:crack epidemic 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7578: 7567: 7564: 7562: 7559: 7557: 7554: 7552: 7549: 7548: 7546: 7531: 7528: 7524: 7521: 7520: 7518: 7517: 7513: 7512: 7510: 7506: 7498: 7495: 7493: 7490: 7489: 7487: 7483: 7480: 7477: 7474: 7473: 7471: 7470: 7468: 7466: 7460: 7452: 7449: 7448: 7446: 7444: 7440: 7436: 7433: 7432: 7430: 7429: 7427: 7425: 7421: 7413: 7410: 7409: 7407: 7403: 7400: 7399: 7397: 7395: 7391: 7387: 7384: 7381: 7378: 7377: 7375: 7371: 7368: 7366: 7363: 7362: 7360: 7358: 7354: 7350: 7347: 7346: 7344: 7343: 7341: 7339: 7334: 7330: 7321: 7318: 7317: 7315: 7310: 7307: 7304: 7301: 7298: 7295: 7293: 7290: 7288: 7285: 7284: 7282: 7281: 7279: 7277: 7273: 7265: 7262: 7261: 7259: 7255: 7252: 7250: 7247: 7244: 7241: 7240: 7238: 7237: 7235: 7233: 7229: 7220: 7217: 7215: 7212: 7211: 7209: 7208: 7206: 7204: 7200: 7192: 7189: 7188: 7186: 7181: 7178: 7176: 7173: 7172: 7170: 7169: 7167: 7165: 7161: 7153: 7150: 7147: 7144: 7142: 7139: 7138: 7136: 7132: 7129: 7126: 7123: 7121: 7118: 7117: 7115: 7114: 7112: 7110: 7106: 7098: 7095: 7094: 7092: 7088: 7085: 7083: 7080: 7078: 7075: 7073: 7070: 7069: 7067: 7066: 7064: 7062: 7058: 7048: 7045: 7042: 7039: 7038: 7036: 7032: 7022: 7019: 7017: 7014: 7013: 7011: 7009: 7005: 6998: 6995: 6992: 6989: 6986: 6983: 6981: 6978: 6975: 6972: 6967: 6964: 6962: 6959: 6958: 6956: 6953: 6951: 6948: 6946: 6943: 6941: 6938: 6937: 6935: 6933: 6927: 6921: 6918: 6916: 6913: 6910: 6907: 6906: 6904: 6902: 6896: 6889: 6886: 6885: 6883: 6881: 6877: 6870: 6867: 6863: 6860: 6858: 6855: 6854: 6852: 6849: 6848: 6846: 6844: 6840: 6833: 6830: 6828: 6825: 6824: 6822: 6820: 6816: 6813: 6809: 6806: 6804: 6800: 6791: 6788: 6787: 6785: 6781: 6778: 6777: 6775: 6774: 6772: 6770:substance use 6766: 6758: 6754: 6750: 6747: 6745: 6741: 6738: 6737: 6736: 6733: 6726: 6723: 6721: 6718: 6717: 6715: 6712: 6710: 6707: 6705: 6704:Drug overdose 6701: 6698: 6697: 6696: 6693: 6692: 6690: 6686: 6682: 6679: 6672: 6667: 6665: 6660: 6658: 6653: 6652: 6649: 6637: 6634: 6632: 6629: 6627: 6624: 6622: 6619: 6618: 6615: 6606: 6601: 6599: 6594: 6592: 6587: 6586: 6583: 6563: 6560: 6558: 6555: 6551: 6548: 6546: 6543: 6542: 6540: 6538: 6535: 6533: 6530: 6529: 6527: 6523:Countries by 6521: 6515: 6512: 6510: 6507: 6505: 6502: 6500: 6497: 6495: 6492: 6490: 6487: 6485: 6482: 6480: 6477: 6475: 6472: 6470: 6467: 6465: 6464:Drug checking 6462: 6461: 6459: 6455: 6446: 6445: 6444: 6441: 6439: 6436: 6434: 6433:Neurotoxicity 6431: 6429: 6426: 6424: 6421: 6419: 6416: 6412: 6409: 6408: 6407: 6404: 6402: 6399: 6397: 6394: 6392: 6389: 6387: 6384: 6382: 6379: 6378: 6376: 6370: 6358: 6355: 6353: 6350: 6348: 6347:Cannabis shop 6345: 6343: 6340: 6339: 6338: 6335: 6333: 6330: 6326: 6323: 6321: 6320:United States 6318: 6316: 6313: 6311: 