Protectionism in the United States

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most of their cotton, tobacco and wheat. In the late 1860s the wool manufacturers, based near Boston and Philadelphia, formed the first national lobby, and cut deals with wool-growing farmers in several states. Their challenge was that fastidious wool producers in Britain and Australia marketed a higher quality fleece than the Americans, and that British manufacturers had costs as low as the American mills. The result was a wool tariff that helped the farmers by a high rate on imported wool—a tariff the American manufacturers had to pay—together with a high tariff on finished woolens and worsted goods.

1659: 1635: 1643: 296: 363: 2288:(CSA) passed its own tariff of about 15% on most items, including many items that previously were duty-free from the North. Previously tariffs between states were prohibited. The Confederates believed that they could finance their government by tariffs. The anticipated tariff revenue never appeared as the Union Navy blockaded their ports and the Union army restricted their trade with the Northern states. The Confederacy collected a mere $ 3.5 million in tariff revenue from the Civil War start to end and had to resort to inflation and confiscation instead for revenue. 2444: 167: 2889: 2787: 2905: 368: 3153: 1512: 2655:, thinks that tariff was rather helpful in the face of deregulation of competition in the global labor market and excessively loose credit prior to the Crash which, according to him, caused the crisis Financial and banking sectors. He notes higher trade barriers were partly a means to protect domestic demand from deflation and external disturbances. He observes domestic production in the major industrialized countries fell faster than international trade contracted. 1524: 2119:", with import custom duties averaging over 25 percent. Intense political opposition to higher tariffs came from Southern Democrats and plantation owners in South Carolina who had little manufacturing industry and imported some products with high tariffs. They would have to pay more for imports. They claimed their economic interest was being unfairly injured. They attempted to "nullify" the federal tariff and spoke of secession from the Union (see the 2172:, envisioning a rapid modernization based on highly productive factories, sought a high tariff. Their key argument was that startup factories, or "infant industries", would at first be less efficient than European (British) producers. Furthermore, American factory workers were paid higher wages than their European competitors. The arguments proved highly persuasive in industrial districts. Clay's position was adopted in the 1828 and 1832 Tariff Acts. 3119:"The protective tariff policy of the Republicans ... has made the lives of the masses of our countrymen sweeter and brighter, and has entered the homes of America carrying comfort and cheer and courage. It gives a premium to human energy, and awakens the noblest aspiration in the breasts of men. Our own experience shows that it is the best for our citizenship and our civilization and that it opens up a higher and better destiny for our people." 2546:. Taft negotiated a reciprocity agreement with Canada, that had the effect of sharply lowering tariffs. Democrats supported the plan but Midwestern Republicans bitterly opposed it. Barnstorming the country for his agreement, Taft undiplomatically pointed to the inevitable integration of the North American economy, and suggested that Canada should come to a "parting of the ways" with Britain. Canada's Conservative Party, under the leadership of 65: 24: 2648:, explains a tariff is an expansionary policy, like a devaluation as it diverts demand from foreign to home producers. He notes that exports were 7 percent of GNP in 1929, they fell by 1.5 percent of 1929 GNP in the next two years and the fall was offset by the increase in domestic demand from tariff. He concludes that contrary the popular argument, contractionary effect of the tariff was small. 1681:

protect its industries. Alexander Hamilton, the first Secretary of the Treasury of the United States (1789–1795) and economist Daniel Raymond were the first theorists to present the argument of the emerging industry, not the German economist Friedrich List. List started out as a free trade advocate and only converted to the infant industry argument following his exile in the U.S (1825–1830).

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manufactured goods, particularly war materials, was seen as an issue of national security. In his Reports, Hamilton argued that the competition from abroad and the "forces of habit" would mean that new industries that could soon become internationally competitive ("infant industries") would not be started in the United States, unless the initial losses were guaranteed by government aid.

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in March 1861 could have made little impact upon any delegation which met prior to its signing. It is indicative of the Northern industrial supported and anti-agrarian position of that 1861 Republican controlled congress. Some secessionist documents do mention a tariff issue, though not nearly as often as the preservation of the impactful economic institution of slavery. However, a few

2900:(the area above the supply curve but below the price) by X, as domestic producers supply fewer goods at lower prices. Domestic producers will choose to produce at Qt, with the quantity gap between Qt and Ct filled by imports. This overall gain from free trade is area Z, although there are winners (consumers) and losers (domestic firms and their employees). 2399:

Austria-Hungary combined, totalling 99,700,000 tons during WW I. The Republicans became masters of negotiating exceedingly complex arrangements so that inside each of their congressional districts there were more satisfied "winners" than disgruntled "losers". The tariff after 1880 was an ideological relic that no longer had any economic rationale.

2369:. They were not at risk from cheap imports. No other country had the industrial capacity, large market, the high efficiency and low costs, or the complex distribution system needed to compete in the vast American market. Indeed, it was the British who watched in stunned horror as cheaper American products flooded their home islands. Wailed the 3114:

where labor wins its highest rewards."They say, if you had not the Protective Tariff things would be a little cheaper. Well, whether a thing is cheap or whether it is dear depends on what we can earn by our daily labor. Free trade cheapens the product by cheapening the producer. Protection cheapens the product by elevating the producer."

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increased trade with Britain and others and brought in more revenue to the federal treasury than the higher tariff. The average tariff on the Walker Tariff was about 25%. While protectionists in Pennsylvania and neighboring states were angered, the South achieved its goal of setting low tariff rates before the Civil War.

2826:" trading status (i.e., the same low tariffs promised to any other WTO member). NAFTA and WTO advocates promoted an optimistic vision of the future, with prosperity to be based on intellectuals skills and managerial know-how more than on routine hand labor. They promised that free trade meant lower prices for consumers. 2220:

million in 1840 ($ 0.6 billion in 2023 dollars), to more than $ 80 million by 1856 ($ 2.1 billion). The South had almost no complaints but the low rates angered many Northern industrialists and factory workers, especially in Pennsylvania, who demanded protection for their growing iron industry. The

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larger, and more expensive market segments. The Japanese producers, limited by the number of cars they could export to America, opted to increase the value of their exports to maintain revenue growth. This action threatened the American producers' historical hold on the mid- and large-size car markets.

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rebelled against being forced to play a lesser role in the emerging Atlantic economy. This explains why, after independence, the Tariff Act of 1789 was the second bill of the Republic signed by President Washington allowing Congress to impose a fixed tariff of 5% on all imports, with a few exceptions.

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Under the Eisenhower, Kennedy, Johnson and Nixon administrations, increasing numbers of Voluntary Export Restraint agreements were also secured with Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong and European countries to avert the application of trade barriers by the US. Products subjected to quotas included

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of 1934, which authorized the executive branch to negotiate bilateral tariff reduction agreements with other countries. The prevailing view then was that trade liberalization may help stimulate economic growth. However, no one country was willing to liberalize unilaterally. Between 1934 and 1945, the

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Aldrich was a New England businessman and a master of the complexities of the tariff, the Midwestern Republican insurgents were rhetoricians and lawyers who distrusted the special interests and assumed the tariff was "sheer robbery" at the expense of the ordinary consumer. Rural America believed that

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Some American manufacturers and union workers demanded the high tariff be maintained. The tariff represented a complex balance of forces. Railroads, for example, consumed vast quantities of steel. To the extent tariffs raised steel prices, they paid much more, making possible the U.S steel industry's

2075:. Contacting the owners he promised to see if he could fix their mills—they offered him a full partnership if he succeeded. Declaring their early attempts unworkable he proceeded from January 1790 to December 1790 to build the first operational textile manufacturing facility in the United States. The 1696:

In 1789, Congress passed a tariff act , imposing a 5% flat rate tariff on all imports. Between 1792 and the war with Britain in 1812, the average tariff level remained around 12.5%. In 1812, all tariffs were doubled to an average of 25%, in order to cope with the increase in public expenditure due to

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According to him, this aid could take the form of import duties or, in rare cases, prohibition of imports. He called for customs barriers to allow American industrial development and to help protect infant industries, including bounties (subsidies) derived in part from those tariffs. He also believed

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Lincoln argued that a tariff system was less intrusive than domestic taxation: The tariff is the cheaper system, because the duties, being collected in large parcels at a few commercial points, will require comparatively few officers in their collection; while by the direct tax system, the land must

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Lincoln did not see a tariff as a tax on low-income Americans because it would only burden the consumer according to the amount the consumer consumed. By the tariff system, the whole revenue is paid by the consumers of foreign goods ... the burthen of revenue falls almost entirely on the wealthy and

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administration, the US accused Europe of unfairly restricting imports of American poultry at the request of West German chicken farmers. Diplomacy failed, and in January 1964, two months after taking office, President Johnson retaliated by imposing a 25 percent tax on all imported light trucks. This

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If contraction of foreign trade had been the cause of the Depression, Allais argues, the opposite should have occurred. So, the decline in trade between 1929 and 1933 was a consequence of the Depression, not a cause. Most of the trade contraction took place between January 1930 and July 1932, before

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Ottawa rejected reciprocity, reasserted the National Policy and went to London first for new financial and trade deals. The Payne Aldrich Tariff of 1909 actually changed little and had slight economic impact one way or the other, but the political impact was enormous. The insurgents felt tricked and

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redefined the issue in 1887, with his stunning attack on the tariff as inherently corrupt, opposed to true republicanism, and inefficient to boot: "When we consider that the theory of our institutions guarantees to every citizen the full enjoyment of all the fruits of his industry and enterprise ...

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The Republican high tariff advocates appealed to farmers with the theme that high-wage factory workers would pay premium prices for foodstuffs. This was the "home market" idea, and it won over most farmers in the Northeast, but it had little relevance to the southern and western farmers who exported

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After the Civil War, high tariffs remained as the Republican Party remained in office and the Southern Democrats were restricted from office. Advocates insisted that tariffs brought prosperity to the nation as a whole and no one was really injured. As industrialization proceeded apace throughout the

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Some historians in recent decades have minimized the tariff issue as a cause of the war, noting that few people in 1860–61 said it was of central importance to them. Compromises were proposed in 1860–61 to save the Union, but they did not involve the tariff. Arguably, the effects of a tariff enacted

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Once industrialization and mass production started, the demand for higher and higher tariffs came from manufacturers and factory workers. They believed that their businesses should be protected from the lower wages and more efficient factories of Britain and the rest of Europe. Nearly every northern

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Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton proposed a far-reaching plan to use protective tariffs as a lever for rapid industrialization. In the late 18th century the industrial age was just starting and the United States had little or no textile industry—the heart of the early Industrial Revolution. The

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In 1816, a new law was introduced to keep the tariff level close to the wartime level—especially protected were cotton, woolen, and iron goods. The American industrial interests that had blossomed because of the tariff lobbied to keep it, and had it raised to 35 percent in 1816. The public approved,

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Scholars, such as Michael J. Hiscox, have argued that public opinion of international trade and protectionism is particularly malleable to political framing because of the complexity of the issue. Due to this complexity, the public is more likely to look to the elites in their own political parties

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observed that "whatever may be the abstract doctrine in favor of unrestricted commerce," the conditions necessary for its success—reciprocity and international peace—"has never occurred and can not be expected." Monroe said, "strong reasons ... impose on us the obligation to cherish and sustain our

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to "renew and emphasize our allegiance to the policy of protection, as the bulwark of American industrial independence, and the foundation of development and prosperity. This true American policy taxes foreign products and encourages home industry. It puts the burden of revenue on foreign goods; it

