155:
427:
be less prone to publication bias. For example, an intervention found to be ineffective would be easier to publish as part of a megastudy as just one of many studied interventions. In contrast, it might go unreported due to the file-drawer problem if it were the sole focus of a contemplated paper. For the same reason, the megastudy research design may encourage researchers to study not only the interventions they consider more likely to be effective but also those interventions that researchers are less sure about and that they would not pick as the sole focus of the study due to the perceived high risk of a null effect.
344:
Enhanced research standards such as the pre-registration of protocols, the registration of data collections, and adherence to established protocols are other techniques. To avoid false-positive results, the experimenter must consider the chances that they are testing a true or non-true relationship. This can be undertaken by properly assessing the false positive report probability based on the statistical power of the test and reconfirming (whenever ethically acceptable) established findings of prior studies known to have minimal bias.
209:
182:. The study showed that statistically positive significant findings are 27% more likely to be included in meta-analyses of efficacy than other findings. Results showing no evidence of adverse effects have a 78% greater probability of inclusion in safety studies than statistically significant results showing adverse effects. Evidence of publication bias was found in meta-analyses published in prominent medical journals.
439:
123:
which "successful" research is more likely to be published. As a result, "the literature of such a field consists in substantial part of false conclusions resulting from errors of the first kind in statistical tests of significance". In the worst case, false conclusions could canonize as being true if the publication rate of negative results is too low.
76:. Investigators may also assume they made a mistake, find that the null result fails to support a known finding, lose interest in the topic, or anticipate that others will be uninterested in the null results. The nature of these issues and the resulting problems form the five diseases that threaten science: "
426:
In a megastudy, a large number of treatments are tested simultaneously. Given the inclusion of different interventions in the study, a megastudy's publication likelihood is less dependent on the statistically significant effect of any specific treatment, so it has been suggested that megastudies may
230:
regression test, and may adopt a multiplicative or additive dispersion parameter to adjust for the presence of between-study heterogeneity. Some approaches may even attempt to compensate for the (potential) presence of publication bias, which is particularly useful to explore the potential impact on
255:
demonstrated attempts to detect publication bias in clinical trials. Based on positive trial data, reboxetine was originally passed as a treatment for depression in many countries in Europe and the UK in 2001 (though in practice it is rarely used for this indication). A 2010 meta-analysis concluded
170:
on publication bias in the biomedical field. Investigators following clinical trials from the submission of their protocols to ethics committees (or regulatory authorities) until the publication of their results observed that those with positive results are more likely to be published. In addition,
122:
Publication bias occurs when the publication of research results depends not just on the quality of the research but also on the hypothesis tested, and the significance and direction of effects detected. The subject was first discussed in 1959 by statistician
Theodore Sterling to refer to fields in
238:
The presence of publication bias can be detected by Time-lag bias tests, where time-lag bias occurs when larger or statistically significant effects are published more quickly than smaller or non-statistically significant effects. It can manifest as a decline in the magnitude of the overall effect
141:
Positive-results bias, a type of publication bias, occurs when authors are more likely to submit, or editors are more likely to accept, positive results than negative or inconclusive results. Outcome reporting bias occurs when multiple outcomes are measured and analyzed, but the reporting of these
221:
in which the estimate of the reported effect size is plotted against a measure of precision or sample size. The premise is that the scatter of points should reflect a funnel shape, indicating that the reporting of effect sizes is not related to their statistical significance. However, when small
185:
Meta-analyses (reviews) have been performed in the field of ecology and environmental biology. In a study of 100 meta-analyses in ecology, only 49% tested for publication bias. While there are multiple tests that have been developed to detect publication bias, most perform poorly in the field of
343:
Publication bias can be contained through better-powered studies, enhanced research standards, and careful consideration of true and non-true relationships. Better-powered studies refer to large studies that deliver definitive results or test major concepts and lead to low-bias meta-analysis.
275:
In the social sciences, a study of published papers exploring the relationship between corporate social and financial performance found that "in economics, finance, and accounting journals, the average correlations were only about half the magnitude of the findings published in Social Issues
234:
In ecology and environmental biology, a study found that publication bias impacted the effect size, statistical power, and magnitude. The prevalence of publication bias distorted confidence in meta-analytic results, with 66% of initially statistically significant meta-analytic means becoming
134:. This term suggests that negative results, those that do not support the initial hypotheses of researchers are often "filed away" and go no further than the researchers' file drawers, leading to a bias in published research. The term "file drawer problem" was coined by psychologist
300:
argues that "claimed research findings may often be simply accurate measures of the prevailing bias." He lists the following factors as those that make a paper with a positive result more likely to enter the literature and suppress negative-result papers:
288:
An analysis comparing studies of gene-disease associations originating in China to those originating outside China found that those conducted within the country reported a stronger association and a more statistically significant result.
225:
Because an inevitable degree of subjectivity exists in the interpretation of funnel plots, several tests have been proposed for detecting funnel plot asymmetry. These are often based on linear regression including the popular
216:
Meta-analyses and systematic reviews can account for publication bias by including evidence from unpublished studies and the grey literature. The presence of publication bias can also be explored by constructing a
235:
non-significant after correcting for publication bias. Ecological and evolutionary studies consistently had low statistical power (15%) with a 4-fold exaggeration of effects on average (Type M error rates = 4.4).
212:
Conceptual illustration of how publication bias affects effect estimates in a meta-analysis. When negative effects are not published, the overall effect estimate tends to be inflated. From
Nilsonne (2023).
260:. A subsequent meta-analysis published in 2011, based on the original data, found flaws in the 2010 analyses and suggested that the data indicated reboxetine was effective in severe depression (see
2208:
Yang, Yefeng; Sánchez-Tójar, Alfredo; O’Dea, Rose E.; Noble, Daniel W. A.; Koricheva, Julia; Jennions, Michael D.; Parker, Timothy H.; Lagisz, Malgorzata; Nakagawa, Shinichi (3 April 2023).
1618:
Nakagawa, Shinichi; Lagisz, Malgorzata; Jennions, Michael D.; Koricheva, Julia; Noble, Daniel W. A.; Parker, Timothy H.; Sánchez-Tójar, Alfredo; Yang, Yefeng; O'Dea, Rose E. (January 2022).
2646:
2737:
Tkachenko, Y., Jedidi, K. A megastudy on the predictability of personal information from facial images: Disentangling demographic and non-demographic signals. Sci Rep 13, 21073 (2023).
68:
Many factors contribute to publication bias. For instance, once a scientific finding is well established, it may become newsworthy to publish reliable papers that fail to reject the
408:(WHO) agreed that basic information about all clinical trials should be registered at the study's inception and that this information should be publicly accessible through the WHO
99:
Attempts to find unpublished studies often prove difficult or are unsatisfactory. In an effort to combat this problem, some journals require studies submitted for publication
256:
that reboxetine was ineffective and that the preponderance of positive-outcome trials reflected publication bias, mostly due to trials published by the drug manufacturer
197:
Where publication bias is present, published studies are no longer a representative sample of the available evidence. This bias distorts the results of meta-analyses and
1683:
Vickers, Andrew; Goyal, Niraj; Harland, Robert; Rees, Rebecca (1998). "Do
Certain Countries Produce Only Positive Results? A Systematic Review of Controlled Trials".
