4668:). As with Middle Chinese and other languages of the Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area, each of these classes split into upper and lower registers, depending on whether the original initial was voiceless or voiced. When voicing was lost, the register distinction became phonemic, yielding tone classes conventionally numbered 1 to 8, with tones 1 and 2 naming the upper and lower registers of Proto-Min class A*, and so on. All 8 classes are retained by the Chaozhou dialect, but some have merged in other varieties. Some northern varieties, including the Jianyang dialect, have an additional tone class (tone 9), reflecting a partial merger of tone classes that cannot be predicted from Middle Chinese forms.
777:
1291:, the reflexes of Middle Chinese voiced stops are uniformly aspirated, as in Gan and Hakka, leading some workers to assign them to one of these groups. Pan et al. described them as intermediate between Min and Hakka. However, Norman showed that their tonal development could only be explained in terms of the same two classes of voiced initial assumed for Min dialects. He suggested that they were inland Min dialects that had been subject to heavy Gan or Hakka influence. Norman's student David Prager Branner argued that the varieties of
9250:
364:
348:
2503:
register tones. These initials must therefore be distinguished in Proto-Min as aspirated and unaspirated voiced consonants. In Shao–Jiang these initials are uniformly aspirated, but the same distinction is reflected in the tonal development. As with the voiceless initials, there is a third group of formerly voiced initials with fricative or lateral reflexes in some
Northern Min varieties, which Norman called "softened" voiced initials. In Eastern Min varieties, voiced unaspirated affricates typically yielded plain
10045:
11975:
1086:
1070:
12625:
1653:
unaspirated stops and affricates in coastal varieties. Other scholars have suggested that the patterns observed in northwest Fujian can be explained as a mixture of forms from neighbouring Wu, Gan and Hakka varieties, though this does not explain the regularity of the correspondences. In addition, the forms of many of the words in the proposed donor varieties do not match the Min reflexes, and some of the words occur only in Min.
880:
912:
864:
944:
928:
896:
541:
1118:
848:
1102:
832:
4128:. In Hakka dialects, nasals appear in both lower and upper register tones, suggesting a protolanguage with both voiced and voiceless nasals. Moreover, the occurrence of these initials corresponds to the plain and aspirated nasals of Proto-Min. Norman suggests that they derive from voiced and voiceless nasals in Old Southern Chinese. Further evidence for a voicing distinction comes from early loans into
1006:
1054:
784:
1022:
1038:
990:
816:
800:
976:
960:
659:(early 4th century AD) described them as quite distinct from other Chinese varieties. Some of the distinctive Jiangdong words mentioned by Guo Pu appear to be preserved in modern Min varieties, including Proto-Min *gi 'leech' and *lhɑn 'young fowl'. This language entered Fujian after the area was opened to Chinese settlement by the defeat of the
1670:. Thus Old Chinese is usually reconstructed with the same three-way manner distinction in obstruent initials found in Middle Chinese. However this does not preclude additional manner distinctions that merged in Middle Chinese, because rhyme gives no information about initials and sharing of phonetic components indicates initials with the same
1690:
All modern Min varieties have a two-way contrast between unaspirated and aspirated voiceless stops and affricates. Where these initials occur with upper register tones, they are projected back into Proto-Min, and correspond to unaspirated and aspirated voiceless initials in Middle
Chinese. However,
3490:
Two series of nasals can also be distinguished based on their tonal reflexes in
Eastern Min and Shao-Jiang. They generally produce a single series of nasal initials in modern varieties except in Southern Min. In those varieties, the Proto-Min initials *nh and *ŋh have become /h/ before high front
2502:
In most varieties of
Chinese that have lost the voicing of Middle Chinese initials, the aspiration of the resulting initials is conditioned by tone, though the relationship varies between dialect groups. In Min varieties however, both aspirated and unaspirated voiceless initials are found in lower
1150:
in 1960, divided Min into
Northern and Southern subgroups. However, in a 1963 report on a survey of Fujian, Pan Maoding and colleagues argued that the primary split was between inland and coastal groups. The inland varieties are distinguished by consistently having two distinct reflexes of Middle
4190:
Fricatives in upper and lower registers are assumed to derive from voiceless and voiced fricatives respectively, broadly corresponding to the voiceless and voiced fricatives of Middle
Chinese. Zero initials show three distinct patterns of tonal development, reconstructed as initials *ɦ, *ʔ and a
3450:
Early loans from southern
Chinese into Proto-Hmong–Mien have prenasalized stops corresponding to both aspirated and softened voiced stops in Proto-Min. Baxter and Sagart derive aspirated voiced stops from tightly bound nasal preinitials in Old Chinese, and softened voiced stops from voiced stops
5614:
In
Southern Min, Pu–Xian and Hainanese, nasal initials became voiced stops or flaps except before nasalized vowels or nasal codas. In Hokkien, denasalization also occurred before nasal codas, but not before nasalized vowels. In Pu-Xian, these initials later devoiced, merging with the voiceless
1652:
The most controversial have been the "softened" stops and affricates, so named because they have lateral or fricative reflexes in some
Northern Min varieties centred on Jianyang. These initials also have distinct tonal reflexes in the Northern Min and Shaojiang groups, but have merged with
537:. The distinguishing characteristic of Min varieties is that voiced stops yield both aspirated and unaspirated stops in all tonal categories. Further, the distribution is consistent across Min varieties, suggesting a common ancestor in which two types of voiced stop were distinguished.
5144:
Stop and affricate initials at other points of articulation produce the same tonal reflexes as the dental examples in the above table. Voiceless fricatives have the same tonal reflexes as voiceless aspirated and unaspirated stops. Voiced fricatives are more varied:
3446:
There are several cases where an adjective or intransitive verb beginning with an unaspirated voiced stop is paired with a transitive verb differing only in aspiration of the voiced stop, suggesting that the contrast reflects an early morphological process.
514:) register of words with voiced initials. When voicing was lost in most varieties, the register distinction became phonemic, yielding up to eight tonal categories, with a six-way contrast in unchecked syllables and a two-way contrast in checked syllables.
1691:
some Middle
Chinese voiceless unaspirated initials correspond to fricatives or laterals in Northern Min, and also have a special tonal development in Northern Min and Shao–Jiang. Norman called these initials voiceless "softened" stops and affricates.
6405:
Most Min vocabulary corresponds directly to cognates in other Chinese varieties, but a significant number of distinctively Min words can be reconstructed in proto-Min. In some cases a semantic shift has occurred in Min or the rest of Chinese:
5621:
A later merger of nasal codas as /ŋ/ occurred in Pu–Xian and some Eastern Min dialects, including Fuzhou, Fuding and Gutian, but not Fu'an and Ningde. A partial merger occurred in Chaozhou, Jieyang and Shantou, where -n merged with
8966:[The 'Wu dialect' of Southern dynasties and the origin of modern Min; plus an exegesis of Yan Zhitui's dictum, 'The South is tainted by Wu and Yue features, and the North is intermixed with barbaric tongues of Yi and Lu']
1641:
Whereas Middle Chinese obstruents have a three-way manner distinction, proto-Min has a six-way distinction: both voiced and voiceless stops may be aspirated or unaspirated, and also have an additional series that Norman called
480:– and is largely preserved by early loans between the languages. Towards the end of the first millennium AD, all of these languages experienced a tone split conditioned by initial consonants. Each tone split into an upper (
324:
is also reconstructed, compared with the single series of Middle Chinese and all modern varieties. Evidence from early loans into other languages suggests that the additional contrasts may reflect consonant clusters or
1307:
to pronunciations in modern Min varieties. For this purpose, rather than the traditional approach of soliciting readings of character lists, he focussed on everyday vocabulary and excluded words of literary origin.
623:
initials, which had occurred in some dialects by the Eastern Han period, is common to Middle Chinese and Min. Baxter and Sagart suggest that the later part of the Proto-Min period may have overlapped with
6002:
In most inland varieties stop codas have disappeared, but are marked with separate tonal categories. In coastal varieties, stop codas underwent changes corresponding to those affecting nasal codas:
5591:
Most inland varieties have reduced the nasal codas to a single category. Coastal varieties went through a series of changes that each affected part of the area, and interacted with nasal initials:
308:
reconstructed the sound system of Proto-Min from popular vocabulary in a range of Min varieties, including new data on varieties from inland Fujian. The system has a six-way manner contrast in
1674:
but not necessarily the same manner. Several scholars have attempted to incorporate Proto-Min data into their reconstructions of Old Chinese. The most systematic attempt to date is the
9662:
9653:
10853:
5571:
The close vowels *i, *u, *y, *e and *ə were short, with stronger following consonants, whereas the open vowels *o, *a and *ɑ were longer, with weaker following consonants.
11398:
776:
3491:
vowels, *m, *n and *ŋ denasalized to *b, *l and *g respectively before oral vowels, but *mh and other occurrences of *nh and *ŋh often yield nasals in that context.
521:
distinguished seven groups according to the reflexes of Middle Chinese voiced initials in various tonal categories. For example, voiced stops are preserved in the
11360:
686:. Early loans from Chinese into these languages date from around Han times and thus contain evidence of the sounds of Chinese as spoken in the south at that time.
4140:. Norman later abandoned the *ń initial, treating the dz-/z- initials in some Southern Min varieties as arising from *n followed by a high front vowel *i or *y.
12100:
10882:
742:
4124:
As the initials *mh, *nh, etc. follow the same tonal development as voiced aspirated initials throughout Min, Norman suggests that they were characterized by
10044:
8960:
1279:
Several varieties in the far west of Fujian include features of Min and the neighbouring Gan and Hakka groups, making them difficult to classify. In the
11907:
11897:
8512:
1295:
and the township of Wan'an, in the southwestern part of the province, were coastal Min varieties, but outside of the three subgroups identified by Pan.
11902:
11661:
11209:
11816:
9047:
8579:
667:
in 110 BC. Norman argues that Hakka and Yue have resulted from overlays of this language by successive waves of influence from northern China.
639:
region during the Han period, which he calls Old Southern Chinese. He argues that this dialect belonged to the group of dialects known as Wu (
8637:, Hong Kong: Ng Tor-Tai Chinese Language Research Centre, Institute of Chinese Studies, the Chinese University of Hong Kong, pp. 13–39,
11983:
11221:
8631:"Competing methodologies of Chinese dialect fieldwork, and their implications for the study of the history of the Northern Min dialects"
4656:: syllables with vocalic or nasal endings belonged to class *A, *B or *C, whereas class *D consisted of the syllables ending in a stop (
529:
groups, have merged with aspirated or unaspirated stops depending on the tone in Mandarin, and have uniformly become aspirated stops in
10610:
9005:
Zheng, Zhijun (2018), "A new proposal for Min subgrouping based on a maximum-parsimony algorithm for generating phylogenetic trees",
3463:, which Norman labels as Proto-Min *l and *lh. The two have merged in coastal varieties. In modern Southern Min varieties such as
1675:
12657:
11185:
11173:
11197:
10689:
465:
371:
12281:
2490:. Norman suggests the Proto-Min initials were also prenasalized, whereas Baxter and Sagart derive them from stops preceded by
1133:
548:
Min must have diverged before two changes in other Chinese varieties (including Middle Chinese) that are not reflected in Min:
11520:
10176:
9904:
8930:
8898:
8803:
8776:
8757:
8665:
8642:
8568:
8522:, Journal of Chinese Linguistics Monograph Series, Chinese University Press, Project on Linguistic Analysis, pp. 36–83,
8493:
8471:
8448:
347:
8941:
12331:
10468:
8721:
1660:, Old Chinese has been reconstructed by projecting the categories of Middle Chinese back onto the rhyming patterns of the
12173:
9040:
6020:
in Pu–Xian, Fuzhou, Fuding and Gutian, but not Fu'an and Ningde, and -t merged with -k in Chaozhou, Jieyang and Shantou.
1303:
In a series of papers from 1973, Jerry Norman sought to reconstruct the initial consonants of Proto-Min by applying the
4143:
Norman suggests that Old Southern Chinese voiceless sonorants derive from sonorants preceded by voiceless consonants.
717:
The earliest Chinese layer, brought to Fujian by settlers from Zhejiang to the north during the Han dynasty (compare
6010:
in Southern Min, Pu–Xian and Hainanese. In Eastern Min, only final *k changed to a glottal stop in this environment.
10493:
9249:
8786:——— (1991a), "Nasals in Old Southern Chinese", in Boltz, William G.; Shapiro, Michael C. (eds.),
8484:(1985), "The Reflexes of Initial Nasals in Proto-Southern Min-Hingua", in Acson, Veneeta; Leed, Richard L. (eds.),
1304:
267:
12253:
9774:
8558:
725:
6796:
This final is found only after velar initials, and the few examples of *yt are confined to the coastal dialects.
6416:'wok'. The Min form preserves the original meaning 'cooking pot', but in other Chinese varieties this word (MC
10960:
10603:
9033:
8987:
8746:——— (1986), "The origin of Proto-Min softened stops", in McCoy, John; Light, Timothy (eds.),
6674:
For Yong'an, Norman found only one example of a class *C word with a softened voiceless initial, having tone 2.
96:
12569:
12023:
10488:
10463:
10458:
8539:
6715:
This final is found only after velar and glottal initials, and is distinguished from *i only in Southern Min.
572:
469:
236:
110:
6656:
Southern Min varieties also have voiced stops and affricates, which are derived from earlier nasal initials.
12628:
12539:
12063:
9832:
9779:
9435:
8813:——— (1991b), "The Mǐn dialects in historical perspective", in Wang, William S.-Y. (ed.),
6751:
This final is required to account for Southern Min developments, but few examples are attested across Min.
6690:
6609:
6392:
6387:
6382:
6377:
6372:
6367:
6362:
6357:
6339:
6334:
6329:
6324:
6319:
6314:
6309:
6304:
6286:
6281:
6276:
6271:
6266:
6261:
6256:
6251:
6233:
6228:
6223:
6218:
6213:
6208:
6203:
6198:
6180:
6175:
6170:
6165:
6160:
6155:
6150:
6145:
6127:
6122:
6117:
6112:
6107:
6102:
6097:
6092:
6017:
5994:
5989:
5984:
5979:
5974:
5969:
5964:
5959:
5941:
5936:
5931:
5926:
5921:
5916:
5911:
5906:
5888:
5883:
5878:
5873:
5868:
5863:
5858:
5853:
5835:
5830:
5825:
5820:
5815:
5810:
5805:
5800:
5782:
5777:
5772:
5767:
5762:
5757:
5752:
5747:
5729:
5724:
5719:
5714:
5709:
5704:
5699:
5694:
5574:
Proto-Min also had a single word with a syllabic nasal, the usual negator *m (cognate with Middle Chinese
4665:
4661:
4657:
4167:
4163:
4159:
3484:
3476:
3472:
3468:
3460:
2504:
1152:
594:
561:
557:
12544:
12416:
12341:
11998:
9825:
9480:
9402:
9118:
4653:
12586:
12559:
12436:
12348:
12095:
12075:
2494:, arguing that the intervocalic environment caused the stops to weaken to fricatives in some dialects.
8731:
Proceedings of the First International Conference on Sinology (Section on Linguistics and Paleography)
8594:
12138:
10836:
10596:
10478:
9897:
9725:
9172:
9093:
8675:
1331:
632:
305:
12652:
12512:
12497:
12487:
12201:
10132:
9806:
9409:
9222:
5149:
The initials *z and *ɣ have the same tonal reflexes as aspirated nasals and voiced aspirated stops.
2486:
In loans from southern Chinese into proto-Hmong–Mien, softened obstruents are often represented by
679:
8961:"Shì shì "Yánshì jiāxùn" lǐ de 'nán rǎn wúyuè, běi zá yí lǔ' – jiān lùn xiàndài Mǐnyǔ de láiyuán"
8790:, Current Issues in Linguistic Theory, vol. 77, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 205–213,
8654:
Chinese Language(s): A Look Through the Prism of "The Great Dictionary of Modern Chinese Dialects"
12524:
10763:
9800:
9586:
9470:
683:
675:
12517:
12366:
12458:
12301:
10899:
10473:
9846:
9839:
9619:
9553:
9056:
6665:
The voiced initials in modern Southern Min varieties are derived from Proto-Min nasal initials.
2487:
734:
dictionary, which was published in 601 AD but based on earlier dictionaries that are now lost (
564:
merged after velar initials. This merger is reflected in a change in poetic rhyme between the
8889:, in Sanchez-Mazas, Alicia; Blench, Roger; Ross, Malcolm D.; Peiros, Ilia; Lin, Marie (eds.),
8747:
1155:. The two groups also have differences in their vocabulary, including their pronoun systems.
12453:
12376:
12090:
12068:
10823:
10656:
9789:
9739:
9295:
6477:
4154:
A different set of voiceless resonant initials is proposed in most recent reconstructions of
1671:
699:
6733:
This final is found only after dental initials, and completely consistent examples are rare.
12647:
12221:
12189:
12018:
11143:
10638:
10438:
9890:
9601:
9447:
9393:
625:
518:
298:
or most other modern varieties, and thus provide additional data for the reconstruction of
275:
8:
12465:
12431:
12266:
12233:
12080:
12008:
11925:
11766:
11761:
11515:
11325:
10831:
10181:
9784:
9374:
9201:
9132:
6560:
4129:
3459:
Inland Min varieties are characterized by having two distinct reflexes of Middle Chinese
1635:
718:
477:
438:
430:
400:
313:
71:
4191:
Proto-Min zero initial. The latter occurs only before the high front vowels *i and *y.
714:, and there is no other evidence for an early Austroasiatic presence in southeast China.
395:, most subsequent migration from north to south China passed through the valleys of the
12581:
12448:
12411:
12296:
12194:
12128:
12123:
12013:
12003:
11629:
11607:
11500:
11308:
11303:
11226:
11214:
11202:
11190:
11178:
10702:
10548:
10415:
10331:
10290:
10275:
10164:
10156:
10110:
9625:
9234:
9100:
8866:
8822:
8708:
8687:
8523:
8499:
8488:, Oceanic Linguistics Special Publications, University of Hawaii Press, pp. 2–20,
1667:
473:
233:
61:
10433:
631:
Pointing to features of Min varieties that are also found in Hakka and Yue varieties,
387:. The area features rugged mountainous terrain, with short rivers that flow into the
164:
12492:
12482:
12361:
12326:
12181:
12133:
12085:
11852:
11705:
11639:
11495:
11480:
11151:
11128:
11082:
11007:
10933:
10813:
10781:
10735:
10674:
10664:
10629:
10453:
10448:
10349:
10127:
10098:
10093:
9733:
9693:
9671:
9636:
9630:
9595:
9533:
9527:
9507:
9301:
9289:
9272:
9180:
9126:
9106:
8926:
8894:
8830:
8799:
8772:
8753:
8734:
8661:
8657:
8638:
8564:
8531:
8489:
8467:
8444:
8436:
4144:
1678:, who derive the additional initials from a number of initial consonant clusters and
1662:
1657:
1241:
1028:
671:
664:
442:
212:
188:
8843:
6778:
Norman describes the reconstruction of this final as ad hoc, based on only two sets.
6742:
Norman describes the reconstruction of this final as ad hoc, based on only two sets.
6724:
Norman describes the reconstruction of this final as ad hoc, based on only two sets.
746:
615:, have velar initials. The Proto-Min form *ki 'branch' retains the original initial.