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Opposition to liberalized trade came increasingly from labor unions, who argued that this system also meant lower wages and fewer jobs for American workers who could not compete against wages of less than a dollar an hour. The shrinking size and diminished political clout of these unions repeatedly

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The lack of imported goods relatively quickly gave very strong incentives to start building several U.S. industries in the Northeast. Textiles and machinery especially grew. Many new industries were set up and run profitably during the wars and about half of them failed after hostilities ceased and

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Britain initially did not want to industrialize the American colonies, and implemented policies to that effect. For example, banning high value-added manufacturing activities. Thus, the American Revolution was, to some extent, a war against this policy, in which the commercial elite of the colonies

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They say, 'Buy where you can buy the cheapest.' That is one of their maxims ... Of course, that applies to labor as to everything else. Let me give you a maxim that is a thousand times better than that, and it is the protection maxim: 'Buy where you can pay the easiest.' And that spot of earth is

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When gentlemen have succeeded in their design of an immediate or gradual destruction of the American System, what is their substitute? Free trade! Free trade! The call for free trade is as unavailing as the cry of a spoiled child, in its nurse's arms, for the moon, or the stars that glitter in the

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American industry and labor prospered after World War II, but hard times set in after 1970. For the first time there was stiff competition from low-cost producers around the globe. Many rust belt industries faded or collapsed, especially the manufacture of steel, TV sets, shoes, toys, textiles and

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William Bernstein writes "most economic historians now believe that only a minuscule part of that huge loss of both world GDP and the United States' GDP can be ascribed to the tariff wars "because trade was only nine percent of global output, not enough to account for the seventeen percent drop in

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in 1789 to tax foreign imports and set up low excise taxes on whiskey and a few other products to provide the Federal Government with enough money to pay its operating expenses and to redeem at full value U.S. Federal debts and the debts the states had accumulated during the Revolutionary War. The

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In the colonial era, before 1775, nearly every colony levied its own tariffs, usually with lower rates for British products. There were taxes on ships (on a tonnage basis), import taxes on slaves, export taxes on tobacco, and import taxes on alcoholic beverages. The London government insisted on a

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The iron and steel industry, and the wool industry, were the well-organized interests groups that demanded, and usually obtained, high tariffs through support of the Republican Party. Industrial workers had much higher wages than their European counterparts, and they credited it to the tariff and

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argued that high tariffs were needed during the Civil War, but were retained after the war for the benefit of Northern industrialists, who would otherwise lose markets and profits. To keep political control of Congress, Beale argued, Northern Industrialists worked through the Republican Party and

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a platform of "renewing and emphasizing our allegiance to the policy of protection, as the bulwark of American industrial independence, and the foundation of development and prosperity. This true American policy taxes foreign products and encourages home industry. It puts the burden of revenue on

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From 1871 to 1913, "the average U.S. tariff on dutiable imports never fell below 38 percent gross national product (GNP) grew 4.3 percent annually, twice the pace in free trade Britain and well above the U.S. average in the 20th century," notes Alfred Eckes Jr, chairman of the U.S. International

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said about his disdain for "free traders" that "it is not free trade that they are recommending to our acceptance. It is in effect, the British colonial system that we are invited to adopt; and, if their policy prevail, it will lead substantially to the re-colonization of these States, under the

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of 1913. Working with the bullish Senator Aldrich and former presidential candidate William Jennings Bryan, he perfected a way to centralize the banking system to allow Congress to closely allocate paper money production. The Federal Reserve Act, with the Sixteenth Amendment of the Constitution,

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of 1846 by uniting the rural and agricultural factions of the entire country for lower tariffs. They sought a level of a "tariff for revenue only" that would pay the cost of government but not show favoritism to one section or economic sector at the expense of another. The Walker Tariff actually

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saw the need for more federal income and more industry. In wartime, they declared, having a home industry was a necessity to avoid shortages. Likewise owners of the small new factories that were springing up in the northeast to mass-produce boots, hats, nails and other common items wanted higher

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Clothing in the early United States was nearly all hand made by a very time-consuming and expensive process—just like it had been made for centuries before. The new textile manufacturing techniques in Britain were often over thirty times cheaper as well as being easier to use, more efficient and

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For centuries England has relied on protection, has carried it to extremes and has obtained satisfactory results from it. There is no doubt that it is to this system that it owes its present strength. After two centuries, England has found it convenient to adopt free trade because it thinks that

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experience has taught me that manufactures are now as necessary to our independence as to our comfort: and if those who quote me as of a different opinion will keep pace with me in purchasing nothing foreign where an equivalent of domestic fabric can be obtained, without regard to difference of

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Officially, it was explained that the light trucks tax would offset the dollar amount of imports of Volkswagen vans from West Germany with the lost American sales of chickens to Europe. But audio tapes from the Johnson White House reveal that in January 1964, President Johnson was attempting to

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and the New Dealers made promises about lowering tariffs on a reciprocal country-by-country basis, which they did, hoping this would expand foreign trade, which it did not. Frustrated, they gave much more attention to domestic remedies for the depression. By 1936 the tariff issue had faded from

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in 1897, boosting rates back to the 50 percent level. Democrats responded that the high rates created government sponsored "trusts" (monopolies) and led to higher consumer prices. McKinley won reelection by an even bigger landslide and started talking about a post-tariff era of reciprocal trade

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In 1881, British steel rails sold for $ 31 a ton, and if Americans imported them they paid a $ 28/ton tariff, giving $ 59/ton for an imported ton of rails. American mills charged $ 61 a ton—and made a huge profit, which was then reinvested into increased capacity, higher quality steels and more

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took office. Pennsylvania iron mills and New England woolen mills mobilized businessmen and workers to call for high tariffs, but Republican merchants wanted low tariffs. The high tariff advocates lost in 1857, but stepped up their campaign by blaming the economic recession of 1857 on the lower

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ratified in 1789, allowed only the federal government to levy uniform tariffs. Only the federal government could set tariff rates (customs), so the old system of separate state rates disappeared. The new law taxed all imports at rates from 5 to 15 percent. These rates were primarily designed to

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The protectionist period was the golden age of American industry, when America's economic performance surpassed the rest of the world by the greatest margin. It was the era in which the U.S. transformed itself from an agricultural backwater into the greatest economic power in the history of the

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Most American intellectuals and politicians during the country's catching-up period felt that the free trade theory advocated by British classical economists was not suited to their country. The US went against the advice of economists like Adam Smith, Ricardo and Jean Baptiste Say and tried to

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Quotas were two-country diplomatic agreements that had the same protective effect as high tariffs, but did not invite retaliation from third countries. By limiting the number of automobiles that could be imported into the USA from Japan, quotas inadvertently helped Japanese companies push into

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The U.S. steel industry became an exporter of steel rail to England selling below the British price and during WW I would become the largest supplier of steel to the allies. From 1915 to 1918, the largest American steel company, U.S. Steel, alone delivered more steel each year than Germany and

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During the war far more revenue was needed, so the rates were raised again and again, along with many other taxes such as excise taxes on luxuries and income taxes on the rich. By far most of the wartime government revenue came from bonds and loans ($ 2.6 billion), not taxes ($ 357 million) or

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The Democrats in Congress, dominated by Southern Democrats, wrote and passed the tariff laws in the 1830s, 1840s, and 1850s, and kept reducing rates, so that the 1857 rates were down to about 15%, a move that boosted trade so overwhelmingly that revenues actually increased, from just over $ 20

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There was a brief episode of free trade from 1846, coinciding with the zenith of classical liberalism in Europe, during which American tariffs were lowered. But this was followed by a series of recessions and the panic of 1857, which eventually led to higher tariff demands than President James

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Under free trade the trader is the master and the producer the slave. Protection is but the law of nature, the law of self-preservation, of self-development, of securing the highest and best destiny of the race of man. that protection is immoral. ... Why, if protection builds up and elevates

2010:

With tariffs providing the basic federal revenue, an embargo on trade, or an enemy blockade, would threaten havoc. This happened in connection with the American economic warfare against Britain in the 1807–15 period. In 1807 imports dropped by more than half and some products became much more

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duties as set by tariff rates up to 1860 were usually about 80–95% of all federal revenue. Having just fought a war over taxation (among other things) the U.S. Congress wanted a reliable source of income that was relatively unobtrusive and easy to collect. It also sought to protect the infant

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Hamilton feared that Britain's policy towards the colonies would condemn the United States to be only producers of agricultural products and raw materials. Washington and Hamilton believed that political independence was predicated upon economic independence. Increasing the domestic supply of

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The country has acquiesced in the wisdom of the protective-tariff principle. It is exceedingly undesirable that this system should be destroyed or that there should be violent and radical changes therein. Our past experience shows that great prosperity in this country has always come under a

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Clay explained that "equal and reciprocal" free trade "never has existed; it never will exist." He warned against practicing "romantic trade philanthropy ... which invokes us to continue to purchase the produce of foreign industry, without regard to the state or prosperity of our own." Clay

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We have been too long subject to the policy of the British merchants. It is time we should become a little more Americanized, and, instead of feeding the paupers and laborers of Europe, feed our own, or else, in a short time, by continuing our present policy, we shall all be paupers

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A free people ought not only to be armed, but disciplined; to which end a uniform and well-digested plan is requisite; and their safety and interest require that they should promote such manufactories as tend to render them independent of others for essential, particularly military,

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The American Civil War (1861–1865) was fought over the issue of slavery as well as tariff disputes. At the time of independence, the agrarian interests of the South were opposed to any protection, while the manufacturing interests of the North wanted to maintain it. The fledgling

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Currently, when we ship products out of America, many other countries make us pay very high tariffs and taxes. But when foreign companies ship their products into America, we charge them nothing, or almost nothing ... I believe strongly in free trade but it also has to be fair

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efficient production. By 1897, the American steel rail price had dropped to $ 19.60 per ton compared to the British price at $ 21.00—not including the $ 7.84 duty charge—demonstrating that the tariff had performed its purpose of giving the industry time to become competitive.

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Democrats campaigned energetically against the high McKinley Tariff of 1890, and scored sweeping gains that year; they restored Cleveland to the White House in 1892. The severe depression that started in 1893 ripped apart the Democratic party. Cleveland and the pro-business

2391:. Between 1867 and 1900, U.S. steel production increased more than 500 times from 22,000 tons to 11,400,000 tons. Bessemer steel rails, first made in the U.S, lasted 18 years under heavy traffic, replaced the old wrought iron rail that lasted two years under light service. 2339:

made low tariffs the centerpiece of Democratic Party policies in the late 1880s. His argument is that high tariffs were an unnecessary and unfair tax on consumers. The South and West generally supported low tariffs, and the industrial East high tariffs. Republican

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voters. However, after the election there seems to have been a push-back against such sentiments, with an uptick in support for free trade agreements in both parties, with 72% of respondents saying international trade was an opportunity, not a threat.

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Lincoln similarly said that, "if a duty amount to full protection be levied upon an article" that could be produced domestically, "at no distant day, in consequence of such duty," the domestic article "will be sold to our people cheaper than before."