222:
studies are predominately in one direction (usually the direction of larger effect sizes), asymmetry will ensue and this may be indicative of publication bias.
2671:
2297:
279:
One example cited as an instance of publication bias is the refusal to publish attempted replications of Bem's work that claimed evidence for precognition by
386:) announced that they would no longer publish results of drug research sponsored by pharmaceutical companies unless that research was registered in a public
776:
Luijendijk, HJ; Koolman, X (May 2012). "The incentive to publish negative studies: how beta-blockers and depression got stuck in the publication cycle".
2042:
Hedges L, Vevea J (1996). "Estimating effect size under publication bias: small sample properties and robustness of a random effects selection model".
239:
over time. The key feature of time-lag bias tests is that, as more studies accumulate, the mean effect size is expected to converge on its true value.
925:
Sterling, Theodore D. (March 1959). "Publication decisions and their possible effects on inferences drawn from tests of significance—or vice versa".
2352:"Institutional Logics in the Study of Organizations: The Social Construction of the Relationship between Corporate Social and Financial Performance"
2145:
3430:
2210:"Publication bias impacts on effect size, statistical power, and magnitude (Type M) and sign (Type S) errors in ecology and evolutionary biology"
409:
2351:
1458:
Kicinski, M; Springate, D. A.; Kontopantelis, E (2015). "Publication bias in meta-analyses from the
Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews".
171:
studies often fail to report negative results when published, as demonstrated by research comparing study protocols with published articles.
3405:
474:
281:
1907:
RĂĽcker, Gerta; Carpenter, James R.; Schwarzer, Guido (1 March 2011). "Detecting and adjusting for small-study effects in meta-analysis".
382:
412:. Additionally, the public availability of complete study protocols, alongside reports of trials, is becoming more common for studies.
1185:
Flore P. C.; Wicherts J. M. (2015). "Does stereotype threat influence performance of girls in stereotyped domains? A meta-analysis".
1856:
Jin, Zhi-Chao; Zhou, Xiao-Hua; He, Jia (30 January 2015). "Statistical methods for dealing with publication bias in meta-analysis".
2161:"How does under-reporting of negative and inconclusive results affect the false-positive rate in meta-analysis? A simulation study"
1752:"Detecting small-study effects and funnel plot asymmetry in meta-analysis of survival data: a comparison of new and existing tests"
1148:
3435:
2691:"Recognizing, investigating and dealing with incomplete and biased reporting of clinical research: from Francis Bacon to the WHO"
2268:
142:
outcomes is dependent on the strength and direction of its results. A generic term coined to describe these post-hoc choices is
178:. The largest such analysis investigated the presence of publication bias in systematic reviews of medical treatments from the
2774:
Register of clinical trials conducted in the US and around the world, maintained by the
National Library of Medicine, Bethesda
46:
finding disturbs the balance of findings in favor of positive results. The study of publication bias is an important topic in
549:
Song, F.; Parekh, S.; Hooper, L.; Loke, Y. K.; Ryder, J.; Sutton, A. J.; Hing, C.; Kwok, C. S.; Pang, C.; Harvey, I. (2010).
61:. This unduly motivates researchers to manipulate their practices to ensure statistically significant results, such as by
2675:
1832:
1030:
162:
on girls' math scores showing asymmetry typical of publication bias. From Flore, P. C., & Wicherts, J. M. (2015)
2832:
186:
ecology because of high levels of heterogeneity in the data and that often observations are not fully independent.
3507:
3425:
3235:
2400:
2336:
1357:"Identifying outcome reporting bias in randomised trials on PubMed: review of publications and survey of authors"
364:
135:
3540:
3354:
1306:"Extent of publication bias in different categories of research cohorts: a meta-analysis of empirical studies"
3560:
3240:
2894:
57:, papers with statistically significant results are three times more likely to be published than those with
3530:
2889:
2594:"Assessing the Probability That a Positive Report is False: An Approach for Molecular Epidemiology Studies"
154:
2118:
Sutton AJ, Song F, Gilbody SM, Abrams KR (2000). "Modelling publication bias in meta-analysis: a review".
1619:
3012:
1104:
376:
357:
114:
analysis and disfavoring small and non-randomized studies due to high susceptibility to error and bias.
3545:
3348:
2874:
812:
651:
3478:
3202:
3002:
2980:
1022:
459:
405:
2755:
888:
K. Dickersin (March 1990). "The existence of publication bias and risk factors for its occurrence".
3502:
3415:
3297:
3062:
3042:
2938:
2382:
387:
189:
As of 1998, "No trial published in China or Russia/USSR found a test treatment to be ineffective."
43:
2431:"Local literature bias in genetic epidemiology: An empirical evaluation of the Chinese literature"
1257:"Fate of biomedical research protocols and publication bias in France: retrospective cohort study"
1406:"Timing and completeness of trial results posted at ClinicalTrials.gov and published in journals"
845:
Simonsohn, Uri; Nelson, Leif D.; Simmons, Joseph P. (2014). "P-curve: A key to the file-drawer".
398:
202:
104:
3550:
3488:
3172:
3152:
2933:
2911:
1140:
328:
3267:
3182:
3157:
3102:
2139:
1816:
54:
3565:
3220:
3072:
2948:
2825:
2538:
1631:
1573:
1514:
1049:
8:
3555:
3375:
3292:
3192:
3127:
3067:
3057:
3052:
2916:
2426:
649:; Chan, S.; Chalmers, T. C.; et al. (1987). "Publication bias and clinical trials".
551:"Dissemination and publication of research findings: An updated review of related biases"
482: – the effect size that is just as well supported by the data as the null hypothesis
2244:
2209:
1635:
1577:
1518:
1053:
42:
the decision to publish or otherwise distribute it. Publishing only results that show a
3272:
3257:
3017:
3007:
2990:
2715:
2690:
2622:
2593:
2569:
2542:
2512:
2483:
2459:
2430:
2374:
2328:
2185:
2160:
2059:
2015:
Silliman N (1997). "Hierarchical selection models with applications in meta-analysis".
1992:
1959:
1940:
1889:
1784:
1751:
1665:
1597:
1537:
1502:
1483:
1432:
1405:
1332:
1305:
1084:
1039:
998:
973:
961:
942:
870:
628:
509:
503:
1696:
1381:
1356:
1281:
1256:
960:
Nissen, Silas Boye; Magidson, Tali; Gross, Kevin; Bergstrom, Carl (20 December 2016).
3385:
3322:
3307:
3230:
3212:
3147:
2943:
2859:
2720:
2627:
2592:
Wacholder, S.; Chanock, S; Garcia-Closas, M; El
Ghormli, L; Rothman, N (March 2004).
