2477:. The percentage then continues falling in order with Laos, Montenegro, India, Belgium, Georgia, South Korea, Netherlands, and Japan, with all others being less than 75% electrified. Overall, China takes first place, with around 100,000 km (62,000 mi) of electrified railway, followed by India with over 60,000 km (37,000 mi) of electrified railway, and continuing with Russia, with over 54,000 km (34,000 mi) of electrified railway. A number of countries have zero electrified railways, instead relying on diesel multiple units, locomotive hauled services and many alternate forms of transport. The European Union contains the longest amount of electrified railways (in length), with over 114,000 km (71,000 mi) of electrified railway, however only making up around 55% of the total railway length.
903:
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1391:
electrical bonding between pipe segments. The four-rail system solves the problem. Although the supply has an artificially created earth point, this connection is derived by using resistors which ensures that stray earth currents are kept to manageable levels. Power-only rails can be mounted on strongly insulating ceramic chairs to minimise current leak, but this is not possible for running rails, which have to be seated on stronger metal chairs to carry the weight of trains. However, elastomeric rubber pads placed between the rails and chairs can now solve part of the problem by insulating the running rails from the current return should there be a leakage through the running rails.
1612:
2086:
electrification often goes hand in hand with a general infrastructure and rolling stock overhaul / replacement, which leads to better service quality (in a way that theoretically could also be achieved by doing similar upgrades yet without electrification). Whatever the causes of the sparks effect, it is well established for numerous routes that have electrified over decades. This also applies when bus routes with diesel buses are replaced by trolleybuses. The overhead wires make the service "visible" even in no bus is running and the existence of the infrastructure gives some long-term expectations of the line being in operation.
62:
2400:, DC or AC, and at any voltage or frequency). Not so for electric trains, which can never run on non-electrified lines, and which even on electrified lines can run only on the single, or the few, electrical system(s) for which they are equipped. Even on fully electrified networks, it is usually a good idea to keep a few diesel locomotives for maintenance and repair trains, for instance to repair broken or stolen overhead lines, or to lay new tracks. However, due to ventilation issues, diesel trains may have to be banned from certain tunnels and underground train stations mitigating the advantage of diesel trains somewhat.
2288:
1872:
1931:). Lowering the current reduces the ohmic losses and allows for less bulky, lighter overhead line equipment and more spacing between traction substations, while maintaining power capacity of the system. On the other hand, the higher voltage requires larger isolation gaps, requiring some elements of infrastructure to be larger. The standard-frequency AC system may introduce imbalance to the supply grid, requiring careful planning and design (as at each substation power is drawn from two out of three phases). The low-frequency AC system may be powered by
2308:
372:
883:
1913:
efficient hardware can be used as compared to an AC system where conversion takes place aboard the locomotive where space is limited and losses are significantly higher. However, the higher voltages used in many AC electrification systems reduce transmission losses over longer distances, allowing for fewer substations or more powerful locomotives to be used. Also, the energy used to blow air to cool transformers, power electronics (including rectifiers), and other conversion hardware must be accounted for.
27:
1437:
1783:
1945:
3272:, Дробинский p. 65 and Иванова p.20.). But there are reductions needed in both efficiencies needed to make a comparison. First, one must degrade the efficiency of central power plants by the transmission losses to get the electricity to the locomotive. Another correction is due to the fact that efficiency for the Russian diesel is based on the lower heat of combustion of fuel while power plants in the U.S. use the higher heat of combustion (see
2507:
2130:
1275:
1909:
with the same task: converting and transporting high-voltage AC from the power grid to low-voltage DC in the locomotive. The difference between AC and DC electrification systems lies in where the AC is converted to DC: at the substation or on the train. Energy efficiency and infrastructure costs determine which of these is used on a network, although this is often fixed due to pre-existing electrification systems.
1336:
4127:
3276:). Still another correction is that the diesel's reported efficiency neglects the fan energy used for engine cooling radiators. See Дробинский p. 65 and Иванова p. 20 (who estimates the on-board electricity generator as 96.5% efficient). The result of all the above is that modern diesel engines and central power plants are both about 33% efficient at generating electricity (in the nominal regime).
2521:
2381:, ripping the wires from their supports. The damage is often not limited to the supply to one track, but extends to those for adjacent tracks as well, causing the entire route to be blocked for a considerable time. Third-rail systems can suffer disruption in cold weather due to ice forming on the conductor rail.
1887:, rather than single-phase electric power delivery due to ease of design of both power supply and locomotives. These systems could either use standard network frequency and three power cables, or reduced frequency, which allowed for return-phase line to be third rail, rather than an additional overhead wire.