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Democrats were divided on the issue, in large part because of pro-tariff elements in the Pennsylvania party who wanted to protect the growing iron industry, as well as pockets of high tariff support in nearby industrializing states. However President

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destroys the dignity and independence of American labor ... It will take away from the people of this country who work for a living—and the majority of them live by the sweat of their faces—it will take from them heart and home and hope. It will be

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Presently only about 30% of all import goods are subject to tariffs in the United States, the rest are on the free list. The "average" tariffs now charged by the United States are at a historic low. The list of negotiated tariffs are listed on the

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held the opinion that the Smoot-Hawley tariff of 1930 did not cause the Great Depression. Douglas A. Irwin writes : "most economists, both liberal and conservative, doubt that Smoot Hawley played much of a role in the subsequent contraction."

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wrote in explaining why his views had evolved to favor more protectionist policies: "In so complicated a science as political economy, no one axiom can be laid down as wise and expedient for all times and circumstances, and for their contraries."

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and George H. W. Bush administrations Republicans abandoned protectionist policies, and came out against quotas and in favor of the GATT/WTO policy of minimal economic barriers to global trade. Free trade with Canada came about as a result of the

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The belief that low tariffs led to a more prosperous country are now the predominant belief with some exceptions. Multilateralism is embodied in the seven tariff reduction rounds that occurred between 1948 and 1994. In each of these "rounds", all

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let it be known he would use the U.S. Army to enforce the law, and no state supported the South Carolina call for nullification. A compromise ended the crisis included a lowering of the average tariff rate over ten years to a rate of 15% to 20%.

2154:, which had very little industry but imported many goods voted for lower tariffs. Each party as it came into power voted to raise or lower tariffs under the constraints that the Federal Government always needed a certain level of revenues. The 1923:, each state set up its own trade rules, often imposing tariffs or restrictions on neighboring states. The new Constitution, which went into effect in 1789, banned interstate tariffs or trade restrictions, as well as state taxes on exports. 2924:

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The Wilson administration desired a 'revamping' of the current banking system, "...so that the banks may be the instruments, not the masters, of business and of individual enterprise and initiative.". President Wilson achieved this in the

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it is plain that the exaction of more than is indefensible extortion and a culpable betrayal of American fairness and justice." The election of 1888 was fought primarily over the tariff issue, and Cleveland lost. Republican Congressman

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tariffs that would significantly protect them for a time from more efficient British producers. A 10% discount on the customs tax was offered on items imported in American ships, so that the American merchant marine would be supported.

1888:

protection can no longer offer it anything. Very well then, Gentlemen, my knowledge of our country leads me to believe that within 200 years, when America has gotten out of protection all that it can offer, it too will adopt free trade.

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Free foreign trade gives our money, our manufactures, and our markets to other nations to the injury of our labor, our tradespeople, and our farmers. Protection keeps money, markets, and manufactures at home for the benefit of our own

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declared, "Give us a protective tariff and we will have the greatest nation on earth." Lincoln warned that "the abandonment of the protective policy by the American Government ... must produce want and ruin among our people."

3201:, only 36% of Republicans agree. When asked if free trade has helped respondents specifically, the approval numbers for Democrats drop to 54%, however approval ratings among Republicans remain relatively unchanged at 34%. 2377:

We have lost to the American manufacturer electrical machinery, locomotives, steel rails, sugar-producing and agricultural machinery, and latterly even stationary engines, the pride and backbone of the British engineering

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productive. Hamilton believed that a stiff tariff on imports would not only raise income but "protect" and help subsidize early efforts at setting up manufacturing facilities that could compete with British products.

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insisted on a much lower tariff. His problem was that Democratic electoral successes had brought in Democratic congressmen from industrial districts who were willing to raise rates to benefit their constituents. The

2183:. In examining these debates Moore finds that they were not precursors to Civil War. Instead they looked backward and continued the old debate whether foreign trade policy should embrace free trade or protectionism. 2659:

the introduction of the majority of protectionist measures, excepting limited American measures applied in the summer of 1930. It was the collapse of international liquidity that caused of the contraction of trade.

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Opinions on trade and protectionism have fluctuated since the early 2000s. Opinions recently have decided roughly of partisan lines. In 2017, while 67% of Democrats believe free trade agreements are good for the

2772:, not to initiate a strike just prior the 1964 election and to support the president's civil rights platform. Reuther in turn wanted Johnson to respond to Volkswagen's increased shipments to the United States. 2231:

significantly raising tariff rates became possible only after the Southern Senators walked out of Congress when their states left the Union, leaving a Republican majority. It was signed by Democratic President

2006:

All tariffs were on a long list of goods (dutiable goods) with different customs rates and some goods on a "free" list. Congress spent enormous amounts of time figuring out these tariff import tax schedules.

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in 1879 after it returned to power. It had been an official policy, however, since 1876. It was based on high tariffs to protect Canada's manufacturing industry. Macdonald campaigned on the policy in the

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tried to maintain their near monopoly on cheap and efficient textile manufacturing by prohibiting the export of textile machines, machine models or the emigration of people familiar with these machines.

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was off and running in the United States. Initially the cost of their textiles was slightly higher than the cost of equivalent British goods but the tariff helped protect their early start-up industry.

4593: 2494:. The outbreak of war in 1914 made the impact of tariffs of much less importance compared to war contracts. When the Republicans returned to power the returned the rates to a high level in the 3953: 2322:

In the late 1950s historians rejected the Beale–Beard thesis by showing that Northern businessmen were evenly divided on the tariff, and were not using Reconstruction policies to support it.

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Britain was the first country to successfully use a large-scale infant industry promotion strategy. However, its most ardent user was the U.S. Economic historian Paul Bairoch once called it

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There was a general lessening of protectionist measures from the 1930s onwards, culminating in the free trade period that followed the Second World War. After the war the U.S. promoted the

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63,000,000 of people, the influence of those 63,000,000 of people elevates the rest of the world. We cannot take a step in the pathway of progress without benefiting mankind everywhere.

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forced a partial abandonment of the Whig position. When the Whigs won victories in the 1840 and 1842 elections, taking control of Congress, they re-instituted higher tariffs with the

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on the high tariff as a positive solution to depression. Promising protection and prosperity to every economic sector, he won a smashing victory. The Republicans rushed through the

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Apart from wool and woolens, American industry and agriculture—and industrial workers—had become the most efficient in the world by the 1880s as they took the lead in the worldwide

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find that support for protectionism is not sufficiently, or even necessarily, related to an individual's economic circumstances, but instead is deeply rooted in domestic politics.

1689:

that duties on raw materials should be generally low. Hamilton explained that despite an initial "increase of price" caused by regulations that control foreign competition, once a

2475:. He campaigned for president in 1908 for tariff "reform", which everyone assumed meant lower rates. The House lowered rates with the Payne Bill, then sent it to the Senate where 429: 2554:

defeated and swore vengeance against Wall Street and its minions Taft and Aldrich. The insurgency led to a fatal split down the middle in 1912 as the GOP lost its balance wheel.

3179: 1946:

Responding to an urgent need for revenue and a trade imbalance with England that was fast destroying the infant American industries and draining the nation of its currency, the

1831:

as the more populous North. The Northern Whigs achieved higher protective tariffs over the South's bitter resistance. One Southern state precipitated what came to be called the

692: 3083:

Lincoln argued that based on economies of scale, any temporary increase in costs resulting from a tariff would eventually decrease as the domestic manufacturer produced more.

2642:

GDP following the Crash. He thinks the damage done could not possibly have exceeded 2 percent of world GDP and tariff "didn't even significantly deepen the Great Depression."

5186: 3138:

believed that America's economic growth was due to the protective tariffs, which helped her industrialize. He acknowledged this in his State of the Union address from 1902:

1865:

of the South. With this advantage, the North was able to starve the South of weapons through a near total blockade, while supplying its own army with everything from heavy

2728:

threatened the giant domestic auto industry. In the late 1970s, Detroit and the auto workers union combined to fight for protection. They obtained not high tariffs, but a

2611:

of 1930. This time it backfired, as Canada, Britain, Germany, France and other industrial countries retaliated with their own tariffs and special, bilateral trade deals.

1999:

of 1794, which was suppressed by General Washington at the head of an army. The whiskey excise tax collected so little and was so despised it was abolished by President

406: 395: 2435:

of 1894 lowered overall rates from 50 percent to 42 percent, but contained so many concessions to protectionism that Cleveland refused to sign it. It later became law.

2071:

emigrated illegally, since he was familiar with textile manufacturing in Britain. Looking for opportunities he heard of the failing attempts at making cotton mills in

2868:

Despite overall decreases in international tariffs, some tariffs have been more resistant to change. For example, due partially to tariff pressure from the European

2104:, formerly a spokesperson for Boston's merchants who imported goods (and wanted low tariffs), switched dramatically to represent the manufacturing interests in the 1827:

contested elections throughout the 1830s, 1840s and 1850s in part over the issue of protection of industry. However, Southern Democrats were never as strong in the

3661:

Moore, John A. (2011). "The Grossest and Most Unjust Species of Favoritism: Competing Views of Republican Political Economy: The Tariff Debates of 1841 and 1842".

1578:

that erects tariffs and other barriers on imported goods. In the US this policy was most prevalent in the 19th century. At that time it was mainly used to protect

1427: 677: 2483:

its superior morality deserved special protection, while the immorality of the trusts—and cities generally—merited financial punishment. Aldrich baited them. His

213: 2988:, Jefferson's position began to resemble that of Washington, that some level of protection was necessary to secure the nation's political independence. He said: 2908:

A diagram showing effects of an import tariff, which hurts domestic consumers more than domestic producers are helped. Higher prices and lower quantities reduce

2843: 1555: 2023:

brought a similar set of problems as U.S. trade was again restricted by British naval blockades. The fiscal crisis was made much worse by the abolition of the

564: 4449: 2584: 687: 666: 384: 2471:(1901–1909) saw the tariff issue was ripping his party apart, so he postponed any consideration of it. The delicate balance flew apart on under Republican 2684:(GATT) members came together to negotiate mutually agreeable trade liberalization packages and reciprocal tariff rates. In the Uruguay round in 1994, the 3023:

firmament of heaven. It never has existed; it never will exist. Trade implies, at least two parties. To be free, it should be fair, equal and reciprocal.

2671:

of 1930, were set by Congress after many months of testimony and negotiations. In 1934, the U.S. Congress, in a rare delegation of authority, passed the

82: 37: 2712:(GATT) established in 1947, to minimize tariffs and other restrictions, and to liberalize trade among all capitalist countries. In 1995 GATT became the 2050:

Hamilton believed that all Revolutionary War debt should be paid in full to establish and keep U.S. financial credibility. In addition to income in his

1943:

Tariffs between states is prohibited by the U.S. Constitution, and all domestically made products can be imported or shipped to another state tax-free.

3228:

increased at a relatively stable rate, with 48% of people believing the deal has been good for the United States in 2018 compared to only 38% in 2005.

3091:

be literally covered with assessors and collectors, going forth like swarms of Egyptian locusts, devouring every blade of grass and other green thing.

2162:, a strong Southern Democrat, oversaw the cutting of the tariff rates roughly in half and eliminating nearly all federal excise taxes in about 1835. 457: 2955:

One of the first acts of Congress Washington signed was a tariff among whose stated purpose was "the encouragement and protection of manufactures."

2916:(the area below price but above the supply curve) by A and government revenue by C (the import quantity times the tariff price.) Areas B and D are 2619:

politics, and the revenue it raised was small. In World War II, both tariffs and reciprocity were insignificant compared to trade channeled through

1937:"... lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States." 1386: 1382: 1163: 5149: 2839: 1767:

foreign goods; it secures the American market for the American producer. It upholds the American standard of wages for the American workingman".