2574:
2517:
2464:
2378:
2320:
2249:
2231:
2190:
2100:
2063:
1997:
1979:
1932:
1924:
1881:
1873:
1838:
1828:
1809:
1789:
1771:
1700:
1669:
1657:
1601:
1589:
1542:
1475:
1437:
1386:
1337:
1286:
1237:
1229:
1202:
1167:
1121:
1117:
1003:
907:
862:
793:
758:
668:
664:
620:
615:
596:
572:
468:
444:
353:
323:
The scientific field is hot and there are more scientific teams pursuing publication.
317:
There is greater flexibility in designs, definitions, outcomes, and analytical modes.
198:
159:
100:
73:
2332:
1944:
1893:
1487:
1221:
1088:
632:
3312:
3252:
3177:
3162:
3022:
2975:
2884:
2879:
2864:
2710:
2702:
2617:
2607:
2564:
2554:
2507:
2497:
2454:
2444:
2366:
2312:
2239:
2221:
2180:
2172:
2127:
2090:
2051:
2028:
2024:
1987:
1971:
1916:
1865:
1820:
1779:
1763:
1727:
1692:
1647:
1639:
1620:"Methods for testing publication bias in ecological and evolutionary meta-analyses"
1581:
1532:
1522:
1467:
1427:
1417:
1376:
1368:
1327:
1317:
1276:
1268:
1194:
1157:
1113:
1076:
993:
983:
934:
899:
874:
854:
827:
789:
785:
750:
704:
699:
687:
660:
610:
601:
562:
392:
269:
179:
1304:
Song F, Parekh-Bhurke S, Hooper L, Loke Y, Ryder J, Sutton A, et al. (2009).
3420:
3410:
3187:
3167:
3082:
2985:
2960:
2955:
2928:
2906:
2818:
2559:
2502:
2449:
1527:
1422:
831:
69:
2806:
Psychfiledrawer.org: Archive for replication attempts in experimental psychology
2176:
1372:
1272:
1162:
261:
3462:
3457:
3447:
3370:
3287:
3247:
3197:
3142:
3132:
3117:
3112:
3077:
3032:
2997:
2901:
2850:
2226:
2131:
2077:
McShane, Blakeley B.; Böckenholt, Ulf; Hansen, Karsten T. (29 September 2016).
1080:
890:
521:
515:
332:
314:
There is both a greater number and lesser preselection of tested relationships.
297:
252:
227:
20:
2055:
1842:
1585:
1198:
3535:
3524:
3400:
3380:
3343:
3317:
3302:
3282:
3262:
3225:
3137:
3097:
3092:
3087:
2965:
2869:
2738:
2706:
2488:
2435:
2235:
2095:
2078:
1983:
1975:
1928:
1877:
1775:
1661:
1593:
1233:
903:
762:
646:
527:
491: – Tendency of a scientific study to support the interests of its funder
453:
175:
167:
110:
Other proposed strategies to detect and control for publication bias include
62:
1643:
1561:
1404:
Riveros C, Dechartres A, Perrodeau E, Haneef R, Boutron I, Ravaud P (2013).
737:
Chopra, Felix; Haaland, Ingar; Roth, Christopher; Stegmann, Andreas (2023).
72:. Most commonly, investigators simply decline to submit results, leading to
3360:
3122:
3107:
2724:
2631:
2591:
2578:
2521:
2468:
2324:
2253:
2194:
2104:
1936:
1920:
1885:
1793:
1676:
1546:
1479:
1441:
1390:
1341:
1322:
1290:
1206:
1171:
1007:
866:
797:
576:
488:
265:
2612:
2316:
2001:
1704:
1241:
1067:
Rosenthal R (1979). "File drawer problem and tolerance for null results".
911:
813:"On doing better science: From thrill of discovery to policy implications"
672:
624:
96:, a proclivity to produce many redundant, trivial, and incoherent works."
3277:
3047:
3037:
3027:
2923:
2370:
1125:
754:
725:
Publication bias in meta-analysis: prevention, assessment and adjustments
479:
308:
218:
58:
47:
2425:
Pan, Zhenglun; Trikalinos, Thomas A.; Kavvoura, Fotini K.; Lau, Joseph;
1958:
Egger, M.; Smith, G. D.; Schneider, M.; Minder, C. (13 September 1997).
1824:
1044:
988:
595:
Easterbrook, P. J.; Berlin, J. A.; Gopalan, R.; Matthews, D. R. (1991).
362:
In
September 2004, editors of prominent medical journals (including the
92:, a deficiency of rigor in theoretical and empirical work; and finally,
3395:
3390:
3365:
1732:
1719:
1652:
946:
494:
456: – Bias of scholars allowing their beliefs to shape their research
370:
248:
24:
1767:
208:
16:
Higher probability of publishing results showing a significant finding
3483:
2970:
2784:
2778:
1869:
1471:
1023:"Publication bias: the "file-drawer problem" in scientific inference"
858:
738:
567:
550:
421:
938:
3442:
3327:
978:
320:
There are prejudices (financial interest, political, or otherwise).
31:
2773:
1750:
Debray, Thomas P.A.; Moons, Karel G.M.; Riley, Richard D. (2018).
518: – Bias in a statistical analysis due to non-random selection
103:(before data collection and analysis) with organizations like the
143:
111:
1562:"Methodological issues and advances in biological meta-analysis"
1403:
962:"Research: Publication bias and the canonization of false facts"
594:
462: – research collaboration by scientists with opposing views
276:
Management, Business Ethics, or
Business and Society journals".
2274:
1617:
692:
257:
2805:
2484:"Selection Bias in Meta-Analyses of Gene-Disease Associations"
1560:
Nakagawa, Shinichi; Santos, Eduardo S. A. (1 September 2012).
1457:
497: – Tendency of scholars to cite journals with open access
2795:
205:
is increasingly reliant on meta-analysis to assess evidence.
1960:"Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test"
959:
80:, an inordinate focus on statistically significant results;
2841:
2598:
2207:
1303:
39:
38:
occurs when the outcome of an experiment or research study
512: – Observed inability to reproduce scientific studies
390:
database from the start. Furthermore, some journals (e.g.
2810:
1957:
1254:
1184:
736:
305:
The studies conducted in a field have small sample sizes.
2800:
2790:
2647:"Journals Insist Drug Manufacturers Register All Trials"
2585:
2424:
1906:
2672:"Instructions for Trials authors — Study protocol"
2117:
2076:
1815:. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. pp.
1682:
499:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
126:
One effect of publication bias is sometimes called the
2270:
What doctors don't know about the drugs they prescribe
844:
723:
H. Rothstein, A. J. Sutton and M. Borenstein. (2005).
530: – False credibility due to quantity of citations
2801:
Journal of
Articles in Support of the Null Hypothesis
645:
174:
The presence of publication bias was investigated in
1141:"HARKing: Hypothesizing After the Results are Known"
548:
484:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
464:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
434:
1808:
1102:D.L. Sackett (1979). "Bias in analytic research".
1020:
2688:
2079:"Adjusting for Publication Bias in Meta-Analysis"
775:
3522:
2543:"Why most published research findings are false"
2044:Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics
1749:
282:The Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
2533:
2531:
2017:Journal of the American Statistical Association
1453:
1451:
927:Journal of the American Statistical Association
719:
717:
715:
688:"Preliminary testing: The devil of statistics?"