6308: 6306: 6303: 6301: 6298: 6296: 6293: 6291: 6288: 6286: 6283: 6281: 6278: 6276: 6273: 6271: 6268: 6266: 6263: 6261: 6258: 6256: 6253: 6251: 6248: 6246: 6243: 6241: 6238: 6236: 6233: 6231: 6228: 6226: 6223: 6221: 6218: 6216: 6213: 6211: 6208: 6206: 6203: 6201: 6198: 6196: 6193: 6191: 6188: 6186: 6183: 6181: 6178: 6176: 6175:Latin America 6173: 6171: 6168: 6166: 6163: 6161: 6158: 6156: 6153: 6151: 6148: 6146: 6143: 6141: 6138: 6136: 6133: 6131: 6128: 6126: 6123: 6121: 6118: 6116: 6113: 6111: 6108: 6106: 6103: 6101: 6098: 6096: 6093: 6091: 6088: 6086: 6083: 6081: 6078: 6076: 6073: 6071: 6068: 6066: 6063: 6061: 6058: 6056: 6053: 6051: 6048: 6046: 6043: 6041: 6038: 6036: 6033: 6031: 6028: 6026: 6023: 6021: 6018: 6016: 6013: 6011: 6008: 6007: 6006: 6003: 6002: 6000: 5996: 5990: 5987: 5985: 5982: 5980: 5977: 5975: 5972: 5971: 5969: 5963: 5960: 5952: 5948: 5941: 5937: 5923: 5920: 5916: 5913: 5911: 5910:Plan Colombia 5908: 5906: 5903: 5902: 5901: 5898: 5896: 5893: 5891: 5888: 5886: 5883: 5881: 5878: 5876: 5873: 5871: 5870:Designer drug 5868: 5866: 5863: 5861: 5858: 5856: 5853: 5851: 5848: 5847: 5845: 5841: 5835: 5832: 5830: 5827: 5825: 5822: 5820: 5817: 5815: 5812: 5810: 5807: 5805: 5802: 5800: 5797: 5796: 5794: 5792:Drug legality 5790: 5782: 5779: 5777: 5774: 5772: 5769: 5767: 5764: 5762: 5759: 5757: 5754: 5752: 5749: 5747: 5744: 5743: 5742: 5741:United States 5739: 5737: 5734: 5732: 5729: 5727: 5724: 5722: 5719: 5717: 5714: 5712: 5709: 5707: 5704: 5702: 5699: 5697: 5694: 5692: 5689: 5687: 5684: 5683: 5681: 5675: 5667: 5664: 5662: 5659: 5655: 5654:Latin America 5652: 5651: 5650: 5647: 5645: 5642: 5640: 5637: 5635: 5632: 5630: 5627: 5626: 5625: 5624:Policy reform 5622: 5618: 5615: 5613: 5610: 5608: 5605: 5603: 5600: 5598: 5595: 5594: 5593: 5590: 5589: 5587: 5583: 5575: 5572: 5570: 5567: 5565: 5562: 5561: 5559: 5555: 5552: 5550: 5547: 5545: 5542: 5541: 5540: 5537: 5536: 5534: 5532:International 5530: 5526: 5519: 5515: 5501: 5498: 5496: 5493: 5491: 5490:Sex and drugs 5488: 5486: 5483: 5481: 5478: 5476: 5473: 5471: 5470:Poly drug use 5468: 5466: 5463: 5461: 5458: 5456: 5453: 5451: 5448: 5446: 5443: 5441: 5438: 5436: 5433: 5431: 5428: 5426: 5423: 5421: 5418: 5416: 5413: 5412: 5410: 5406: 5400: 5397: 5395: 5392: 5390: 5387: 5385: 5382: 5380: 5379:Cloud-chasing 5377: 5375: 5372: 5370: 5367: 5366: 5364: 5362: 5358: 5352: 5349: 5347: 5344: 5342: 5339: 5337: 5334: 5332: 5329: 5327: 5324: 5322: 5319: 5317: 5314: 5312: 5309: 5307: 5306:Psychonautics 5304: 5303: 5301: 5299: 5295: 5289: 5286: 5284: 5281: 5279: 5276: 5274: 5271: 5269: 5266: 5264: 5261: 5259: 5256: 5254: 5251: 5249: 5246: 5244: 5241: 5239: 5236: 5234: 5233:Drinking song 5231: 5229: 5226: 5224: 5223:Diethyl ether 5221: 5219: 5216: 5214: 5213:Beer festival 5211: 5209: 5206: 