649: 129: 3032:

that he was "utterly and irreconcilably opposed" to trade which would "throw wide open our ports to foreign productions" without reciprocation.

2043:

generate revenue to pay the annual expenses of the federal government and the national debt and the debts the states had accumulated during the

224: 5339: 5334: 1876:

With the Northern victory, Republican dominance was assured. Republicans continued to dominate American politics until the early 20th century.

1113: 101: 5098: 1708:, protectionism was America's de facto policy from the passage of the Tariff of 1816 to World War II, "switching to free trade only in 1945". 3918: 2221: 2151: 2147: 1038: 559: 421: 4866: 3692:

Scott C. James and David E. Lake, "The second face of hegemony: Britain's repeal of the Corn Laws and the American Walker Tariff of 1846",

3362: 3336: 3318: 2697: 2523: 1404: 1245: 1138: 108: 5329: 1548: 1260: 682: 3208:'s platform. During the Republican primary, Trump voters had a much more positive view of protectionism and "economic nationalism" than 2896:(the area under the demand curve but above price) by X+Z as consumers can purchase more goods at lower prices. However, it also reduces 2550:, now had an issue to regain power from the low-tariff Liberals. After a surge of pro-imperial anti-Americanism, the Conservatives won. 2224:

replaced the Whigs in 1854 and also favored high tariffs to stimulate industrial growth. This was part of the 1860 Republican platform.

1774:

After the Second World War, the U.S. liberalized its trade, although not as unequivocally as Britain did in the midnineteenth century.

1485: 1480: 1343: 672: 5264:

Hiscox, Michael (2006). "Through a Glass and Darkly: Attitudes Toward International Trade and the Curious Effects of Issue Framing".

2815:(NAFTA). It was based on Reagan's plan to enlarge the scope of the market for American firms to include Canada and Mexico. President 1490: 1126: 1028: 479: 468: 1850:

filled. Lincoln, who called himself a "Henry Clay tariff Whig", strongly opposed free trade. He implemented a 44% tariff during the

115: 5073: 2854: 2511: 2452: 1303: 1158: 2740:

textiles, plywood, sewing machines, flatware, tuna, woodscrews, steel, steel and iron products, glass, footwear, and electronics.

2311:

policies that kept low-tariff Southern whites out of power. The Beale thesis was widely disseminated by the influential survey of

2019:

to punish British and French governments for their actions; unfortunately their main effect was to reduce imports even more. The

1967: 1294: 307: 43: 5124: 3169: 2937:

secures the American market for the American producer. It upholds the American standard of wages for the American workingman."

2709: 2681: 2297: 1606: 1541: 1356: 1325: 1281: 1255: 1195: 1175: 1073: 1058: 701: 577: 376: 97: 3971:

Patriotism, Protection, and Prosperity: James Moore Swank, the American Iron and Steel Association, and the Tariff, 1873–1913

1806:

to compete with their more sophisticated British competitors. Throughout the 19th century, leading US politicians, including

1743:, who called himself a "Henry Clay tariff Whig", strongly opposed free trade, and implemented a 44-percent tariff during the 1316: 1200: 1047: 496: 2808: 2284:

The Morrill Tariff took effect a few weeks before the war began on April 12, 1861, and was not collected in the South. The

1625: 1417: 417: 4328:

Broz, J.L. (1999). "Origins of the Federal Reserve System: International Incentives and the Domestic Free-rider Problem".

2031:

normal imports resumed. Industry in the U.S. was advancing up the skill set, innovation knowledge and organization curve.

4562:

McClenahan, William (1991). "The Growth of Voluntary Export Restraints and American Foreign Economic Policy, 1956–1969".

4505: 4483: 3225: 2949: 2812: 1333: 1210: 730: 521: 446: 2876:

have seen little decrease over the past few decades, even in the face of recent pressure from the WTO during the latest

1963:

industries that had developed during the war but which were now threatened by cheaper imports, especially from England.

1747:—in part to pay for railroad subsidies and for the war effort, and to protect favored industries. In 1847, he declared: 5031: 4754: 4651: 4624: 4459: 4432: 4400: 4134:

Tariff reform, the paramount issue: Speeches and writings on the questions involved in the presidential contest of 1892

4089: 3994: 3885: 3823: 3460: 2751:

to tariffs placed by Germany (then West Germany) on importation of US chicken. Beginning in 1962, during the President

1896: 1475: 1455: 1230: 1180: 868: 750: 593: 585: 333: 4682:"Survey Experiments in International Political Economy: What We (Don't) Know About the Backlash Against Globalization" 2607:

hit, international trade shrank drastically. The crisis baffled the GOP, and it tried to raise tariffs again with the

3452:

Smuggling in the American colonies at the outbreak of the Revolution: with special reference to the West Indies trade

3388: 3290: 2819:, with strong Republican support in 1993, pushed NAFTA through Congress over the vehement objection of labor unions. 1839: 1470: 1465: 1460: 1363: 1338: 1299: 1190: 1133: 1098: 813: 315: 260: 242: 148: 51: 3242: 3087:

luxurious few, while the substantial and laboring many who live at home, and upon home products, go entirely free.

2716:(WTO); with the collapse of Communism its open markets/low tariff ideology became dominant worldwide in the 1990s. 2579:

in 1914 radically revised trade patterns. Reduced trade and, especially, the new revenues generated by the federal

1916:

whereby only British ships could trade in the colonies. In defiance, some American merchants engaged in smuggling.

1843: 1736: 1629: 1409: 1394: 1370: 1285: 1103: 1085: 1080: 3706: 3204:

The 2016 election marked the beginning of the trend of returning to protectionism, an ideology incorporated into

2538:

Efforts to restore free trade with Canada collapsed when Canada rejected a proposed reciprocity treaty in fear of

2150:

wanted to protect their mostly northern industries and constituents by voting for higher tariffs and the Southern

5299: 3237: 3161: 2892:

Opening trade to imports lowers the price from Pa to Pw and increases the quantity from Qa to Ct. This increases

2490:

By 1913 with the new income tax generating revenue, the Democrats in Congress were able to reduce rates with the

1818: 1728: 1422: 1273: 1215: 1170: 998: 657: 5239: 5204:

Swedberg, Richard (2018). "Folk economics and its role in Trump's presidential campaign: an exploratory study".

4838: 2926: 1756: 122: 2543: 2528: 2255:. Increases were enacted in February 1861 after Southerners resigned their seats in Congress on the eve of the 1240: 1235: 735: 715: 538: 504: 86: 2853:

have found that voters' economic hardships influence their support of protectionism. This was corroborated by

2285: 1828: 1220: 1205: 923: 328: 283: 4917: 2487:

of 1909 lowered the protection on Midwestern farm products, while raising rates favorable to his Northeast.

2108:. Rates were especially high for bolts of cloth and for bar iron, of which Britain was a low-cost producer. 1650: 220: 2484: 2432: 2056: 2044: 1947: 662: 554: 1919:

During the Revolution, the British blockade from 1775 to 1783 largely ended foreign trade. In the 1783–89

1613:(WTO), and with the collapse of Communism its open markets/low tariff ideology became dominant worldwide. 2668: 2608: 2600: 2563: 2499: 2495: 2208:

The Walker Tariff remained in place until 1857, when a nonpartisan coalition lowered them again with the

1495: 1309: 1093: 1018: 963: 928: 4713:

Department of State. The Office of Electronic Information, Bureau of Public Affairs (February 6, 2017).

1966:

Tariffs and excise taxes were authorized by the United States Constitution and recommended by the first

1586:

that wanted free trade to expand cotton and other agricultural exports. Protectionist measures included

2869: 2729: 2693: 2169: 2143: 2016: 1932: 1814: 1724: 1003: 908: 2047:

and to also promote manufactures and independence from foreign nations, especially for defense needs.

1941:"To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes." 2676:

executive branch negotiated over 32 bilateral trade liberalization agreements with other countries.

2155: 968: 958: 953: 933: 2344:

was the outstanding spokesman for high tariffs, promising it would bring prosperity for all groups.

1995:. The tax on whiskey was highly controversial and set of massive protests by Western Farmers in the 2713: 2685: 2464: 1610: 1033: 883: 798: 323: 4798: 4234:

David W. Detzer, "Businessmen, Reformers, and Tariff Revision: The Payne-Aldrich Tariff of 1909",

4186:

David W. Detzer, "Businessmen, Reformers, and Tariff Revision: The Payne-Aldrich Tariff of 1909",

2945:"I use no porter or cheese in my family, but such as is made in America," the inaugural President 2631:

Most economists hold the opinion that the tariff act did not greatly worsen the great depression:

217:

that states a Knowledge editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic.

3584:

Industrializing Antebellum America: The Rise of Manufacturing Entrepreneurs in the Early Republic

2873: 2532: 2514:

increased trade between 1855 and its ending in 1866. When it ended Canada turned to tariffs. The

2476: 2072: 1900: 918: 913: 788: 75: 4870: 3366: 3340: 1658: 3322: 2877: 2599:

When the Republicans regained power after the war they restored the usual high rates, with the

2116: 2083:

The high protectionism tariffs Hamilton originally called for were not adopted until after the

2051: 2024: 1855: 1583: 1579: 1399: 1008: 973: 878: 853: 354: 346: 4641: 4614: 4390: 4132: 4079: 3984: 3875: 3813: 2929:

Alfred Eckes Jr., chairman of the U.S. International Trade Commission under President Reagan.

2846:, MC6, noted in 2005 that the US spent US$ 20 billion per year on "trade-distorting support". 2587:

in 1913) made tariffs much less important in terms of economic impact and political rhetoric.

5023:

Speeches and Addresses of William McKinley: From His Election to Congress to the Present Time

4998:

Speeches and Addresses of William McKinley: From His Election to Congress to the Present Time

2850: 2672: 2615: 2366: 2076: 1870: 993: 943: 898: 888: 873: 863: 848: 828: 803: 793: 783: 640: 295: 5187:"Support for free trade agreements rebounds modestly, but wide partisan differences remain" 3260: 3247: 3003: 2862: 2795: 2539: 2176: 2120: 1920: 1832: 1807: 1802:

Northern states sought to develop manufacturing industries and sought protections to allow

1516: 1013: 988: 893: 833: 808: 778: 768: 438: 4698: 4681: 1899:. They had many differences, but both opposed the corporate trusts that had emerged. This 1642: 8: 4965: 4714: 4712: 4545: 4512: 4490: 2823: 2786: 2765: 2592: 2472: 2388: 2242: 2137: 2038:

imposed the first national source of revenue for the newly formed United States. The new

2012: 948: 903: 843: 818: 773: 4996: 4770: 4310: 2933: 1763: 1634: 180:

Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.

5281: 5221: 4598: 4571: 4550:

The Evolution of the Trade Regime: Politics, Law, and Economics of the GATT and the WTO

4345: 4265: 4217: 3986:'Agrarians' and 'Aristocrats': Party Political Ideology in the United States, 1837–1846 3945: 3856: 3431: 3135: 2959: 2468: 2460:

agreements. Reciprocity went nowhere; McKinley's vision was a half century too early.