294:, and other parts of the world. They contain reflexes of distinctions not found in
12598:
12118:
11993:
11857:
11847:
11832:
11778:
11700:
11651:
11612:
11561:
11475:
11427:
11411:
11291:
11251:
11246:
11133:
11087:
11033:
11028:
11018:
11012:
10841:
10786:
10771:
10647:
10619:
10443:
10372:
10280:
10226:
10103:
10013:
9992:
9754:
9714:
9684:
9658:
9608:
9566:
9475:
9452:
9345:
9325:
9282:
9207:
9070:
9014:
8979:
8862:
8858:
8791:
8560:
Problems in Comparative Chinese Dialectology – the Classification of Miin and Hakka
4158:, with aspirate or fricative reflexes in Middle Chinese. For example, Old Chinese
4133:
3480:
1249:
1012:
575:
in certain environments during the Western Han period. For example, Middle Chinese
434:
133:
9332:
8908:
Ting, Pang-Hsin (1983), "Derivation time of colloquial Min from Archaic Chinese",
8891:
Past Human Migrations in East Asia: Matching Archaeology, Linguistics and Genetics
6636:
320:
and the two-way contrast in most modern Chinese varieties. A two-way contrast in
12549:
12529:
12426:
12386:
12371:
12110:
11960:
11950:
11930:
11887:
11882:
11748:
11712:
11695:
11685:
11624:
11442:
11378:
11320:
11268:
11263:
11165:
11061:
11056:
10965:
10912:
10907:
10887:
10872:
10867:
10808:
10803:
10793:
10776:
10748:
10720:
10697:
10569:
10326:
10321:
10303:
10257:
10242:
10170:
10140:
10122:
10028:
9961:
9746:
9700:
9559:
9441:
9380:
9214:
9161:
9152:
9138:
9018:
8481:
6622:
In other cases, the origin of the Min word is obscure. Such words include *khau
5608:
703:
412:
388:
363:
635:
suggests that the three groups are descended from a variety spoken in the lower
278:. Min varieties developed in the relative isolation of the Chinese province of
12603:
12593:
12564:
12554:
12271:
12243:
11955:
11940:
11842:
11793:
11788:
11773:
11717:
11656:
11538:
11510:
11490:
11437:
11406:
11383:
11373:
11368:
11330:
11313:
11258:
11123:
11105:
11023:
10997:
10938:
10858:
10846:
10798:
10753:
10743:
10669:
10395:
10367:
10298:
10252:
10146:
10115:
10070:
10023:
9997:
9966:
9956:
9951:
9816:
9794:
9708:
9677:
9613:
9573:
9547:
9521:
9498:
9421:
9367:
9339:
9308:
9186:
9112:
8878:
8459:
6573:
4148:
2491:
1679:
1621:
1280:
1253:
1192:
1044:
854:
735:
711:
426:
422:
326:
309:
295:
291:
185:
11974:
6685:
6630:
6624:
6598:
6583:
6533:
6522:
6511:
6496:
6485:
6466:
6449:
6438:
6412:
6347:
6294:
6241:
6188:
6135:
6082:
5949:
5896:
5843:
5790:
5737:
5684:
4634:
4628:
4622:
4616:
4610:
4604:
4598:
4573:
4567:
4561:
4555:
4530:
4524:
4518:
4512:
4487:
4481:
4475:
4469:
4444:
4438:
4432:
4426:
4420:
4414:
4389:
4383:
4377:
4371:
4346:
4340:
4334:
4328:
4322:
4297:
4291:
4285:
4279:
4254:
4248:
4242:
4236:
4114:
4108:
4102:
4074:
4068:
4062:
4056:
4050:
4044:
4038:
4010:
4004:
3998:
3992:
3964:
3958:
3952:
3946:
3918:
3912:
3884:
3878:
3872:
3866:
3860:
3854:
3848:
3842:
3836:
3830:
3802:
3796:
3790:
3784:
3778:
3772:
3766:
3760:
3754:
3748:
3720:
3714:
3708:
3702:
3696:
3690:
3684:
3678:
3672:
3666:
3660:
3654:
3648:
3642:
3636:
3630:
3624:
3618:
3612:
3584:
3578:
3572:
3566:
3560:
3554:
3548:
3542:
3436:
3430:
3424:
3418:
3412:
3406:
3400:
3372:
3366:
3360:
3354:
3348:
3342:
3314:
3308:
3302:
3296:
3268:
3262:
3256:
3250:
3244:
3216:
3210:
3204:
3198:
3170:
3164:
3158:
3152:
3124:
3118:
3112:
3106:
3078:
3072:
3066:
3060:
3054:
3048:
3020:
3014:
3008:
3002:
2974:
2968:
2962:
2956:
2950:
2944:
2938:
2932:
2904:
2898:
2892:
2886:
2880:
2874:
2868:
2862:
2856:
2850:
2822:
2816:
2810:
2804:
2798:
2792:
2786:
2780:
2774:
2746:
2740:
2734:
2728:
2722:
2716:
2710:
2704:
2698:
2670:
2664:
2658:
2652:
2646:
2640:
2634:
2628:
2600:
2594:
2588:
2582:
2576:
2570:
2564:
2558:
2476:
2470:
2464:
2458:
2452:
2424:
2418:
2412:
2406:
2400:
2394:
2388:
2382:
2376:
2370:
2364:
2358:
2330:
2324:
2318:
2312:
2306:
2278:
2250:
2244:
2238:
2232:
2204:
2198:
2192:
2186:
2180:
2152:
2146:
2140:
2134:
2128:
2100:
2094:
2088:
2082:
2076:
2048:
2042:
2036:
2030:
2002:
1996:
1990:
1962:
1956:
1950:
1944:
1916:
1910:
1904:
1898:
1870:
1864:
1858:
1852:
1846:
1840:
1834:
1806:
1800:
1794:
1788:
1760:
1754:
1748:
1742:
694:
Norman identifies four main layers in the vocabulary of modern Min varieties:
611:
605:
589:
583:
403:
rivers to the west. Min varieties have thus developed in relative isolation.
12641:
12404:
12216:
12211:
11783:
11727:
11722:
11690:
11677:
11553:
11505:
11432:
11388:
11278:
11115:
11038:
10877:
10725:
10712:
10221:
10204:
10151:
10018:
9987:
9971:
9540:
9462:
9228:
9193:
9145:
8983:
8834:
6552:
6431:*dzhən 'rice field'. In Min this form has displaced the common Chinese term
4137:
4125:
707:
534:
9875:
indicates single languages that are also considered to be separate branches.
8535:
12276:
12226:
11602:
11485:
11458:
11002:
10992:
10564:
10267:
10088:
10053:
9514:
9430:
9386:
9315:
8738:
6694:
6569:
6007:
5596:
1235:
1198:
1143:
754:
446:
445:
consonants. There were four tones, with the fourth, the "entering tone", a
226:
154:
140:
8795:
6459:) 'raised path between fields', but Norman argues that it is cognate with
4151:
have incorporated this proposal into their reconstruction of Old Chinese.
670:
When Chinese soldiers and settlers moved south from their homeland in the
12421:
12395:
12291:
12261:
12238:
12206:
11945:
11935:
11739:
11634:
11619:
11582:
11530:
11351:
11342:
11238:
11077:
10952:
10679:
10509:
10341:
10313:
10062:
9936:
9913:
9860:
9075:
6548:
5600:
4155:
1262:
1182:
1162:
1147:
750:
652:
620:
565:
553:
530:
396:
392:
338:
299:
271:
209:
202:
178:
66:
30:
9025:
8870:
8826:
8712:
8691:
8580:"Northern Min tone values and the reconstruction of 'softened initials'"
8527:
8503:
464:
This syllable structure was also found in neighbouring languages of the
11837:
11811:
11577:
11543:
11048:
10975:
10483:
10216:
10211:
10199:
1272:
1245:
1092:
1060:
522:
317:
6875:
5580:
597:
because other words written with the same phonetic component, such as
12037:
12028:
11756:
11646:
11298:
11286:
11097:
10928:
10359:
9494:
9259:
9066:
7252:
5604:
1208:
886:
526:
384:
283:
5159:
The zero initial has the same tonal development as plain sonorants.
497:) register consisting of words with voiceless initials and a lower (
316:, compared with the three-way contrast in Middle Chinese and modern
12576:
12162:
11803:
10984:
10588:
10425:
10407:
8882:
8630:
8613:
7796:
1216:
1212:
1176:
918:
870:
790:
321:
12608:
8844:"The Austroasiatics in ancient South China: some lexical evidence"
4644:
In Central Min, *s and *x merged as /ʃ/ before high front vowels.
12475:
12155:
12042:
11871:
11467:
10080:
9355:
6588:
6538:
6515:'mouth'. In Min this form has displaced the common Chinese term
6501:
6471:
6454:
6417:
5618:
Vowels subsequently lost their nasalization in Putian and Hainan.
5575:
4672:
Reflexes of Proto-Min tone classes for various types of initials
4177:
4176:
and Proto-Min *th in non-palatal environments and Middle Chinese
4171:
3464:
1292:
1288:
1268:
1224:
1220:
1124:
1076:
966:
950:
934:
636:
598:
576:
161:
7682:
6952:
6428:) has become specialized to refer to ancient ceremonial tripods.
593:
is believed to reflect palatalization of an Old Chinese initial
12534:
12336:
9268:
9083:
7658:
1626:
1284:
1257:
1204:
1188:
1172:
1168:
1108:
996:
902:
838:
822:
806:
730:
660:
656:
540:
417:
380:
287:
279:
9882:
8821:
Monograph Series, Chinese University Press, pp. 325–360,
8326:
5607:
varieties, nasal codas disappeared after open vowels, leaving
193:
12047:
9264:
9079:
8401:
8377:
7540:
7538:
7439:
7332:
7027:
6981:
6979:
241:
217:
169:
7774:
7772:
6918:
6916:
6914:
6805:
There are only two examples of this final, and none of *yat.
5586:
761:
Since the latter two layers can largely be derived from the
8699:——— (1974), "The initials of Proto-Min",
8257:
8255:
8186:
8184:
7784:
6814:
The reconstruction of this final is based on only two sets.
6572:
doŋ 'to dance (as if) under demonic possession'. However,
8633:, in Coblin, Weldon South; Yue-Hashimoto, Anne O. (eds.),
8314:
8274:
8272:
8270:
7718:
7670:
7610:
7574:
7550:
7535:
7523:
7308:
7189:
7165:
7039:
6991:
6976:
6940:
6489:'house'. Norman argues that the Min word is cognate with
1137:
Locations of Min varieties in Fujian and eastern Guangdong
391:. After the area was first settled by Chinese during the
8723:
Dì yī jiè guójì hànxué huìyì lùnwén jí: Yǔyán yǔ wénzì zǔ
8355:
8353:
7769:
7562:
7511:
7499:
7475:
7451:
7415:
7403:
7379:
7367:
7177:
7129:
7068:
7066:
7051:
6964:
6928:
6911:
6827:
1620:
The inventory of Proto-Min initials differs from that of
544:
Simplified model of the evolution of varieties of Chinese
8520:
Issues in Chinese Dialect Description and Classification
8365:
8304:
8302:
8289:
8287:
8252:
8230:
8228:
8215:
8213:
8211:
8181:
8091:
8089:
8051:
8049:
8047:
8010:
8008:
7983:
7981:
7747:
7745:
7357:
7355:
7353:
7351:
7349:
7347:
7286:
7284:
7242:
7240:
7201:
7107:
7105:
6887:
6568:(/ɗoŋ/) 'to shamanize, to communicate with spirits' and
1283:
dialects, spoken in the northwestern Fujian counties of
8267:
8132:
8130:
8128:
8076:
8074:
8072:
8070:
8068:
8066:
8064:
7932:
7930:
7917:
7915:
7902:
7900:
7885:
7849:
7839:
7837:
7835:
7820:
7808:
7706:
7694:
7487:
7391:
7296:
7271:
7269:
7267:
7225:
5167:
Norman reconstructs Proto-Min finals as consisting of:
1158:
The coastal dialects are divided into three subgroups:
8788:
Studies in the Historical Phonology of Asian Languages
8720:——— (1981), "The Proto-Min finals",
8389:
8350:
8240:
8196:
8169:
8159:
8157:
8113:
8101:
7634:
7598:
7586:
7141:
7090:
7078:
7063:
7003:
6851:
6839:
6769:
The sole example of *iɑt is found only in coastal Min.
4652:
Proto-Min had four tone classes, corresponding to the
8413:
8338:
8299:
8284:
8225:
8208:
8086:
8044:
8032:
8020:
8005:
7993:
7978:
7966:
7742:
7646:
7463:
7427:
7344:
7281:
7237:
7213:
7102:
7015:
6577:
6527:
6516:
6490:
6460:
6443:
6432:
6423:
5174:
a nuclear vowel *i, *u, *y, *e, *ə, *o, *a or *ɑ, and
1231:
They divided the inland dialects into two subgroups:
728:
period, largely consistent with the phonology of the
568:(206 BC to 9 AD) and Eastern Han (25–220 AD) periods.
498:
481:
379:
The Min homeland consists of most of the province of
145:
8125:
8061:
7954:
7942:
7927:
7912:
7897:
7873:
7861:
7832:
7757:
7730:
7622:
7264:
6863:
1648:
Proto-Min distinguishes voiced fricatives *ɣ and *ɦ.
8154:
8142:
7320:
6899:
8910:Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology
7153:
7117:
5177:an optional coda *i, *u, *m, *n, *ŋ, *p, *t or *k.
6613:
1685:
406:
12639:
8733:], Taipei: Academia Sinica, pp. 35–73,
6706:This final is found only after coronal initials.
6603:
6563:
5152:The initial *ž follows voiced unaspirated stops.
1630:rhyme book and its successors) in several ways:
765:, Norman sought to focus on the earlier layers.
9724:
9171:
6576:argues that this word is cognate with Chinese
6476:) 'additional layer or floor', reflecting the
6013:This glottal stop then disappeared in Pu–Xian.
6006:Final stops following open vowels merged as a
2497:
433:showed a three-way contrast between voiceless
10604:
9898:
9041:
5155:The initial *ɦ follows softened voiced stops.
646:
640:
509:
503:
492:
486:
115:
101:
12403:
9585:
8457:
8332:
7688:
7676:
7664:
7544:
7445:
7338:
7314:
7258:
7033:
6958:
6946:
6934:
6922:
6693:) is probably a relatively late loan from a
6442:. Many scholars identify the Min word with
4182:and Proto-Min *tšh in palatal environments.
8946:(PhD thesis), City University of Hong Kong.
710:. These etymologies have been disputed by
12624:
12394:
10611:
10597:
9905:
9891:
9048:
9034:
6602:'son' appears to be related to Vietnamese
674:, they came into contact with speakers of
362:
9055:
8841:
8771:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
8752:, Leiden: E. J. Brill, pp. 375–384,
8407:
8383:
5587:Sound changes leading to modern varieties
1638:initials that are not found in Proto-Min.
8651:
7147:
7096:
4185:
1142:Early classifications, such as those of
539:
12319:
8812:
8785:
8628:
8611:
8556:
8510:
8278:
7616:
7604:
7592:
7556:
7529:
7469:
7326:
7207:
7195:
7183:
7084:
7072:
7045:
7009:
6997:
6985:
6787:There are few examples of these finals.
3475:comprise a single phoneme, realized as
1656:Since the pioneering reconstruction of
466:Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area
16:Reconstructed ancestor of Min languages
12640:
8877:
8766:
8745:
8719:
8698:
8674:
8577:
8480:
8435:
8419:
8395:
8371:
8359:
8344:
8320:
8308:
8293:
8261:
8246:
8234:
8219:
8202:
8190:
8175:
8136:
8119:
8107:
8095:
8080:
8055:
8038:
8026:
8014:
7999:
7987:
7972:
7960:
7948:
7936:
7921:
7906:
7891:
7879:
7867:
7855:
7843:
7826:
7814:
7802:
7790:
7778:
7763:
7751:
7724:
7712:
7700:
7652:
7628:
7580:
7568:
7517:
7505:
7493:
7481:
7457:
7433:
7421:
7409:
7397:
7385:
7373:
7361:
7302:
7290:
7275:
7246:
7231:
7219:
7171:
7135:
7111:
7057:
7021:
6970:
6893:
6881:
6869:
6857:
6845:
6833:
1695:Voiceless stop and affricate initials
1666:and the shared phonetic components of
1645:Proto-Min has two series of sonorants.
449:comprising syllables ending in stops (
353:
10592:
10530:
10393:
10177:Southern Peninsular Malaysian Hokkien
9924:
9886:
9029:
8939:
8749:Contributions to Sino-Tibetan studies
8518:, in Simmons, Richard VanNess (ed.),
7736:
7640:
6683:The only example of this final, *kiɑ
6526:. It is believed to be cognate with
10618:
10469:Taiwanese Language Phonetic Alphabet
8923:Introduction to Chinese Dialectology
8907:
8842:Norman, Jerry; Mei, Tsu-lin (1976),
8678:(1973), "Tonal development in Min",
6905:
6559:*-dəŋ 'shaman' may be compared with
1005:
8943:The Subgrouping of the Min Dialects
8920:
8441:A Handbook of Old Chinese Phonology
8163:
8148:
7159:
7123:
6760:There are very few examples of *ot.
5627:Sample developments of nasal codas
2511:Voiced stop and affricate initials
1676:reconstruction of Baxter and Sagart
1085:
1053:
383:, and the adjacent eastern part of
374:Location of Fujian in eastern China
13:
10394:
8952:
6025:Sample developments of stop codas
975:
517:The traditional classification of
14:
12669:
8963:試釋《顏氏家訓》裡的「南染吳越，北雜夷虜」 ──兼論現代閩語的來源
8464:Old Chinese: A New Reconstruction
6884:, pp. 191, 199–200, 204–205.
1634:Middle Chinese has two series of
879:
783:
12623:
12101:Literary and colloquial readings
11973:
10494:Hainanese Transliteration Scheme
10043:
9248:
8635:Studies in Honor of Jerry Norman
6808:
6799:
6790:
6781:
6772:
6763:
6754:
6745:
6480:fields commonly found in Fujian.
5181:The possible combinations were:
5171:an optional medial *i, *u or *y,
1116:
1100:
1084:
1068:
1052:
1036:
1021:
1020:
1004:
988:
974:
958:
942:
926:
911:
910:
894:
878:
863:
862:
846:
830:
814:
798:
782:
775:
346:
12658:History of the Chinese language
9912:
8893:, Routledge, pp. 133–157,
8815:Languages and Dialects of China
8629:——— (2010b),
8612:——— (2010a),
8513:"The classification of Longyan"
6736:
6727:
6718:
6709:
6700:
6677:
6668:
6659:
6650:
6543:) 'beak, bill, snout; to pant'.
1117:
1069:
1037:
959:
943:
927:
847:
726:Northern and Southern dynasties
619:However, the palatalization of
332:
242:
218:
194:
170:
8863:10.1080/02549948.1976.11731121
8819:Journal of Chinese Linguistics
8767:——— (1988),
8701:Journal of Chinese Linguistics
8680:Journal of Chinese Linguistics
8557:——— (2000),
8511:Branner, David Prager (1999),
8428:
1686:Voiceless stops and affricates
1101:
989:
895:
831:
815:
799:
510:
504:
493:
487:
407:Separation from common Chinese
270:of the common ancestor of the
146:
116:
102:
1:
10489:Fuzhou Transliteration Scheme
10464:Taiwanese Romanization System
10459:Kienning Colloquial Romanized
9925:
8563:, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter,
8443:, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter,
7805:, pp. 226, 229, 232–233.
6821:
6400:
3451:preceded by minor syllables.
706:, which Norman believes were
12629:List of varieties of Chinese
10531:
9019:10.1016/j.lingua.2018.01.008
6614:
6589:
6539:
6502:
6472:
6455:
6418:
5576:
4654:four tones of Middle Chinese
4195:Fricative and zero initials
4178:
4172:
3454:
768:
704:original languages of Minyue
599:
577:
7:
8921:Yan, Margaret Mian (2006),
8466:, Oxford University Press,
6578:
6555:origin for some Min words:
6528:
6517:
6491:
6461:
6444:
6433:
6424:
3724:scale (or fish or reptile)
2498:Voiced stops and affricates
1298:
1195:on the central Fujian coast
571:Old Chinese velar initials
499:
482:
286:, and have since spread to
10:
12674:
12587:Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols
8593:(1): 47–84, archived from
8333:Baxter & Sagart (2014)
7689:Baxter & Sagart (2014)
7677:Baxter & Sagart (2014)
7665:Baxter & Sagart (2014)
7545:Baxter & Sagart (2014)
7446:Baxter & Sagart (2014)
7339:Baxter & Sagart (2014)
7315:Baxter & Sagart (2014)
7259:Baxter & Sagart (2014)
7034:Baxter & Sagart (2014)
6959:Baxter & Sagart (2014)
6947:Baxter & Sagart (2014)
6935:Baxter & Sagart (2014)
6923:Baxter & Sagart (2014)
4170:, yielding Middle Chinese
4166:have the same reflexes as
336:
268:comparative reconstruction
12621:
12505:
12474:
12385:
12310:
12252:
12172:
12147:
12109:
12056:
11982:
11971:
11918:
11870:
11825:
11802:
11747:
11738:
11676:
11595:
11570:
11552:
11529:
11466:
11457:
11420:
11397:
11359:
11350:
11341:
11277:
11237:
11164:
11142:
11114:
11096:
11070:
11047:
10983:
10974:
10951:
10921:
10898:
10822:
10762:
10734:
10711:
10688:
10655:
10646:
10637:
10626:
10557:
10541:
10537:
10526:
10502:
10424:
10406:
10402:
10389:
10358:
10340:
10312:
10289:
10266:
10241:
10192:
10079:
10061:
10052:
10041:
10006:
9980:
9944:
9935:
9931:
9920:
9870:
9815:
9767:
9652:
9493:
9461:
9419:
9354:
9257:
9246:
9064:
7261:, pp. 102, 104, 108.