2277:
If the entire network is electrified, diesel infrastructure such as fueling stations, maintenance yards and indeed the diesel locomotive fleet can be retired or put to other uses – this is often the business case in favor of electrifying the last few lines in a network where otherwise costs would be
2085:
Newly electrified lines often show a "sparks effect", whereby electrification in passenger rail systems leads to significant jumps in patronage / revenue. The reasons may include electric trains being seen as more modern and attractive to ride, faster, quieter and smoother service, and the fact that
2042:
must be used. This is mostly an issue for long-distance trips, but many lines come to be dominated by through traffic from long-haul freight trains (usually running coal, ore, or containers to or from ports). In theory, these trains could enjoy dramatic savings through electrification, but it can be
2021:
are electric. The high power of electric locomotives also gives them the ability to pull freight at higher speed over gradients; in mixed traffic conditions this increases capacity when the time between trains can be decreased. The higher power of electric locomotives and an electrification can also
1908:
to a lower DC voltage in preparation for use by traction motors. These motors may either be DC motors which directly use the DC or they may be three-phase AC motors which require further conversion of the DC to variable frequency three-phase AC (using power electronics). Thus both systems are faced
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together. The problem was exacerbated because the return current also had a tendency to flow through nearby iron pipes forming the water and gas mains. Some of these, particularly
Victorian mains that predated London's underground railways, were not constructed to carry currents and had no adequate
3267:
It turns out that the efficiency of electricity generation by a modern diesel locomotive is roughly the same as the typical U.S. fossil-fuel power plant. The heat rate of central power plants in 2012 was about 9.5k BTU/kwh per the
Monthly Energy Review of the U.S. Energy Information Administration
2406:
In most of the world's railway networks, the height clearance of overhead electrical lines is not sufficient for a double-stack container car or other unusually tall loads. To upgrade electrified lines to the correct clearances (21 ft 8 in or 6.60 m) to take double-stacked container
1561:, which require AC, to produce higher voltages. The higher the voltage, the lower the current for the same power (because power is current multiplied by voltage), and power loss is proportional to the current squared. The lower current reduces line loss, thus allowing higher power to be delivered.
1254:
that AC penetrates to 0.3 millimetres or 0.012 inches in a steel rail. This effect makes the resistance per unit length unacceptably high compared with the use of DC. Third rail is more compact than overhead wires and can be used in smaller-diameter tunnels, an important factor for subway systems.
1935:
or a network of converter substations, adding the expense, also low-frequency transformers, used both at the substations and on the rolling stock, are particularly bulky and heavy. The DC system, apart from being limited as to the maximum power that can be transmitted, also can be responsible for
2050:
A problem specifically related to electrified lines are gaps in the electrification. Electric vehicles, especially locomotives, lose power when traversing gaps in the supply, such as phase change gaps in overhead systems, and gaps over points in third rail systems. These become a nuisance if the
2037:
are a large factor with electrification. When converting lines to electric, the connections with other lines must be considered. Some electrifications have subsequently been removed because of the through traffic to non-electrified lines. If through traffic is to have any benefit, time-consuming
2025:
On the other hand, electrification may not be suitable for lines with low frequency of traffic, because lower running cost of trains may be outweighed by the high cost of the electrification infrastructure. Therefore, most long-distance lines in developing or sparsely populated countries are not
1976:
Central station electricity can often be generated with higher efficiency than a mobile engine/generator. While the efficiency of power plant generation and diesel locomotive generation are roughly the same in the nominal regime, diesel motors decrease in efficiency in non-nominal regimes at low
296:
The early electrification of railways used direct current (DC) power systems, which were limited in terms of the distance they could transmit power. However, in the early 20th century, alternating current (AC) power systems were developed, which allowed for more efficient power transmission over
1912:
Both the transmission and conversion of electric energy involve losses: ohmic losses in wires and power electronics, magnetic field losses in transformers and smoothing reactors (inductors). Power conversion for a DC system takes place mainly in a railway substation where large, heavy, and more
1144:
The use of medium-voltage DC electrification (MVDC) would solve some of the issues associated with standard-frequency AC electrification systems, especially possible supply grid load imbalance and the phase separation between the electrified sections powered from different phases, whereas high
2043:
too costly to extend electrification to isolated areas, and unless an entire network is electrified, companies often find that they need to continue use of diesel trains even if sections are electrified. The increasing demand for container traffic, which is more efficient when utilizing the
2076:
Maintenance costs of the lines may be increased by electrification, but many systems claim lower costs due to reduced wear-and-tear on the track from lighter rolling stock. There are some additional maintenance costs associated with the electrical equipment around the track, such as power
2104:
imposed by the overhead wires, double-stacked container trains have been traditionally difficult and rare to operate under electrified lines. However, this limitation is being overcome by railways in India, China and
African countries by laying new tracks with increased catenary height.
3493:
it was claimed that after the mid 1970s electrics used about 25% less fuel per ton-km than diesels. However, part of this savings may be due to less stopping of electrics to let opposing trains pass since diesels operated predominately on single-track lines, often with moderately heavy
1351:
in
England is one of few networks that uses a four-rail system. The additional rail carries the electrical return that, on third-rail and overhead networks, is provided by the running rails. On the London Underground, a top-contact third rail is beside the track, energized at
1575:
can supply a range of voltages. Separate low-voltage transformer windings supply lighting and the motors driving auxiliary machinery. More recently, the development of very high power semiconductors has caused the classic DC motor to be largely replaced with the three-phase
3354:
1828:
Hz in a number of
European countries, India, Saudi Arabia, eastern Japan, countries that used to be part of the Soviet Union, on high-speed lines in much of Western Europe (including countries that still run conventional railways under DC but not in countries using
1588:
that varies both frequency and voltage to control motor speed. These drives can run equally well on DC or AC of any frequency, and many modern electric locomotives are designed to handle different supply voltages and frequencies to simplify cross-border operation.