2443: 2308: 2256: 2035: 1971: 1892: 1851: 1835:, over the issue of tariffs, arguing that states had the right to ignore federal laws. 1824: 1744: 1143: 978: 858: 823: 3707:"Government Tax and Revenue Chart: United States 1840–1861 – Federal State Local Data" 2571:

made a drastic lowering of tariff rates a major priority for his presidency. The 1913

2100:

Congressman was eager to logroll a higher tariff rate for his local industry. Senator

1903:

to face a common enemy reinvigorated the Democratic Party, catapulting them to power.

1616:

Protectionism has increased in popularity since the election of Donald Trump in 2016.

362: 5285: 5225: 5027: 4750: 4647: 4620: 4455: 4428: 4396: 4349: 4085: 3990: 3949: 3900:

Stanley Coben, "Northeastern Business and Radical Reconstruction: A Re-Examination."

3881: 3819: 3456: 2946: 2888: 2757: 2748: 2519: 2427: 2039: 1996: 1951: 1935:

gave the federal government authority to tax, stating that Congress has the power to

1153: 1023: 983: 938: 838: 740: 635: 5047: 2912:(the area above price but under the demand curve) by areas A+B+C+D, while expanding 2348:

Northeast, some Democrats, especially Pennsylvanians, became high tariff advocates.

1609:(GATT), to liberalize trade among all capitalist countries. In 1995 GATT became the 5273: 5213: 4693: 4337: 4257: 4209: 3937: 3848: 3423: 3100: 2977: 2913: 2909: 2897: 2893: 2604: 2572: 2491: 2413: 2408: 2384: 2341: 2336: 2312: 2251: 2000: 1880: 1691:"domestic manufacture has attained to perfection ... it invariably becomes cheaper" 745: 5048:"Almanac of Theodore Roosevelt – Speeches of Theodore Roosevelt – Teddy Roosevelt" 3477:

Smugglers and Patriots: Boston Merchants and the Advent of the American Revolution

3455:. Department of Political Science of Williams College. pp. full text online. 5021: 4979: 4943: 3450: 3072: 3029: 2917: 2752: 2634: 2515: 2303: 2237: 2092: 1988: 1861:

By President Lincoln's term, the northern manufacturing states had ten times the

1847: 1803: 1740: 1575: 1528: 1148: 630: 613: 603: 546: 482: 409: 4248:

Solvick, Stanley D. (1963). "William Howard Taft and the Payne-Aldrich Tariff".

4200:

Solvick, Stanley D. (1963). "William Howard Taft and the Payne-Aldrich Tariff".

5154: 4823:

Jefferson, Thomas (January 9, 1816). "Letter to Benjamin Austin, Jan 9, 1816".

4771:"George Washington: First Annual Message to Congress on the State of the Union" 3041: 2904: 2769: 2652: 2568: 2264: 2246: 2233: 2228: 2209: 2180: 2159: 2124: 2112: 2105: 2101: 1955: 1713: 1447: 1374: 5277: 5217: 5323: 4964:

William McKinley speech, Oct. 4, 1892 in Boston, MA William McKinley Papers (

3198: 3165: 3152: 2803: 2781: 2547: 2196: 2192: 2068: 1783: 1749:"Give us a protective tariff, and we shall have the greatest nation on earth" 1572: 529: 471: 449: 398: 367: 4341: 1842:

and other scandals, the Whigs collapsed, leaving a void which the fledgling

4944:"Life and distinguished services of William McKinley: our martyr President" 4309:

Wilson, Woodrow (June 23, 1913). Peters, Gerhard; Woolley, John T. (eds.).

3314: 3205: 3178:'s economic policies protectionist and generally opposed to free trade. In 3175: 3059: 2816: 2212:

to 18%. This was in response to the British repeal of their protectionist "

1913: 1705: 1591: 625: 608: 596: 460: 387: 3941: 3569:

Douglas A. Irwin, "The Aftermath of Hamilton's 'Report on Manufactures'",

3556:

Douglas A. Irwin, "The Aftermath of Hamilton's 'Report on Manufactures'",

3543:

Douglas A. Irwin, "The Aftermath of Hamilton's 'Report on Manufactures'",

2822:

In 2000 Clinton worked with Republicans to give China entry into WTO and "

2447:

President Teddy Roosevelt watches the GOP team pull apart on tariff issue.

4981:

Life and distinguished services of William McKinley: our martyr President

3213: 2985: 2744: 2645: 2576: 2456: 2084: 2027:, which was the national bank. It was reestablished right after the war. 2020: 618: 4867:"Sixth Annual Message (December 3, 1822) – Miller Center" 4575: 3156:

The 2017 U.S. trade deficit, in billions, goods and services, by country

1523: 4666:

Tsang, J., "Towards a Brighter Future in Trade and World Development",

4269: 4221: 3905: 3860: 3480: 3435: 3011: 2962:, Washington justified his tariff policy for national security reasons: 2952:, boasting that these domestic products are "of an excellent quality." 2831: 2620: 2580: 2165: 2088: 1810: 1791: 1720: 4896: 4799:"Founders Online: Thomas Jefferson to Benjamin Austin, 9 January 1816" 3294: 2858: 2835: 2213: 1866: 1595: 512: 4261: 4213: 3852: 3748: 3743:

Richard Hofstadter, "The Tariff Issue on the Eve of the Civil War",

3427: 64: 3761:

Old Gentlemen's Convention: The Washington Peace Conference of 1861

3209: 3007: 3811: 3389:"Kicking Away the Ladder: The "Real" History of Free Trade – FPIF" 1895:

gradually rebuilt their party and allied themselves with Northern

4643:

Encyclopedia of U.S. Campaigns, Elections, and Electoral Behavior

3774:

Tariffs, Blockades, and Inflation: The Economics of the Civil War

3191: 3103:

supported tariffs and rejected the "cheaper is better" argument:

2298:

Reconstruction era § Revisionists and Beardians, 1930s–1940s

1984: 1976: 1959: 1786:

because of the low cost of manual slave labor. They supplied raw

1782:

Historically, slave-holding states had little perceived need for

4011:

The Tariff Question in the Gilded Age: The Great Debate of 1888

3363:"New America Foundation: article – 1080 – "Free Trade Fallacy"" 2725: 2721: 1958:, which authorized the collection of duties on imported goods. 1787: 1599: 1587: 5074:"Trump's protectionism may hit emerging markets but not China" 4311:"Address to a Joint Session of Congress on the Banking System" 3040:

Henry Clay's longtime rival and political opponent, President

2688:(WTO) was established to help establish uniform tariff rates. 4392:

Peddling Protectionism: Smoot-Hawley and the Great Depression

2790:

US trade with China, 1989 to 2006. China gained entry to the

1992: 3174:

Commentators and news outlets have largely called President

2844:

Sixth Ministerial Conference of the World Trade Organization

2245:

of Philadelphia was the most outspoken advocate, along with

1975:

Congress set low excise taxes on only a few goods, such as,

1701:

and by 1820, America's average tariff was up to 40 percent.

5167: 4594:"Light Trucks Increase Profits But Foul Air More than Cars" 4053:

The Tariff, Politics, and American Foreign Policy 1874–1901

1671:(Economics and World History: Myths and Paradoxes, Bairoch) 1437: 214:

personal reflection, personal essay, or argumentative essay

5300:"Americans Split on Whether NAFTA Is Good or Bad for U.S." 4942:

Halstead, Murat; Munson, Augustus J. (February 21, 2019).

4149:

From Hayes to McKinley: National Party Politics, 1877–1896

3839:

Beale, Howard K. (1930). "The Tariff and Reconstruction".

5240:"In US, Record-High 72% See Foreign Trade as Opportunity" 5150:"Remarks by President Trump in Joint Address to Congress" 4744: 2791: 2596:

would create a trend of new forms of government funding.

1980: 1862: 1442: 4740: 4738: 4526: 2614:

American imports and exports both went into a tailspin.

2383:

massive investment to expand capacity and switch to the

1638:

The average tariff rates in France, UK, US, 1830 to 2000

3448: 4047: 4045: 2267:

economists place more importance on the tariff issue.

4735: 4077: 3289:

Ferry, Ian Fletcher & Jeff (September 12, 2010).