6684:
6635:
6629:
6623:
6597:
6582:
6532:
6521:
6510:
6495:
6484:
6465:
6448:
6437:
6411:
6346:
6293:
6240:
6187:
6134:
6081:
6037:
6034:
6031:
6029:
5948:
5895:
5842:
5789:
5736:
5683:
5639:
5636:
5633:
5631:
5162:
5137:
5134:
5125:
5122:
5119:
5110:
5107:
5104:
5101:
5092:
5081:
5072:
5069:
5063:
5057:
5054:
5051:
5045:
5039:
5031:
5025:
5022:
5016:
5013:
5010:
5004:
4998:
4990:
4987:
4984:
4978:
4975:
4972:
4969:
4966:
4958:
4955:
4952:
4949:
4943:
4940:
4937:
4934:
4931:
4923:
4920:
4917:
4914:
4911:
4908:
4905:
4902:
4894:
4891:
4888:
4885:
4882:
4879:
4876:
4873:
4753:
4687:
4684:
4681:
4678:
4676:
4633:
4627:
4621:
4615:
4609:
4603:
4597:
4572:
4566:
4560:
4554:
4529:
4523:
4517:
4511:
4486:
4480:
4474:
4468:
4443:
4437:
4431:
4425:
4419:
4413:
4388:
4382:
4376:
4370:
4345:
4339:
4333:
4327:
4321:
4296:
4290:
4284:
4278:
4253:
4247:
4241:
4235:
4113:
4107:
4101:
4073:
4067:
4061:
4055:
4049:
4043:
4037:
4009:
4003:
3997:
3991:
3963:
3957:
3951:
3945:
3917:
3911:
3883:
3877:
3871:
3865:
3859:
3853:
3847:
3841:
3835:
3829:
3801:
3795:
3789:
3783:
3777:
3771:
3765:
3759:
3753:
3747:
3719:
3713:
3707:
3701:
3695:
3689:
3683:
3677:
3671:
3665:
3659:
3653:
3647:
3641:
3635:
3629:
3623:
3617:
3611:
3583:
3577:
3571:
3565:
3559:
3553:
3547:
3541:
3435:
3429:
3423:
3417:
3411:
3405:
3399:
3371:
3365:
3359:
3353:
3347:
3341:
3313:
3307:
3301:
3295:
3267:
3261:
3255:
3249:
3243:
3215:
3209:
3203:
3197:
3169:
3163:
3157:
3151:
3123:
3117:
3111:
3105:
3077:
3071:
3065:
3059:
3053:
3047:
3019:
3013:
3007:
3001:
2973:
2967:
2961:
2955:
2949:
2943:
2937:
2931:
2903:
2897:
2891:
2885:
2879:
2873:
2867:
2861:
2855:
2849:
2821:
2815:
2809:
2803:
2797:
2791:
2785:
2779:
2773:
2745:
2739:
2733:
2727:
2721:
2715:
2709:
2703:
2697:
2669:
2663:
2657:
2651:
2645:
2639:
2633:
2627:
2599:
2593:
2587:
2581:
2575:
2569:
2563:
2557:
2475:
2469:
2463:
2457:
2451:
2423:
2417:
2411:
2405:
2399:
2393:
2387:
2381:
2375:
2369:
2363:
2357:
2329:
2323:
2317:
2311:
2305:
2277:
2249:
2243:
2237:
2231:
2203:
2197:
2191:
2185:
2179:
2151:
2145:
2139:
2133:
2127:
2099:
2093:
2087:
2081:
2075:
2047:
2041:
2035:
2029:
2001:
1995:
1989:
1961:
1955:
1949:
1943:
1915:
1909:
1903:
1897:
1869:
1863:
1857:
1851:
1845:
1839:
1833:
1805:
1799:
1793:
1787:
1759:
1753:
1747:
1741:
1566:
1510:
1427:
1343:
1316:
689:
647:
641:
610:
604:
588:
582:
257:
253:
232:
225:
208:
201:
184:
177:
160:
153:
139:
132:
127:
123:
109:
95:
90:
86:
82:
52:
44:
36:
26:
21:
10133:Banana colloquial speech
8984:10.1177/1606822X14556607
8972:Language and Linguistics
8962:
8725:
8652:Kurpaska, Maria (2010),
8587:Language and Linguistics
6643:
4647:
1215:in southern Fujian, and
655:period, when the writer
97:Traditional Chinese
8486:For Gordon H. Fairbanks
8408:Norman & Mei (1976)
8384:Norman & Mei (1976)
2488:prenasalized consonants
1994:carry on the shoulder,
684:Austroasiatic languages
663:state by the armies of
111:Simplified Chinese
10474:Daighi tongiong pingim
8940:Zheng, Zhijun (2016),
6604:
6564:
2184:to lead (in singing),
1312:Initials of Proto-Min
757:(Late Middle Chinese).
545:
27:Reconstruction of
9775:Central Tibeto-Burman
8959:Mei, Tsu-lin (2015),
8887:farmers in East Asia"
8796:10.1075/cilt.77.10nor
8614:"Old Chinese and Min"
7793:, pp. 55, 68–72.
6961:, p. 388, n. 49.
6016:Stop codas merged as
4186:Fricatives and others
1844:collapse, fall over,
1672:place of articulation
1624:(as deduced from the
753:, the capital of the
543:
8578:Handel, Zev (2003),
8458:Baxter, William H.;
7727:, pp. 210, 834.
7691:, pp. 114, 116.
7583:, pp. 230, 233.
7174:, pp. 235, 241.
6836:, pp. 210, 228.
6634:'insipid' and *dzyŋ
5185:Finals of Proto-Min
3487:in other syllables.
1227:in eastern Guangdong
1134:class=notpageimage|
736:Early Middle Chinese
626:Early Middle Chinese
519:varieties of Chinese
431:affricate consonants
276:varieties of Chinese
243:Ngûing-sǐ Mâing-ngṳ̌
195:Nguòng-sṳ̄ Mìng-ngṳ̄
10182:Singaporean Hokkien
9833:Proto-Tibeto-Burman
8726:第一屆國際漢學會議論文集：語言與文字組
8482:Bodman, Nicholas C.
8410:, pp. 297–298.
8386:, pp. 296–297.
8323:, pp. 231–232.
7781:, pp. 235–236.
7667:, pp. 171–173.
7619:, pp. 211–212.
7571:, pp. 233–235.
7559:, pp. 207–208.
7532:, pp. 340–341.
7520:, pp. 229–230.
7508:, pp. 382–383.
7484:, pp. 226–228.
7460:, pp. 224–227.
7424:, pp. 381–383.
7412:, pp. 380–382.
7388:, pp. 229–231.
7376:, pp. 228–231.
7198:, pp. 115–116.
7138:, pp. 233–234.
7060:, pp. 141–143.
7048:, pp. 331–332.
7000:, pp. 335–336.
6988:, pp. 334–336.
6973:, pp. 211–214.
6896:, pp. 228–229.
6689:'eggplant' (Xiamen
6593:) 'child, servant'.
6026:
5628:
5186:
4673:
4196:
3496:
3410:hold in the mouth,
2512:
1696:
1313:
1179:in northeast Fujian
719:Eastern Han Chinese
72:Eastern Han Chinese
12582:Cantonese Bopomofo
12449:Chinese characters
12377:Written Sichuanese
10961:Zhangjiakou–Hohhot
10416:Chinese characters
10165:Philippine Hokkien
10157:Kelantan Peranakan
10111:Zhangzhou dialects
9826:Proto-Sino-Tibetan
9768:Proposed groupings
8883:"The expansion of
8437:Baxter, William H.
7186:, pp. 37, 78.
6551:have suggested an
6024:
5626:
5615:unaspirated stops.
5184:
4671:
4194:
3495:Sonorant initials
3494:
2510:
1694:
1668:Chinese characters
1311:
1305:comparative method
546:
413:rhyme dictionaries
219:Ngé̤ng-sî Máng-gṳ̂
62:Proto-Sino-Tibetan
12635:
12634:
12617:
12616:
12444:
12443:
12362:Written Cantonese
12357:
12356:
12139:Classical grammar
12134:Cantonese grammar
11969:
11968:
11866:
11865:
11672:
11671:
11591:
11590:
11453:
11452:
11160:
11159:
10947:
10946:
10837:Chengdu–Chongqing
10630:Sinitic languages
10586:
10585:
10582:
10581:
10578:
10577:
10558:Rime dictionaries
10522:
10521:
10518:
10517:
10454:Hinghwa Romanized
10449:Foochow Romanized
10385:
10384:
10381:
10380:
10350:Zhanjiang dialect
10237:
10236:
10094:Quanzhou dialects
10039:
10038:
9880:
9879:
9763:
9762:
9648:
9647:
9489:
9488:
9244:
9243:
8932:978-3-89586-629-6
8925:, LINCOM Europa,
8900:978-0-415-39923-4
8805:978-90-272-3574-9
8778:978-0-521-29653-3
8759:978-90-04-07850-5
8667:978-3-11-021914-2
8658:Walter de Gruyter
8644:978-962-7330-21-9
8570:978-3-11-015831-1
8495:978-0-8248-0992-8
8473:978-0-19-994537-5
8450:978-3-11-012324-1
8374:, pp. 18–19.
8335:, pp. 59–60.
8264:, pp. 54–55.
8193:, pp. 53–54.
7894:, pp. 35–36.
7858:, pp. 29–30.
7829:, pp. 58–59.
7817:, pp. 31–32.
7715:, pp. 32–35.
7703:, pp. 28–29.
7643:, pp. 84–92.
7496:, pp. 33–35.
7448:, pp. 88–89.
7400:, pp. 32–33.
7341:, pp. 84–93.
7305:, pp. 49–50.
7234:, pp. 28–30.
7210:, pp. 28–29.
7036:, pp. 34–37.
6860:, pp. 52–54.
6848:, pp. 54–55.
6398:
6397:
6000:
5999:
5569:
5568:
5142:
5141:
4866:
4859:
4854:
4849:
4844:
4839:
4832:
4827:
4822:
4815:
4810:
4805:
4800:
4795:
4788:
4783:
4778:
4771:
4766:
4761:
4756:
4751:
4744:
4739:
4734:
4727:
4722:
4717:
4712:
4707:
4700:
4695:
4642:
4641:
4122:
4121:
3444:
3443:
3064:clear (weather),
2860:younger brother,
2708:daughter-in-law,
2484:
2483:
1663:Classic of Poetry
1658:Bernhard Karlgren
1618:
1617:
1596:
1572:
1543:
1516:
1487:
1461:
1435:
1404:
1377:
1351:
1275:in western Fujian
724:A layer from the
672:North China Plain
665:Emperor Wu of Han
261:
260:
249:
248:
134:Standard Mandarin
48:c. 4th century AD
12665:
12627:
12626:
12599:Taiwanese Hangul
12488:Mainland Chinese
12401:
12400:
12392:
12391:
12317:
12316:
11994:Standard Chinese
11977:
11745:
11744:
11464:
11463:
11357:
11356:
11348:
11347:
11230:
11218:
11206:
11194:
11182:
10981:
10980:
10653:
10652:
10644:
10643:
10620:Chinese language
10613:
10606:
10599:
10590:
10589:
10539:
10538:
10528:
10527:
10444:Hainan Romanized
10404:
10403:
10391:
10390:
10373:Wenchang dialect
10281:Jianyang dialect
10227:Sanxiang dialect
10104:Yongchun dialect
10059:
10058:
10047:
10014:Manjiang dialect
9942:
9941:
9933:
9932:
9922:
9921:
9907:
9900:
9893:
9884:
9883:
9722:
9721:
9583:
9582:
9417:
9416:
9252:
9169:
9168:
9050:
9043:
9036:
9027:
9026:
9022:
9001:
8999:
8998:
8992:
8986:, archived from
8969:
8947:
8936:
8917:
8904:
8874:
8851:Monumenta Serica
8848:
8838:
8809:
8782:
8763:
8742:
8716:
8695:
8671:
8648:
8625:
8608:
8606:
8605:
8599:
8584:
8574:
8553:
8551:
8550:
8544:
8538:, archived from
8517:
8507:
8477:
8454:
8423:
8417:
8411:
8405:
8399:
8393:
8387:
8381:
8375:
8369:
8363:
8357:
8348:
8342:
8336:
8330:
8324:
8318:
8312:
8306:
8297:
8291:
8282:
8276:
8265:
8259:
8250:
8244:
8238:
8232:
8223:
8217:
8206:
8200:
8194:
8188:
8179:
8173:
8167:
8161:
8152:
8146:
8140:
8134:
8123:
8117:
8111:
8105:
8099:
8093:
8084:
8078:
8059:
8053:
8042:
8036:
8030:
8024:
8018:
8012:
8003:
7997:
7991:
7985:
7976:
7970:
7964:
7958:
7952:
7946:
7940:
7934:
7925:
7919:
7910:
7904:
7895:
7889:
7883:
7877:
7871:
7865:
7859:
7853:
7847:
7841:
7830:
7824:
7818:
7812:
7806:
7800:
7794:
7788:
7782:
7776:
7767:
7761:
7755:
7749:
7740:
7734:
7728:
7722:
7716:
7710:
7704:
7698:
7692:
7686:
7680:
7674:
7668:
7662:
7656:
7650:
7644:
7638:
7632:
7626:
7620:
7614:
7608:
7602:
7596:
7590:
7584:
7578:
7572:
7566:
7560:
7554:
7548:
7542:
7533:
7527:
7521:
7515:
7509:
7503:
7497:
7491:
7485:
7479:
7473:
7467:
7461:
7455:
7449:
7443:
7437:
7431:
7425:
7419:
7413:
7407:
7401:
7395:
7389:
7383:
7377:
7371:
7365:
7359:
7342:
7336:
7330:
7324:
7318:
7312:
7306:
7300:
7294:
7288:
7279:
7273:
7262:
7256:
7250:
7244:
7235:
7229:
7223:
7217:
7211:
7205:
7199:
7193:
7187:
7181:
7175:
7169:
7163:
7157:
7151:
7145:
7139:
7133:
7127:
7121:
7115:
7109:
7100:
7094:
7088:
7082:
7076:
7070:
7061:
7055:
7049:
7043:
7037:
7031:
7025:
7019:
7013:
7007:
7001:
6995:
6989:
6983:
6974:
6968:
6962:
6956:
6950:
6944:
6938:
6932:
6926:
6920:
6909:
6908:, pp. 9–10.
6903:
6897:
6891:
6885:
6879:
6873:
6867:
6861:
6855:
6849:
6843:
6837:
6831:
6815:
6812:
6806:
6803:
6797:
6794:
6788:
6785:
6779:
6776:
6770:
6767:
6761:
6758:
6752:
6749:
6743:
6740:
6734:
6731:
6725:
6722:
6716:
6713:
6707:
6704:
6698:
6692:
6688:
6681:
6675:
6672:
6666:
6663:
6657:
6654:
6639:
6633:
6628:'foot', *-tsiɑm
6627:
6617:
6611:
6607:
6601:
6592:
6586:
6581:
6567:
6542:
6536:
6531:
6525:
6520:
6514:
6505:
6499:
6494:
6488:
6475:
6469:
6464:
6458:
6452:
6447:
6441:
6436:
6427:
6421:
6415:
6394:
6389:
6384:
6379:
6374:
6369:
6364:
6359:
6350:
6341:
6336:
6331:
6326:
6321:
6316:
6311:
6306:
6297:
6288:
6283:
6278:
6273:
6268:
6263:
6258:
6253:
6244:
6235:
6230:
6225:
6220:
6215:
6210:
6205:
6200:
6191:
6182:
6177:
6172:
6167:
6162:
6157:
6152:
6147:
6138:
6129:
6124:
6119:
6114:
6109:
6104:
6099:
6094:
6085:
6027:
6023:
6019:
5996:
5991:
5986:
5981:
5976:
5971:
5966:
5961:
5952:
5943:
5938:
5933:
5928:
5923:
5918:
5913:
5908:
5899:
5890:
5885:
5880:
5875:
5870:
5865:
5860:
5855:
5846:
5837:
5832:
5827:
5822:
5817:
5812:
5807:
5802:
5793:
5784:
5779:
5774:
5769:
5764:
5759:
5754:
5749:
5740:
5731:
5726:
5721:
5716:
5711:
5706:
5701:
5696:
5687:
5629:
5625:
5609:nasalized vowels
5579:
5187:
5183:
4865:
4862:
4857:
4852:
4847:
4842:
4838:
4835:
4830:
4825:
4821:
4818:
4813:
4808:
4803:
4798:
4794:
4791:
4786:
4781:
4777:
4774:
4769:
4764:
4759:
4754:
4750:
4747:
4742:
4737:
4733:
4730:
4725:
4720:
4715:
4710:
4706:
4703:
4698:
4693:
4674:
4670:
4667:
4663:
4659:
4637:
4631:
4625:
4619:
4613:
4607:
4601:
4576:
4570:
4564:
4558:
4533:
4527:
4521:
4515:
4490:
4484:
4478:
4472:
4447:
4441:
4435:
4429:
4423:
4417:
4392:
4386:
4380:
4374:
4349:
4343:
4337:
4331:
4325:
4300:
4294:
4288:
4282:
4257:
4251:
4245:
4239:
4197:
4193:
4181:
4175:
4169:
4165:
4161:
4117:
4111:
4105:
4077:
4071:
4065:
4059:
4053:
4047:
4041:
4013:
4007:
4001:
3995:
3967:
3961:
3955:
3949:
3921:
3915:
3887:
3881:
3875:
3869:
3863:
3857:
3851:
3845:
3839:
3833:
3805:
3799:
3793:
3787:
3781:
3775:
3769:
3763:
3757:
3751:
3723:
3717:
3711:
3705:
3699:
3693:
3687:
3681:
3675:
3669:
3663:
3657:
3651:
3645:
3639:
3633:
3627:
3621:
3615:
3587:
3581:
3575:
3569:
3563:
3557:
3551:
3545:
3497:
3493:
3486:
3481:nasalized vowels
3478:
3474:
3470:
3462:
3439:
3433:
3427:
3421:
3415:
3409:
3403:
3375:
3369:
3363:
3357:
3351:
3345:
3317:
3311:
3305:
3299:
3271:
3265:
3259:
3253:
3247:
3219:
3213:
3207:
3201:
3173:
3167:
3161:
3155:
3127:
3121:
3115:
3109:
3081:
3075:
3069:
3063:
3057:
3051:
3023:
3017:
3011:
3005:
2977:
2971:
2965:
2959:
2953:
2947:
2941:
2935:
2907:
2901:
2895:
2889:
2883:
2877:
2871:
2865:
2859:
2853:
2825:
2819:
2813:
2807:
2801:
2795:
2789:
2783:
2777:
2749:
2743:
2737:
2731:
2725:
2719:
2713:
2707:
2701:
2673:
2667:
2661:
2655:
2649:
2643:
2637:
2631:
2603:
2597:
2591:
2585:
2579:
2573:
2567:
2561:
2513:
2509:
2506:
2479:
2473:
2467:
2461:
2455:
2427:
2421:
2415:
2409:
2403:
2397:
2391:
2385:
2379:
2373:
2367:
2361:
2333:
2327:
2321:
2315:
2309:
2281:
2253:
2247:
2241:
2235:
2207:
2201:
2195:
2189:
2183:
2155:
2149:
2143:
2137:
2131:
2103:
2097:
2091:
2085:
2079:
2051:
2045:
2039:
2033:
2005:
1999:
1993:
1965:
1959:
1953:
1947:
1919:
1913:
1907:
1901:
1873:
1867:
1861:
1855:
1849:
1843:
1837:
1809:
1803:
1797:
1791:
1763:
1757:
1751:
1745:
1697:
1693:
1594:
1570:
1541:
1514:
1485:
1459:
1433:
1402:
1375:
1349:
1314:
1310:
1154:
1120:
1119:
1104:
1103:
1088:
1087:
1072:
1071:
1056:
1055:
1040:
1039:
1024:
1023:
1008:
1007:
992:
991:
978:
977:
962:
961:
946:
945:
930:
929:
914:
913:
898:
897:
882:
881:
866:
865:
850:
849:
834:
833:
818:
817:
802:
801:
786:
785:
779:
650:
649:
645:) or Jiangdong (
644:
643:
614:
608:
602:
596:
592:
586:
580:
563:
559:
513:
512:
507:
506:
502:
496:
495:
490:
489:
485:
470:Proto-Hmong–Mien
411:As described in
366:
358:
350:
245:
244:
221:
220:
197:
196:
173:
172:
149:
148:
125:
124:
119:
118:
105:
104:
19:
18:
12673:
12672:
12668:
12667:
12666:
12664:
12663:
12662:
12653:Proto-languages
12638:
12637:
12636:
12631:
12613:
12550:Tongyong Pinyin
12530:Gwoyeu Romatzyh
12518:Dungan Cyrillic
12501:
12470:
12440:
12381:
12372:Written Hokkien
12353:
12312:
12306:
12282:Middle Mandarin
12248:
12168:
12143:
12105:
12052:
11985:
11978:
11965:
11914:
11862:
11821:
11798:
11734:
11668:
11587:
11566:
11548:
11525:
11449:
11416:
11393:
11337:
11273:
11233:
11224:
11212:
11200:
11188:
11176:
11156:
11138:
11110:
11092:
11066:
11043:
10970:
10943:
10917:
10894:
10818:
10758:
10730:
10707:
10684:
10633:
10622:
10617:
10587:
10574:
10570:Jianzhou Ba Yin
10553:
10542:Proto-languages
10533:
10514:
10498:
10479:Bbánlám pìngyīm
10420:
10398:
10377:
10354:
10336:
10332:Yong'an dialect
10327:Shaxian dialect
10322:Sanming dialect
10308:
10304:Jiangle dialect
10285:
10276:Jian'ou dialect
10262:
10258:Xianyou dialect
10245:
10233:
10188:
10171:Malacca Straits
10141:Malacca Straits
10123:Longyan dialect
10075:
10048:
10035:
10029:Nanlang dialect
10002:
9976:
9962:Changle dialect
9927:
9916:
9911:
9881:
9876:
9866:
9817:Proto-languages
9811:
9759:
9726:Greater Siangic
9720:
9657:
9644:
9581:
9485:
9457:
9415:
9359:
9350:
9262:
9253:
9240:
9173:Greater Magaric
9167:
9094:West Himalayish
9074:
9060:
9054:
9004:
8996:
8994:
8990:
8967:
8964:
8958:
8955:
8953:Further reading
8950:
8933:
8901:
8879:Sagart, Laurent
8846:
8806:
8779:
8760:
8727:
8668:
8645:
8603:
8601:
8597:
8582:
8571:
8548:
8546:
8542:
8515:
8496:
8474:
8460:Sagart, Laurent
8451:
8431:
8426:
8418:
8414:
8406:
8402:
8394:
8390:
8382:
8378:
8370:
8366:
8358:
8351:
8343:
8339:
8331:
8327:
8319:
8315:
8307:
8300:
8292:
8285:
8277:
8268:
8260:
8253:
8245:
8241:
8233:
8226:
8218:
8209:
8201:
8197:
8189:
8182:
8174:
8170:
8162:
8155:
8147:
8143:
8135:
8126:
8122:, pp. 5–9.