3223:
See Винокуров p. 95+ Ch. 4: Потери и коэффициент полизного действия; нагреванние и охлаждение электрических машин и трансформаторов" (Losses and efficiency; heating and cooling of electrical machinery and transformers) magnetic losses pp. 96–97, ohmic losses pp.
2388:
kV cables may end in the thief's death from electrocution. In the UK, cable theft is claimed to be one of the biggest sources of delay and disruption to train services – though this normally relates to signalling cable, which is equally problematic for diesel
176:, and lower operating costs. Electric locomotives are also usually quieter, more powerful, and more responsive and reliable than diesel. They have no local emissions, an important advantage in tunnels and urban areas. Some electric traction systems provide
1972:
returns power to the electrification system so that it may be used elsewhere, by other trains on the same system or returned to the general power grid. This is especially useful in mountainous areas where heavily loaded trains must descend long grades.
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4345:
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Selection of an electrification system is based on economics of energy supply, maintenance, and capital cost compared to the revenue obtained for freight and passenger traffic. Different systems are used for urban and intercity areas; some
2047:, also has network effect issues with existing electrifications due to insufficient clearance of overhead electrical lines for these trains, but electrification can be built or modified to have sufficient clearance, at additional cost.
4068:Дмитриев, В.А., "Народнохозяйственная эффективность электрификации железных дорог и применения тепловозной тяги" (National economic effectiveness of railway electrification and application of diesel traction), Москва, Транспорт 1976.
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back into electricity and returns it to the supply system to be used by other trains or the general utility grid. While diesel locomotives burn petroleum products, electricity can be generated from diverse sources, including
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2580:
2369:
Appearance: the overhead line structures and cabling can have a significant landscape impact compared with a non-electrified or third rail electrified line that has only occasional signalling equipment above ground
3285:Хомич А. З. Тупицын О.И., Симсон А. Э. "Экономия топлива и теплотехническая модернизация тепловозов" (Fuel economy and the thermodynamic modernization of diesel locomotives). Москва: Транспорт, 1975. 264 pp. See
2077:
sub-stations and the catenary wire itself, but, if there is sufficient traffic, the reduced track and especially the lower engine maintenance and running costs exceed the costs of this maintenance significantly.
2700:
1977:
power while if an electric power plant needs to generate less power it will shut down its least efficient generators, thereby increasing efficiency. The electric train can save energy (as compared to diesel) by
2058:
together, since in that case if the train stops with one collector in a dead gap, another multiple unit can push or pull the disconnected unit until it can again draw power. The same applies to the kind of
4115:Хомич А.З. Тупицын О.И., Симсон А.Э. "Экономия топлива и теплотехническая модернизация тепловозов" (Fuel economy and the thermodynamic modernization of diesel locomotives). Москва: Транспорт, 1975. 264 pp.
1916:
Standard AC electrification systems use much higher voltages than standard DC systems. One of the advantages of raising the voltage is that, to transmit certain level of power, lower current is necessary
1981:
and by not needing to consume energy by idling as diesel locomotives do when stopped or coasting. However, electric rolling stock may run cooling blowers when stopped or coasting, thus consuming energy.
2063:
which have a locomotive at each end. Power gaps can be overcome in single-collector trains by on-board batteries or motor-flywheel-generator systems. In 2014, progress is being made in the use of large
3025:
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in 1887-1888, and led to the electrification of hundreds of additional street railway systems by the early 1890s. The first electrification of a mainline railway was the
Baltimore and Ohio Railroad's
2013:
Electric locomotives may easily be constructed with greater power output than most diesel locomotives. For passenger operation it is possible to provide enough power with diesel engines (see e.g. '
3409:
2350:
Electrification cost: electrification requires an entire new infrastructure to be built around the existing tracks at a significant cost. Costs are especially high when tunnels, bridges and other
219:
Different regions may use different supply voltages and frequencies, complicating through service and requiring greater complexity of locomotive power. There used to be a historical concern for
2230:. Electric trains have a higher power-to-weight ratio (no onboard fuel tanks), resulting in fewer locomotives, faster acceleration, higher practical limit of power, higher limit of speed, less
1382:
The key advantage of the four-rail system is that neither running rail carries any current. This scheme was introduced because of the problems of return currents, intended to be carried by the
2403:
Birds may perch on parts with different charges, and animals may also touch the electrification system. Dead animals attract foxes or other scavengers, bringing risk of collision with trains.
517:
Six of the most commonly used voltages have been selected for
European and international standardisation. Some of these are independent of the contact system used, so that, for example, 750
363:. Electrification is seen as a more sustainable and environmentally friendly alternative to diesel or steam power and is an important part of many countries' transportation infrastructure.