2883: 2857:, in which Donald Trump was broadly supported in the 5099:"The GOP's Foolish Accommodation of Trump on Trade" 4506:"Lettre aux français: contre les tabous indiscutés" 4484:"Lettre aux français: contre les tabous indiscutés" 4042: 2142:Tariffs soon became a major political issue as the 1926: 1858:, the war effort and to protect American industry. 89:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 1668:"the homeland and bastion of modern protectionism" 1598:and other means, to restrain the free movement of 5125:"Trump, Sanders and the protectionist revolution" 4639: 4084:. Ludwig von Mises Institute. pp. 192, 293. 3224:From 2005 to 2018, American favorability towards 3044:, in explaining his support for a tariff, wrote: 2131: 1662:The average tariff rates on manufactured products 693:Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review 5321: 4548:, Timothy E. Josling, and Richard H. Steinberg, 4162:William L. Wilson and Tariff Reform, a Biography 3180:his first address to a joint session of Congress 4425:A Splendid Exchange: How Trade Shaped the World 3291:"America Was Founded as a Protectionist Nation" 2840:Secretary for Commerce, Industry and Technology 2626: 2011:expensive or unobtainable. Congress passed the 1719:In the 19th century, statesmen such as Senator 4977: 4941: 4918:"Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln. Volume 1" 4897:"Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln. Volume 1" 4591: 4503: 4481: 3192:Public opinion on protectionism and free trade 2518:was a Canadian economic program introduced by 2502:of 1930 at the start of the Great Depression. 1654:U.S. trade balance and trade policy, 1895–2015 4978:Halstead, Murat; Munson, Augustus J. (1901). 3982: 3812:Paul Studenski; Herman Edward Krooss (2003). 2236:in early March 1861 shortly before President 1549: 5122: 4612: 3873: 2830:left them on the losing side. Nevertheless, 2698:United States International Trade Commission 2195:as president. Polk succeeded in passing the 3989:. Cambridge University Press. p. 252. 1813:, supported Hamilton's approach within the 52:Learn how and when to remove these messages 5071: 4561: 4416: 4175:Politics, Reform, and Expansion, 1890–1900 4035:F. W. Taussig, "The McKinley Tariff Act." 3772:Mark Thornton and Robert B. Ekelund, Jr., 3582:Barbara M. Tucker, and Kenneth H. Tucker, 3414:Hill, William (1892). "Colonial Tariffs". 2402: 1556: 1542: 4822: 4697: 4540: 4538: 4536: 4534: 4422: 3663:Essays in Economic & Business History 2438: 2360: 2325: 261:Learn how and when to remove this message 243:Learn how and when to remove this message 149:Learn how and when to remove this message 5203: 5019: 4994: 4890: 4888: 4130: 3877:The Debate On the American Civil War Era 3573:Sept 2004, Vol. 64, Issue 3, pp. 800–821 3560:Sept 2004, Vol. 64, Issue 3, pp. 800–821 3547:Sept 2004, Vol. 64, Issue 3, pp. 800–821 3151: 2920:, surplus lost by consumers and overall. 2903: 2887: 2855:2016 United States presidential election 2785: 2442: 2055:British government having just lost the 1755:Trade Commission under President Reagan 1657: 1649: 1641: 1633: 5072:Srivastava, Spriha (January 24, 2017). 4894: 4793: 4791: 4715:"We're sorry, that page can't be found" 4587: 4585: 4247: 4199: 4106:The Tariff History Of The United States 4081:The Tariff History of the United States 3916: 3787:The Tariff History of the United States 3732:The Tariff History of the United States 3696:Winter 1989, Vol. 43, Issue 1, pp. 1–28 3623:The Tariff History of the United States 3610:The Tariff History of the United States 3597:The Tariff History of the United States 3015:commercial dominion of Great Britain." 2662: 1968:United States Secretary of the Treasury 1906: 1854:in part to pay for the building of the 1723:continued Hamilton's themes within the 688:Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court 678:Multidistrict Litigation Judicial Panel 277:This article is part of a series on the 5322: 5263: 4895:Lincoln, Abraham (February 21, 2019). 4531: 4504:Maurice Allais (December 5–11, 2009). 4482:Maurice Allais (December 5–11, 2009). 4389:Irwin, Douglas A. (October 24, 2017). 4308: 3815:Financial History of the United States 3532:Financial History of the United States 3519:Financial History of the United States 3506:Financial History of the United States 3493:Financial History of the United States 2710:General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 2682:General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 2583:(bolstered by the ratification of the 2498:of 1922. The next raise came with the 2463:The Republicans split bitterly on the 1607:General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 5340:History of the United States by topic 5335:Economic history of the United States 5181: 5179: 5177: 4885: 4699:10.1146/annurev-polisci-050317-063806 4447: 4388: 4297:The Presidency of William Howard Taft 4284:The Presidency of William Howard Taft 3838: 3660: 3288: 3129: 2505: 2291: 2203: 1048:Elections in the District of Columbia 4788: 4745:Krugman, Paul; Wells, Robin (2005). 4679: 4592:Keith Bradsher (November 30, 1997). 4582: 4427:. Grove/Atlantic, Inc. p. 354. 4327: 4250:Mississippi Valley Historical Review 4202:Mississippi Valley Historical Review 3902:Mississippi Valley Historical Review 3413: 3284: 3282: 3280: 3278: 3276: 2940: 2708:After the war the U.S. promoted the 2703: 2512:Canadian–American Reciprocity Treaty 2191:The Democrats won in 1844, electing 2115:, ridiculed by free traders as the " 1626:List of tariffs in the United States 1418:United States and the United Nations 650:Inferior Courts of the United States 196: 160: 98:"Protectionism in the United States" 87:adding citations to reliable sources 58: 17: 4995:McKinley, William (March 3, 1893). 3959:from the original on March 4, 2016. 3381: 3094: 2971: 2813:North American Free Trade Agreement 2775: 2756:directly affected the German built 2351: 2249:and his influential newspaper, the 2158:was paid off in 1834 and President 1602:, thus encouraging local industry. 522:Vice President of the United States 13: 5330:Protectionism in the United States 5174: 4686:Annual Review of Political Science 4646:. Sage Publications. p. 358. 4131:Springer, William M., ed. (1892). 3170:2018 China–United States trade war 3066: 2884:Support among American politicians 2811:of 1987, which led in 1994 to the 2557: 1797: 1777: 1646:Average US tariff rates, 1821–2016 1569:Protectionism in the United States 586:Supreme Court of the United States 294: 14: 5351: 4451:Lessons from the Great Depression 4238:, (1973) 35#2 pp. 196–204, online 4190:, (1973) 35#2 pp. 196–204, online 3921:Andrew Johnson and Reconstruction 3365:. January 6, 2006. Archived from 3273: 3035: 2747:was a 1964 response by President 2317:The Rise of American Civilization 316:Constitution of the United States 33:This article has multiple issues. 5123:Eric Bradner (August 26, 2015). 4377:American Trade Policy: 1923–1995 4364:American Trade Policy: 1923–1995 4024:William McKinley and His America 3449:William Smith McClellan (1912). 3334: 3243:Tariffs in United States history 2809:Canada–U.S. Free Trade Agreement 2730:voluntary restriction of exports 2186: 1927:Early National period, 1789–1828 1630:Tariffs in United States history 1522: 1510: 761:Elections by State and Territory 366: 361: 201: 165: 63: 22: 5292: 5257: 5232: 5197: 5142: 5116: 5091: 5065: 5040: 5013: 4988: 4971: 4958: 4935: 4910: 4859: 4831: 4816: 4763: 4706: 4673: 4660: 4633: 4606: 4555: 4519: 4497: 4475: 4441: 4382: 4369: 4356: 4321: 4315:The American Presidency Project 4302: 4289: 4276: 4241: 4228: 4193: 4180: 4167: 4154: 4141: 4124: 4111: 4098: 4071: 4058: 4029: 4016: 4003: 3976: 3963: 3910: 3894: 3867: 3832: 3805: 3792: 3779: 3766: 3753: 3737: 3724: 3699: 3686: 3673: 3654: 3641: 3628: 3615: 3602: 3589: 3576: 3563: 3550: 3537: 3524: 3511: 3498: 3238:American System (economic plan) 3162:Economic policy of Donald Trump 3147: 3053: 2146:(1832–1852) and after 1854 the 1423:United Nations Security Council 1326:District of Columbia Government 74:needs additional citations for 41:or discuss these issues on the 4423:Bernstein, William J. (2009). 4395:. Princeton University Press. 4078:Frank William Taussig (1931). 3880:. Manchester UP. p. 226. 3745:The American Historical Review 3485: 3469: 3442: 3416:Quarterly Journal of Economics 3407: 3355: 3328: 3308: 2732:from the Japanese government. 2535:, which supported free trade. 2479:mobilized high-rate Senators. 2467:of 1909. Republican President 2132:Second Party System, 1829–1859 1804:nascent Northern manufacturers 1712:Buchanan, signed in 1861m the 1594:on imported goods, along with 1582:industries and was opposed by 539:United States Attorney General 505:President of the United States 1: 5009:– via Internet Archive. 4564:Business and Economic History 3266: 2997: 2575:cut rates, but the coming of 2286:Confederate States of America 1829:U.S. House of Representatives 683:Alien Terrorist Removal Court 4839:"Classic Speeches 1830–1993" 4825:Boston Independent Chronicle 3818:. Beard Books. p. 157. 3571:Journal of Economic History, 3558:Journal of Economic History, 3545:Journal of Economic History, 2627:Tariffs and Great Depression 2275: 2270: 2111:The culmination came in the 2087:, when nationalists such as 2045:American War of Independence 1948:First United States Congress 1790:to Britain, which supported 673:Court of International Trade 7: 4525:Harmonized Tariff Schedule 3917:Pressly, Thomas J. (1961). 3747:(1938) 44#1 pp. 50–55 3694:International Organization, 3231: 10: 5356: 5266:International Organization 5020:McKinley, William (1893). 4640:Kenneth F. Warren (2008). 