410:International Clinical Trials Registry Platform
146:("Hypothesizing After the Results are Known").
1807:Light, Richard J.; Pillemer, David B. (1984).
1559:
524: – Type of bias in public health research
2826:
2481:
1811:Summing Up: The Science of Reviewing Research
1806:
685:
590:
588:
586:
264:). Examples of publication bias are given by
2528:
2152:
2144:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of June 2024 (
1711:
1448:
1255:Decullier E, Lheritier V, Chapuis F (2005).
1219:
1101:
887:
712:
475:Conflicts of interest in academic publishing
2779:Skeptic's Dictionary: positive outcome bias
2537:
2401:"Backwards step on looking into the future"
2041:
1717:
1066:
847:Journal of Experimental Psychology: General
506: – Phenomenon in scientific publishing
285:(the original publisher of Bem's article).
3489:Heuristics in judgment and decision-making
2833:
2819:
2791:Journal of Negative Results in Biomedicine
2739:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-42054-9
2295:
2014:
1503:"Publication bias in recent meta-analyses"
1500:
1354:
1222:"NIH clinical trials and publication bias"
727:. Wiley. Chichester, England; Hoboken, NJ.
583:
471: – Bias confirming existing attitudes
192:
2714:
2621:
2611:
2568:
2558:
2511:
2501:
2458:
2448:
2243:
2225:
2184:
2094:
1991:
1855:
1783:
1731:
1651:
1536:
1526:
1431:
1421:
1380:
1331:
1321:
1280:
1178:
1161:
1138:
1043:
997:
987:
977:
810:
703:
614:
566:
84:, an excessive appreciation for novelty;
53:Despite similar quality of execution and
2785:Skeptic's Dictionary: file-drawer effect
2664:
2644:
2398:
2349:
2266:
2158:
1149:Personality and Social Psychology Review
924:
242:
207:
153:
597:"Publication bias in clinical research"
542:
3523:
2753:
2645:Vedantam, Shankar (9 September 2004).
1613:
1611:
2814:
2731:
2083:Perspectives on Psychological Science
1745:
1743:
347:
247:Two meta-analyses of the efficacy of
2689:Dickersin, K.; Chalmers, I. (2011).
1608:
13:
2754:Lehrer, Jonah (13 December 2010).
2674:. 15 February 2009. Archived from
1740:
158:Funnel plot of a meta-analysis of
14:
3577:
2747:
1220:Dickersin, K.; Min, Y.I. (1993).
1031:Journal of Scientific Exploration
811:Antonakis, John (February 2017).
2298:"Dishonesty in Medical Research"
1624:Methods in Ecology and Evolution
437:
2682:
2638:
2475:
2418:
2399:Goldacre, Ben (23 April 2011).
2392:
2343:
2289:
2260:
2201:
2111:
2070:
2035:
2008:
1951:
1900:
1849:
1800:
1553:
1494:
1397:
1348:
1297:
1248:
1213:
1132:
1095:
1060:
1014:
953:
918:
881:
365:New England Journal of Medicine
2029:10.1080/01621459.1997.10474047
838:
804:
790:10.1016/j.jclinepi.2011.06.022
769:
730:
705:10.31273/reinvention.v12i2.339
686:Pearce, J; Derrick, B (2019).
679:
639:
415:
311:in a field tend to be smaller.
1:
1697:10.1016/S0197-2456(97)00150-5
535:
117:
2560:10.1371/journal.pmed.0020124
2503:10.1371/journal.pmed.0020409
2450:10.1371/journal.pmed.0020334
1528:10.1371/journal.pone.0081823
1423:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001566
1118:10.1016/0021-9681(79)90012-2
832:10.1016/j.leaqua.2017.01.006
665:10.1016/0197-2456(87)90155-3
616:10.1016/0140-6736(91)90201-Y
555:Health Technology Assessment
7:
3355:DĂ©formation professionnelle
2267:Goldacre, Ben (June 2012).
2177:10.1136/bmjopen-2014-004831
1373:10.1136/bmj.38356.424606.8f
1355:Chan AW, Altman DG (2005).
1273:10.1136/bmj.38488.385995.8f
1163:10.1207/s15327957pspr0203_4
1021:Jeffrey D. Scargle (2000).
561:(8): iii, iix–xi, iix–193.
430:
377:Annals of Internal Medicine
358:Clinical trial registration
338:
149:
10:
3582:
3349:Basking in reflected glory
2840:
2296:Wilmshurst, Peter (2007).
2227:10.1186/s12915-022-01485-y
2132:10.1191/096228000701555244
1756:Research Synthesis Methods
1720:"Figure: Publication bias"
1685:Controlled Clinical Trials
1081:10.1037/0033-2909.86.3.638
652:Controlled Clinical Trials
419:
351:
88:, a mania for new theory;
18:
3497:
3479:Cognitive bias mitigation
3471:
3336:
3211:
2848:
2359:Business Ethics Quarterly
2056:10.3102/10769986021004299
1586:10.1007/s10682-012-9555-5
1226:Online J Curr Clin Trials
1199:10.1016/j.jsp.2014.10.002
739:"The Null Result Penalty"
460:Adversarial collaboration
406:World Health Organization
397:encourage publication of
3063:Illusion of transparency
2796:The All Results Journals
2707:10.1258/jrsm.2011.11k042
2134:(inactive 23 June 2024).
2096:10.1177/1745691616662243
1976:10.1136/bmj.315.7109.629
904:10.1001/jama.263.10.1385
820:The Leadership Quarterly
388:clinical trials registry
292:
19:Not to be confused with
2350:Orlitzky, Marc (2011).
1644:10.1111/2041-210X.13724
231:meta-analysis results.
203:evidence-based medicine
193:Impact on meta-analysis
105:Center for Open Science
2482:Ling Tang Jin (2005).
1921:10.1002/bimj.201000151
1858:Statistics in Medicine
1460:Statistics in Medicine
1323:10.1186/1471-2288-9-79
327:Other factors include
213:
163:
30:In published academic
3541:Criticism of academia
3431:Arab–Israeli conflict
3158:Social influence bias
3103:Out-group homogeneity
2756:"The Truth Wears Off"
2317:10.1258/rsmmlj.75.1.3
420:Further information:
352:Further information:
262:Reboxetine § Efficacy
243:Compensation examples
211:
157:
3561:Academic terminology
3073:Mere-exposure effect
3003:Extrinsic incentives
2949:Selective perception
2427:Ioannidis, John P.A.
2371:10.5840/beq201121325
2305:Medico-Legal Journal
2159:Kicinski, M (2014).
2120:Stat Methods Med Res
1718:Nilsonne G. (2023).
1566:Evolutionary Ecology
1310:BMC Med Res Methodol
743:The Economic Journal
3531:Academic publishing
3298:Social desirability
3193:von Restorff effect
3068:Mean world syndrome
3043:Hostile attribution
2613:10.1093/jnci/djh075
2388:on 25 January 2018.