208:
that may be uneconomic on lightly trafficked routes, a relative lack of flexibility (since electric trains need third rails or overhead wires), and a vulnerability to power interruptions.
4427:
2226:
There are a number of advantages including the fact there is no exposure of passengers to exhaust from the locomotive and lower cost of building, running and maintaining locomotives and
1250:
V. Third rail systems almost exclusively use DC distribution. The use of AC is usually not feasible due to the dimensions of a third rail being physically very large compared with the
2941:
P. Leandes and S. Ostlund. "A concept for an HVDC traction system" in "International conference on main line railway electrification", Hessington, England, September 1989 (Suggests 30
1688:
2945:
kV). Glomez-Exposito A., Mauricio J.M., Maza-Ortega J.M. "VSC-based MVDC Railway
Electrification System" IEEE transactions on power delivery, v. 29, no. 1, Feb. 2014. (suggests 24
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Theft: the high scrap value of copper and the unguarded, remote installations make overhead cables an attractive target for scrap metal thieves. Attempts at theft of live 25
1031:, allowing for transfer of energy between climbing and descending trains on the steep approaches to the tunnel. The system was also used for suburban electrification in
2274:
More flexible primary energy source: can use coal, natural gas, nuclear or renewable energy (hydro, solar, wind) as the primary energy source instead of diesel fuel
1141:
Increasing availability of high-voltage semiconductors may allow the use of higher and more efficient DC voltages that heretofore have only been practical with AC.
3962:
Gomez-Exposito A., Mauricio J.M., Maza-Ortega J.M. "VSC-based MVDC Railway
Electrification System" IEEE transactions on power delivery, v. 29, no. 1, Feb. 2014 pp.
2373:
Fragility and vulnerability: overhead electrification systems can suffer severe disruption due to minor mechanical faults or the effects of high winds causing the
1564:
As alternating current is used with high voltages. Inside the locomotive, a transformer steps the voltage down for use by the traction motors and auxiliary loads.
3690:
161:". Both overhead wire and third-rail systems usually use the running rails as the return conductor, but some systems use a separate fourth rail for this purpose.
1070:
kV DC is used in
Belgium, Italy, Spain, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Africa, Chile, the northern portion of the Czech Republic, the former republics of the
238:
Railway electrification has constantly increased in the past decades, and as of 2022, electrified tracks account for nearly one-third of total tracks globally.
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1386:
running rail, flowing through the iron tunnel linings instead. This can cause electrolytic damage and even arcing if the tunnel segments are not electrically
2051:
locomotive stops with its collector on a dead gap, in which case there is no power to restart. This is less of a problem in trains consisting of two or more
4131:
4057:Винокуров В.А., Попов Д.А. "Электрические машины железно-дорожного транспорта" (Electrical machinery of railroad transportation), Москва, Транспорт, 1986.
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Hz. It was announced in 1926 that all lines were to be converted to DC third rail and the last overhead-powered electric service ran in September 1929.
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327:
Railway electrification continued to expand throughout the 20th century, with technological improvements and the development of high-speed trains and
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3026:"Перспектива разработки системы электрической тяги постоянного тока повышенного напряжения 12, 24 кВ для скоростной магистрали Москва – Екатеринбург"
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supply. Both are located to the side of the train, as the space between the running rails is occupied by an aluminum plate, as part of stator of the
4385:
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Britain's new railway: Electrification of the London-Midland main lines from Euston to Birmingham, Stoke-on-Trent, Crewe, Liverpool and Manchester
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4380:
4074:Иванова В.Н. (ed.) "Конструкция и динамика тепловозов" (Construction and dynamics of the diesel locomotive). Москва, Транспорт, 1968 (textbook).
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4104:Сидоров Н.И., Сидорожа Н.Н. "Как устроен и работает электровоз" (How the electric locomotive works) Москва, Транспорт, 1988 (5th ed.). 233 pp,
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The majority of modern electrification systems take AC energy from a power grid that is delivered to a locomotive, and within the locomotive,
4452:
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254:. The history of railway electrification dates back to the late 19th century when the first electric tramways were introduced in cities like
130:, transmitted to the railway network and distributed to the trains. Some electric railways have their own dedicated generating stations and
3515:
2421:
4087:Мирошниченко, Р.И., "Режимы работы электрифицированных участков" (Regimes of operation of electrified sections ), Москва, Транспорт, 1982.
4422:
3904:
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1055:
V DC was the first electrification system launched in 1925 in Mumbai area. Between 2012 and 2016, the electrification was converted to 25
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1193:
1024:
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321:
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is the largest fully electrified network in the world and one of only eleven countries or territories to achieve this, as listed in
2166:
1845:
kV is used on some narrow-gauge lines in Japan. On "French system" HSLs, the overhead line and a "sleeper" feeder line each carry 25
4447:
2147:
1727:
1296:
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4071:Дробинский В.А., Егунов П.М. "Как устроен и работает тепловоз" (How the diesel locomotive works) 3rd ed. Moscow, Транспорт, 1980.