4330:International Organization 3841:American Historical Review 3625:(8th edition (1931), ch. 2 3612:(8th edition (1931), ch. 2 3599:(8th edition (1931), ch. 1 3339:. Prospect. Archived from 3159: 2960:State of the Union Address 2932:In 1896, the GOP platform 2870:Common Agricultural Policy 2779: 2694:Harmonized Tariff Schedule 2561: 2453:campaigned heavily in 1896 2295: 2135: 2017:Non-Intercourse Act (1809) 1933:United States Constitution 1623: 1619: 5278:10.1017/S0020818306060255 5218:10.1007/s11186-018-9308-8 4954:– via Google Books. 4471:– via Google Books. 4412:– via Google Books. 4121:, U.S. Steel, 1951, p. 48 4068:, U.S. Steel, 1951, p. 15 2874:US agricultural subsidies 2281:tariffs ($ 305 million). 2156:United States public debt 1838:Mostly over the issue of 1825:Southern Democratic Party 1114:List of political parties 174:This article needs to be 4013:(Penn State Press, 1994) 3221:to form their opinions. 2714:World Trade Organization 2686:World Trade Organization 2485:Payne–Aldrich Tariff Act 2433:Wilson–Gorman Tariff Act 1611:World Trade Organization 1517:United States portal 1029:Northern Mariana Islands 377:House of Representatives 4984:. Memorial Association. 4668:Hong Kong Industrialist 4342:10.1162/002081899550805 4119:Steel Serves the Nation 4066:Steel Serves the Nation 4039:(1891) 1#2 pp: 326–350. 3759:Robert Gray Gunderson, 3711:Usgovernmentrevenue.com 2669:Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act 2609:Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act 2601:Fordney–McCumber Tariff 2564:Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act 2531:, and handily beat the 2500:Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act 2496:Fordney–McCumber Tariff 2477:Nelson Wilmarth Aldrich 2403:Cleveland tariff policy 2073:Pawtucket, Rhode Island 1901:marriage of convenience 1246:Individualist anarchism 418:Congressional districts 5052:Theodore-roosevelt.com 4946:. Memorial Association 4295:Paolo Enrico Coletta, 4282:Paolo Enrico Coletta, 4108:, 1909 edition, p. 259 3983:John Ashworth (1987). 3534:(5th ed. 1915) ch. 6–7 3521:(5th ed. 1915) ch. 4–5 3508:(5th ed. 1915) ch. 4–5 3495:(5th ed. 1915) ch. 1–3 3323:New America Foundation 3189: 3157: 3145: 3127: 3121: 3116: 3110: 3051: 3025: 2995: 2969: 2921: 2901: 2799: 2448: 2439:McKinley tariff policy 2423: 2380: 2361:U.S. industrial output 2326:Politics of protection 2117:Tariff of Abominations 2052:Report on Manufactures 2025:First Bank of the U.S. 1950:passed, and President 1890: 1871:Henry repeating rifles 1856:Union Pacific Railroad 1663: 1655: 1647: 1639: 1383:Diplomatic missions of 1261:Political polarization 731:Presidential elections 355:United States Congress 299: 223:by rewriting it in an 4803:Founders.archives.gov 4680:Naoi, Megumi (2020). 4619:. Sage. p. 151. 4613:Gary Chaison (2005). 4448:Temin, Peter (1991). 3942:10.1353/cwh.1961.0063 3874:Hugh Tulloch (1999). 3184: 3155: 3140: 3122: 3117: 3111: 3105: 3046: 3020: 3004:United States Senator 2990: 2964: 2907: 2891: 2851:observational studies 2789: 2673:Reciprocal Tariff Act 2616:Franklin D. Roosevelt 2544:1911 federal election 2446: 2418: 2407:Democratic President 2375: 2367:Industrial Revolution 2296:Further information: 2077:Industrial Revolution 1954:signed, the Hamilton 1885: 1661: 1653: 1645: 1637: 458:President Pro Tempore 298: 4873:on February 25, 2017 4528:Accessed 12 Jul 2011 4173:Harold U. Faulkner, 4037:The Economic Journal 3337:"Free Trade Fallacy" 3319:"Free Trade Fallacy" 3261:Economic nationalism 3248:Business nationalism 2863:experimental studies 2849:A large majority of 2796:most favoured nation 2663:Trade liberalization 2540:American imperialism 2465:Payne–Aldrich Tariff 2177:Nullification Crisis 2121:Nullification Crisis 1921:Confederation Period 1907:Colonial Era to 1789 1833:Nullification Crisis 1727:under the name the " 1387:in the United States 1127:Political ideologies 751:Presidential primary 83:improve this article 5158:. February 28, 2017 4966:Library of Congress 4775:Presidency.ucsb.edu 4546:Judith L. Goldstein 4160:Festus P. Summers, 4117:Douglas A. Fisher, 4064:Douglas A. Fisher, 4009:Joanne R. Reitano, 3789:(1931), pp. 155–170 3734:(1931), pp. 123–161 3395:. December 30, 2003 3058:In 1822, President 2824:most favored nation 2798:in the early 2000s. 2766:United Auto Workers 2593:Federal Reserve Act 2585:Sixteenth Amendment 2473:William Howard Taft 2389:open hearth furnace 2243:Henry Charles Carey 2138:Second Party System 2013:Embargo Act of 1807 1931:The framers of the 1529:Politics portal 1364:Department of State 1039:U.S. Virgin Islands 5206:Theory and Society 4922:Quod.lib.umich.edu 4599:The New York Times 4375:Edward S. Kaplan, 4362:Edward S. Kaplan, 3749:full text in JSTOR 3369:on January 6, 2006 3343:on January 6, 2006 3325:, January 1, 2003. 3158: 3143:protective tariff. 3136:Theodore Roosevelt 3130:Theodore Roosevelt 3125:self-destruction." 2922: 2918:dead-weight losses 2902: 2800: 2696:as put out by the 2667:Tariffs up to the 2603:of 1922. When the 2524:Conservative Party 2506:Tariff with Canada 2469:Theodore Roosevelt 2449: 2331:voted Republican. 2292:Reconstruction era 2204:Low tariff of 1857 2036:Tariff Act of 1789 1972:Alexander Hamilton 1893:Southern Democrats 1852:American Civil War 1819:"American System." 1664: 1656: 1648: 1640: 1371:Secretary of State 741:Off-year elections 723:National Elections 430:Non-voting members 308:Federal government 300: 225:encyclopedic style 212:is written like a 5168:National Archives 4616:Unions in America 4147:H. Wayne Morgan, 4022:H. Wayne Morgan, 3969:Paul H. Tedesco, 3930:Civil War History 3800:Financial History 2947:George Washington 2941:George Washington 2842:and chair of the 2749:Lyndon B. Johnson 2704:Post World War II 2520:John A. Macdonald 2428:Bourbon Democrats 2387:and later to the 2371:London Daily Mail 2241:rates. Economist 2057:Revolutionary War 2040:U.S. Constitution 1997:Whiskey Rebellion 1952:George Washington 1762:In 1896, the GOP 1566: 1565: 1405:Visa requirements 1357:Foreign relations 1256:Political culture 1196:Constitutionalism 1074:Political parties 1059:List of Elections 746:Primary elections 736:Midterm elections 658:Courts of appeals 286: 271: 270: 263: 253: 252: 245: 195: 194: 159: 158: 151: 133: 56: 5347: 5314: 5313: 5311: 5309: 5296: 5290: 5289: 5261: 5255: 5254: 5252: 5250: 5236: 5230: 5229: 5201: 5195: 5194: 5183: 5172: 5171: 5165: 5163: 5146: 5140: 5139: 5137: 5135: 5120: 5114: 5113: 5111: 5109: 5095: 5089: 5088: 5086: 5084: 5069: 5063: 5062: 5060: 5058: 5044: 5038: 5037: 5017: 5011: 5010: 5008: 5006: 4992: 4986: 4985: 4975: 4969: 4962: 4956: 4955: 4953: 4951: 4939: 4933: 4932: 4930: 4928: 4914: 4908: 4907: 4905: 4903: 4892: 4883: 4882: 4880: 4878: 4869:. 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Beard 2252:New-York Tribune 2222:Republican Party 2001:Thomas Jefferson 1881:Ulysses S. Grant 1844:Republican Party 1737:Republican Party 1558: 1551: 1544: 1527: 1526: 1515: 1514: 1513: 1334:District Council 1317:Local government 1201:Environmentalism 565:Executive Office 560:Federal agencies 370: 365: 285:Politics of the 284: 273: 272: 266: 259: 248: 241: 237: 234: 228: 205: 204: 197: 190: 187: 181: 169: 168: 161: 154: 147: 143: 140: 134: 132: 91: 67: 59: 48: 26: 25: 18: 5355: 5354: 5350: 5349: 5348: 5346: 5345: 5344: 5320: 5319: 5318: 5317: 5307: 5305: 5298: 5297: 5293: 5262: 5258: 5248: 5246: 5238: 5237: 5233: 5202: 5198: 5185: 5184: 5175: 5161: 5159: 5148: 5147: 5143: 5133: 5131: 5121: 5117: 5107: 5105: 5103:National Review 5097: 5096: 5092: 5082: 5080: 5070: 5066: 5056: 5054: 5046: 5045: 5041: 5034: 5026:. D. 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Tyler, 3474: 3470: 3463: 3447: 3443: 3428:10.2307/1883762 3412: 3408: 3398: 3396: 3387: 3386: 3382: 3372: 3370: 3361: 3360: 3356: 3346: 3344: 3335:Lind, Matthew. 3333: 3329: 3313: 3309: 3299: 3297: 3287: 3274: 3269: 3234: 3194: 3172: 3150: 3132: 3097: 3073:Abraham Lincoln 3069: 3067:Abraham Lincoln 3063:manufactures." 3056: 3038: 3000: 2974: 2943: 2886: 2784: 2778: 2758:Volkswagen vans 2706: 2665: 2651:Nobel laureate 2635:Milton Friedman 2629: 2566: 2560: 2558:1913 to present 2516:National Policy 2508: 2441: 2405: 2363: 2354: 2328: 2304:Howard K. Beale 2300: 2294: 2278: 2273: 2238:Abraham Lincoln 2206: 2189: 2140: 2134: 2093:John C. Calhoun 1929: 1909: 1848:Abraham Lincoln 1817:under the name 1800: 1798:Northern states 1780: 1778:Southern states 1741:Abraham Lincoln 1729:American System 1632: 1622: 1584:Southern states 1576:economic policy 1562: 1533: 1521: 1511: 1509: 1501: 1500: 1452: 1434: 1414: 1395:Nationality law 1391: 1379: 1359: 1349: 1348: 1321: 1276: 1266: 1265: 1252: 1187: 1129: 1119: 1118: 1110: 1090: 1076: 1066: 1065: 1053: 1043: 765: 757: 727: 718: 708: 707: 702:Other tribunals 697: 663:District courts 645: 580: 570: 569: 551: 547:Merrick Garland 499: 489: 488: 483:Mitch McConnell 480:Minority Leader 469:Majority Leader 434: 410:Hakeem Jeffries 407:Minority Leader 396:Majority Leader 372: 349: 339: 338: 310: 287: 267: 256: 255: 254: 249: 238: 232: 229: 221:help improve it 218: 206: 202: 191: 185: 182: 179: 170: 166: 155: 144: 138: 135: 92: 90: 80: 68: 27: 23: 12: 11: 5: 5353: 5343: 5342: 5337: 5332: 5316: 5315: 5291: 5256: 5231: 5196: 5173: 5155:whitehouse.gov 5141: 5115: 5090: 5064: 5039: 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1499: 1498: 1493: 1488: 1486:European Union 1483: 1481:United Kingdom 1478: 1473: 1468: 1463: 1458: 1451: 1450: 1445: 1440: 1433: 1432: 1431: 1430: 1425: 1413: 1412: 1407: 1402: 1397: 1390: 1389: 1378: 1377: 1375:Antony Blinken 1367: 1366: 1360: 1355: 1354: 1351: 1350: 1347: 1346: 1344:Superior Court 1341: 1336: 1330: 1329: 1320: 1319: 1313: 1312: 1307: 1297: 1291: 1290: 1277: 1272: 1271: 1268: 1267: 1264: 1263: 1258: 1251: 1250: 1249: 1248: 1243: 1233: 1228: 1223: 1218: 1213: 1211:Libertarianism 1208: 1203: 1198: 1193: 1186: 1185: 1184: 1183: 1178: 1168: 1167: 1166: 1164:Traditionalist 1161: 1156: 1151: 1146: 1141: 1130: 1125: 1124: 1121: 1120: 1117: 1116: 1109: 1108: 1107: 1106: 1101: 1089: 1088: 1083: 1077: 1072: 1071: 1068: 1067: 1064: 1063: 1052: 1051: 1042: 1041: 1036: 1031: 1026: 1021: 1019:American Samoa 1016: 1011: 1006: 1001: 996: 991: 986: 981: 976: 971: 966: 964:South Carolina 961: 956: 951: 946: 941: 936: 931: 929:North Carolina 926: 921: 916: 911: 906: 901: 896: 891: 886: 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D. Appleton 5000: 4999: 4991: 4983: 4982: 4974: 4967: 4961: 4945: 4938: 4923: 4919: 4913: 4898: 4891: 4889: 4877:September 24, 4872: 4868: 4862: 4847: 4840: 4834: 4826: 4819: 4804: 4800: 4794: 4792: 4776: 4772: 4766: 4758: 4752: 4748: 4741: 4739: 4723: 4722:Fpc.state.gov 4716: 4709: 4700: 4695: 4691: 4687: 4683: 4676: 4669: 4663: 4655: 4649: 4645: 4644: 4636: 4628: 4622: 4618: 4617: 4609: 4601: 4600: 4595: 4588: 4586: 4577: 4573: 4569: 4565: 4558: 4551: 4547: 4541: 4539: 4537: 4535: 4527: 4522: 4515:. p. 38. 