5204: 5201: 5200: 5198: 5196: 5192: 5186: 5183: 5181: 5178: 5176: 5173: 5171: 5168: 5167: 5165: 5163: 5159: 5153: 5150: 5148: 5145: 5143: 5140: 5138: 5135: 5133: 5130: 5128: 5125: 5123: 5120: 5118: 5115: 5113: 5110: 5108: 5105: 5103: 5100: 5098: 5095: 5093: 5090: 5088: 5085: 5083: 5080: 5078: 5075: 5073: 5070: 5068: 5065: 5063: 5060: 5059: 5057: 5055: 5051: 5047: 5043: 5038: 5034: 5020: 5017: 5014: 5010: 5009:Nitrous oxide 5007: 5003: 5000: 4998: 4995: 4994: 4993: 4990: 4988: 4985: 4983: 4980: 4979: 4977: 4975: 4971: 4961: 4958: 4956: 4953: 4952: 4950: 4948: 4944: 4936: 4933: 4931: 4928: 4926: 4923: 4921: 4918: 4917: 4916: 4913: 4909: 4906: 4904: 4901: 4899: 4896: 4895: 4894: 4891: 4890: 4888: 4886: 4882: 4876: 4873: 4871: 4868: 4864: 4861: 4859: 4856: 4854: 4851: 4849: 4846: 4845: 4844: 4840: 4837: 4836: 4834: 4832: 4828: 4820: 4817: 4816: 4815: 4812: 4810: 4807: 4803: 4800: 4799: 4798: 4795: 4793: 4790: 4788: 4785: 4781: 4778: 4776: 4773: 4771: 4768: 4765: 4761: 4760:Nitrous oxide 4758: 4757: 4756: 4753: 4751: 4748: 4745: 4741: 4738: 4737: 4735: 4733: 4732:Dissociatives 4729: 4721: 4718: 4717: 4716: 4712: 4709: 4705: 4702: 4700: 4697: 4695: 4692: 4691: 4690: 4687: 4685: 4682: 4680: 4677: 4673: 4670: 4669: 4668: 4665: 4661: 4658: 4656: 4653: 4651: 4648: 4647: 4646: 4643: 4642: 4640: 4638: 4634: 4631: 4629: 4628:Hallucinogens 4625: 4617: 4614: 4612: 4609: 4608: 4607: 4604: 4602: 4599: 4597: 4594: 4589: 4588: 4587: 4584: 4582: 4579: 4578: 4576: 4574: 4570: 4562: 4559: 4557: 4554: 4553: 4552: 4549: 4545: 4542: 4540: 4537: 4535: 4532: 4531: 4530: 4527: 4525: 4522: 4520: 4517: 4515: 4512: 4510: 4507: 4505: 4502: 4500: 4497: 4493: 4490: 4489: 4488: 4485: 4481: 4478: 4476: 4473: 4472: 4471: 4468: 4464: 4461: 4460: 4459: 4456: 4452: 4449: 4447: 4446:Energy drinks 4444: 4442: 4439: 4438: 4437: 4434: 4432: 4429: 4425: 4422: 4421: 4420: 4417: 4415: 4412: 4411: 4409: 4407: 4403: 4397: 4394: 4390: 4387: 4386: 4385: 4382: 4378: 4375: 4374: 4373: 4370: 4366: 4363: 4362: 4361: 4358: 4356: 4353: 4348: 4347: 4346: 4345:Hydromorphone 4343: 4341: 4338: 4333: 4332: 4331: 4328: 4326: 4323: 4318: 4315: 4314: 4313: 4310: 4305: 4304: 4303: 4300: 4296: 4293: 4292: 4291: 4288: 4283: 4280: 4279: 4278: 4277:Buprenorphine 4275: 4274: 4272: 4270: 4266: 4260: 4257: 4255: 4252: 4250: 4247: 4241: 4238: 4237: 4235: 4231: 4230:Paint thinner 4228: 4226: 4223: 4221: 4218: 4216: 4213: 4212: 4211: 4207: 4202: 4198: 4197:Nitrous oxide 4195: 4194: 4192: 4191: 4190: 4187: 4185: 4182: 4180: 4177: 4173: 4170: 4168: 4165: 4163: 4160: 4159: 4158: 4155: 4153: 4150: 4148: 4145: 4143: 4140: 4139: 4137: 4135: 4131: 4127: 4120: 4116: 4112: 4105: 4100: 4098: 4093: 4091: 4086: 4085: 4082: 4068: 4065: 4064: 4063: 4060: 4058: 4055: 4053: 4050: 4048: 4045: 4043: 4040: 