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in India where the wire height is at 7.45 m (24.4 ft) to accommodate double-stack container trains without the need of
1602:
529:
4005:
He was to produce the first motor that operated without gears of any sort, having its armature direct-connected to the car axle.
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189:. Historically, concerns of resource independence have played a role in the decision to electrify railway lines. The landlocked
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from interference by traction current. Electrification typically requires line closures while new equipment is being installed.
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mitigate these problems somewhat as they are capable of running on diesel power during an outage or on non-electrified routes.
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33:
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2234:(quieter operation). The faster acceleration clears lines more quickly to run more trains on the track in urban rail uses.
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mainly in Russia is completely electrified, making it one of the longest stretches of electrified railways in the world.
2180:
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does not use this system and instead uses more traditional motors attached to the wheels and third-rail electrification.
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Hz mains frequency divided by three) single-phase AC. On 16 October 1995, Germany, Austria and Switzerland changed from
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opened in June 1912. Further extensions were not made owing to the First World War. Two lines opened in 1925 under the
902:
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4077:Калинин, В.К. "Электровозы и электропоезда" (Electric locomotives and electric train sets) Москва, Транспорт, 1991
3028:[Perspective of developing 12 or 24 kV DC electrification system for Moscow-Ekaterinburg high-speed line],
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picks up the current from the vertical face of each guide bar. The return of each traction motor, as well as each
4370:
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3269:
2701:"Indian Railways sets new benchmark! Runs 1st Double-stack container train in high rise OHE electrified sections"
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too high. Having only one type of motive power also allows greater fleet homogeneity which can also reduce costs.
1763:
1146:
1082:, to Seattle, across the Continental Divide and including extensive branch and loop lines in Montana, and by the
3300:
2255:
Reduced environmental pollution, especially in highly populated urban areas, even if electricity is produced by
4101:Плакс, А.В. & Пупынин, В. Н., "Электрические железные дороги" (Electric Railways), Москва "Транспорт" 1993.
4090:Перцовский, Л. М.; "Энергетическая эффективность электрической тяги" (Energy efficiency of electric traction),
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which corresponds to an efficiency of 36%. Diesel motors for locomotives have an efficiency of about 40% (see
2068:
to power electric vehicles between stations, and so avoid the need for overhead wires between those stations.
430:
High speed lines in France, Spain, Italy, United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Belgium and Turkey operate under 25
3733:"Russia's legendary Trans-Siberian railroad line completely electrified – AP Worldstream | HighBeam Research"
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kV DC and found that the conversion would allow to use less bulky overhead wires (saving €20 million per 100
547:
60850. These take into account the number of trains drawing current and their distance from the substation.
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4288:
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be a cheaper alternative to a new and less steep railway if train weights are to be increased on a system.
1751:
246:
Railway electrification is the development of powering trains and locomotives using electricity instead of
213:
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Incompatibility: Diesel trains can run on any track without electricity or with any kind of electricity (
2095:
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Hz which is no longer exactly one-third of the grid frequency. This solved overheating problems with the
1074:, and in the Netherlands on a few kilometers between Maastricht and Belgium. It was formerly used by the
220:
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528:
There are many other voltage systems used for railway electrification systems around the world, and the
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270:
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3631:"Tiere & Pflanzen Vögel Gefährdungen Stromtod Mehr aus dieser Rubrik Vorlesen Die tödliche Gefahr"
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with their own motors) or both. Electricity is typically generated in large and relatively efficient
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Several countries have announced plans to electrify all or most of their railway network, including
1631:
Five European countries – Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Norway and Sweden – have standardized on 15
936:
V DC is used in Japan, Indonesia, Hong Kong (parts), Ireland, Australia (parts), France (also using
535:
The permissible range of voltages allowed for the standardised voltages is as stated in standards BS
4936:
2337: in (2.908 m) tall and the bottom of the well is 1 ft 2 in (0.36 m) above
2303:. Adding electric catenary to older structures may be an expensive cost of electrification projects
1965:
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1571:
used in DC locomotives for speed control were not needed in an AC locomotive: multiple taps on the
1285:
1099:
1032:
962:
72:
61:
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1879:, the highest in Europe, uses three-phase electric power between two overhead lines and the rails.
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systems as the traction motors accept this voltage without the weight of an on-board transformer.
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4528:
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1997:, leading to a higher total efficiency. Electricity for electric rail systems can also come from
1948:
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68:
3887:
To the Edge of the World: The Story of the Trans-Siberian Express, the World's Greatest Railroad
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Various railway electrification systems in the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries utilised
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3244:"Unlocking the full benefits of rail electrification – Future Rail | Issue 98 | September 2022"
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2378:
2374:
2358:. Another aspect that can raise the cost of electrification are the alterations or upgrades to
1932:
1542:
1411:
300:
In the 1920s and 1930s, many countries worldwide began to electrify their railways. In Europe,
127:
119:
115:
4037:
3122:
1871:
4826:
4806:
4572:
4324:
2620:
2565:
2113:
1731:
1192:
kV. The converters turned out to be unreliable and the experiment was curtailed. In 1970 the
1173:
route-km; equalling about €150,000 p.a.). The line chosen is one of the lines, totalling 6000
153:, suspended from poles or towers along the track or from structure or tunnel ceilings, or a
4776:
4492:
2555:
2320:
2268:
1978:
1969:
1403:
1395:
1387:
1383:
1028:
169:
146:
123:
8:
4851:
4623:
4319:
4293:
4273:
4238:
4011:
3980:
3203:
Switching the frequency in train electric power supply network from 16 2/3 Hz to 16,70 Hz
2625:
2610:
2595:
2292:
1048:
958:
950:
502:
458:
290:
111:
2426:
As of 2012, electrified tracks accounted for nearly one third of total tracks globally.