1909:Biometrical Journal
1825:10.2307/j.ctvk12px9
1636:2022MEcEv..13....4N
1578:2012EvEco..26.1253N
1519:2013PLoSO...881823K
1501:Kicinski M (2013).
1054:1999physics...9033S
989:10.7554/eLife.21451
401:in their journals.
166:There is extensive
132:file-drawer problem
3213:Statistical biases
2991:Curse of knowledge
1733:10.53962/w0d6-9kwa
1139:N.L. Kerr (1998).
755:10.1093/ej/uead060
510:Replication crisis
504:Proteus phenomenon
348:Study registration
214:
199:systematic reviews
164:
128:file-drawer effect
3546:Systematic review
3516:
3515:
3153:Social comparison
2934:Choice-supportive
2678:on 2 August 2007.
1970:(7109): 629–634.
1768:10.1002/jrsm.1266
609:(8746): 867–872.
469:Confirmation bias
445:Psychology portal
354:Registered report
329:experimenter bias
160:stereotype threat
74:non-response bias
3573:
3313:Systematic error
3268:Omitted-variable
3183:Trait ascription
3023:Frog pond effect
2851:Cognitive biases
2835:
2828:
2821:
2812:
2811:
2770:
2768:
2766:
2741:
2735:
2729:
2728:
2718:
2686:
2680:
2679:
2668:
2662:
2661:
2659:
2657:
2642:
2636:
2635:
2625:
2615:
2589:
2583:
2582:
2572:
2562:
2535:
2526:
2525:
2515:
2505:
2479:
2473:
2472:
2462:
2452:
2422:
2416:
2415:
2413:
2411:
2396:
2390:
2389:
2387:
2381:. Archived from
2356:
2347:
2341:
2340:
2335:. Archived from
2302:
2293:
2287:
2286:
2284:
2282:
2264:
2258:
2257:
2247:
2229:
2205:
2199:
2198:
2188:
2156:
2150:
2149:
2143:
2135:
2115:
2109:
2108:
2098:
2074:
2068:
2067:
2039:
2033:
2032:
2023:(439): 926–936.
2012:
2006:
2005:
1995:
1955:
1949:
1948:
1904:
1898:
1897:
1870:10.1002/sim.6342
1853:
1847:
1846:
1814:
1804:
1798:
1797:
1787:
1747:
1738:
1737:
1735:
1715:
1709:
1708:
1680:
1674:
1673:
1655:
1615:
1606:
1605:
1572:(5): 1253–1274.
1557:
1551:
1550:
1540:
1530:
1498:
1492:
1491:
1472:10.1002/sim.6525
1455:
1446:
1445:
1435:
1425:
1416:(12): e1001566.
1401:
1395:
1394:
1384:
1352:
1346:
1345:
1335:
1325:
1301:
1295:
1294:
1284:
1252:
1246:
1245:
1217:
1211:
1210:
1182:
1176:
1175:
1165:
1145:
1136:
1130:
1129:
1099:
1093:
1092:
1064:
1058:
1057:
1047:
1027:
1018:
1012:
1011:
1001:
991:
981:
957:
951:
950:
922:
916:
915:
885:
879:
878:
859:10.1037/a0033242
842:
836:
835:
817:
808:
802:
801:
778:J Clin Epidemiol
773:
767:
766:
749:(657): 193–219.
734:
728:
721:
710:
709:
707:
683:
677:
676:
643:
637:
636:
618:
592:
581:
580:
570:
568:10.3310/hta14080
546:
500:
485:
465:
447:
442:
441:
440:
309:The effect sizes
270:Peter Wilmshurst
180:Cochrane Library
136:Robert Rosenthal
36:publication bias
3581:
3580:
3576:
3575:
3574:
3572:
3571:
3570:
3521:
3520:
3517:
3512:
3493:
3467:
3332:
3207:
3188:Turkey illusion
2956:Compassion fade
2853:
2844:
2839:
2764:
2762:
2750:
2745:
2744:
2736:
2732:
2701:(12): 532–538.
2687:
2683:
2670:
2669:
2665:
2655:
2653:
2651:Washington Post
2643:
2639:
2590:
2586:
2536:
2529:
2480:
2476:
2423:
2419:
2409:
2407:
2397:
2393:
2385:
2354:
2348:
2344:
2339:on 21 May 2013.
2300:
2294:
2290:
2280:
2278:
2265:
2261:
2206:
2202:
2157:
2153:
2137:
2136:
2116:
2112:
2075:
2071:
2040:
2036:
2013:
2009:
1956:
1952:
1905:
1901:
1854:
1850:
1835:
1805:
1801:
1748:
1741:
1716:
1712:
1681:
1677:
1616:
1609:
1558:
1554:
1499:
1495:
1466:(20): 2781–93.
1456:
1449:
1402:
1398:
1353:
1349:
1302:
1298:
1267:(7507): 19–22.
1253:
1249:
1228:. Doc No 50: .
1218:
1214:
1183:
1179:
1143:
1137:
1133:
1100:
1096:
1065:
1061:
1045:physics/9909033
1025:
1019:
1015:
958:
954:
939:10.2307/2282137
923:
919:
886:
882:
843:
839:
815:
809:
805:
774:
770:
735:
731:
722:
713:
684:
680:
644:
640:
593:
584:
547:
543:
538:
533:
498:
483:
463:
443:
438:
436:
433:
424:
418:
399:study protocols
360:
350:
341:
295:
245:
201:. For example,
195:
152:
120:
70:null hypothesis
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3579:
3569:
3568:
3563:
3558:
3553:
3548:
3543:
3538:
3533:
3514:
3513:
3511:
3510:
3505:
3498:
3495:
3494:
3492:
3491:
3486:
3481:
3475:
3473:
3472:Bias reduction
3469:
3468:
3466:
3465:
3460:
3455:
3450:
3448:Political bias
3445:
3440:
3439:
3438:
3433:
3428:
3423:
3418:
3413:
3408:
3403:
3393:
3388:
3383:
3378:
3376:Infrastructure
3373:
3368:
3363:
3358:
3351:
3346:
3340:
3338:
3334:
3333:
3331:
3330:
3325:
3320:
3315:
3310:
3305:
3300:
3295:
3293:Self-selection
3290:
3285:
3280:
3275:
3270:
3265:
3260:
3255:
3250:
3245:
3244:
3243:
3233:
3228:
3223:
3217:
3215:
3209:
3208:
3206:
3205:
3200:
3195:
3190:
3185:
3180:
3175:
3170:
3165:
3160:
3155:
3150:
3145:
3140:
3135:
3130:
3128:Pro-innovation
3125:
3120:
3115:
3113:Overton window
3110:
3105:
3100:
3095:
3090:
3085:
3080:
3075:
3070:
3065:
3060:
3055:
3050:
3045:
3040:
3035:
3030:
3025:
3020:
3015:
3010:
3005:
3000:
2995:
2994:
2993:
2983:
2981:Dunning–Kruger
2978:
2973:
2968:
2963:
2958:
2953:
2952:
2951:
2941:
2936:
2931:
2926:
2921:
2920:
2919:
2909:
2904:
2899:
2898:
2897:
2895:Correspondence
2892:
2890:Actor–observer
2882:
2877:
2872:
2867:
2862:
2856:
2854:
2849:
2846:
2845:
2838:
2837:
2830:
2823:
2815:
2809:
2808:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2788:
2782:
2776:
2771:
2760:The New Yorker
2749:
2748:External links
2746:
2743:
2742:
2730:
2681:
2663:
2637:
2584:
2527:
2474:
2417:
2391:
2365:(3): 409–444.