8118:
8114:
8106:
8102:
8094:
8087:
8079:
8062:
8054:
8045:
8037:
8033:
8025:
8021:
8013:
8006:
7998:
7994:
7986:
7979:
7971:
7967:
7959:
7955:
7947:
7943:
7935:
7928:
7920:
7913:
7905:
7898:
7890:
7886:
7878:
7874:
7866:
7862:
7854:
7850:
7842:
7833:
7825:
7821:
7813:
7809:
7801:
7797:
7789:
7785:
7777:
7770:
7762:
7758:
7750:
7743:
7735:
7731:
7723:
7719:
7711:
7707:
7699:
7695:
7687:
7683:
7675:
7671:
7663:
7659:
7651:
7647:
7639:
7635:
7627:
7623:
7615:
7611:
7603:
7599:
7591:
7587:
7579:
7575:
7567:
7563:
7555:
7551:
7543:
7536:
7528:
7524:
7516:
7512:
7504:
7500:
7492:
7488:
7480:
7476:
7468:
7464:
7456:
7452:
7444:
7440:
7432:
7428:
7420:
7416:
7408:
7404:
7396:
7392:
7384:
7380:
7372:
7368:
7360:
7345:
7337:
7333:
7325:
7321:
7313:
7309:
7301:
7297:
7289:
7282:
7274:
7265:
7257:
7253:
7245:
7238:
7230:
7226:
7218:
7214:
7206:
7202:
7194:
7190:
7182:
7178:
7170:
7166:
7158:
7154:
7148:Kurpaska (2010)
7146:
7142:
7134:
7130:
7122:
7118:
7110:
7103:
7097:Kurpaska (2010)
7095:
7091:
7083:
7079:
7071:
7064:
7056:
7052:
7044:
7040:
7032:
7028:
7020:
7016:
7008:
7004:
6996:
6992:
6984:
6977:
6969:
6965:
6957:
6953:
6945:
6941:
6933:
6929:
6921:
6912:
6904:
6900:
6892:
6888:
6880:
6876:
6868:
6864:
6856:
6852:
6844:
6840:
6832:
6828:
6824:
6819:
6818:
6813:
6809:
6804:
6800:
6795:
6791:
6786:
6782:
6777:
6773:
6768:
6764:
6759:
6755:
6750:
6746:
6741:
6737:
6732:
6728:
6723:
6719:
6714:
6710:
6705:
6701:
6682:
6678:
6673:
6669:
6664:
6660:
6655:
6651:
6646:
6403:
5589:
5165:
4863:
4836:
4819:
4792:
4775:
4748:
4731:
4704:
4650:
4188:
3457:
2500:
2492:minor syllables
1758:register (n.),
1752:break, broken,
1688:
1680:minor syllables
1430:and affricates
1429:
1346:and affricates
1345:
1344:Voiceless stops
1301:
1140:
1139:
1138:
1136:
1130:
1129:
1128:
1127:
1121:
1113:
1112:
1111:
1105:
1097:
1096:
1095:
1089:
1081:
1080:
1079:
1073:
1065:
1064:
1063:
1057:
1049:
1048:
1047:
1041:
1033:
1032:
1031:
1025:
1017:
1016:
1015:
1009:
1001:
1000:
999:
993:
985:
984:
983:
979:
971:
970:
969:
963:
955:
954:
953:
947:
939:
938:
937:
931:
923:
922:
921:
915:
907:
906:
905:
899:
891:
890:
889:
883:
875:
874:
873:
867:
859:
858:
857:
851:
843:
842:
841:
835:
827:
826:
825:
819:
811:
810:
809:
803:
795:
794:
793:
787:
771:
692:
409:
389:South China Sea
377:
376:
375:
373:
368:
367:
360:
359:
354:
351:
341:
335:
327:minor syllables
78:
57:
55:
17:
12:
11:
5:
12671:
12661:
12660:
12655:
12650:
12633:
12632:
12622:
12619:
12618:
12615:
12614:
12612:
12611:
12606:
12601:
12596:
12594:Taiwanese kana
12591:
12590:
12589:
12584:
12574:
12573:
12572:
12567:
12565:Lessing-Othmer
12562:
12557:
12552:
12547:
12542:
12537:
12532:
12522:
12521:
12520:
12509:
12507:
12503:
12502:
12500:
12495:
12490:
12485:
12480:
12478:
12472:
12471:
12469:
12468:
12463:
12462:
12461:
12456:
12445:
12442:
12441:
12439:
12434:
12429:
12424:
12419:
12414:
12409:
12407:
12398:
12389:
12383:
12382:
12380:
12379:
12374:
12369:
12367:Written Dungan
12364:
12358:
12355:
12354:
12352:
12351:
12346:
12345:
12344:
12339:
12334:
12323:
12321:
12314:
12308:
12307:
12305:
12304:
12299:
12294:
12289:
12284:
12279:
12274:
12272:Middle Chinese
12269:
12264:
12258:
12256:
12250:
12249:
12247:
12246:
12241:
12239:Wubi (Wang Ma)
12236:
12231:
12230:
12229:
12224:
12219:
12209:
12204:
12199:
12198:
12197:
12187:
12184:
12178:
12176:
12170:
12169:
12167:
12166:
12159:
12151:
12149:
12145:
12144:
12142:
12141:
12136:
12131:
12126:
12121:
12115:
12113:
12107:
12106:
12104:
12103:
12098:
12093:
12088:
12083:
12078:
12073:
12072:
12071:
12060:
12058:
12054:
12053:
12051:
12050:
12045:
12040:
12035:
12034:
12033:
12032:
12031:
12026:
12016:
12011:
12006:
12001:
11990:
11988:
11980:
11979:
11972:
11970:
11967:
11966:
11964:
11963:
11958:
11956:Xiangnan Tuhua
11953:
11948:
11943:
11941:Shaozhou Tuhua
11938:
11933:
11928:
11922:
11920:
11916:
11915:
11913:
11912:
11911:
11910:
11905:
11900:
11892:
11891:
11890:
11885:
11876:
11874:
11868:
11867:
11864:
11863:
11861:
11860:
11855:
11850:
11845:
11840:
11835:
11829:
11827:
11823:
11822:
11820:
11819:
11814:
11808:
11806:
11800:
11799:
11797:
11796:
11791:
11786:
11781:
11776:
11771:
11770:
11769:
11764:
11753:
11751:
11742:
11736:
11735:
11733:
11732:
11731:
11730:
11725:
11720:
11710:
11709:
11708:
11698:
11693:
11688:
11682:
11680:
11674:
11673:
11670:
11669:
11667:
11666:
11665:
11664:
11659:
11654:
11644:
11643:
11642:
11632:
11627:
11622:
11617:
11616:
11615:
11610:
11599:
11597:
11593:
11592:
11589:
11588:
11586:
11585:
11580:
11574:
11572:
11568:
11567:
11565:
11564:
11558:
11556:
11550:
11549:
11547:
11546:
11541:
11535:
11533:
11527:
11526:
11524:
11523:
11518:
11513:
11508:
11503:
11498:
11493:
11488:
11483:
11478:
11472:
11470:
11461:
11455:
11454:
11451:
11450:
11448:
11447:
11446:
11445:
11440:
11430:
11424:
11422:
11418:
11417:
11415:
11414:
11409:
11403:
11401:
11395:
11394:
11392:
11391:
11386:
11381:
11376:
11371:
11365:
11363:
11354:
11345:
11339:
11338:
11336:
11335:
11334:
11333:
11323:
11318:
11317:
11316:
11311:
11306:
11296:
11295:
11294:
11283:
11281:
11275:
11274:
11272:
11271:
11266:
11261:
11256:
11255:
11254:
11243:
11241:
11235:
11234:
11232:
11231:
11219:
11207:
11195:
11183:
11170:
11168:
11162:
11161:
11158:
11157:
11155:
11154:
11148:
11146:
11140:
11139:
11137:
11136:
11131:
11126:
11120:
11118:
11112:
11111:
11109:
11108:
11102:
11100:
11094:
11093:
11091:
11090:
11085:
11080:
11074:
11072:
11068:
11067:
11065:
11064:
11059:
11053:
11051:
11045:
11044:
11042:
11041:
11036:
11031:
11026:
11021:
11016:
11010:
11005:
11000:
10995:
10989:
10987:
10978:
10972:
10971:
10969:
10968:
10963:
10957:
10955:
10949:
10948:
10945:
10944:
10942:
10941:
10936:
10931:
10925:
10923:
10919:
10918:
10916:
10915:
10910:
10904:
10902:
10896:
10895:
10893:
10892:
10891:
10890:
10880:
10875:
10870:
10865:
10864:
10863:
10862:
10861:
10854:Renshou–Fushun
10851:
10850:
10849:
10839:
10828:
10826:
10820:
10819:
10817:
10816:
10811:
10806:
10801:
10796:
10791:
10790:
10789:
10779:
10774:
10768:
10766:
10764:Central Plains
10760:
10759:
10757:
10756:
10751:
10746:
10740:
10738:
10732:
10731:
10729:
10728:
10723:
10717:
10715:
10709:
10708:
10706:
10705:
10700:
10694:
10692:
10686:
10685:
10683:
10682:
10677:
10672:
10667:
10661:
10659:
10650:
10641:
10635:
10634:
10627:
10624:
10623:
10616:
10615:
10608:
10601:
10593:
10584:
10583:
10580:
10579:
10576:
10575:
10573:
10572:
10567:
10561:
10559:
10555:
10554:
10552:
10551:
10545:
10543:
10535:
10534:
10524:
10523:
10520:
10519:
10516:
10515:
10513:
10512:
10506:
10504:
10500:
10499:
10497:
10496:
10491:
10486:
10481:
10476:
10471:
10466:
10461:
10456:
10451:
10446:
10441:
10436:
10430:
10428:
10422:
10421:
10419:
10418:
10412:
10410:
10400:
10399:
10396:Writing system
10387:
10386:
10383:
10382:
10379:
10378:
10376:
10375:
10370:
10368:Haikou dialect
10364:
10362:
10356:
10355:
10353:
10352:
10346:
10344:
10338:
10337:
10335:
10334:
10329:
10324:
10318:
10316:
10310:
10309:
10307:
10306:
10301:
10299:Shaowu dialect
10295:
10293:
10291:Shao–Jiang Min
10287:
10286:
10284:
10283:
10278:
10272:
10270:
10264:
10263:
10261:
10260:
10255:
10253:Putian dialect
10249:
10247:
10239:
10238:
10235:
10234:
10232:
10231:
10230:
10229:
10219:
10214:
10209:
10208:
10207:
10196:
10194:
10190:
10189:
10187:
10186:
10185:
10184:
10179:
10167:
10162:
10161:
10160:
10154:
10149:
10147:Penang Hokkien
10137:
10136:
10135:
10125:
10120:
10119:
10118:
10116:Chawan dialect
10108:
10107:
10106:
10101:
10099:Hui'an dialect
10091:
10085:
10083:
10077:
10076:
10074:
10073:
10071:Swatow dialect
10067:
10065:
10056:
10050:
10049:
10042:
10040:
10037:
10036:
10034:
10033:
10032:
10031:
10026:
10024:Longdu dialect
10016:
10010:
10008:
10004:
10003:
10001:
10000:
9998:Ningde dialect
9995:
9990:
9984:
9982:
9978:
9977:
9975:
9974:
9969:
9967:Gutian dialect
9964:
9959:
9957:Fuqing dialect
9954:
9952:Fuzhou dialect
9948:
9946:
9939:
9929:
9928:
9918:
9917:
9910:
9909:
9902:
9895:
9887:
9878:
9877:
9871:
9868:
9867:
9865:
9864:
9857:
9850:
9843:
9836:
9829:
9821:
9819:
9813:
9812:
9810:
9809:
9807:Tibeto-Kanauri
9804:
9797:
9792:
9787:
9782:
9780:Kuki-Chin–Naga
9777:
9771:
9769:
9765:
9764:
9761:
9760:
9758:
9757:
9752:
9751:
9750:
9743:
9730:
9728:
9719:
9718:
9711:
9706:
9705:
9704:
9690:
9689:
9688:
9681:
9668:
9666:
9650:
9649:
9646:
9645:
9643:
9642:
9641:
9640:
9633:
9628:
9616:
9611:
9606:
9605:
9604:
9591:
9589:
9580:
9579:
9578:
9577:
9570:
9563:
9551:
9544:
9537:
9530:
9525:
9518:
9511:
9503:
9501:
9499:Southeast Asia
9491:
9490:
9487:
9486:
9484:
9483:
9478:
9473:
9467:
9465:
9459:
9458:
9456:
9455:
9450:
9445:
9438:
9436:Angami–Pochuri
9433:
9427:
9425:
9414:
9413:
9406:
9399:
9398:
9397:
9390:
9378:
9371:
9363:
9361:
9360:Burmese border
9352:
9351:
9349:
9348:
9343:
9336:
9329:
9322:
9321:
9320:
9312:
9305:
9298:
9293:
9278:
9276:
9255:
9254:
9247:
9245:
9242:
9241:
9239:
9238:
9225:
9220:
9219:
9218:
9211:
9199:
9198:
9197:
9190:
9177:
9175:
9166:
9165:
9158:
9157:
9156:
9149:
9142:
9130:
9123:
9122:
9121:
9116:
9104:
9097:
9089:
9087:
9062:
9061:
9053:
9052:
9045:
9038:
9030:
9024:
9023:
9002:
8978:(2): 119–138,
8974:(in Chinese),
8954:
8951:
8949:
8948:
8937:
8931:
8918:
8905:
8899:
8875:
8839:
8810:
8804:
8783:
8777:
8764:
8758:
8743:
8717:
8696:
8686:(2): 222–238,
8672:
8666:
8649:
8643:
8626:
8618:Chûgoku Gogaku
8609:
8575:
8569:
8554:
8508:
8494:
8478:
8472:
8455:
8449:
8432:
8430:
8427:
8425:
8424:
8412:
8400:
8398:, p. 142.
8388:
8376:
8364:
8362:, p. 232.
8349:
8337:
8325:
8313:
8298:
8283:
8281:, p. 352.
8279:Norman (1991b)
8266:
8251:
8249:, p. 382.
8239:
8224:
8207:
8205:, p. 234.
8195:
8180:
8178:, p. 235.
8168:
8166:, p. 138.
8153:
8151:, p. 136.
8141:
8124:
8112:
8110:, p. 234.
8100:
8085:
8060:
8043:
8031:
8019:
8004:
7992:
7977:
7965:
7953:
7941:
7926:
7911:
7896:
7884:
7872:
7860:
7848:
7831:
7819:
7807:
7795:
7783:
7768:
7756:
7754:, p. 223.
7741:
7739:, p. 119.
7729:
7717:
7705:
7693:
7681:
7669:
7657:
7655:, p. 233.
7645:
7633:
7621:
7617:Norman (1991a)
7609:
7607:, p. 208.
7605:Norman (1991a)
7597:
7595:, p. 212.
7593:Norman (1991a)
7585:
7573:
7561:
7557:Norman (1991a)
7549:
7534:
7530:Norman (1991b)
7522:
7510:
7498:
7486:
7474:
7470:Branner (1999)
7462:
7450:
7438:
7436:, p. 381.
7426:
7414:
7402:
7390:
7378:
7366:
7364:, p. 237.
7343:
7331:
7327:Handel (2010a)
7319:
7307:
7295:
7293:, p. 231.
7280:
7263:
7251:
7249:, p. 231.
7236:
7224:
7222:, p. 231.
7212:
7208:Handel (2010b)
7200:
7196:Branner (2000)
7188:
7184:Branner (1999)
7176:
7164:
7162:, p. 122.
7152:
7140:
7128:
7126:, p. 121.
7116:
7114:, p. 233.
7101:
7089:
7087:, p. 337.
7085:Norman (1991b)
7077:
7075:, p. 336.
7073:Norman (1991b)
7062:
7050:
7046:Norman (1991b)
7038:
7026:
7024:, p. 214.
7014:
7012:, p. 328.
7010:Norman (1991b)
7002:
6998:Norman (1991b)
6990:
6986:Norman (1991b)
6975:
6963:
6951:
6939:
6927:
6910:
6898:
6886:
6874:
6872:, p. 181.