1246:
Most electrification systems use overhead wires, but third rail is an option up to 1,500
4959:
4896:
4882:
4836:
4766:
4298:
3273:
3024:Аржанников, Б.А.; Галкин, А.Г.; Бурков, А.Т.; Мансуров, В.А.; Набойченко, И.О. (2015),
2540:
2359:
1952:
1511:
1463:
1431:
1376:
1348:
1340:
1087:
1079:
976:, Washington). In Slovakia, there are two narrow-gauge lines in the High Tatras (one a
286:
177:
2966:"MVDC Railway Traction Power Systems; State-of-the Art, Opportunities, and Challenges"
1968:, transmission and fuel. This is partly offset by the weight of electrical equipment.
1955:, gave London trains and trams a power supply independent from the main power network.
1557:
Railways and electrical utilities use AC as opposed to DC for the same reason: to use
4964:
4709:
4105:
4078:
4058:
4015:
3990:
3890:
3860:
3843:
3809:
3790:
3767:
3206:
2987:
2762:
2550:
2342:
2252:
Service to underground stations where diesel trains cannot operate for safety reasons
165:
2429:
As of 2018, there were 72,110 km (44,810 mi) of railways electrified at 25
2017:') but, at higher speeds, this proves costly and impractical. Therefore, almost all
1343:
uses third and fourth rails beside and between the running rails for electrification
1180:
In the 1960s the Soviets experimented with boosting the overhead voltage from 3 to 6
4921:
4891:
4886:
4557:
4025:
4000:
3875:
2977:
2891:
2307:
2264:
More comfortable ride on multiple units as trains have no underfloor diesel engines
2055:
2044:
2018:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1876:
1678:
1217:
447:
282:
186:
135:
1356:, and a top-contact fourth rail is located centrally between the running rails at
5014:
4969:
4841:
4796:
4736:
4638:
4562:
4552:
3358:
3328:
3199:
Umstellung der Sollfrequenz im zentralen Bahnstromnetz von 16 2/3 Hz auf 16,70 Hz
3064:
2485:
2481:
2351:
2300:
2231:
2060:
1854:
1707:
Hz single-phase AC. Parts of the original electrified network still operate at 25
1577:
1399:
1239:
1213:
969:
882:
371:
228:
76:
3736:
2362:
needed for new traffic characteristics, and to protect signalling circuitry and
4831:
4816:
4741:
4714:
4643:
2407:
trains, besides renewing bridges over it, would normally mean need for special
2363:
2034:
1538:
1495:
1075:
907:
896:
591:
452:
360:
328:
181:
107:
103:
90:
45:
3503:
3289:
curves on p. 202 and charts of times spent in non-nominal regimes on pp. 10–12
1459:
1447:
1436:
4998:
4931:
4926:
4916:
4877:
4821:
4729:
4724:
4692:
4675:
4542:
4524:
4255:
4218:
4182:
3794:
3210:
3172:
3098:"MIT School of Engineering | » What's the difference between AC and DC?"
2991:
2526:
2512:
2397:
2243:
2227:
2101:
2052:
2002:
1415:
1130:
927:
476:
317:
278:
263:
235:
regularly operating electric double-stack cargo trains under overhead lines.
232:
224:
150:
26:
3847:
3148:"What is Alternating Current (AC)? | Basic AC Theory | Electronics Textbook"
3079:
2816:
1506:, is effected by one contact shoe each that slide on top of each one of the
4861:
4811:
4791:
4751:
4653:
4633:
4618:
4597:
4592:
4582:
4192:
4033:
3555:
3551:
2338:
2256:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1451:
1071:
1001:
205:
4137:
2714:
2311:
Many electrification systems using overhead lines do not allow sufficient
269:
In 1881, the first permanent railway electrification in the world was the
4786:
4746:
4658:
2560:
2005:, or other low-carbon sources, which do not emit pollution or emissions.
1901:
1572:
1558:
1419:
1372:
1251:
977:
887:
487:
331:. Today, many countries have extensive electrified railway networks with
301:
251:
247:
190:
173:
158:
139:
138:. The railway usually provides its own distribution lines, switches, and
37:
4943:
4909:
4904:
4856:
4781:
4756:
4697:
4663:
4547:
4223:
3050:, McGraw Hill, 1978 table 18-21. See also Gomez-Exposito p. 424, Fig. 3
3013:. UIC Workshop on Energy Efficiency. Rotterdam: UIC. 11 September 2019.