4038: 4035: 4033: 4032:Open adoption 4030: 4028: 4025: 4023: 4020: 4018: 4015: 4013: 4012:Child neglect 4010: 4008: 4005: 4003: 4000: 3999: 3997: 3993: 3987: 3984: 3982: 3979: 3977: 3974: 3972: 3969: 3967: 3964: 3962: 3959: 3957: 3954: 3952: 3949: 3947: 3944: 3942: 3939: 3936: 3932: 3929: 3927: 3924: 3922: 3919: 3917: 3914: 3912: 3909: 3907: 3904: 3902: 3899: 3897: 3894: 3892: 3889: 3887: 3884: 3882: 3879: 3877: 3874: 3872: 3869: 3867: 3864: 3862: 3859: 3857: 3854: 3852: 3849: 3847: 3846:Hidden camera 3843: 3840: 3838: 3835: 3833: 3830: 3829: 3827: 3823: 3817: 3814: 3812: 3809: 3807: 3804: 3802: 3799: 3797: 3794: 3792: 3789: 3787: 3784: 3780: 3777: 3776: 3775: 3772: 3770: 3769:Child custody 3767: 3765: 3762: 3760: 3757: 3755: 3752: 3750: 3747: 3746: 3744: 3740: 3734: 3731: 3729: 3726: 3724: 3721: 3719: 3716: 3714: 3711: 3709: 3706: 3704: 3701: 3699: 3696: 3694: 3691: 3689: 3686: 3684: 3683:Nursery rhyme 3681: 3679: 3676: 3674: 3673:Kangaroo care 3671: 3669: 3668:Infant crying 3666: 3664: 3661: 3659: 3656: 3654: 3651: 3649: 3646: 3644: 3641: 3639: 3636: 3634: 3631: 3629: 3626: 3624: 3621: 3619: 3616: 3614: 3611: 3610: 3608: 3604: 3598: 3595: 3593: 3590: 3588: 3585: 3583: 3582:Preterm birth 3580: 3576: 3573: 3572: 3571: 3568: 3566: 3563: 3561: 3558: 3556: 3553: 3551: 3548: 3546: 3543: 3541: 3538: 3536: 3533: 3531: 3528: 3526: 3523: 3521: 3518: 3516: 3513: 3511: 3508: 3506: 3503: 3501: 3498: 3496: 3493: 3491: 3488: 3486: 3483: 3481: 3478: 3476: 3475:Breastfeeding 3473: 3471: 3468: 3466: 3463: 3461: 3458: 3457: 3455: 3452: 3447: 3442: 3435: 3430: 3428: 3423: 3421: 3416: 3415: 3412: 3406: 3402: 3399: 3398: 3387: 3381: 3377: 3373: 3368: 3364: 3358: 3353: 3352: 3345: 3339: 3335: 3323: 3315: 3311: 3307: 3301: 3297: 3292: 3288: 3282: 3278: 3277: 3271: 3267: 3261: 3257: 3252: 3248: 3242: 3238: 3237: 3231: 3227: 3221: 3216: 3215: 3208: 3202: 3198: 3192: 3188: 3184: 3179: 3175: 3169: 3165: 3160: 3156: 3150: 3146: 3141: 3137: 3131: 3127: 3126: 3120: 3116: 3110: 3106: 3101: 3097: 3091: 3087: 3082: 3078: 3072: 3069:. Routledge. 3068: 3067: 3061: 3057: 3051: 3047: 3046: 3040: 3036: 3030: 3026: 3021: 3020: 3007: 3002: 3000: 2993:, p. 22. 2992: 2987: 2985: 2978:, p. 28. 2977: 2972: 2970: 2961: 2955: 2950: 2936: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2918: 2904: 2900: 2894: 2887: 2882: 2874: 2870: 2864: 2856: 2852: 2848: 2844: 2840: 2836: 2832: 2825: 2823: 2815: 2810: 2808: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2783: 2779: 2776:(8): 751–64. 2775: 2771: 2764: 2762: 2754: 2749: 2742: 2737: 2730: 2725: 2723: 2721: 2719: 2717: 2715: 2707: 2702: 2700: 2691: 2687: 2682: 2677: 2673: 2669: 2665: 2661: 2657: 2650: 2642: 2638: 2633: 2628: 2624: 2620: 2616: 2612: 2608: 2601: 2599: 2597: 2595: 2593: 2584: 2580: 2575: 2570: 2566: 2562: 2558: 2554: 2550: 2543: 2541: 2539: 2537: 2530:, p. 25. 