6862:
6850:
6838:
6825:
6823:
6820:
6817:
6816:
6807:
6798:
6789:
6780:
6771:
6762:
6753:
6744:
6735:
6726:
6717:
6708:
6699:
6676:
6667:
6658:
6648:
6647:
6645:
6642:
6620:
6619:
6594:
6574:Laurent Sagart
6545:
6544:
6507:
6481:
6429:
6402:
6399:
6396:
6395:
6390:
6385:
6380:
6375:
6370:
6365:
6360:
6355:
6352:
6343:
6342:
6337:
6332:
6327:
6322:
6317:
6312:
6307:
6302:
6299:
6290:
6289:
6284:
6279:
6274:
6269:
6264:
6259:
6254:
6249:
6246:
6237:
6236:
6231:
6226:
6221:
6216:
6211:
6206:
6201:
6196:
6193:
6184:
6183:
6178:
6173:
6168:
6163:
6158:
6153:
6148:
6143:
6140:
6131:
6130:
6125:
6120:
6115:
6110:
6105:
6100:
6095:
6090:
6087:
6078:
6077:
6074:
6071:
6068:
6065:
6062:
6059:
6056:
6053:
6050:
6046:
6045:
6042:
6039:
6036:
6033:
6030:
6022:
6021:
6014:
6011:
5998:
5997:
5992:
5987:
5982:
5977:
5972:
5967:
5962:
5957:
5954:
5945:
5944:
5939:
5934:
5929:
5924:
5919:
5914:
5909:
5904:
5901:
5892:
5891:
5886:
5881:
5876:
5871:
5866:
5861:
5856:
5851:
5848:
5839:
5838:
5833:
5828:
5823:
5818:
5813:
5808:
5803:
5798:
5795:
5786:
5785:
5780:
5775:
5770:
5765:
5760:
5755:
5750:
5745:
5742:
5733:
5732:
5727:
5722:
5717:
5712:
5707:
5702:
5697:
5692:
5689:
5680:
5679:
5676:
5673:
5670:
5667:
5664:
5661:
5658:
5655:
5652:
5648:
5647:
5644:
5641:
5638:
5635:
5632:
5624:
5623:
5619:
5616:
5612:
5588:
5585:
5567:
5566:
5564:
5562:
5559:
5557:
5555:
5553:
5549:
5548:
5546:
5543:
5540:
5538:
5536:
5534:
5531:
5530:
5528:
5525:
5522:
5520:
5518:
5516:
5513:
5512:
5510:
5507:
5504:
5501:
5498:
5496:
5493:
5492:
5490:
5487:
5485:
5483:
5481:
5479:
5475:
5474:
5471:
5468:
5465:
5463:
5461:
5459:
5455:
5454:
5451:
5448:
5445:
5443:
5441:
5438:
5434:
5433:
5430:
5427:
5424:
5421:
5419:
5417:
5414:
5413:
5410:
5407:
5405:
5403:
5401:
5399:
5395:
5394:
5391:
5388:
5386:
5383:
5380:
5378:
5375:
5374:
5372:
5369:
5367:
5365:
5363:
5361:
5357:
5356:
5353:
5350:
5348:
5345:
5342:
5340:
5337:
5336:
5334:
5332:
5330:
5327:
5325:
5323:
5319:
5318:
5315:
5312:
5310:
5307:
5305:
5303:
5299:
5298:
5295:
5293:
5291:
5289:
5287:
5285:
5282:
5281:
5278:
5276:
5273:
5270:
5268:
5266:
5263:
5262:
5260:
5258:
5256:
5254:
5251:
5249:
5245:
5244:
5242:
5239:
5237:
5234:
5232:
5230:
5227:
5226:
5223:
5220:
5217:
5215:
5212:
5210:
5206:
5205:
5203:
5200:
5197:
5195:
5192:
5190:
5179:
5178:
5175:
5172:
5164:
5161:
5157:
5156:
5153:
5150:
5140:
5139:
5136:
5133:
5130:
5127:
5124:
5121:
5118:
5115:
5112:
5109:
5106:
5103:
5100:
5097:
5094:
5091:
5087:
5086:
5083:
5080:
5077:
5074:
5071:
5068:
5065:
5062:
5059:
5056:
5053:
5050:
5047:
5044:
5041:
5038:
5034:
5033:
5030:
5027:
5024:
5021:
5018:
5015:
5012:
5009:
5006:
5003:
5000:
4997:
4993:
4992:
4989:
4986:
4983:
4980:
4977:
4974:
4971:
4968:
4965:
4961:
4960:
4957:
4954:
4951:
4948:
4945:
4942:
4939:
4936:
4933:
4930:
4926:
4925:
4922:
4919:
4916:
4913:
4910:
4907:
4904:
4901:
4897:
4896:
4893:
4890:
4887:
4884:
4881:
4878:
4875:
4872:
4868:
4867:
4860:
4855:
4850:
4845:
4840:
4833:
4828:
4823:
4816:
4811:
4806:
4801:
4796:
4789:
4784:
4779:
4772:
4767:
4762:
4757:
4752:
4745:
4740:
4735:
4728:
4723:
4718:
4713:
4708:
4701:
4696:
4690:
4689:
4688:Tone class *D
4686:
4685:Tone class *C
4683:
4682:Tone class *B
4680:
4679:Tone class *A
4677:
4649:
4646:
4640:
4639:
4595:
4592:
4589:
4586:
4583:
4579:
4578:
4552:
4549:
4546:
4543:
4540:
4536:
4535:
4509:
4506:
4503:
4500:
4497:
4493:
4492:
4466:
4463:
4460:
4457:
4454:
4450:
4449:
4411:
4408:
4405:
4402:
4399:
4395:
4394:
4368:
4365:
4362:
4359:
4356:
4352:
4351:
4319:
4316:
4313:
4310:
4307:
4303:
4302:
4276:
4273:
4270:
4267:
4264:
4260:
4259:
4233:
4230:
4227:
4224:
4221:
4217:
4216:
4213:
4210:
4207:
4204:
4201:
4187:
4184:
4149:Laurent Sagart
4145:William Baxter
4120:
4119:
4099:
4096:
4093:
4090:
4087:
4084:
4080:
4079:
4035:
4032:
4029:
4026:
4023:
4020:
4016:
4015:
3989:
3986:
3983:
3980:
3977:
3974:
3970:
3969:
3943:
3940:
3937:
3934:
3931:
3928:
3924:
3923:
3909:
3906:
3903:
3900:
3897:
3894:
3890:
3889:
3827:
3824:
3821:
3818:
3815:
3812:
3808:
3807:
3745:
3742:
3739:
3736:
3733:
3730:
3726:
3725:
3609:
3606:
3603:
3600:
3597:
3594:
3590:
3589:
3539:
3536:
3533:
3530:
3527:
3524:
3520:
3519:
3516:
3513:
3510:
3507:
3504:
3501:
3456:
3453:
3442:
3441:
3397:
3394:
3391:
3388:
3385:
3382:
3378:
3377:
3339:
3336:
3333:
3330:
3327:
3324:
3320:
3319:
3293:
3290:
3287:
3284:
3281:
3278:
3274:
3273:
3241:
3238:
3235:
3232:
3229:
3226:
3222:
3221:
3195:
3192:
3189:
3186:
3183:
3180:
3176:
3175:
3149:
3146:
3143:
3140:
3137:
3134:
3130:
3129:
3103:
3100:
3097:
3094:
3091:
3088:
3084:
3083:
3045:
3042:
3039:
3036:
3033:
3030:
3026:
3025:
2999:
2996:
2993:
2990:
2987:
2984:
2980:
2979:
2929:
2926:
2923:
2920:
2917:
2914:
2910:
2909:
2847:
2844:
2841:
2838:
2835:
2832:
2828:
2827:
2771:
2768:
2765:
2762:
2759:
2756:
2752:
2751:
2695:
2692:
2689:
2686:
2683:
2680:
2676:
2675:
2625:
2622:
2619:
2616:
2613:
2610:
2606:
2605:
2555:
2552:
2549:
2546:
2543:
2540:
2536:
2535:
2532:
2529:
2526:
2523:
2520:
2517:
2499:
2496:
2482:
2481:
2449:
2446:
2443:
2440:
2437:
2434:
2430:
2429:
2355:
2352:
2349:
2346:
2343:
2340:
2336:
2335:
2303:
2300:
2297:
2294:
2291:
2288:
2284:
2283:
2275:
2272:
2269:
2266:
2263:
2260:
2256:
2255:
2229:
2226:
2223:
2220:
2217:
2214:
2210:
2209:
2177:
2174:
2171:
2168:
2165:
2162:
2158:
2157:
2125:
2122:
2119:
2116:
2113:
2110:
2106:
2105:
2086:elder sister,
2073:
2070:
2067:
2064:
2061:
2058:
2054:
2053:
2027:
2024:
2021:
2018:
2015:
2012:
2008:
2007:
1987:
1984:
1981:
1978:
1975:
1972:
1968:
1967:
1941:
1938:
1935:
1932:
1929:
1926:
1922:
1921:
1895:
1892:
1889:
1886:
1883:
1880:
1876:
1875:
1838:reverse (v.),
1831:
1828:
1825:
1822:
1819:
1816:
1812:
1811:
1785:
1782:
1779:
1776:
1773:
1770:
1766:
1765:
1739:
1736:
1733:
1730:
1727:
1724:
1720:
1719:
1716:
1713:
1710:
1707:
1704:
1701:
1687:
1684:
1650:
1649:
1646:
1643:
1639:
1622:Middle Chinese
1616:
1615:
1612:
1609:
1606:
1603:
1601:
1599:
1597:
1591:
1590:
1588:
1585:
1582:
1579:
1577:
1575:
1573:
1568:
1564:
1563:
1561:
1558:
1555:
1553:
1550:
1547:
1544:
1538:
1537:
1534:
1531:
1528:
1526:
1523:
1520:
1517:
1512:
1508:
1507:
1505:
1502:
1499:
1496:
1494:
1491:
1488:
1482:
1481:
1479:
1476:
1473:
1470:
1468:
1465:
1462:
1456:
1455:
1453:
1450:
1447:
1444:
1442:
1439:
1436:
1431:
1425:
1424:
1422:
1419:
1416:
1413:
1411:
1408:
1405:
1399:
1398:
1395:
1392:
1389:
1386:
1384:
1381:
1378:
1372:
1371:
1369:
1366:
1363:
1360:
1358:
1355:
1352:
1347:
1341:
1340:
1337:
1334:
1329:
1326:
1323:
1320:
1317:
1300:
1297:
1277:
1276:
1265:
1260:
1238:
1229:
1228:
1201:
1196:
1185:
1180:
1165:
1132:
1131:
1123:
1122:
1115:
1114:
1107:
1106:
1099:
1098:
1091:
1090:
1083:
1082:
1075:
1074:
1067:
1066:
1059:
1058:
1051:
1050:
1043:
1042:
1035:
1034:
1027:
1026:
1019:
1018:
1011:
1010:
1003:
1002:
995:
994:
987:
986:
981:
980:
973:
972:
965:
964:
957:
956:
949:
948:
941:
940:
933:
932:
925:
924:
917:
916:
909:
908:
901:
900:
893:
892:
885:
884:
877:
876:
869:
868:
861:
860:
853:
852:
845:
844:
837:
836:
829:
828:
821:
820:
813:
812:
805:
804:
797:
796:
789:
788:
781:
780:
774:
773:
772:
770:
767:
759:
758:
743:literary layer
739:
722:
715:
712:Laurent Sagart
698:A non-Chinese
691:
688:
617:
616:
569:
423:Middle Chinese
408:
405:
370:
369:
361:
352:
345:
344:
343:
342:
337:Main article:
334:
331:
296:Middle Chinese
292:Southeast Asia
259:
258:
255:
254:
251:
250:
247:
246:
239:
230:
229:
223:
222:
215:
206:
205:
199:
198:
191:
182:
181:
175:
174:
171:Goân-sí Bân-gí
167:
158:
157:
151:
150:
143:
137:
136:
130:
129:
128:Transcriptions
121:
120:
113:
107:
106:
99:
93:
92:
88:
87:
84:
83:
80:
79:
77:
76:
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60:
58:
53:
50:
49:
46:
42:
41:
38:
34:
33:
28:
24:
23:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
12670:
12659:
12656:
12654:
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12643:
12630:
12620:
12610:
12607:
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12578:
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12568:
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12563:
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12556:
12553:
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12548:
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12543:
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12538:
12536:
12533:
12531:
12528:
12527:
12526:
12523:
12519:
12516:
12515:
12514:
12513:Cyrillization
12511:
12510:
12508:
12504:
12499:
12496:
12494:
12491:
12489:
12486:
12484:
12481:
12479:
12477:
12473:
12467:
12464:
12460:
12457:
12455:
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12450:
12447:
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12438:
12435:
12433:
12430:
12428:
12425:
12423:
12420:
12418:
12415:
12413:
12410:
12408:
12406:
12405:Script styles
12402:
12399:
12397:
12393:
12390:
12388:
12384:
12378:
12375:
12373:
12370:
12368:
12365:
12363:
12360:
12359:
12350:
12347:
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12340:
12338:
12335:
12333:
12330:
12329:
12328:
12325:
12324:
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12318:
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12309:
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12260:
12259:
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12232:
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12225:
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12208:
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12027:
12025:
12022:
12021:
12020:
12017:
12015:
12012:
12010:
12007:
12005:
12002:
12000:
11997:
11996:
11995:
11992:
11991:
11989:
11987:
11981:
11976:
11962:
11959:
11957:
11954:
11952:
11949:
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11944:
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11934:
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11927:
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11917:
11909:
11906:
11904:
11901:
11899:
11896:
11895:
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11884:
11881:
11880:
11878:
11877:
11875:
11873:
11869:
11859:
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11854:
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11849:
11846:
11844:
11841:
11839:
11836:
11834:
11831:
11830:
11828:
11824:
11818:
11815:
11813:
11810:
11809:
11807:
11805:
11801:
11795:
11792:
11790:
11787:
11785:
11782:
11780:
11777:
11775:
11772:
11768:
11765:
11763:
11760:
11759:
11758:
11755:
11754:
11752:
11750:
11746:
11743:
11741:
11737:
11729:
11726:
11724:
11721:
11719:
11716:
11715:
11714:
11711:
11707:
11704:
11703:
11702:
11699:
11697:
11694:
11692:
11689:
11687:
11684:
11683:
11681:
11679:
11675:
11663:
11660:
11658:
11655:
11653:
11650:
11649:
11648:
11645:
11641:
11638:
11637:
11636:
11633:
11631:
11628:
11626:
11623:
11621:
11618:
11614:
11611:
11609:
11606:
11605:
11604:
11601:
11600:
11598:
11594:
11584:
11581:
11579:
11576:
11575:
11573:
11569:
11563:
11560:
11559:
11557:
11555:
11551:
11545:
11542:
11540:
11537:
11536:
11534:
11532:
11528:
11522:
11519:
11517:
11514:
11512:
11509:
11507:
11504:
11502:
11499:
11497:
11494:
11492:
11489:
11487:
11484:
11482:
11479:
11477:
11474:
11473:
11471:
11469:
11465:
11462:
11460:
11456:
11444:
11441:
11439:
11436:
11435:
11434:
11431:
11429:
11426:
11425:
11423:
11419:
11413:
11410:
11408:
11405:
11404:
11402:
11400:
11396:
11390:
11387:
11385:
11382:
11380:
11377:
11375:
11372:
11370:
11367:
11366:
11364:
11362:
11358:
11355:
11353:
11349:
11346:
11344:
11340:
11332:
11329:
11328:
11327:
11324:
11322:
11319:
11315:
11312:
11310:
11307:
11305:
11302:
11301:
11300:
11297:
11293:
11290:
11289:
11288:
11285:
11284:
11282:
11280:
11276:
11270:
11267:
11265:
11262:
11260:
11257:
11253:
11250:
11249:
11248:
11245:
11244:
11242:
11240:
11236:
11228:
11223:
11220:
11216:
11211:
11208:
11204:
11199:
11196:
11192:
11187:
11184:
11180:
11175:
11172:
11171:
11169:
11167:
11163:
11153:
11150:
11149:
11147:
11145:
11141:
11135:
11132:
11130:
11127:
11125:
11122:
11121:
11119:
11117:
11113:
11107:
11104:
11103:
11101:
11099:
11095:
11089:
11086:
11084:
11081:
11079:
11076:
11075:
11073:
11069:
11063:
11060:
11058:
11055:
11054:
11052:
11050:
11046:
11040:
11037:
11035:
11032:
11030:
11027:
11025:
11022:
11020:
11017:
11014:
11011:
11009:
11006:
11004:
11001:
10999:
10996:
10994:
10991:
10990:
10988:
10986:
10982:
10979:
10977:
10973:
10967:
10964:
10962:
10959:
10958:
10956:
10954:
10950:
10940:
10937:
10935:
10932:
10930:
10927:
10926:
10924:
10920:
10914:
10911:
10909:
10906:
10905:
10903:
10901:
10897:
10889:
10886:
10885:
10884:
10881:
10879:
10876:
10874:
10871:
10869:
10866:
10860:
10857:
10856:
10855:
10852:
10848:
10845:
10844:
10843:
10840:
10838:
10835:
10834:
10833:
10830:
10829:
10827:
10825:
10821:
10815:
10812:
10810:
10807:
10805:
10802:
10800:
10797:
10795:
10792:
10788:
10785:
10784:
10783:
10780:
10778:
10775:
10773:
10770:
10769:
10767:
10765:
10761:
10755:
10752:
10750:
10747:
10745:
10742:
10741:
10739:
10737:
10733:
10727:
10724:
10722:
10719:
10718:
10716:
10714:
10710:
10704:
10701:
10699:
10696:
10695:
10693:
10691:
10687:
10681:
10678:
10676:
10673:
10671:
10668:
10666:
10663:
10662:
10660:
10658:
10654:
10651:
10649:
10645:
10642:
10640:
10636:
10632:
10631:
10625:
10621:
10614:
10609:
10607:
10602:
10600:
10595:
10594:
10591:
10571:
10568:
10566:
10563:
10562:
10560:
10556:
10550:
10547:
10546:
10544:
10540:
10536:
10529:
10525:
10511:
10508:
10507:
10505:
10501:
10495:
10492:
10490:
10487:
10485:
10482:
10480:
10477:
10475:
10472:
10470:
10467:
10465:
10462:
10460:
10457:
10455:
10452:
10450:
10447:
10445:
10442:
10440:
10437:
10435:
10432:
10431:
10429:
10427:
10423:
10417:
10414:
10413:
10411:
10409:
10405:
10401:
10397:
10392:
10388:
10374:
10371:
10369:
10366:
10365:
10363:
10361:
10357:
10351:
10348:
10347:
10345:
10343:
10339:
10333:
10330:
10328:
10325:
10323:
10320:
10319:
10317:
10315:
10311:
10305:
10302:
10300:
10297:
10296:
10294:
10292:
10288:
10282:
10279:
10277:
10274:
10273:
10271:
10269:
10265:
10259:
10256:
10254:
10251:
10250:
10248:
10244:
10240:
10228:
10225:
10224:
10223:
10222:Zhongshan Min
10220:
10218:
10215:
10213:
10210:
10206:
10205:Houlu dialect
10203:
10202:
10201:
10198:
10197:
10195:
10191:
10183:
10180:
10178:
10175:
10174:
10172:
10168:
10166:
10163:
10158:
10155:
10153:
10152:Medan Hokkien
10150:
10148:
10145:
10144:
10142:
10138:
10134:
10131:
10130:
10129:
10126:
10124:
10121:
10117:
10114:
10113:
10112:
10109:
10105:
10102:
10100:
10097:
10096:
10095:
10092:
10090:
10087:
10086:
10084:
10082:
10078:
10072:
10069:
10068:
10066:
10064:
10060:
10057:
10055:
10051:
10046:
10030:
10027:
10025:
10022:
10021:
10020:
10019:Zhongshan Min
10017:
10015:
10012:
10011:
10009:
10005:
9999:
9996:
9994:
9993:Fu'an dialect
9991:
9989:
9988:Xiapu dialect
9986:
9985:
9983:
9979:
9973:
9972:Matsu dialect
9970:
9968:
9965:
9963:
9960:
9958:
9955:
9953:
9950:
9949:
9947:
9943:
9940:
9938:
9934:
9930:
9923:
9919:
9915:
9908:
9903:
9901:
9896:
9894:
9889:
9888:
9885:
9874:
9869:
9863:
9862:
9858:
9856:
9855:
9851:
9849:
9848:
9847:Proto-Karenic
9844:
9842:
9841:
9840:Proto-Loloish
9837:
9835:
9834:
9830:
9828:
9827:
9823:
9822:
9820:
9818:
9814:
9808:
9805:
9803:
9802:
9801:Tibeto-Burman
9798:
9796:
9793:
9791:
9788:
9786:
9783:
9781:
9778:
9776:
9773:
9772:
9770:
9766:
9756:
9753:
9749:
9748:
9744:
9742:
9741:
9737:
9736:
9735:
9732:
9731:
9729:
9727:
9723:
9717:
9716:
9712:
9710:
9707:
9703:
9702:
9698:
9697:
9696:
9695:
9691:
9687:
9686:
9682:
9680:
9679:
9675:
9674:
9673:
9670:
9669:
9667:
9664:
9660:
9655:
9651:
9639:
9638:
9634:
9632:
9629:
9627:
9624:
9623:
9622:
9621:
9617:
9615:
9612:
9610:
9607:
9603:
9600:
9599:
9598:
9597:
9593:
9592:
9590:
9588:
9587:Burmo-Qiangic
9584:
9576:
9575:
9571:
9569:
9568:
9564:
9562:
9561:
9557:
9556:
9555:
9552:
9550:
9549:
9545:
9543:
9542:
9538:
9536:
9535:
9531:
9529:
9526:
9524:
9523:
9519:
9517:
9516:
9512:
9510:
9509:
9505:
9504:
9502:
9500:
9496:
9492:
9482:
9481:Jingpho–Luish
9479:
9477:
9474:
9472:
9469:
9468:
9466:
9464:
9460:
9454:
9451:
9449:
9446:
9444:
9443:
9439:
9437:
9434:
9432:
9429:
9428:
9426:
9423:
9418:
9412:
9411:
9407:
9405:
9404:
9400:
9396:
9395:
9391:
9389:
9388:
9384:
9383:
9382:
9379:
9377:
9376:
9372:
9370:
9369:
9365:
9364:
9362:
9357:
9353:
9347:
9344:
9342:
9341:
9337:
9335:
9334:
9330:
9328:
9327:
9323:
9318:
9317:
9313:
9311:
9310:
9306:
9304:
9303:
9299:
9297:
9294:
9292:
9291:
9287:
9286:
9285:
9284:
9280:
9279:
9277:
9274:
9270:
9266:
9261:
9256:
9251:
9237:
9236:
9231:
9230:
9226:
9224:
9221:
9217:
9216:
9212:
9210:
9209:
9205:
9204:
9203:
9200:
9196:
9195:
9191:
9189:
9188:
9184:
9183:
9182:
9179:
9178:
9176:
9174:
9170:
9164:
9163:
9159:
9155:
9154:
9150:
9148:
9147:
9143:
9141:
9140:
9136:
9135:
9134:
9131:
9129:
9128:
9124:
9120:
9119:Baram–Thangmi
9117:
9115:
9114:
9110:
9109:
9108:
9105:
9103:
9102:
9098:
9096:
9095:
9091:
9090:
9088:
9085:
9081:
9077:
9072:
9068:
9063:
9058:
9051:
9046:
9044:
9039:
9037:
9032:
9031:
9028:
9020:
9016:
9012:
9008:
9003:
8993:on 2020-08-06
8989:
8985:
8981:
8977:
8973:
8965:
8957:
8956:
8945:
8944:
8938:
8934:
8928:
8924:
8919:
8915:
8911:
8906:
8902:
8896:
8892:
8888:
8886:
8880:
8876:
8872:
8868:
8864:
8860:
8856:
8852:
8845:
8840:
8836:
8832:
8828:
8824:
8820:
8816:
8811:
8807:
8801:
8797:
8793:
8789:
8784:
8780:
8774:
8770:
8765:
8761:
8755:
8751:
8750:
8744:
8740:
8736:
8732:
8728:
8724:
8718:
8714:
8710:
8706:
8702:
8697:
8693:
8689:
8685:
8681:
8677:
8676:Norman, Jerry
8673:
8669:
8663:
8659:
8655:
8650:
8646:
8640:
8636:
8632:
8627:
8623:
8619:
8615:
8610:
8600:on 2020-08-05
8596:
8592:
8588:
8581:
8576:
8572:
8566:
8562:
8561:
8555:
8545:on 2019-10-16
8541:
8537:
8533:
8529:
8525:
8521:
8514:
8509:
8505:
8501:
8497:
8491:
8487:
8483:
8479:
8475:
8469:
8465:
8461:
8456:
8452:
8446:
8442:
8438:
8434:
8433:
8422:, p. 44.