2982:
2965:
2393:
2154: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1782:
1229:
1126:
1036:
997:
989:
965:
946:
482:
194:
154:
80:
4484:
2261:
Easily accommodates kinetic energy brake reclaim using supercapacitors
1944:
4682:
4648:
4628:
4577:
4567:
4268:
2065:
1905:
1568:
1475:
464:
193:
which almost completely lacks oil or coal deposits but has plentiful
2129:
1849:
kV in relation to the rails, but in opposite phase so they are at 50
1730:
pioneered overhead electrification of its suburban lines in London,
1379:, whose more recent lines use an overhead catenary or a third rail.
1274:
4719:
4537:
3465:
3205:]. Elektrische Bahnen (in German). Oldenbourg-Industrieverlag.
3061:"[MétroPole] De la centrale électrique au rail de traction"
2316:
1585:
1546:
1479:
1471:
1467:
1185:
985:
891:
426:
417:
49:
41:
2683:"A nation of railway enthusiasts: a history of the Swiss railways"
2506:
2296:
2038:
engine switches must occur to make such connections or expensive
1482:' become, in a sense, a third and fourth rail which each provide
1005:
980:). In the Netherlands it is used on the main system, alongside 25
973:
954:
506:
442:
438:
Electrification systems are classified by three main parameters:
356:
316:
were among the early adopters of railway electrification. In the
3985:. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; London: General Electric Company;
3708:"On track to full electrification: Low carbon railways in India"
1335:
149:
running along the track that usually takes one of two forms: an
4801:
4126:
2014:
532:
covers both standard voltage and non-standard voltage systems.
352:
309:
305:
274:
259:
255:
3905:"Electrification of Indian Railways to Lower Carbon Footprint"
3824:"Network Rail A Guide to Overhead Electrification Revision 10"
3410:"Cumbernauld may be on track for railway line electrification"
3023:
1616:
434:
kV, as do high power lines in the former Soviet Union as well.
145:
Power is supplied to moving trains with a (nearly) continuous
3491:
Railway electrification in the Soviet Union#Energy-Efficiency
2411:
violating standardisation and requiring custom made vehicles.
1824:
Hz network), western Japan, South Korea and Taiwan; and at 50
1491:
1474:. Since the tyres do not conduct the return current, the two
1444:
1440:
1368:
1102:(Bardhaman Main Line) in India, before it was converted to 25
922:
overhead lines, in common with many other modern tram systems
348:
344:
340:
313:
201:
in part in reaction to supply issues during both World Wars.
1265:
List of railway electrification systems § DC, four-rail
1220:). The experiments ended in 1995 due to the end of funding.
3803:
2842:"A detour to success: The world's first electric streetcar"
2415:
1951:
in a poster from 1910. This private power station, used by
1122:
227:
but it is no longer universally true as of 2022, with both
86:
2930:
Railway applications – Supply voltages of traction systems
2520:
2345:
20 ft 3 in (6.17 m) including the well car.
2249:
Independence of running costs from fluctuating fuel prices
1681:
used to generate some of this power from the grid supply.
1486:, so at least electrically it is a four-rail system. Each
1462:
in France operate on a four-rail power system. The trains
1238:
A bottom-contact third rail electrification system on the
1204:
system could be achieved with DC voltage between 11 and 16
3301:"Gigaom GE to Crank Up Gas Power Plants Like Jet Engines"
2959:
2957:
2955:
2917:
Railway applications. Supply voltages of traction systems
1777:
525:
DC may be used with either third rail or overhead lines.
1196:
carried out calculations for railway electrification at
16:
Conversion of railways to use electricity for propulsion
3048:
Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers 11th Edition
2789:"Railway electrification is expected to grow worldwide"
2763:"Aerodynamic Effects Caused by Trains Entering Tunnels"
2026:
electrified due to relatively low frequency of trains.
324:
was one of the first major railways to be electrified.
3691:"Status of Railway Electrification (as on 01.04.2023)"
2952:
2462:
Hz and 20,440 km (12,700 mi) electrified at
3173:"[IRFCA] Electric Loco Tap-changer Operation"
1194:
Ural Electromechanical Institute of Railway Engineers
2502:
1936:
electrochemical corrosion due to stray DC currents.
1833:
Hz, see above). Most systems like this operate at 25
1820:
Hz in North America (excluding the aforementioned 25
1592:
1145:
voltage would make the transmission more efficient.
3007:
Future DC railway electrification system Go for 9kV
2441:; 32,940 km (20,470 mi) electrified at 15
2437:Hz; 68,890 km (42,810 mi) electrified at
1567:An early advantage of AC is that the power-wasting
157:
mounted at track level and contacted by a sliding "
3233:Сидоров 1988 pp. 103–104, Сидоров 1980 pp. 122–123
2267:Somewhat higher energy efficiency in part due to
1860:
1188:-based converters to lower the supply voltage to 3
1027:trans-Pennine route (now closed); the system used
281:electrification was first applied successfully by
3352:"UK Network Rail electrification strategy report"
2591:List of tram systems by gauge and electrification
1360:, which combine to provide a traction voltage of
1149:conducted a case study for the conversion of the
204:Disadvantages of electric traction include: high
4996:
2475:List of countries by rail transport network size
1989:operate at high efficiency, and can be used for
1746:via Balham and West Norwood opened in May 1911.