2529: 2524: 2516: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2497: 2495: 2493: 2491: 2489: 2487: 2478: 2474: 2470: 2466: 2462: 2458: 2450: 2448: 2441:, p. 20. 2440: 2435: 2433: 2425: 2420: 2418: 2416: 2414: 2412: 2410: 2408: 2399: 2395: 2390: 2385: 2381: 2377: 2373: 2369: 2365: 2358: 2356: 2354: 2352: 2350: 2348: 2346: 2344: 2342: 2340: 2332: 2327: 2320: 2315: 2313: 2311: 2309: 2307: 2298: 2294: 2289: 2284: 2279: 2274: 2270: 2266: 2262: 2255: 2253: 2251: 2249: 2240: 2236: 2231: 2226: 2222: 2218: 2214: 2210: 2206: 2204: 2195: 2193: 2191: 2184:, p. 24. 2183: 2178: 2176: 2174: 2166: 2161: 2154: 2149: 2147: 2145: 2143: 2141: 2139: 2131: 2129: 2122: 2120: 2118: 2116: 2114: 2112: 2105:, p. 23. 2104: 2099: 2097: 2088: 2084: 2079: 2074: 2070: 2066: 2062: 2058: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2039: 2031: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2011: 2007: 2003: 1995: 1988: 1983: 1981: 1979: 1977: 1975: 1973: 1964: 1960: 1954: 1952: 1944: 1939: 1937: 1935: 1933: 1924: 1920: 1915: 1910: 1906: 1902: 1898: 1894: 1890: 1883: 1881: 1879: 1877: 1875: 1873: 1871: 1869: 1867: 1865: 1863: 1861: 1859: 1857: 1855: 1846: 1842: 1837: 1832: 1829:(9): 824–34. 1828: 1824: 1820: 1812: 1810: 1808: 1806: 1804: 1795: 1791: 1784: 1782: 1780: 1771: 1770: 1765: 1758: 1756: 1754: 1752: 1750: 1748: 1746: 1738: 1733: 1731: 1729: 1727: 1725: 1723: 1721: 1705: 1701: 1697: 1690: 1688: 1686: 1684: 1682: 1674: 1669: 1661: 1657: 1652: 1647: 1643: 1639: 1635: 1631: 1627: 1620: 1618: 1616: 1614: 1612: 1610: 1608: 1599: 1595: 1591: 1585: 1581: 1577: 1573: 1566: 1564: 1562: 1560: 1558: 1556: 1554: 1552: 1536: 1535: 1530: 1523: 1521: 1519: 1510: 1506: 1499: 1484: 1480: 1476: 1469: 1467: 1465: 1463: 1461: 1452: 1446: 1445:Goldberg 2009 1441: 1439: 1437: 1435: 1426: 1422: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1406: 1399: 1397: 1381: 1377: 1373: 1366: 1351: 1350: 1345: 1338: 1330: 1326: 1321: 1316: 1312: 1308: 1304: 1300: 1296: 1289: 1287: 1285: 1283: 1281: 1279: 1277: 1275: 1266: 1262: 1257: 1252: 1248: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1232: 1225: 1223: 1221: 1219: 1217: 1215: 1213: 1211: 1209: 1207: 1198: 1194: 1189: 1184: 1180: 1176: 1172: 1168: 1164: 1157: 1155: 1153: 1151: 1149: 1147: 1145: 1143: 1141: 1139: 1137: 1135: 1133: 1131: 1129: 1127: 1125: 1123: 1121: 1119: 1117: 1112: 1104: 1101: 1096: 1088:Animal models 1085: 1081: 1079: 1075: 1071: 1067: 1063: 1062:prenatal care 1059: 1054: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1035: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1009: 1007: 1003: 999: 995: 990: 989:social stigma 983:Social stigma 980: 978: 974: 973:sterilization 970: 966: 965:birth control 961: 