8421:
8420:Norman (1981)
8416:
8409:
8404:
8397:
8396:Sagart (2008)
8392:
8385:
8380:
8373:
8372:Norman (1988)
8368:
8361:
8360:Norman (1988)
8356:
8354:
8347:, p. 47.
8346:
8345:Norman (1981)
8341:
8334:
8329:
8322:
8321:Norman (1988)
8317:
8311:, p. 69.
8310:
8309:Norman (1981)
8305:
8303:
8296:, p. 60.
8295:
8294:Norman (1981)
8290:
8288:
8280:
8275:
8273:
8271:
8263:
8262:Norman (1981)
8258:
8256:
8248:
8247:Norman (1986)
8243:
8237:, p. 66.
8236:
8235:Norman (1981)
8231:
8229:
8222:, p. 58.
8221:
8220:Norman (1981)
8216:
8214:
8212:
8204:
8203:Norman (1973)
8199:
8192:
8191:Norman (1981)
8187:
8185:
8177:
8176:Norman (1973)
8172:
8165:
8160:
8158:
8150:
8145:
8138:
8137:Bodman (1985)
8133:
8131:
8129:
8121:
8120:Bodman (1985)
8116:
8109:
8108:Norman (1988)
8104:
8098:, p. 56.
8097:
8096:Norman (1981)
8092:
8090:
8082:
8081:Bodman (1985)
8077:
8075:
8073:
8071:
8069:
8067:
8065:
8058:, p. 36.
8057:
8056:Norman (1981)
8052:
8050:
8048:
8041:, p. 71.
8040:
8039:Norman (1981)
8035:
8029:, p. 57.
8028:
8027:Norman (1981)
8023:
8017:, p. 65.
8016:
8015:Norman (1981)
8011:
8009:
8002:, p. 64.
8001:
8000:Norman (1981)
7996:
7990:, p. 63.
7989:
7988:Norman (1981)
7984:
7982:
7975:, p. 59.
7974:
7973:Norman (1981)
7969:
7963:, p. 54.
7962:
7961:Norman (1981)
7957:
7951:, p. 51.
7950:
7949:Norman (1981)
7945:
7939:, p. 41.
7938:
7937:Norman (1981)
7933:
7931:
7924:, p. 50.
7923:
7922:Norman (1981)
7918:
7916:
7909:, p. 48.
7908:
7907:Norman (1981)
7903:
7901:
7893:
7892:Norman (1981)
7888:
7882:, p. 35.
7881:
7880:Norman (1981)
7876:
7870:, p. 30.
7869:
7868:Norman (1974)
7864:
7857:
7856:Norman (1974)
7852:
7846:, p. 32.
7845:
7844:Norman (1974)
7840:
7838:
7836:
7828:
7827:Handel (2003)
7823:
7816:
7815:Norman (1974)
7811:
7804:
7803:Norman (1973)
7799:
7792:
7791:Handel (2003)
7787:
7780:
7779:Norman (1988)
7775:
7773:
7766:, p. 49.
7765:
7764:Handel (2003)
7760:
7753:
7752:Norman (1973)
7748:
7746:
7738:
7733:
7726:
7725:Baxter (1992)
7721:
7714:
7713:Norman (1974)
7709:
7702:
7701:Norman (1974)
7697:
7690:
7685:
7679:, p. 46.
7678:
7673:
7666:
7661:
7654:
7653:Norman (1973)
7649:
7642:
7637:
7631:, p. 16.
7630:
7629:Bodman (1985)
7625:
7618:
7613:
7606:
7601:
7594:
7589:
7582:
7581:Norman (1988)
7577:
7570:
7569:Norman (1973)
7565:
7558:
7553:
7547:, p. 88.
7546:
7541:
7539:
7531:
7526:
7519:
7518:Norman (1988)
7514:
7507:
7506:Norman (1986)
7502:
7495:
7494:Norman (1974)
7490:
7483:
7482:Norman (1973)
7478:
7472:, p. 40.
7471:
7466:
7459:
7458:Norman (1973)
7454:
7447:
7442:
7435:
7434:Norman (1986)
7430:
7423:
7422:Norman (1986)
7418:
7411:
7410:Norman (1986)
7406:
7399:
7398:Norman (1974)
7394:
7387:
7386:Norman (1973)
7382:
7375:
7374:Norman (1973)
7370:
7363:
7362:Norman (1988)
7358:
7356:
7354:
7352:
7350:
7348:
7340:
7335:
7328:
7323:
7317:, p. 89.
7316:
7311:
7304:
7303:Handel (2003)
7299:
7292:
7291:Norman (1973)
7287:
7285:
7278:, p. 28.
7277:
7276:Norman (1974)
7272:
7270:
7268:
7260:
7255:
7248:
7247:Norman (1988)
7243:
7241:
7233:
7232:Norman (1974)
7228:
7221:
7220:Norman (1974)
7216:
7209:
7204:
7197:
7192:
7185:
7180:
7173:
7172:Norman (1988)
7168:
7161:
7156:
7150:, p. 52.
7149:
7144:
7137:
7136:Norman (1988)
7132:
7125:
7120:
7113:
7112:Norman (1988)
7108:
7106:
7099:, p. 49.
7098:
7093:
7086:
7081:
7074:
7069:
7067:
7059:
7058:Sagart (2008)
7054:
7047:
7042:
7035:
7030:
7023:
7022:Norman (1988)
7018:
7011:
7006:
6999:
6994:
6987:
6982:
6980:
6972:
6971:Norman (1988)
6967:
6960:
6955:
6949:, p. 76.
6948:
6943:
6937:, p. 79.
6936:
6931:
6925:, p. 33.
6924:
6919:
6917:
6915:
6907:
6902:
6895:
6894:Norman (1988)
6890:
6883:
6882:Norman (1988)
6878:
6871:
6870:Norman (1988)
6866:
6859:
6858:Norman (1988)
6854:
6847:
6846:Norman (1988)
6842:
6835:
6834:Norman (1988)
6830:
6826:
6811:
6802:
6793:
6784:
6775:
6766:
6757:
6748:
6739:
6730:
6721:
6712:
6703:
6696:
6687:
6680:
6671:
6662:
6653:
6649:
6641:
6638:
6632:
6626:
6616:
6606:
6600:
6595:
6591:
6585:
6580:
6575:
6571:
6566:
6562:
6558:
6557:
6556:
6554:
6553:Austroasiatic
6550:
6541:
6535:
6530:
6524:
6519:
6513:
6508:
6506:) 'to guard'.
6504:
6498:
6493:
6487:
6482:
6479:
6474:
6468:
6463:
6457:
6451:
6446:
6440:
6435:
6430:
6426:
6420:
6414:
6409:
6408:
6407:
6391:
6386:
6381:
6376:
6371:
6366:
6361:
6356:
6353:
6349:
6345:
6344:
6338:
6333:
6328:
6323:
6318:
6313:
6308:
6303:
6300:
6296:
6292:
6291:
6285:
6280:
6275:
6270:
6265:
6260:
6255:
6250:
6247:
6243:
6239:
6238:
6232:
6227:
6222:
6217:
6212:
6207:
6202:
6197:
6194:
6190:
6186:
6185:
6179:
6174:
6169:
6164:
6159:
6154:
6149:
6144:
6141:
6137:
6133:
6132:
6126:
6121:
6116:
6111:
6106:
6101:
6096:
6091:
6088:
6084:
6080:
6079:
6075:
6072:
6069:
6066:
6063:
6060:
6057:
6054:
6051:
6048:
6047:
6043:
6040:
6028:
6015:
6012:
6009:
6005:
6004:
6003:
5993:
5988:
5983:
5978:
5973:
5968:
5963:
5958:
5955:
5951:
5947:
5946:
5940:
5935:
5930:
5925:
5920:
5915:
5910:
5905:
5902:
5898:
5894:
5893:
5887:
5882:
5877:
5872:
5867:
5862:
5857:
5852:
5849:
5845:
5841:
5840:
5834:
5829:
5824:
5819:
5814:
5809:
5804:
5799:
5796:
5792:
5788:
5787:
5781:
5776:
5771:
5766:
5761:
5756:
5751:
5746:
5743:
5739:
5735:
5734:
5728:
5723:
5718:
5713:
5708:
5703:
5698:
5693:
5690:
5686:
5682:
5681:
5677:
5674:
5671:
5668:
5665:
5662:
5659:
5656:
5653:
5650:
5649:
5645:
5642:
5630:
5620:
5617:
5613:
5610:
5606:
5602:
5598:
5594:
5593:
5592:
5584:
5583:'not have').
5582:
5578:
5572:
5565:
5563:
5560:
5558:
5556:
5554:
5551:
5550:
5547:
5544:
5541:
5539:
5537:
5535:
5533:
5532:
5529:
5526:
5523:
5521:
5519:
5517:
5515:
5514:
5511:
5508:
5505:
5502:
5499:
5497:
5495:
5494:
5491:
5488:
5486:
5484:
5482:
5480:
5477:
5476:
5472:
5469:
5466:
5464:
5462:
5460:
5457:
5456:
5452:
5449:
5446:
5444:
5442:
5439:
5436:
5435:
5431:
5428:
5425:
5422:
5420:
5418:
5416:
5415:
5411:
5408:
5406:
5404:
5402:
5400:
5397:
5396:
5392:
5389:
5387:
5384:
5381:
5379:
5377:
5376:
5373:
5370:
5368:
5366:
5364:
5362:
5359:
5358:
5354:
5351:
5349:
5346:
5343:
5341:
5339:
5338:
5335:
5333:
5331:
5328:
5326:
5324:
5321:
5320:
5316:
5313:
5311:
5308:
5306:
5304:
5301:
5300:
5296:
5294:
5292:
5290:
5288:
5286:
5284:
5283:
5279:
5277:
5274:
5271:
5269:
5267:
5265:
5264:
5261:
5259:
5257:
5255:
5252:
5250:
5247:
5246:
5243:
5240:
5238:
5235:
5233:
5231:
5229:
5228:
5224:
5221:
5218:
5216:
5213:
5211:
5208:
5207:
5204:
5201:
5198:
5196:
5193:
5191:
5189:
5188:
5182:
5176:
5173:
5170:
5169:
5168:
5160:
5154:
5151:
5148:
5147:
5146:
5131:
5128:
5116:
5113:
5098:
5095:
5089:
5088:
5084:
5078:
5075:
5066:
5060:
5048:
5042:
5036:
5035:
5028:
5019:
5007:
5001:
4995:
4994:
4981:
4963:
4962:
4946:
4928:
4927:
4899:
4898:
4870:
4869:
4861:
4856:
4851:
4846:
4841:
4834:
4829:
4824:
4817:
4812:
4807:
4802:
4797:
4790:
4785:
4780:
4773:
4768:
4763:
4758:
4746:
4741:
4736:
4729:
4724:
4719:
4714:
4709:
4702:
4697:
4692:
4691:
4675:
4669:
4655:
4645:
4636:
4630:
4624:
4618:
4614:have, exist,
4612:
4606:
4600:
4596:
4593:
4590:
4587:
4584:
4581:
4580:
4575:
4569:
4563:
4557:
4553:
4550:
4547:
4544:
4541:
4538:
4537:
4532:
4526:
4520:
4514:
4510:
4507:
4504:
4501:
4498:
4495:
4494:
4489:
4483:
4477:
4471:
4467:
4464:
4461:
4458:
4455:
4452:
4451:
4448:Xu (surname)
4446:
4440:
4436:flower (n.),
4434:
4428:
4422:
4416:
4412:
4409:
4406:
4403:
4400:
4397:
4396:
4391:
4385:
4379:
4373:
4369:
4366:
4363:
4360:
4357:
4354:
4353:
4348:
4342:
4336:
4330:
4324:
4320:
4317:
4314:
4311:
4308:
4305:
4304:
4299:
4293:
4287:
4281:
4277:
4274:
4271:
4268:
4265:
4262:
4261:
4256:
4250:
4244:
4238:
4234:
4231:
4228:
4225:
4222:
4219:
4218:
4214:
4211:
4208:
4205:
4202:
4199:
4198:
4192:
4183:
4180:
4174:
4157:
4152:
4150:
4146:
4141:
4139:
4138:Tai languages
4135:
4131:
4127:
4126:breathy voice
4116:
4110:
4104:
4100:
4097:
4094:
4091:
4088:
4085:
4082:
4081:
4076:
4070:
4064:
4058:
4052:
4046:
4040:
4036:
4033:
4030:
4027:
4024:
4021:
4018:
4017:
4012:
4006:
4000:
3994:
3990:
3987:
3984:
3981:
3978:
3975:
3972:
3971:
3968:allow (want)
3966:
3960:
3954:
3948:
3944:
3941:
3938:
3935:
3932:
3929:
3926:
3925:
3920:
3914:
3910:
3907:
3904:
3901:
3898:
3895:
3892:
3891:
3886:
3880:
3874:
3868:
3862:
3856:
3850:
3844:
3838:
3832:
3828:
3825:
3822:
3819:
3816:
3813:
3810:
3809:
3804:
3798:
3792:
3786:
3782:grind, whet,
3780:
3774:
3768:
3762:
3756:
3750:
3746:
3743:
3740:
3737:
3734:
3731:
3728:
3727:
3722:
3716:
3710:
3704:
3698:
3692:
3686:
3680:
3674:
3668:
3662:
3656:
3650:
3644:
3638:
3632:
3626:
3620:
3614:
3610:
3607:
3604:
3601:
3598:
3595:
3592:
3591:
3586:
3580:
3574:
3568:
3562:
3556:
3550:
3544:
3540:
3537:
3534:
3531:
3528:
3525:
3522:
3521:
3517:
3514:
3511:
3508:
3505:
3502:
3499:
3498:
3492:
3488:
3482:
3466:
3452:
3448:
3438:
3432:
3426:
3420:
3414:
3408:
3402:
3398:
3395:
3392:
3389:
3386:
3383:
3380:
3379:
3374:
3368:
3362:
3356:
3350:
3344:
3340:
3337:
3334:
3331:
3328:
3325:
3322:
3321:
3316:
3310:
3304:
3298:
3294:
3291:
3288:
3285:
3282:
3279:
3276:
3275:
3270:
3264:
3258:
3252:
3246:
3242:
3239:
3236:
3233:
3230:
3227:
3224:
3223:
3218:
3212:
3206:
3200:
3196:
3193:
3190:
3187:
3184:
3181:
3178:
3177:
3172:
3166:
3160:
3154:
3150:
3147:
3144:
3141:
3138:
3135:
3132:
3131:
3126:
3120:
3114:
3108:
3104:
3101:
3098:
3095:
3092:
3089:
3086:
3085:
3080:
3076:self (adv.),
3074:
3068:
3062:
3056:
3050:
3046:
3043:
3040:
3037:
3034:
3031:
3028:
3027:
3022:
3016:
3010:
3004:
3000:
2997:
2994:
2991:
2988:
2985:
2982:
2981:
2976:
2970:
2964:
2958:
2952:
2946:
2940:
2934:
2930:
2927:
2924:
2921:
2918:
2915:
2912:
2911:
2906:
2900:
2894:
2888:
2882:
2876:
2870:
2864:
2858:
2852:
2848:
2845:
2842:
2839:
2836:
2833:
2830:
2829:
2824:
2818:
2812:
2806:
2800:
2794:
2788:
2782:
2776:
2772:
2769:
2766:
2763:
2760:
2757:
2754:
2753:
2748:
2742:
2736:
2730:
2724:
2718:
2712:
2706:
2700:
2696:
2693:
2690:
2687:
2684:
2681:
2678:
2677:
2672:
2666:
2660:
2654:
2648:
2642:
2636:
2630:
2626:
2623:
2620:
2617:
2614:
2611:
2608:
2607:
2602:
2596:
2590:
2584:
2578:
2572:
2566:
2560:
2556:
2553:
2550:
2547:
2544:
2541:
2538:
2537:
2533:
2530:
2527:
2524:
2521:
2518:
2515:
2514:
2508:
2495:
2493:
2489:
2478:
2472:
2466:
2460:
2454:
2450:
2447:
2444:
2441:
2438:
2435:
2432:
2431:
2428:type of leek
2426:
2420:
2414:
2408:
2402:
2396:
2390:
2384:
2378:
2372:
2366:
2360:
2356:
2353:
2350:
2347:
2344:
2341:
2338:
2337:
2332:
2326:
2320:
2314:
2308:
2304:
2301:
2298:
2295:
2292:
2289:
2286:
2285:
2280:
2276:
2273:
2270:
2267:
2264:
2261:
2258:
2257:
2252:
2246:
2240:
2234:
2230:
2227:
2224:
2221:
2218:
2215:
2212:
2211:
2206:
2200:
2194:
2188:
2182:
2178:
2175:
2172:
2169:
2166:
2163:
2160:
2159:
2154:
2148:
2142:
2136:
2130:
2126:
2123:
2120:
2117:
2114:
2111:
2108:
2107:
2102:
2096:
2090:
2084:
2078:
2074:
2071:
2068:
2065:
2062:
2059:
2056:
2055:
2050:
2044:
2038:
2032:
2028:
2025:
2022:
2019:
2016:
2013:
2010:
2009:
2004:
1998:
1992:
1988:
1985:
1982:
1979:
1976:
1973:
1970:
1969:
1964:
1958:
1952:
1946:
1942:
1939:
1936:
1933:
1930:
1927:
1924:
1923:
1918:
1912:
1906:
1900:
1896:
1893:
1890:
1887:
1884:
1881:
1878:
1877:
1872:
1866:
1860:
1854:
1848:
1842:
1836:
1832:
1829:
1826:
1823:
1820:
1817:
1814:
1813:
1808:
1802:
1796:
1790:
1786:
1783:
1780:
1777:
1774:
1771:
1768:
1767:
1762:
1756:
1750:
1744:
1740:
1737:
1734:
1731:
1728:
1725:
1722:
1721:
1717:
1714:
1711:
1708:
1705:
1702:
1699:
1698:
1692:
1683:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1664:
1659:
1654:
1647:
1644:
1640:
1637:
1633:
1632:
1631:
1629:
1628:
1623:
1613:
1610:
1607:
1604:
1602:
1600:
1598:
1593:
1592:
1589:
1586:
1583:
1580:
1578:
1576:
1574:
1569:
1565:
1562:
1559:
1556:
1554:
1551:
1548:
1545:
1540:
1539:
1535:
1532:
1529:
1527:
1524:
1521:
1518:
1513:
1509:
1506:
1503:
1500:
1497:
1495:
1492:
1489:
1484:
1483:
1480:
1477:
1474:
1471:
1469:
1466:
1463:
1458:
1457:
1454:
1451:
1448:
1445:
1443:
1440:
1437:
1432:
1426:
1423:
1420:
1417:
1414:
1412:
1409:
1406:
1401:
1400:
1396:
1393:
1390:
1387:
1385:
1382:
1379:
1374:
1373:
1370:
1367:
1364:
1361:
1359:
1356:
1353:
1348:
1342:
1338:
1335:
1333:
1330:
1327:
1324:
1321:
1318:
1315:
1309:
1306:
1296:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1264:
1261:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1237:
1234:
1233:
1232:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1200:
1197:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1184:
1181:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1164:
1161:
1160:
1159:
1156:
1149:
1145:
1135:
1126:
1110:
1094:
1078:
1062:
1046:
1030:
1014:
998:
968:
952:
936:
920:
904:
888:
872:
856:
840:
824:
808:
792:
778:
766:
764:
756:
752:
748:
745:based on the
744:
740:
737:
733:
732:
727:
723:
720:
716:
713:
709:
708:Austroasiatic
705:
701:
697:
696:
695:
687:
685:
681:
677:
673:
668:
666:
662:
658:
654:
638:
634:
629:
627:
622:
613:
607:
601:
591:
585:
579:
574:
570:
567:
555:
551:
550:
549:
542:
538:
536:
532:
528:
524:
520:
515:
501:
484:
479:
475:
471:
467:
462:
460:
456:
452:
448:
444:
440:
436:
432:
428:
424:
420:
419:
414:
404:
402:
398:
394:
390:
386:
382:
372:
365:
357:
349:
340:
330:
328:
323:
319:
315:
311:
307:
303:
301:
297:
293:
289:
285:
281:
277:
273:
269:
265:
256:
252:
240:
238:
235:
231:
228:
224:
216:
214:
211:
207:
204:
200:
192:
190:
187:
183:
180:
176:
168:
166:
163:
159:
156:
152:
147:Yuánshǐ Mǐnyǔ
144:
142:
138:
135:
131:
126:
122:
114:
112:
108:
100:
98:
94:
89:
85:
81:
73:
70:
69:
68:
65:
64:
63:
59:
54:Reconstructed
51:
47:
43:
39:
35:
32:
29:
25:
20:
12535:Hanyu Pinyin
12525:Romanization
12432:Semi-cursive
12286:
12277:Old Mandarin
12234:Stroke count
12161:
12154:
12076:Old National
11919:Unclassified
10824:Southwestern
10657:Northeastern
10639:Major groups
10628:
10565:Qi Lin Bayin
10268:Northern Min
10089:Amoy dialect
10054:Southern Min
9872:
9859:
9853:
9852:
9845:
9838:
9831:
9824:
9799:
9745:
9738:
9713:
9699:
9692:
9683:
9676:
9635:
9620:Lolo-Burmese
9618:
9594:
9572:
9565:
9558:
9546:
9539:
9532:
9520:
9513:
9506:
9440:
9408:
9401:
9392:
9385:
9373:
9366:
9338:
9331:
9324:
9314:
9307:
9300:
9288:
9281:
9233:
9227:
9213:
9206:
9192:
9185:
9160:
9151:
9144:
9137:
9125:
9111:
9099:
9092:
9057:Sino-Tibetan
9010:
9006:
8995:, retrieved
8988:the original
8975:
8971:
8942:
8922:
8913:
8909:
8890:
8884:
8854:
8850:
8818:
8814:
8787:
8768:
8748:
8730:
8722:
8707:(1): 27–36,
8704:
8700:
8683:
8679:
8653:
8634:
8621:
8617:
8602:, retrieved
8595:the original
8590:
8586:
8559:
8547:, retrieved
8540:the original
8519:
8485:
8463:
8440:
8415:
8403:
8391:
8379:
8367:
8340:
8328:
8316:
8242:
8198:
8171:
8144:
8139:, p. 7.