4514: 4511:(in French). 4507: 4500: 4493:. p. 38. 4492: 4489:(in French). 4485: 4478: 4463: 4457: 4454:. MIT Press. 4453: 4452: 4444: 4436: 4430: 4426: 4419: 4404: 4398: 4394: 4393: 4385: 4378: 4372: 4365: 4359: 4351: 4347: 4343: 4339: 4335: 4331: 4324: 4316: 4312: 4305: 4298: 4292: 4285: 4279: 4271: 4267: 4263: 4259: 4255: 4251: 4244: 4237: 4231: 4223: 4219: 4215: 4211: 4207: 4203: 4196: 4189: 4183: 4176: 4170: 4163: 4157: 4150: 4144: 4136: 4135: 4127: 4120: 4114: 4107: 4101: 4093: 4087: 4083: 4082: 4074: 4067: 4061: 4054: 4048: 4046: 4038: 4032: 4025: 4019: 4012: 4006: 3998: 3992: 3988: 3987: 3979: 3972: 3966: 3955: 3951: 3947: 3943: 3939: 3935: 3931: 3924: 3922: 3913: 3907: 3903: 3897: 3889: 3883: 3879: 3878: 3870: 3862: 3858: 3854: 3850: 3846: 3842: 3835: 3827: 3821: 3817: 3816: 3808: 3802:(1915) p. 299 3801: 3795: 3788: 3782: 3775: 3769: 3762: 3756: 3750: 3746: 3740: 3733: 3727: 3712: 3708: 3702: 3695: 3689: 3682: 3676: 3668: 3664: 3657: 3650: 3644: 3637: 3631: 3624: 3618: 3611: 3605: 3598: 3592: 3585: 3579: 3572: 3566: 3559: 3553: 3546: 3540: 3533: 3527: 3520: 3514: 3507: 3501: 3494: 3488: 3482: 3481:online review 3478: 3472: 3464: 3458: 3454: 3453: 3445: 3437: 3433: 3429: 3425: 3422:(1): 78–100. 3421: 3417: 3410: 3394: 3390: 3384: 3368: 3364: 3358: 3342: 3338: 3331: 3324: 3320: 3316: 3311: 3296: 3292: 3285: 3283: 3281: 3279: 3277: 3272: 3262: 3258: 3257: 3256: 3255: 3249: 3246: 3244: 3241: 3239: 3236: 3235: 3229: 3227: 3222: 3218: 3215: 3211: 3207: 3202: 3200: 3199:United States 3188: 3183: 3182:, Trump said: 3181: 3177: 3171: 3167: 3166:Trump tariffs 3163: 3154: 3144: 3139: 3137: 3126: 3120: 3115: 3109: 3104: 3102: 3092: 3088: 3084: 3081: 3077: 3074: 3064: 3061: 3050: 3045: 3043: 3033: 3031: 3024: 3019: 3016: 3013: 3009: 3005: 2994: 2989: 2987: 2982: 2979: 2976:As President 2968: 2963: 2961: 2956: 2953: 2951: 2948: 2938: 2935: 2930: 2928: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2906: 2899: 2895: 2890: 2881: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2866: 2864: 2860: 2856: 2852: 2847: 2845: 2841: 2837: 2833: 2827: 2825: 2820: 2818: 2814: 2810: 2805: 2797: 2793: 2788: 2783: 2782:Trump tariffs 2773: 2771: 2768:'s president 2767: 2761: 2759: 2754: 2750: 2746: 2741: 2737: 2733: 2731: 2727: 2723: 2717: 2715: 2711: 2701: 2699: 2695: 2689: 2687: 2683: 2677: 2674: 2670: 2660: 2656: 2654: 2649: 2647: 2643: 2639: 2636: 2632: 2624: 2622: 2617: 2612: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2597: 2594: 2588: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2574: 2570: 2565: 2555: 2551: 2549: 2548:Robert Borden 2545: 2541: 2536: 2534: 2533:Liberal Party 2530: 2529:1878 election 2525: 2521: 2517: 2513: 2503: 2501: 2497: 2493: 2488: 2486: 2480: 2478: 2474: 2470: 2466: 2461: 2458: 2454: 2445: 2436: 2434: 2429: 2422: 2417: 2415: 2410: 2400: 2396: 2392: 2390: 2386: 2379: 2374: 2372: 2368: 2358: 2349: 2345: 2343: 2338: 2332: 2323: 2320: 2318: 2314: 2310: 2305: 2299: 2289: 2287: 2282: 2268: 2266: 2260: 2258: 2254: 2253: 2248: 2244: 2239: 2235: 2230: 2225: 2223: 2217: 2215: 2211: 2201: 2198: 2197:Walker tariff 2194: 2193:James K. Polk 2187:Walker Tariff 2184: 2182: 2178: 2173: 2171: 2167: 2163: 2161: 2157: 2153: 2149: 2145: 2139: 2129: 2126: 2123:). President 2122: 2118: 2114: 2109: 2107: 2103: 2097: 2094: 2090: 2086: 2081: 2078: 2074: 2070: 2069:Samuel Slater 2065: 2061: 2058: 2053: 2048: 2046: 2041: 2037: 2032: 2028: 2026: 2022: 2018: 2014: 2008: 2004: 2002: 1998: 1994: 1990: 1986: 1982: 1978: 1973: 1969: 1964: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1949: 1944: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1924: 1922: 1917: 1915: 1904: 1902: 1898: 1894: 1889: 1884: 1882: 1877: 1874: 1872: 1868: 1864: 1859: 1857: 1853: 1849: 1845: 1841: 1836: 1834: 1830: 1826: 1821: 1820: 1816: 1812: 1809: 1805: 1795: 1793: 1789: 1785: 1784:mechanization 1775: 1772: 1768: 1765: 1760: 1758: 1752: 1750: 1746: 1742: 1738: 1732: 1730: 1726: 1722: 1717: 1715: 1709: 1707: 1704:According to 1702: 1698: 1694: 1692: 1686: 1682: 1678: 1674: 1672: 1669: 1660: 1652: 1644: 1636: 1631: 1627: 1617: 1614: 1612: 1608: 1603: 1601: 1597: 1593: 1589: 1585: 1581: 1577: 1574: 1573:protectionist 1570: 1559: 1554: 1552: 1547: 1545: 1540: 1539: 1537: 1536: 1530: 1525: 1520: 1518: 1508: 1507: 1505: 1504: 1497: 1494: 1492: 1491:Latin America 1489: 1487: 1484: 1482: 1479: 1477: 1474: 1472: 1469: 1467: 1464: 1462: 1459: 1457: 1454: 1453: 1449: 1446: 1444: 1441: 1439: 1436: 1435: 1429: 1426: 1424: 1421: 1420: 1419: 1416: 1415: 1411: 1408: 1406: 1403: 1401: 1398: 1396: 1393: 1392: 1388: 1384: 1381: 1380: 1376: 1372: 1369: 1368: 1365: 1362: 1361: 1358: 1353: 1352: 1345: 1342: 1340: 1337: 1335: 1332: 1331: 1328: 1327: 1323: 1322: 1318: 1315: 1314: 1311: 1308: 1305: 1301: 1298: 1296: 1293: 1292: 1289: 1287: 1283: 1279: 1278: 1275: 1270: 1269: 1262: 1259: 1257: 1254: 1253: 1247: 1244: 1242: 1239: 1238: 1237: 1234: 1232: 1231:Republicanism 1229: 1227: 1226:Protectionism 1224: 1222: 1219: 1217: 1214: 1212: 1209: 1207: 1204: 1202: 1199: 1197: 1194: 1192: 1189: 1188: 1182: 1181:Progressivism 1179: 1177: 1174: 1173: 1172: 1169: 1165: 1162: 1160: 1157: 1155: 1152: 1150: 1147: 1145: 1142: 1140: 1137: 1136: 1135: 1132: 1131: 1128: 1123: 1122: 1115: 1112: 1111: 1105: 1102: 1100: 1097: 1096: 1095: 1094:Third parties 1092: 1091: 1087: 1084: 1082: 1079: 1078: 1075: 1070: 1069: 1062: 1060: 1055: 1054: 1050: 1049: 1045: 1044: 1040: 1037: 1035: 1032: 1030: 1027: 1025: 1022: 1020: 1017: 1015: 1012: 1010: 1007: 1005: 1004:West Virginia 1002: 1000: 997: 995: 992: 990: 987: 985: 982: 980: 977: 975: 972: 970: 967: 965: 962: 960: 957: 955: 952: 950: 947: 945: 942: 940: 937: 935: 932: 930: 927: 925: 922: 920: 917: 915: 912: 910: 909:New Hampshire 907: 905: 902: 900: 897: 895: 892: 890: 887: 885: 882: 880: 877: 875: 872: 870: 869:Massachusetts 867: 865: 862: 860: 857: 855: 852: 850: 847: 845: 842: 840: 837: 835: 832: 830: 827: 825: 822: 820: 817: 815: 812: 810: 807: 805: 802: 800: 797: 795: 792: 790: 787: 785: 782: 780: 777: 775: 772: 770: 767: 766: 762: 759: 758: 752: 749: 748: 747: 744: 742: 739: 737: 734: 732: 729: 728: 724: 721: 720: 717: 712: 711: 704: 703: 699: 698: 694: 691: 689: 686: 684: 681: 679: 676: 674: 671: 668: 664: 661: 659: 656: 655: 652: 651: 647: 646: 642: 639: 637: 634: 632: 629: 627: 624: 623: 620: 617: 615: 612: 610: 607: 605: 602: 601: 598: 595: 594:Chief Justice 592: 591: 588: 587: 583: 582: 579: 574: 573: 566: 563: 561: 558: 556: 553: 552: 548: 545: 544: 541: 540: 536: 535: 531: 530:Kamala Harris 528: 527: 524: 523: 519: 518: 514: 511: 510: 507: 506: 502: 501: 498: 493: 492: 484: 481: 478: 477: 473: 472:Chuck Schumer 470: 467: 466: 462: 459: 456: 455: 451: 450:Kamala Harris 448: 445: 444: 441: 440: 436: 435: 431: 428: 427: 423: 419: 416: 415: 411: 408: 405: 404: 400: 399:Steve Scalise 397: 394: 393: 389: 386: 383: 382: 379: 378: 374: 373: 371: 369: 364: 357: 356: 352: 351: 348: 343: 342: 335: 332: 330: 327: 325: 322: 321: 318: 317: 313: 312: 309: 304: 303: 297: 293: 292: 289: 288:United States 282: 281: 278: 275: 274: 265: 262: 247: 244: 236: 233:February 2024 226: 222: 216: 215: 210:This article 208: 199: 198: 189: 177: 172: 163: 162: 153: 150: 142: 131: 128: 124: 121: 117: 114: 110: 107: 103: 100: – 99: 95: 94:Find sources: 88: 84: 78: 77: 72:This article 70: 66: 61: 60: 55: 53: 46: 45: 40: 39: 34: 29: 20: 19: 16: 5306:. Retrieved 5302: 5294: 5269: 5265: 5259: 5247:. Retrieved 5243: 5234: 5209: 5205: 5199: 5191:Pew Research 5190: 5166:– via 5160:. Retrieved 5153: 5144: 5132:. Retrieved 5128: 5118: 5106:. Retrieved 5102: 5093: 5081:. Retrieved 5077: 5067: 5055:. Retrieved 5051: 5042: 5022: 5015: 5003:. Retrieved 4997: 4990: 4980: 4973: 4960: 4950:February 21, 4948:. Retrieved 4937: 4925:. Retrieved 4921: 4912: 4902:February 21, 4900:. Retrieved 4875:. Retrieved 4871:the original 4861: 4851:February 21, 4849:. Retrieved 4845: 4833: 4824: 4818: 4808:February 21, 4806:. Retrieved 4802: 4778:. Retrieved 4774: 4765: 4746: 4727:February 21, 4725:. Retrieved 4721: 4708: 4689: 4685: 4675: 4667: 4662: 4642: 4635: 4615: 4608: 4597: 4567: 4563: 4557: 4549: 4521: 4499: 4477: 4467:February 21, 4465:. Retrieved 4450: 4443: 4424: 4418: 4408:February 21, 4406:. Retrieved 4391: 4384: 4376: 4371: 4363: 4358: 4336:(1): 39–46. 4333: 4329: 4323: 4314: 4304: 4296: 4291: 4283: 4278: 4253: 4249: 4243: 4235: 4230: 4205: 4201: 4195: 4187: 4182: 4174: 4169: 4161: 4156: 4148: 4143: 4133: 4126: 4118: 4113: 4105: 4100: 4080: 4073: 4065: 4060: 4052: 4036: 4031: 4023: 4018: 4010: 4005: 3985: 3978: 3970: 3965: 3936:(1): 91–92. 3933: 3929: 3920: 3912: 3901: 3896: 3876: 3869: 3844: 3840: 3834: 3814: 3807: 3799: 3794: 3786: 3781: 3773: 3768: 3760: 3755: 3744: 3739: 3731: 3726: 3716:February 21, 3714:. Retrieved 3710: 3701: 3693: 3688: 3680: 3675: 3666: 3662: 3656: 3648: 3643: 3635: 3630: 3622: 3617: 3609: 3604: 3596: 3591: 3583: 3578: 3570: 3565: 3557: 3552: 3544: 3539: 3531: 3526: 3518: 3513: 3505: 3500: 3492: 3487: 3476: 3471: 3451: 3444: 3419: 3415: 3409: 3397:. Retrieved 3392: 3383: 3373:February 21, 3371:. Retrieved 3367:the original 3357: 3345:. Retrieved 3341:the original 3330: 3315:Michael Lind 3310: 3300:February 21, 3298:. 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