958: 954: 949: 947: 943: 939: 935: 931: 922: 913: 911: 907: 903: 892: 890: 886: 885:hydrocephalus 882: 878: 874: 870: 866: 862: 858: 854: 849: 844: 842: 831: 829: 824: 820: 816: 812: 807: 805: 801: 797: 793: 792:limbic system 789: 785: 781: 777: 771: 769: 764: 760: 748: 745: 730: 718: 713: 704: 703: 694: 684: 680: 676: 672: 666: 664: 659:This section 657: 648: 647: 642: 640: 633: 632: 627: 626: 621: 616: 607: 606: 598: 596: 592: 588: 584: 580: 576: 571: 569: 565: 561: 557: 553: 548: 543: 542:smaller heads 539: 535: 531: 522: 513: 511: 507: 503: 499: 495: 491: 486: 484: 480: 475: 470: 465: 457: 455: 451: 447: 443: 432: 430: 425: 420: 416: 412: 408: 404: 400: 399:genitourinary 396: 392: 388: 383: 381: 380:monoaminergic 377: 373: 367: 365: 361: 357: 353: 349: 345: 341: 338: 334: 329: 327: 323: 319: 310: 301: 299: 295: 294:prenatal care 291: 286: 281: 279: 275: 271: 267: 263: 259: 255: 251: 247: 246:genitourinary 243: 239: 233: 231: 215: 206: 197: 195: 191: 190:racial biases 187: 183: 180:at the time, 179: 175: 174: 169: 165: 161: 157: 152: 150: 146: 142: 138: 134: 133:cocaine in US 125: 116: 114: 109: 105: 100: 97: 92: 90: 86: 82: 81:birth defects 78: 73: 70: 66: 65:child neglect 62: 58: 53: 51: 47: 43: 39: 38:crack cocaine 35: 31: 27: 22: 7514: 7441: 7392: 7355: 7203:Hallucinogen 7179: 6930:Neurological 6678:Psychoactive 6635: 6550:Lifetime use 6352:Liquor store 6270:South Africa 5900:War on drugs 5726:Soviet Union 5602:Legalization 5440:Drug tourism 5288:Wine tasting 5208:Beer culture 5170:Coffee break 5107:Cannabis tea 5042:Drug culture 4885:Cannabinoids 4814:Salvinorin A 4780:amyl nitrite 4637:Psychedelics 4389:/paracetamol 4302:Desomorphine 4142:Barbiturates 4036: 3995:Other topics 3934: 3901:Cradle board 3896:Cloth diaper 3856:Baby shampoo 3842:Baby monitor 3832:Baby bouncer 3786:Circumcision 3633:Birth defect 3515:Immunization 3465:Birth weight 3404: 3378:. Elsevier. 3375: 3350: 3295: 3275: 3255: 3235: 3213: 3186: 3163: 3144: 3124: 3104: 3085: 3065: 3044: 3024: 3016:Bibliography 2954:Connors 2007 2949: 2938:. Retrieved 2926: 2917: 2906:. Retrieved 2902: 2893: 2881: 2872: 2863: 2838: 2834: 2773: 2769: 2748: 2741:Aronson 2008 2736: 2729:Aronson 2008 2663: 2659: 2649: 2614: 2610: 2556: 2552: 2523: 2506: 2502: 2460: 2456: 2371: 2367: 2326: 2321:, pp. 512–14 2319:Aronson 2008 2268: 2264: 2212: 2208: 2202: 2160: 2153:Doweiko 2008 2127: 2055:(1): 60–68. 2052: 2048: 2038: 2005: 2001: 1994: 1987:Doweiko 2008 1962: 1896: 1892: 1826: 1822: 1794:Mother Jones 1793: 1767: 1707:. Retrieved 1699: 1673:Doweiko 2008 1668: 1633: 1629: 1571: 1538:. Retrieved 1532: 1508: 1498: 1486:. Retrieved 1478: 1411:(1): 33–38. 1408: 1404: 1383:. Retrieved 1376:usatoday.com 1375: 1365: 1353:. 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