8115:
8103:
8083:, p. 5.
8034:
8022:
7995:
7968:
7956:
7944:
7887:
7875:
7863:
7851:
7822:
7810:
7798:
7786:
7759:
7737:Zheng (2016)
7732:
7720:
7708:
7696:
7684:
7672:
7660:
7648:
7641:Zheng (2016)
7636:
7624:
7612:
7600:
7588:
7576:
7564:
7552:
7525:
7513:
7501:
7489:
7477:
7465:
7453:
7441:
7429:
7417:
7405:
7393:
7381:
7369:
7334:
7322:
7310:
7298:
7254:
7227:
7215:
7203:
7191:
7179:
7167:
7155:
7143:
7131:
7119:
7092:
7080:
7053:
7041:
7029:
7017:
7005:
6993:
6966:
6954:
6942:
6930:
6901:
6889:
6877:
6865:
6853:
6841:
6829:
6810:
6801:
6792:
6783:
6774:
6765:
6756:
6747:
6738:
6729:
6720:
6711:
6702:
6695:Tai language
6679:
6670:
6661:
6652:
6621:
6546:
6404:
6008:glottal stop
6001:
5597:Southern Min
5590:
5573:
5570:
5180:
5166:
5158:
5143:
4651:
4643:
4485:horizontal,
4189:
4153:
4142:
4123:
4014:intercalary
3800:gate, door,
3489:
3458:
3449:
3445:
3358:sweat (n.),
3254:taste (v.),
3058:to cut off,
2726:float (v.),
2668:fat (adj.),
2501:
2485:
1689:
1661:
1655:
1651:
1625:
1619:
1428:Voiced stops
1302:
1278:
1236:Northern Min
1230:
1199:Southern Min
1157:
1146:in 1937 and
1144:Li Fang-Kuei
1141:
762:
760:
755:Tang dynasty
729:
693:
669:
633:Jerry Norman
630:
618:
547:
516:
463:
458:
454:
450:
447:checked tone
437:, voiceless
416:
415:such as the
410:
378:
355:
333:Min dialects
318:Wu varieties
306:Jerry Norman
304:
282:and eastern
266:(pMǐn) is a
263:
262:
227:Northern Min
155:Southern Min
141:Hanyu Pinyin
91:Chinese name
12648:Min Chinese
12604:Xiao'erjing
12466:Punctuation
12459:Traditional
12412:Oracle bone
12396:Logographic
12292:Proto-Hakka
12267:Eastern Han
12262:Old Chinese
12124:Classifiers
12091:Northern Wu
12019:Singaporean
11225: [
11213: [
11201: [
11189: [
11177: [
10408:Logographic
10342:Leizhou Min
10314:Central Min
10243:Pu–Xian Min
10063:Teochew Min
9937:Eastern Min
9914:Min Chinese
9861:Proto-Hakka
9790:Mahakiranti
9296:East Bodish
9076:Uttarakhand
8857:: 274–301,
8429:Works cited
6906:Ting (1983)
6640:'to wear'.
6549:Mei Tsu-lin
6547:Norman and
6245:fit, agree
6044:Shao–Jiang
5953:give birth
5646:Shao–Jiang
4534:rice-water
4295:salt (n.),
4156:Old Chinese
4106:ink-stone,
4008:recognize,
3706:young man,
3634:a surname,
3576:fall (v.),
3552:flow (v.),
3300:persimmon,
3110:character,
2866:break off,
2702:bark (v.),
2386:tangerine,
2046:vegetable,
1856:boil (v.),
1642:"softened".
1567:Fricatives
1460:unaspirated
1376:unaspirated
1263:Central Min
1183:Pu-Xian Min
1163:Eastern Min
1148:Yuan Jiahua
653:Western Jin
621:dental stop
573:palatalized
566:Western Han
554:Old Chinese
435:unaspirated
393:Han dynasty
339:Min Chinese
300:Old Chinese
203:Pu-Xian Min
179:Eastern Min
67:Old Chinese
31:Min Chinese
12642:Categories
12555:Wade–Giles
12454:Simplified
12349:Vernacular
12342:in Vietnam
12195:Simplified
12182:Biaoxingma
12129:Honorifics
12064:Historical
12009:Philippine
11999:Sichuanese
11926:Badong Yao
11630:Shao–Jiang
11501:Philippine
11309:Xiangxiang
11304:Shuangfeng
11049:Taizhou Wu
10832:Sichuanese
10439:Pe̍h-ūe-jī
10434:Pe̍h-ōe-jī
10426:Alphabetic
10217:Zhenan Min
10212:Haklau Min
10200:Datian Min
9755:Idu–Taraon
9709:Miju–Meyor
9602:Gyalrongic
9448:Tangkhulic
9223:Raji–Raute
8997:2016-12-07
8916:(4): 1–14.
8604:2015-01-24
8549:2015-10-21
8164:Yan (2006)
8149:Yan (2006)
7160:Yan (2006)
7124:Yan (2006)
6822:References
6612:) and Mon
6561:Vietnamese
6401:Vocabulary
4626:medicine,
4252:mountain,
4130:Vietnamese
3870:mosquito,
3658:rain-hat,
3422:slippery,
3370:eggplant,
3168:resemble,
2872:straight,
2808:stack up,
2586:duckweed,
2456:cut (v.),
2416:remember,
1908:charcoal,
1511:Sonorants
1486:"softened"
1403:"softened"
1267:including
1240:including
1203:including
1187:including
1167:including
700:substratum
680:Hmong–Mien
478:Vietnamese
476:and early
421:(601 AD),
314:affricates
12493:Taiwanese
12483:Cantonese
12327:Classical
12287:Proto-Min
12222:Microsoft
12081:Cantonese
12057:Phonology
12038:Cantonese
12029:Singdarin
12014:Malaysian
12004:Taiwanese
11908:Rongjiang
11898:Yongjiang
11894:Southern
11879:Northern
11853:Luo–Guang
11762:Hong Kong
11757:Guangzhou
11713:Taiwanese
11706:Changting
11640:Zhanjiang
11554:Zhongshan
11521:Malaysian
11516:Singapore
11481:Zhangzhou
11433:Zhongshan
11326:Yong–Quan
11222:Jing-Zhan
11152:Xuancheng
11129:Jiangshan
11008:Changzhou
10929:Junjiahua
10782:Guanzhong
10665:Changchun
10549:Proto-Min
10360:Hainanese
10246:(Hinghwa)
10169:Southern
10139:Northern
10128:Taiwanese
9926:Languages
9854:Proto-Min
9785:Macro-Bai
9663:Arunachal
9656:(possible
9471:Boro–Garo
9375:Kuki-Chin
9358:and Indo-
9273:Arunachal
9260:Himalayas
9235:Tandrange
9202:Chepangic
9133:Dhimalish
9067:Himalayas
9013:: 67–84,
8835:600555701
6298:dolichos
6052:Proto-Min
6038:Northern
6032:Southern
5900:mountain
5794:collapse
5654:Proto-Min
5640:Northern
5634:Southern
5545:(*uaŋ/k)
5470:(*uan/t)
5467:(*uon/t)
4996:Jianyang
4871:Chaozhou
4381:is, are,
4215:Examples
4118:forehead
4048:outside,
3712:thunder,
3700:wildcat,
3518:Examples
3455:Sonorants
3440:district
3220:clothing
3128:together
3122:decline,
2896:step on,
2534:Examples
2422:chicken,
2236:correct,
2150:hairpin,
2144:unsalty,
2132:insipid,
2098:holiday,
1874:fly (v.)
1718:Examples
1636:retroflex
1571:voiceless
1542:aspirated
1434:aspirated
1350:aspirated
1328:Sibilant
1281:Shaojiang
1209:Zhangzhou
887:Zhangzhou
769:Subgroups
702:from the
676:Tai–Kadai
651:) in the
581:'branch'
527:Old Xiang
474:Proto-Tai
439:aspirated
385:Guangdong
322:sonorants
284:Guangdong
274:group of
264:Proto-Min
237:Romanized
56:ancestors
22:Proto-Min
12577:Bopomofo
12506:Phonetic
12498:Two-cell
12427:Clerical
12337:in Japan
12332:Adoption
12320:Official
12311:Literary
12186:Boshiamy
12163:Xiehouyu
12119:Numerals
12096:Mandarin
12024:Standard
11984:Standard
11858:Qin–Lian
11848:Yong–Xun
11833:Gao–Yang
11779:Jiujiang
11767:Malaysia
11701:Tingzhou
11652:Wenchang
11613:Jianyang
11603:Northern
11562:Sanxiang
11476:Quanzhou
11459:Southern
11428:Manjiang
11292:Changsha
11252:Nanchang
11247:Chang–Du
11144:Xuanzhou
11134:Qingtian
11088:Wencheng
11034:Jiangyin
11029:Jinxiang
11019:Shaoxing
11013:Hangzhou
10993:Shanghai
10934:Qinjiang
10842:Minjiang
10814:Xinjiang
10772:Dongping
10736:Jiaoliao
10675:Shenyang
10648:Mandarin
10532:Research
10173:Hokkien
10143:Hokkien
9659:isolates
9626:Mondzish
9554:Cai–Long
9302:Tshangla
9258:Eastern
9101:Tamangic
9071:Himachal
9065:Western
9059:branches
8881:(2008),
8871:40726203
8827:23827042
8713:23749809
8692:23749795
8624:: 34–68.
8536:43076011
8528:23825676
8504:20006706
8462:(2014),
8439:(1992),
6618:'child'.
6478:terraced
6076:Jiangle
6070:Jianyang
6041:Central
6035:Eastern
5678:Jiangle
5672:Jianyang
5643:Central
5637:Eastern
5478:(*yn/t)
5385:(*əm/p)
5037:Jian'ou
4964:Yong'an
4522:answer,
4473:garden,
4375:become,
4344:poetry,
4301:to salt
4209:Jianyang
4132:and the
4066:silver,
3852:sister,
3670:hamper,
3664:basket,
3652:remain,
3588:pungent
3512:Jianyang
3428:monkey,
3352:bridge,
3306:mortar,
3260:tongue,
3248:ascend,
3070:trough,
2972:copper,
2960:rudder,
2948:poison,
2854:reside,
2802:hammer,
2790:pillar,
2720:stride,
2662:harrow,
2562:escort,
2528:Jianyang
2398:cocoon,
2380:branch,
2322:bitter,
2310:advise,
2202:smelly,
2034:autumn,
1868:repair,
1712:Jianyang
1339:Glottal
1325:Lateral
1299:Initials
1250:Chong'an
1242:Jianyang
1217:Chaozhou
1213:Quanzhou
1151:Chinese
1029:Jianyang
1013:Chong'an
919:Chaozhou
871:Quanzhou
751:Chang'an
603:'skill'
425:initial
12476:Braille
12437:Cursive
12387:Scripts
12254:History
12244:ZhengMa
12190:Cangjie
12156:Chengyu
12111:Grammar
12086:Hokkien
12043:Hokkien
11951:Waxiang
11931:Danzhou
11903:Guandao
11888:Younian
11883:Tongdao
11872:Pinghua
11812:Taishan
11728:Raoping
11696:Huizhou
11686:Meixian
11662:Banqiao
11635:Leizhou
11625:Pu–Xian
11620:Central
11608:Jian'ou
11583:Longyan
11531:Teochew
11468:Hokkien
11443:Nanlang
11399:Fu–Ning
11379:Changle
11361:Houguan
11352:Eastern
11299:Loushao
11287:Changyi
11269:Da–Tong
11264:Ying–Yi
11210:Yanzhou
11078:Wenzhou
11071:Oujiang
11062:Tiantai
11057:Taizhou
10966:Zhi–Yan
10913:Nantong
10908:Nanjing
10883:Gui–Liu
10873:Nanping
10868:Kunming
10794:Luoyang
10749:Qingdao
10721:Tianjin
10698:Beijing
10690:Beijing
10484:Peng'im
10159:Hokkien
10081:Hokkien
9945:Houguan
9873:Italics
9734:Siangic
9715:Songlin
9694:Kho-Bwa
9672:Hrusish
9654:Dubious
9637:Loloish
9631:Burmish
9596:Qiangic
9567:Longjia
9534:Karenic
9528:Nungish
9508:Sinitic
9394:Hkongso
9356:Myanmar
9326:Gongduk
9290:Tibetic
9208:Chepang
9181:Magaric
9127:Kiranti
9107:Newaric
8885:Setaria
8769:Chinese
8739:9522150
6509:*tshyi
6483:*tšhio
6073:Yong'an
6067:Jian'ou
6055:Jieyang
5675:Yong'an
5669:Jian'ou
5657:Jieyang
5601:Pu-Xian
5542:*uoŋ/k
5527:*iaŋ/k
5524:*ioŋ/k
5489:(*yan)
5473:*uɑn/t
5453:*iɑn/t
5450:*ian/t
5447:*ion/t
5440:*iun/t
5412:*iɑm/p
5409:*iam/p
5329:(*yəi)
5314:(*uai)
5309:(*uəi)
5090:Shaowu
4929:Fuzhou
4900:Xiamen
4638:yellow
4608:after,
4602:round,
4565:learn,
4528:chair,
4442:tiger,
4393:mature
4338:louse,
4332:voice,
4240:three,
4212:Yongan
3916:south,
3864:scold,
3846:dream,
3788:honey,
3776:blind,
3694:snail,
3628:sharp,
3570:green,
3515:Shaowu
3509:Jian'ou
3483:and as
3479:before
3465:Hokkien
3404:thick,
3312:stand,
3208:stone,
3116:crime,
3018:field,
2936:worth,
2796:peach,
2784:staff,
2650:white,
2638:climb,
2632:level,
2592:cover,
2568:shine,
2531:Shaowu
2525:Jian'ou
2480:hungry
2404:liver,
2392:melon,
2374:teach,
2362:marry,
2316:guest,
2282:finger
2254:needle
2248:paper,
2242:juice,
2190:house,
2138:early,
2104:liquor
2092:stove,
2040:grass,
2000:wager,
1960:table,
1850:maple,
1798:share,
1792:eight,
1715:Shaowu
1709:Jian'ou
1332:Palatal
1322:Dental
1319:Labial
1293:Longyan
1289:Jiangle
1273:Yong'an
1269:Sanming
1254:Zhenghe
1246:Jian'ou
1225:Shantou
1221:Jieyang
1193:Xianyou
1125:Jiangle
1093:Yong'an
1077:Sanming
1061:Jian'ou
1045:Zhenghe
967:Longyan
951:Shantou
935:Jieyang
855:Xianyou
637:Yangtze
556:finals
234:Jian'ou
210:Hinghwa
162:Hokkien
12545:Postal
12540:MPS II
12417:Bronze
12297:Ba–Shu
12217:Google
12212:Pinyin
12148:Idioms
11961:Yeheni
11843:Wu–Hua
11838:Goulou
11817:Xinhui
11794:Dapeng
11789:Weitou
11774:Xiguan
11749:Yuehai
11718:Sixian
11657:Haikou
11647:Hainan
11578:Zhenan
11544:Haklau
11539:Swatow
11511:Penang
11496:Taiwan
11491:Chawan
11438:Longdu
11407:Ningde
11384:Gutian
11374:Fuqing
11369:Fuzhou
11331:Qiyang
11314:Wugang
11259:Yi–Liu
11186:Xiu-Yi
11174:Ji-She
11124:Quzhou
11116:Chu–Qu
11106:Jinhua
11098:Wuzhou
11083:Rui'an
11024:Ningbo
10998:Suzhou
10888:Wuming
10859:Zigong
10847:Leshan
10809:Lanyin
10804:Dungan
10799:Xuzhou
10777:Gangou
10754:Weihai
10744:Dalian
10703:Taiwan
10670:Harbin
10510:Hàn-lô
10193:Others
10007:Others
9981:Funing
9747:Milang
9701:Puroik
9685:Mijiic
9609:Ersuic
9560:Caijia
9476:Konyak
9442:Meitei
9346:Chamdo
9283:Bodish
9269:Bhutan
9215:Bhujel
9162:Lepcha
9153:Lhokpu
9139:Dhimal
9084:Sikkim
9007:Lingua
8929:
8897:
8869:
8833:
8825:
8802:
8775:
8756:
8737:
8711:
8690:
8664:
8641:
8567:
8534:
8526:
8502:
8492:
8470:
8447:
6596:*kiɑn
6540:xjwojH
6410:*tiaŋ
6351:guest
6192:north
6156:tsʰeik
6142:*dzhət
6139:thief
6061:Fuzhou
6058:Xiamen
5847:three
5688:south
5663:Fuzhou
5660:Xiamen
5605:Hainan
5552:*yŋ/k
5509:*aŋ/k
5506:*oŋ/k
5503:*əŋ/k
5500:*eŋ/k
5458:*un/t
5437:*in/t
5432:*ɑn/t
5429:*an/t
5426:*on/t
5423:*ən/t
5398:*im/p
5393:*ɑm/p
5390:*am/p
5382:*em/p
5302:(*ui)
5236:(*uə)
5225:(*iɑ)
5163:Finals
4632:idle,
4620:goat,
4571:able,
4559:down,
4516:mute,
4479:lane,
4430:fire,
4418:good,
4387:time,
4283:wing,
4258:think
4246:four,
4206:Fuzhou
4203:Xiamen
4134:Mienic
4112:moxa,
4078:goose
4072:fish,
4060:jade,
4054:moon,
4042:five,
3956:meat,
3950:year,
3882:face,
3834:name,
3806:wheat
3794:sell,