2342:
2288:
2259:
2200:
2171:(8): e004831.
2151:
2126:(5): 421–445.
2110:
2089:(5): 730–749.
2069:
2050:(4): 299–332.
2034:
2007:
1950:
1915:(2): 351–368.
1899:
1864:(2): 343–360.
1848:
1833:
1799:
1739:
1724:ResearchEquals
1710:
1691:(2): 159–166.
1675:
1607:
1552:
1513:(11): e81823.
1493:
1447:
1396:
1347:
1296:
1247:
1212:
1177:
1156:(3): 196–217.
1131:
1112:(1–2): 51–63.
1094:
1059:
1013:
952:
933:(285): 30–34.
917:
898:(10): 1385–9.
880:
853:(2): 534–547.
837:
803:
768:
729:
711:
678:
659:(4): 343–353.
638:
582:
540:
539:
537:
534:
532:
531:
525:
522:White hat bias
519:
516:Selection bias
513:
507:
501:
492:
486:
477:
472:
466:
457:
450:
449:
448:
432:
429:
417:
414:
349:
346:
340:
337:
333:white hat bias
325:
324:
321:
318:
315:
312:
306:
298:John Ioannidis
294:
291:
253:antidepressant
244:
241:
194:
191:
151:
148:
119:
116:
94:disjunctivitis
21:Reporting bias
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3578:
3567:
3564:
3562:
3559:
3557:
3554:
3552:
3551:Meta-analysis
3549:
3547:
3544:
3542:
3539:
3537:
3534:
3532:
3529:
3528:
3526:
3519:
3509:
3506:
3504:
3500:
3499:
3496:
3490:
3487:
3485:
3482:
3480:
3477:
3476:
3474:
3470:
3464:
3461:
3459:
3456:
3454:
3451:
3449:
3446:
3444:
3441:
3437:
3434:
3432:
3429:
3427:
3426:United States
3424:
3422:
3419:
3417:
3414:
3412:
3409:
3407:
3404:
3402:
3401:False balance
3399:
3398:
3397:
3394:
3392:
3389:
3387:
3384:
3382:
3379:
3377:
3374:
3372:
3369:
3367:
3364:
3362:
3359:
3357:
3356:
3352:
3350:
3347:
3345:
3342:
3341:
3339:
3335:
3329:
3326:
3324:
3321:
3319:
3316:
3314:
3311:
3309:
3306:
3304:
3301:
3299:
3296:
3294:
3291:
3289:
3286:
3284:
3281:
3279:
3276:
3274:
3273:Participation
3271:
3269:
3266:
3264:
3261:
3259:
3256:
3254:
3251:
3249:
3246:
3242:
3241:Psychological
3239:
3238:
3237:
3234:
3232:
3229:
3227:
3224:
3222:
3219:
3218:
3216:
3214:
3210:
3204:
3201:
3199:
3196:
3194:
3191:
3189:
3186:
3184:
3181:
3179:
3176:
3174:
3171:
3169:
3166:
3164:
3161:
3159:
3156:
3154:
3151:
3149:
3146:
3144:
3141:
3139:
3136:
3134:
3131:
3129:
3126:
3124:
3121:
3119:
3116:
3114:
3111:
3109:
3106:
3104:
3101:
3099:
3096:
3094:
3091:
3089:
3086:
3084:
3081:
3079:
3076:
3074:
3071:
3069:
3066:
3064:
3061:
3059:
3056:
3054:
3051:
3049:
3046:
3044:
3041:
3039:
3036:
3034:
3031:
3029:
3026:
3024:
3021:
3019:
3016:
3014:
3011:
3009:
3008:Fading affect
3006:
3004:
3001:
2999:
2996:
2992:
2989:
2988:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2974:
2972:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2957:
2954:
2950:
2947:
2946:
2945:
2942:
2940:
2937:
2935:
2932:
2930:
2927:
2925:
2922:
2918:
2915:
2914:
2913:
2910:
2908:
2905:
2903:
2900:
2896:
2893:
2891:
2888:
2887:
2886:
2883:
2881:
2878:
2876:
2873:
2871:
2868:
2866:
2863:
2861:
2858:
2857:
2855:
2852:
2847:
2843:
2836:
2831:
2829:
2824:
2822:
2817:
2816:
2813:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2789:
2786:
2783:
2780:
2777:
2775:
2772:
2761:
2757:
2752:
2751:
2740:
2734:
2726:
2722:
2717:
2712:
2708:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2685:
2677:
2673:
2667:
2652:
2648:
2641:
2633:
2629:
2624:
2619:
2614:
2609:
2606:(6): 434–42.
2605:
2601:
2600:
2595:
2588:
2580:
2576:
2571:
2566:
2561:
2556:
2552:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2534:
2532:
2523:
2519:
2514:
2509:
2504:
2499:
2495:
2491:
2490:
2489:PLOS Medicine
2485:
2478:
2470:
2466:
2461:
2456:
2451:
2446:
2442:
2438:
2437:
2436:PLOS Medicine
2432:
2428:
2421:
2406:
2402:
2395:
2384:
2380:
2376:
2372:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2353:
2346:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2326:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2299:
2292:
2276:
2272:
2271:
2263:
2255:
2251:
2246:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2228:
2223:
2219:
2215:
2211:
2204:
2196:
2192:
2187:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2155:
2147:
2141:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2114:
2106:
2102:
2097:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2073:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2038:
2030:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2011:
2003:
1999:
1994:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1954:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1903:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1852:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1834:9780674854307
1830:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1813:
1812:
1803:
1795:
1791:
1786:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1746:
1744:
1734:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1714:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1679:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1654:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1614:
1612:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1556:
1548:
1544:
1539:
1534:
1529:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1497:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1454:
1452:
1443:
1439:
1434:
1429:
1424:
1419:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1400:
1392:
1388:
1383:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1367:(7494): 753.
1366:
1362:
1358:
1351:
1343:
1339:
1334:
1329:
1324:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1300:
1292:
1288:
1283:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1251:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1216:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1187:J Sch Psychol
1181:
1173:
1169:
1164:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1150:
1142:
1135:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1106:
1105:J Chronic Dis
1098:
1090:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1075:(3): 638–41.
1074:
1070:
1063:
1055:
1051:
1046:
1041:
1038:(1): 91–106.
1037:
1033:
1032:
1024:
1017:
1009:
1005:
1000:
995:
990:
985:
980:
975:
971:
967:
963:
956:
948:
944:
940:
936:
932:
928:
921:
913:
909:
905:
901:
897:
893:
892:
884:
876:
872:
868:
864:
860:
856:
852:
848:
841:
833:
829:
825:
821:
814:
807:
799:
795:
791:
787:
784:(5): 488–92.