3770:coal,
3764:plum,
3758:slow,
3752:life,
3688:reed,
3682:deaf,
3646:plum,
3564:cage,
3558:plow,
3546:come,
3506:Fuzhou
3503:Xiamen
3434:ball,
3416:bite,
3376:kneel
3346:aunt,
3272:snake
3266:boat,
3162:tree,
3082:money
3024:thief
3006:wood,
2995:tsʰ/tʰ
2954:neck,
2942:move,
2908:heavy
2902:hoof,
2890:bean,
2878:tube,
2826:sugar
2820:head,
2778:weep,
2744:raft,
2738:bowl,
2732:vase,
2714:pull,
2656:dish,
2598:hail,
2580:tare,
2574:skin,
2522:Fuzhou
2519:Xiamen
2474:lard,
2410:horn,
2368:save,
2328:open,
2208:awake
2196:deep,
2173:tsʰ/tʰ
2156:drunk
2080:make,
2052:green
2023:tsʰ/tʰ
1966:short
1954:belt,
1948:list,
1862:emit,
1810:board
1804:half,
1706:Fuzhou
1703:Xiamen
1627:Qieyun
1595:voiced
1336:Velar
1285:Shaowu
1258:Shibei
1205:Xiamen
1189:Putian
1173:Ningde
1169:Fuzhou
1109:Shaowu
997:Shibei
982:Wan'an
903:Xiamen
839:Putian
823:Fuzhou
807:Ningde
763:Qieyun
731:Qieyun
690:Strata
661:Minyue
657:Guo Pu
443:voiced
418:Qieyun
381:Fujian
356:Fujian
288:Taiwan
280:Fujian
186:Fuzhou
40:Fujian
37:Region
12609:Nüshu
12313:forms
12227:Sogou
12174:Input
12048:Hakka
11986:forms
11826:Other
11784:Shiqi
11723:Hailu
11691:Wuhua
11678:Hakka
11596:Other
11571:Other
11506:Pedan
11421:Other
11412:Fu'an
11389:Matsu
11321:Ji–Xu
11279:Xiang
11229:]
11217:]
11205:]
11198:Qi-De
11193:]
11181:]
11039:Shadi
10985:Taihu
10939:Gyami
10922:Other
10878:Wuhan
10787:Xi'an
10726:Jinan
10503:Mixed
9678:Hruso
9574:Luren
9548:Kathu
9522:Tujia
9410:Taman
9381:Mruic
9368:Karbi
9309:Basum
9265:Tibet
9187:Magar
9113:Newar
9080:Nepal
8991:(PDF)
8968:(PDF)
8867:JSTOR
8847:(PDF)
8823:JSTOR
8729:[
8709:JSTOR
8688:JSTOR
8598:(PDF)
8583:(PDF)
8543:(PDF)
8524:JSTOR
8516:(PDF)
8500:JSTOR
6644:Notes
6610:/kɔn/
6590:duwng
6473:dzong
6456:zying
6445:chéng
6422:>
6419:tengX
6354:*khak
6161:tsʰɛt
6151:tsʰat
6146:tsʰak
6086:dove
6064:Fu'an
5797:*-peŋ
5741:slow
5666:Fu'an
5577:mjɨjH
5561:*yok
5371:*iau
5317:*uɑi
5297:*iɑi
4648:Tones
4577:shoe
4491:rain
4424:sea,
4350:body
4326:use,
4289:fly,
4200:pMin
4022:ŋ/g/h
4002:day,
3996:two,
3962:pus,
3930:n/h/l
3922:read
3888:hemp
3876:cat,
3858:eye,
3840:ask,
3718:dew,
3676:old,
3640:egg,
3622:six,
3616:two,
3582:wax,
3500:pMin
3396:kʰ/h
3364:old,
3318:ride
3225:*-dž
3214:yam,
3202:top,
3156:mat,
3145:s/tsʰ
3133:*džh
3087:*-dz
3052:sit,
3012:bed,
2983:*dzh
2978:long
2966:bag,
2884:tea,
2814:bug,
2750:thin
2674:rice
2644:ill,
2604:nose
2516:pMin
2468:jar,
2462:dog,
2334:foot
2259:*-tš
2161:*tšh
2109:*-ts
2011:*tsh
2006:turn
1920:iron
1914:leg,
1902:sky,
1746:hit,
1700:pMin
1515:plain
1177:Fu'an
791:Fu'an
747:koiné
558:*-jaj
535:Hakka
427:stops
397:Xiang
310:stops
12570:Yale
12560:EFEO
12422:Seal
12207:Dayi
11804:Siyi
11486:Amoy
11003:Wuxi
10900:Huai
10713:Jilu
9795:Rung
9740:Koro
9614:Naic
9541:Gong
9497:and
9495:East
9453:Zeme
9422:Naga
9340:Tani
9333:ʼOle
9229:Dura
9194:Kham
9146:Toto
8927:ISBN
8895:ISBN
8831:OCLC
8800:ISBN
8773:ISBN
8754:ISBN
8735:OCLC
8662:ISBN
8639:ISBN
8565:ISBN
8532:OCLC
8490:ISBN
8468:ISBN
8445:ISBN
6587:(MC
6579:tóng
6565:đồng
6537:(MC
6503:syuH
6500:(MC
6470:(MC
6462:céng
6453:(MC
6434:tián
6425:dǐng
6373:kʰaʔ
6368:kʰaʔ
6363:kʰeʔ
6358:kʰeʔ
6340:kuai
6310:kuaʔ
6305:kuaʔ
6301:*kɑt
6248:*ɣɑp
6209:poik
6195:*pek
6181:tsʰa
6176:tsʰa
6166:tsʰɛ
6089:*kəp
6049:word
5956:*saŋ
5942:ʃuãi
5932:sueŋ
5927:sueŋ
5903:*sɑn
5850:*sɑm
5836:pʰãi
5826:vaiŋ
5821:paiŋ
5773:maiŋ
5768:maiŋ
5758:maiŋ
5744:*mən
5691:*nəm
5651:word
5603:and
5360:*iu
5355:*ɑu
5352:*au
5347:*əu
5344:*eu
5322:*yi
5280:*ɑi
5275:*oi
5272:*əi
5253:*ye
5241:*ua
5222:*ia
5219:*io
5214:*ie
4465:h/ʃ
4410:h/ʃ
4367:s/ʃ
4318:ʃ/s
4162:and
4147:and
4136:and
4098:ŋ/n
4083:*ŋh
4034:ŋ/n
3976:l/dz
3927:*nh
3811:*mh
3593:*lh
3471:and
3381:*-g
3277:*gh
3179:*dž
3174:eel
3102:tsʰ
3093:s/ts
3044:tsʰ
3035:s/ts
3029:*dz
2998:tsʰ
2913:*-d
2755:*dh
2679:*-b
2539:*bh
2433:*-k
2287:*kh
2213:*tš
2176:tʃʰ
2124:tsʰ
2057:*ts
2026:tsʰ
1971:*-t
1879:*th
1815:*-p
1764:bee
1723:*ph
1557:(ńh)
1287:and
1271:and
1256:and
1223:and
1211:and
1191:and
1175:and
682:and
578:tsye
562:*-je
560:and
552:The
533:and
525:and
500:yáng
441:and
429:and
399:and
312:and
117:原始闽语
103:原始閩語
12302:Gan
12202:CKC
12069:Old
11946:She
11936:Mai
11740:Yue
11343:Min
11239:Gan
11166:Hui
11015:(?)
10953:Jin
10680:Taz
9661:) (
9515:Bai
9463:Sal
9403:Pyu
9387:Mru
9316:Nam
9015:doi
9011:206
8980:doi
8859:doi
8792:doi
8622:257
6691:kio
6615:kon
6605:con
6570:Mon
6529:huì
6518:kǒu
6492:shù
6393:kʰa
6388:kʰɔ
6383:kʰa
6378:kʰa
6335:kuo
6330:kue
6325:kuɛ
6320:kat
6315:kak
6282:haɯ
6267:hap
6262:hak
6257:haʔ
6252:haʔ
6214:pœk
6204:pak
6199:pak
6171:tʰe
6108:kap
6103:kak
6098:kap
6093:kap
6018:/k/
5995:ʃaŋ
5990:sɔ̃
5985:saŋ
5980:saŋ
5975:saŋ
5970:saŋ
5937:sũm
5922:san
5917:saŋ
5912:suã
5907:suã
5889:saŋ
5884:sɔ̃
5879:saŋ
5874:saŋ
5869:sam
5864:saŋ
5816:poŋ
5811:puŋ
5806:paŋ
5801:paŋ
5783:mãi
5763:mɛn
5753:ban
5748:maŋ
5730:naŋ
5725:nɔ̃
5720:naŋ
5715:naŋ
5710:nam
5705:naŋ
5700:lam
5695:nam
5622:-ŋ.
5595:In
5248:*y
5209:*i
5202:*a
5199:*o
5194:*e
4864:*-d
4853:*dh
4848:*nh
4837:*-t
4826:*th
4820:*-d
4809:*dh
4804:*nh
4793:*-t
4782:*th
4776:*-d
4765:*dh
4760:*nh
4749:*-t
4738:*th
4732:*-d
4721:*dh
4716:*nh
4705:*-t
4694:*th
4666:/k/
4664:or
4662:/t/
4658:/p/
4582:*∅
4548:∅/h
4539:*ɦ
4496:*ʔ
4453:*ɣ
4398:*x
4355:*ž
4306:*š
4263:*z
4220:*s
4168:*tʰ
4164:*l̥
4160:*n̥
4019:*ŋ
3973:*ń
3896:n/l
3893:*n
3814:m/b
3732:m/b
3729:*m
3596:l/n
3523:*l
3485:/l/
3477:/n/
3473:/n/
3469:/l/
3461:/l/
3393:k/∅
3338:kʰ
3323:*g
3292:kʰ
3139:tsʰ
3136:tsʰ
2992:tsʰ
2989:tsʰ
2986:tsʰ
2928:tʰ
2846:tʰ
2831:*d
2770:tʰ
2694:pʰ
2624:pʰ
2609:*b
2554:pʰ
2505:/s/
2445:∅/h
2339:*k
2302:kʰ
2274:tʃ
2228:tʃ
2170:tsʰ
2167:tsʰ
2164:tsʰ
2072:ts
2020:tsʰ
2017:tsʰ
2014:tsʰ
1986:tʰ
1925:*t
1894:tʰ
1830:pʰ
1827:v/∅
1824:p/∅
1769:*p
1738:pʰ
1501:-dž
1498:-dz
1449:džh
1446:dzh
1418:-tš
1415:-ts
1365:tšh
1362:tsh
1153:/l/
749:of
600:gje
595:*k-
531:Gan
483:yīn
461:).
457:or
401:Gan
272:Min
213:BUC
189:BUC
165:POJ
45:Era
12644::
11227:zh
11215:zh
11203:zh
11191:zh
11179:zh
10976:Wu
9431:Ao
9271:,
9267:,
9082:,
9078:,
9009:,
8976:16
8970:,
8914:54
8912:,
8865:,
8855:32
8853:,
8849:,
8829:,
8817:,
8798:,
8703:,
8682:,
8660:,
8656:,
8620:,
8616:,
8589:,
8585:,
8530:,
8498:,
8352:^
8301:^
8286:^
8269:^
8254:^
8227:^
8210:^
8183:^
8156:^
8127:^
8088:^
8063:^
8046:^
8007:^
7980:^
7929:^
7914:^
7899:^
7834:^
7771:^
7744:^
7537:^
7346:^
7283:^
7266:^
7239:^
7104:^
7065:^
6978:^
6913:^
6637:𧚔
6287:ho
6277:xɔ
6272:xɔ
6234:pa
6229:pa
6224:pe
6219:pɛ
6128:ko
6123:kɯ
6118:kɔ
6113:kɔ
5965:sĩ
5960:sẽ
5859:sã
5854:sã
5831:pĩ
5778:mĩ
5599:,
5138:6
5123:6
5108:3
5105:2
5085:4
5070:6
5061:4
5049:3
5032:8
5023:6
5014:5
5008:9
4991:4
4985:5
4976:4
4970:2
4959:8
4953:6
4941:6
4935:2
4924:8
4918:6
4912:6
4906:2
4895:8
4889:6
4883:4
4877:2
4858:*d
4843:*n
4831:*t
4814:*d
4799:*n
4787:*t
4770:*d
4755:*n
4743:*t
4726:*d
4711:*n
4699:*t
4660:,
4594:∅
4551:∅
4508:∅
4275:ʃ
4232:s
4179:sy
4173:th
3988:n
3942:n
3908:n
3826:m
3744:m
3608:s
3538:l
3467:,
3289:kʰ
3286:kʰ
3283:kʰ
3280:kʰ
3240:ʃ
3228:ts
3194:ʃ
3191:ts
3188:ts
3182:ts
3148:ʃ
3096:ts
3090:ts
3041:ts
3038:ts
3032:ts
2764:tʰ
2761:tʰ
2758:tʰ
2551:pʰ
2548:pʰ
2545:pʰ
2542:pʰ
2507:.
2448:k
2354:k
2299:kʰ
2296:kʰ
2293:kʰ
2290:kʰ
2268:ts
2265:ts
2262:ts
2225:ts
2222:ts
2219:ts
2216:ts
2118:ts
2115:ts
2112:ts
2069:ts
2066:ts
2063:ts
2060:ts
1940:t
1888:tʰ
1885:tʰ
1882:tʰ
1784:p
1735:pʰ
1732:pʰ
1729:pʰ
1726:pʰ
1682:.
1614:ɦ
1560:ŋh
1552:lh
1549:nh
1546:mh
1536:∅
1504:-g
1493:-d
1490:-b
1475:dž
1472:dz
1452:gh
1441:dh
1438:bh
1421:-k
1410:-t
1407:-p
1397:ʔ
1391:tš
1388:ts
1368:kh
1357:th
1354:ph
1252:,
1248:,
1244:,
1219:,
1207:,
1171:,
741:A
738:).
721:).
678:,
648:江東
628:.
523:Wu
472:,
468:–
459:-k
455:-t
453:,
451:-p
329:.
302:.
290:,
10612:e
10605:t
10598:v
9906:e
9899:t
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9665:)
9424:"
9420:"
9319:?
9275:)
9263:(
9232:–
9086:)
9073:,
9069:(
9049:e
9042:t
9035:v
9021:.
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9000:.
8982::
8935:.
8903:.
8873:.
8861::
8837:.
8808:.
8794::
8781:.
8762:.
8741:.
8715:.
8705:2
8694:.
8684:1
8670:.
8647:.
8607:.
8591:4
8573:.
8552:.
8506:.
8476:.
8453:.
7329:.
6697:.
6686:茄
6631:䭕
6625:骹
6608:(
6599:囝
6584:童
6534:喙
6523:口
6512:喙
6497:戍
6486:厝
6467:層
6450:塍
6439:田
6413:鼎
6348:客
6295:葛
6242:劦
6189:北
6136:賊
6083:鴿
5950:生
5897:山
5844:三
5791:崩
5738:慢
5685:南
5611:.
5581:未
5135:7
5132:6
5129:3
5126:7
5120:5
5117:6
5114:?
5111:5
5102:7
5099:2
5096:3
5093:1
5082:6
5079:4
5076:3
5073:7
5067:3
5064:5
5058:6
5055:4
5052:3
5046:5
5043:3
5040:1
5029:3
5026:7
5020:9
5017:5
5011:3
5005:2
5002:9
4999:1
4988:7
4982:?
4979:5
4973:3
4967:1
4956:7
4950:5
4947:6
4944:5
4938:3
4932:1
4921:7
4915:5
4909:3
4903:1
4892:7
4886:5
4880:3
4874:1
4635:黃
4629:閑
4623:葯
4617:羊
4611:有
4605:後
4599:圓
4591:∅
4588:∅
4585:∅
4574:鞋
4568:會
4562:學
4556:下
4545:∅
4542:∅
4531:飲
4525:椅
4519:應
4513:啞
4505:∅
4502:∅
4499:∅
4488:雨
4482:橫
4476:巷
4470:園
4462:x
4459:h
4456:h
4445:許
4439:虎
4433:花
4427:火
4421:海
4415:好
4407:x
4404:h
4401:h
4390:熟
4384:時
4378:是
4372:成
4364:s
4361:s
4358:s
4347:身
4341:詩
4335:蝨
4329:聲
4323:使
4315:s
4312:s
4309:s
4298:鹽
4292:鹽
4286:蠅
4280:翼
4272:s
4269:s
4266:s
4255:想
4249:山
4243:四
4237:三
4229:s
4226:s
4223:s
4115:額
4109:艾
4103:硯
4095:ŋ
4092:ŋ
4089:ŋ
4086:h
4075:鵝
4069:魚
4063:銀
4057:玉
4051:月
4045:外
4039:五
4031:ŋ
4028:ŋ
4025:ŋ
4011:閏
4005:認
3999:日
3993:二
3985:n
3982:n
3979:n
3965:讓
3959:膿
3953:肉
3947:年
3939:n
3936:n
3933:n
3919:念
3913:南
3905:n
3902:n
3899:n
3885:麻
3879:面
3873:貓
3867:蚊
3861:罵
3855:目
3849:妹
3843:夢
3837:問
3831:名
3823:m
3820:m
3817:m
3803:麥
3797:門
3791:賣
3785:蜜
3779:磨
3773:盲
3767:煤
3761:梅
3755:慢
3749:命
3741:m
3738:m
3735:m
3721:鱗
3715:露
3709:雷
3703:郎
3697:貍
3691:螺
3685:蘆
3679:聾
3673:老
3667:籮
3661:籃
3655:笠
3649:留
3643:李
3637:卵
3631:劉
3625:利
3619:六
3613:兩
3605:s
3602:s
3599:l
3585:辣
3579:蠟
3573:落
3567:綠
3561:籠
3555:犁
3549:流
3543:來
3535:l
3532:l
3529:l
3526:l
3437:縣
3431:球
3425:猴
3419:滑
3413:咬
3407:含
3401:厚
3390:k
3387:k
3384:k
3373:跪
3367:茄
3361:舊
3355:汗
3349:橋
3343:妗
3335:k
3332:k
3329:k
3326:k
3315:騎
3309:踦
3303:臼
3297:柿
3269:蛇
3263:船
3257:舌
3251:嘗
3245:上
3237:∅
3234:∅
3231:s
3217:裳
3211:薯
3205:石
3199:上
3185:s
3171:鱔
3165:象
3159:樹
3153:席
3142:s
3125:齊
3119:謝
3113:罪
3107:字
3099:l
3079:錢
3073:自
3067:槽
3061:晴
3055:截
3049:坐
3021:賊
3015:田
3009:牀
3003:柴
2975:長
2969:銅
2963:袋
2957:舵
2951:脰
2945:毒
2939:動
2933:値
2925:l
2922:t
2919:t
2916:t
2905:重
2899:蹄
2893:踏
2887:豆
2881:茶
2875:筒
2869:直
2863:斷
2857:弟
2851:住
2843:t
2840:t
2837:t
2834:t
2823:餳
2817:頭
2811:蟲
2805:疊
2799:椎
2793:桃
2787:柱
2781:杖
2775:啼
2767:h
2747:薄
2741:簰
2735:盆
2729:瓶
2723:浮
2717:步
2711:拔
2705:婦
2699:吠
2691:v
2688:p
2685:p
2682:p
2671:飯
2665:肥
2659:耙
2653:盤
2647:白
2641:病
2635:爬
2629:平
2621:p
2618:p
2615:p
2612:p
2601:鼻
2595:雹
2589:被
2583:薸
2577:稗
2571:皮
2565:曝
2559:伴
2477:飢
2471:膏
2465:缸
2459:狗
2453:割
2442:∅
2439:k
2436:k
2425:韮
2419:雞
2413:記
2407:角
2401:肝
2395:繭
2389:瓜
2383:桔
2377:枝
2371:教
2365:救
2359:嫁
2351:k
2348:k
2345:k
2342:k
2331:骹
2325:開
2319:苦
2313:客
2307:勸
2279:指
2271:∅
2251:針
2245:紙
2239:汁
2233:正
2205:醒
2199:臭
2193:深
2187:戍
2181:唱
2153:醉
2147:簪
2141:淡
2135:早
2129:䭕
2121:l
2101:酒
2095:節
2089:竈
2083:姊
2077:做
2049:青
2043:菜
2037:草
2031:秋
2003:轉
1997:賭
1991:擔
1983:l
1980:t
1977:t
1974:t
1963:短
1957:桌
1951:帶
1945:單
1937:t
1934:t
1931:t
1928:t
1917:鐵
1911:腿
1905:炭
1899:天
1891:h
1871:飛
1865:補
1859:發
1853:沸
1847:楓
1841:崩
1835:反
1821:p
1818:p
1807:板
1801:半
1795:分
1789:八
1781:p
1778:p
1775:p
1772:p
1761:蜂
1755:簿
1749:破
1743:拍
1611:ɣ
1608:ž
1605:z
1587:x
1584:š
1581:s
1533:ŋ
1530:ń
1525:l
1522:n
1519:m
1478:g
1467:d
1464:b
1394:k
1383:t
1380:p
642:吳
612:技
609:/
606:伎
590:枝
587:/
584:支
511:陽
508:/
505:阳
494:陰
491:/
488:阴
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