783:
779:
772:
764:
760:
756:
752:
748:
744:
740:
733:
726:
720:
718:
716:
706:
701:
697:
693:
689:
682:
674:
670:
666:
662:
658:
654:
653:
648:
647:Dickersin, K.
642:
634:
630:
626:
622:
617:
612:
608:
604:
603:
598:
591:
589:
587:
578:
574:
569:
564:
560:
556:
552:
545:
541:
529:
528:Woozle effect
526:
523:
520:
517:
514:
511:
508:
505:
502:
496:
493:
490:
487:
481:
478:
476:
473:
470:
467:
461:
458:
455:
454:Academic bias
452:
451:
446:
435:
428:
423:
413:
411:
407:
402:
400:
396:
394:
389:
385:
384:
379:
378:
373:
372:
367:
366:
359:
355:
345:
336:
334:
330:
322:
319:
316:
313:
310:
307:
304:
303:
302:
299:
290:
286:
284:
283:
277:
273:
271:
267:
263:
259:
254:
250:
240:
236:
232:
229:
223:
220:
210:
206:
204:
200:
190:
187:
183:
181:
177:
176:meta-analyses
172:
169:
168:meta-research
161:
156:
147:
145:
139:
137:
133:
129:
124:
115:
113:
108:
106:
102:
97:
95:
91:
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
66:
64:
63:data dredging
60:
56:
51:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
26:
22:
3518:
3452:
3386:In education
3353:
3337:Other biases
3323:Verification
3308:Survivorship
3258:Non-response
3231:Healthy user
3173:Substitution
3148:Self-serving
2944:Confirmation
2912:Availability
2860:Acquiescence
2763:. Retrieved
2759:
2733:
2698:
2694:
2684:
2676:the original
2666:
2654:. Retrieved
2650:
2640:
2603:
2597:
2587:
2550:
2546:
2496:(12): e409.
2493:
2487:
2477:
2443:(12): e334.
2440:
2434:
2420:
2408:. Retrieved
2405:The Guardian
2404:
2394:
2383:the original
2362:
2358:
2345:
2337:the original
2308:
2304:
2291:
2279:. Retrieved
2269:
2262:
2217:
2213:
2203:
2168:
2164:
2154:
2140:cite journal
2123:
2119:
2113:
2086:
2082:
2072:
2047:
2043:
2037:
2020:
2016:
2010:
1967:
1963:
1953:
1912:
1908:
1902:
1861:
1857:
1851:
1810:
1802:
1762:(1): 41–50.
1759:
1755:
1723:
1713:
1688:
1684:
1678:
1627:
1623:
1569:
1565:
1555:
1510:
1506:
1496:
1463:
1459:
1413:
1409:
1399:
1364:
1360:
1350:
1313:
1309:
1299:
1264:
1260:
1250:
1225:
1215:
1193:(1): 25–44.
1190:
1186:
1180:
1153:
1147:
1134:
1109:
1103:
1097:
1072:
1069:Psychol Bull
1068:
1062:
1035:
1029:
1016:
969:
965:
955:
930:
926:
920:
895:
889:
883:
850:
846:
840:
823:
819:
806:
781:
777:
771:
746:
742:
732:
724:
695:
691:
681:
656:
650:
641:
606:
600:
558:
554:
544:
489:Funding bias
425:
403:
391:
381:
375:
369:
363:
361:
342:
326:
296:
287:
280:
278:
274:
266:Ben Goldacre
246:
237:
233:
224:
215:
196:
188:
184:
173:
165:
140:
131:
127:
125:
121:
109:
101:pre-register
98:
93:
89:
85:
81:
78:significosis
77:
67:
59:null results
52:
35:
29:
3566:Metascience
3453:Publication
3406:Vietnam War
3253:Length time
3236:Information
3178:Time-saving
3038:Horn effect
3028:Halo effect
2976:Distinction
2885:Attribution
2880:Attentional
2695:J R Soc Med
2553:(8): e124.
2539:Ioannidis J
2311:(1): 3–12.
2214:BMC Biology
1653:1885/294436
1630:(1): 4–21.
826:(1): 5–21.
480:Counternull
416:Megastudies
219:funnel plot
48:metascience
44:significant
3556:Publishing
3525:Categories
3416:South Asia
3391:Liking gap
3203:In animals
3168:Status quo
3083:Negativity
2986:Egocentric
2961:Congruence
2939:Commitment
2929:Blind spot
2917:Mean world
2907:Automation
2765:30 January
2656:3 February
2281:3 February
2273:(Speech).
1843:1036880624
979:1609.00494
972:: e21451.
536:References
495:FUTON bias
371:The Lancet
249:reboxetine
118:Definition
25:Media bias
3484:Debiasing
3463:White hat
3458:Reporting
3371:Inductive
3288:Selection
3248:Lead time
3221:Estimator
3198:Zero-risk
3163:Spotlight
3143:Restraint
3133:Proximity
3118:Precision
3078:Narrative
3033:Hindsight
3018:Frequency
2998:Emotional
2971:Declinism
2902:Authority
2875:Anchoring
2865:Ambiguity
2379:147466849
2236:1741-7007
2220:(1): 71.
2064:123680599
1984:0959-8138
1929:1521-4036
1878:1097-0258
1776:1759-2887
1670:241159497
1662:2041-210X
1602:254466150
1594:1573-8477
1234:1059-2725
763:0013-0133
422:Megastudy
138:in 1979.
90:arigorium
86:theorrhea
82:neophilia
3381:Inherent
3344:Academic
3318:Systemic
3303:Spectrum
3283:Sampling
3263:Observer
3226:Forecast
3138:Response
3098:Optimism
3093:Omission
3088:Normalcy
3058:In-group
3053:Implicit
2966:Cultural
2870:Affinity
2725:22179297
2632:15026468
2579:16060722
2547:PLOS Med
2541:(2005).
2522:16363911
2469:16285839
2429:(2005).
2410:11 April
2333:26915448
2325:17506338
2254:37013585
2245:10071700
2195:25168036
2165:BMJ Open
2105:27694467
1945:24560718
1937:21374698
1894:12341436
1886:25363575
1794:28975717
1547:24363797
1507:PLOS ONE
1488:25560005
1480:25988604
1442:24311990
1410:PLOS Med
1391:15681569
1342:19941636
1291:15967761
1207:25636259
1172:15647155
1089:36070395
1008:27995896
867:23855496
798:22342262
633:36570135
577:20181324
431:See also
339:Remedies
150:Evidence
32:research
3503:General
3501:Lists:
3436:Ukraine
3361:Funding
3123:Present
3108:Outcome
3013:Framing
2716:3241511
2623:7713993
2570:1182327
2513:1285067
2460:1285066
2186:4156818
2002:9310563
1993:2127453
1785:5873397
1705:9551280
1632:Bibcode
1574:Bibcode
1538:3868709
1515:Bibcode
1433:3849189
1333:2789098
1242:8306005
1050:Bibcode
999:5173326
947:2282137
912:2406472
875:8505270
673:3442991
625:1672966
144:HARKing
112:p-curve
3508:Memory
3421:Sweden
3411:Norway
3278:Recall
3048:Impact
2924:Belief
2842:Biases
2723:
2713:
2630:
2620:
2577:
2567:
2520:
2510:
2467:
2457:
2377:
2331:
2323:
2275:TEDMED
2252:
2242:
2234:
2193:
2183:
2103:
2062:
2000:
1990:
1982:
1943:
1935:
1927:
1892:
1884:
1876:
1841:
1831:
1792:
1782:
1774:
1703:
1668:
1660:
1600:
1592:
1545:
1535:
1486:
1478:
1440:
1430:
1389:
1382:555875
1379:
1340:
1330:
1316:: 79.
1289:
1282:558532
1279:
1240:
1232:
1205:
1170:
1126:447779
1124:
1087:
1006:
996:
945:
910:
873:
865:
796:
761:
671:
631:
623:
602:Lancet
575:
393:Trials
380:, and
258:Pfizer
251:as an
228:Eggers
55:design
40:biases
3396:Media
3366:FUTON
2386:(PDF)
2375:S2CID
2355:(PDF)
2329:S2CID
2301:(PDF)
2060:S2CID
1941:S2CID
1890:S2CID
1666:S2CID
1598:S2CID
1484:S2CID
1144:(PDF)
1085:S2CID
1040:arXiv
1026:(PDF)
974:arXiv
966:eLife
943:JSTOR
871:S2CID
816:(PDF)
698:(2).
629:S2CID
293:Risks
130:, or
3536:Bias
2767:2020
2721:PMID
2658:2020
2628:PMID
2599:JNCI
2575:PMID
2518:PMID
2465:PMID
2412:2017
2321:PMID
2283:2020
2277:2012
2250:PMID
2232:ISSN
2191:PMID
2146:link
2101:PMID
1998:PMID
1980:ISSN
1933:PMID
1925:ISSN
1882:PMID
1874:ISSN
1839:OCLC
1829:ISBN
1817:65ff
1790:PMID
1772:ISSN
1701:PMID
1658:ISSN
1590:ISSN
1543:PMID
1476:PMID
1438:PMID
1387:PMID
1338:PMID
1287:PMID
1238:PMID
1230:ISSN
1203:PMID
1168:PMID
1122:PMID
1004:PMID
908:PMID
891:JAMA
863:PMID
794:PMID
759:ISSN
669:PMID
621:PMID
573:PMID
404:The
383:JAMA
356:and
331:and
268:and
3443:Net
3328:Wet
2711:PMC
2703:doi
2699:104
2618:PMC
2608:doi
2565:PMC
2555:doi
2508:PMC
2498:doi
2455:PMC
2445:doi
2367:doi
2313:doi
2240:PMC
2222:doi
2181:PMC
2173:doi
2128:doi
2091:doi
2052:doi
2025:doi
1988:PMC
1972:doi
1968:315
1964:BMJ
1917:doi
1866:doi
1821:doi
1780:PMC
1764:doi
1728:doi
1693:doi
1648:hdl
1640:doi
1582:doi
1533:PMC
1523:doi
1468:doi
1428:PMC
1418:doi
1377:PMC
1369:doi
1365:330
1361:BMJ
1328:PMC
1318:doi
1277:PMC
1269:doi
1265:331
1261:BMJ
1195:doi
1158:doi
1114:doi
1077:doi
994:PMC
984:doi
935:doi
900:doi
896:263
855:doi
851:143
828:doi
786:doi
751:doi
747:134
700:doi
661:doi
611:doi
607:337
563:doi
23:or
3527::
2758:.
2719:.
2709:.
2697:.
2693:.
2649:.
2626:.
2616:.
2604:96
2602:.
2596:.
2573:.
2563:.
2549:.
2545:.
2530:^
2516:.
2506:.
2492:.
2486:.
2463:.
2453:.
2439:.
2433:.
2403:.
2373:.
2363:21
2361:.
2357:.
2327:.
2319:.
2309:75
2307:.
2303:.
2248:.
2238:.
2230:.
2218:21
2216:.
2212:.
2189:.
2179:.
2167:.
2163:.
2142:}}
2138:{{
2122:.
2099:.
2087:11
2085:.
2081:.
2058:.
2048:21
2046:.
2021:92
2019:.
1996:.
1986:.
1978:.
1966:.
1962:.
1939:.
1931:.
1923:.
1913:53
1911:.
1888:.
1880:.
1872:.
1862:34
1860:.
1837:.
1827:.
1819:.
1788:.
1778:.
1770:.
1758:.
1754:.
1742:^
1726:.
1722:.
1699:.
1689:19
1687:.
1664:.
1656:.
1646:.
1638:.
1628:13
1626:.
1622:.
1610:^
1596:.
1588:.
1580:.
1570:26
1568:.
1564:.
1541:.
1531:.
1521:.
1509:.
1505:.
1482:.
1474:.
1464:34
1462:.
1450:^
1436:.
1426:.
1414:10
1412:.
1408:.
1385:.
1375:.
1363:.
1359:.
1336:.
1326:.
1312:.
1308:.
1285:.
1275:.
1263:.
1259:.
1236:.
1224:.
1201:.
1191:53
1189:.
1166:.
1152:.
1146:.
1120:.
1110:32
1108:.
1083:.
1073:86
1071:.
1048:.
1036:14
1034:.
1028:.
1002:.
992:.
982:.
968:.
964:.
941:.
931:54
929:.
906:.
894:.
869:.
861:.
849:.
824:28
822:.
818:.
792:.
782:65
780:.
757:.
745:.
741:.
714:^
696:12
694:.
690:.
667:.
655:.
627:.
619:.
605:.
599:.
585:^
571:.
559:14
557:.
553:.
395:),
374:,
368:,
335:.
272:.
107:.
65:.
50:.
34:,
2834:e
2827:t
2820:v
2787:.
2781:.
2769:.
2727:.
2705::
2660:.
2634:.
2610::
2581:.
2557::
2551:2
2524:.
2500::
2494:2
2471:.
2447::
2441:2
2414:.
2369::
2315::
2285:.
2256:.
2224::
2197:.
2175::
2169:4
2148:)
2130::
2124:9
2107:.
2093::
2066:.
2054::
2031:.
2027::
2004:.
1974::
1947:.
1919::
1896:.
1868::
1845:.
1823::
1796:.
1766::
1760:9
1736:.
1730::
1707:.
1695::
1672:.
1650::
1642::
1634::
1604:.
1584::
1576::
1549:.
1525::
1517::
1511:8
1490:.
1470::
1444:.
1420::
1393:.
1371::
1344:.
1320::
1314:9
1293:.
1271::
1244:.
1209:.
1197::
1174:.
1160::
1154:2
1128:.
1116::
1091:.
1079::
1056:.
1052::
1042::
1010:.
986::
976::
970:5
949:.
937::
914:.
902::
877:.
857::
834:.
830::
800:.
788::
765:.
753::
708:.
702::
675:.
663::
657:8
635:.
613::
579:.
565::
27:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