1418:system. While part of the SkyTrain network, the
1200:, showing that the equivalent loss levels for a
164:In comparison to the principal alternative, the
2377:of a moving train to become entangled with the
1406:use side-contact fourth-rail systems for their
168:, electric railways offer substantially better
3602:
2963:
2737:"Spotlight on double-stack container movement"
2089:
1841:kV sections exist in the United States, and 20
4500:
4153:
4014:(1924). Kaempffert, Waldemar Bernhard (ed.).
3404:
3402:
3322:FlexEfficiency* 50 Combined Cycle Power Plant
2606:Railroad electrification in the United States
1964:Electric trains need not carry the weight of
1895:
1715:kV, while others were converted to 12.5 or 25
3982:Men and volts; the story of General Electric
3605:"Body discovery linked to rail cables theft"
3371:
3369:
3367:
2581:Initial Electrification Experiments NY NH HR
2422:List of countries by railway electrification
2238:Reduced power loss at higher altitudes (for
1933:separate generation and distribution network
1788:1. Supply transformer (center-tapped output)
4167:
1857:equalize the tension at regular intervals.
1303:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
4507:
4493:
4160:
4146:
3805:Overhead Line Electrification for Railways
3399:
3030:Бюллетень Результатов Научных Исследований
2964:Simiyu, Patrobers; Davidson, I.E. (2021).
1689:New York, New Haven, and Hartford Railroad
339:of standard lines in the world, including
3596:
3508:
3364:
3361:Table 3.3, p. 31. Retrieved on 4 May 2010
2981:
2822:. International Energy Agency. p. 18
2654:, IPC Transport Press Ltd. 1972, pp. 8-33
2214:Learn how and when to remove this message
1939:
1323:Learn how and when to remove this message
1084:Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad
322:New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad
3570:
3123:"Alternating current – Energy Education"
2646:
2644:
2642:
2416:Railway electrification around the world
2306:
2286:
1943:
1870:
1781:
1728:London, Brighton and South Coast Railway
1610:
1435:
1334:
1233:
1165:route-km) and lower the losses (saving 2
901:
881:
512:
370:
4514:
4017:A Popular History of American Invention
3978:
3877:The Trans-Siberian Railway Encyclopedia
3544:
2715:"非人狂想屋 | 你的火车发源地 » HXD1B牵引双层集装箱列车"
2586:List of railway electrification systems
1425:
1184:kV. DC rolling stock was equipped with
530:list of railway electrification systems
4997:
4032:
4010:
3958:(3rd ed.). London: Ian Allan Ltd.
3884:
3761:
3196:
2811:
2809:
2786:
1867:Three-phase AC railway electrification
1778:Standard frequency alternating current
1552:
1470:made of steel and, in some places, of
1153:(France), currently electrified at 1.5
4488:
4141:
3953:
3578:"Police probe cable theft death link"
2639:
1063:Hz, which is the countrywide system.
3854:
3837:
3628:
3298:
2652:Future Railways and Guided Transport
2152:adding citations to reliable sources
2123:
2071:
1959:
1786:Schema of 2×25 kV power supply:
1603:Amtrak's 25 Hz traction power system
1301:adding citations to reliable sources
1268:
1136:
4132:Electrically-powered rail transport
3080:"Truck (bogie) – Visual Dictionary"
2806:
1766:. The lines were electrified at 6.7
1607:SEPTA's 25 Hz traction power system
1454:is located between the rubber tyres
509:to allow flexibility in operation.
375:Electrification systems in Europe:
13:
4042:. Vol. 17. London; New York:
3873:
3801:
3755:
3735:. 4 September 2015. Archived from
2576:History of the electric locomotive
2110:Western Dedicated Freight Corridor
1098:AC) in the United States, and the
940:25 kV 50 Hz AC
134:, but most purchase power from an
14:
5026:
4119:
4020:. Vol. 1. London; New York:
3783:Permanent Way Institution Journal
3781:"On board with electrification".
3766:. Simmons-Boardman Books, Omaha.
3516:"Committee Meeting – Spring 2009"
3416:. 14 January 2009. Archived from
2271:and less power lost when "idling"
2029:
1593:Low-frequency alternating current
1177:km, that are in need of renewal.
1000:. In Portugal, it is used in the
877:
872:
366:
293:in the United States in 1895–96.
34:Mantes-la-Jolie–Cherbourg railway
4228:
4125:
3979:Hammond, John Winthrop (2011) .
3077:
3063:. 10 August 2004. Archived from
3046:Donald G. Fink, H. Wayne Beatty
2519:
2505:
2282:
2128:
2080:
1812:25 kV AC railway electrification
1697:Philadelphia and Reading Railway
1599:15 kV AC railway electrification
1498:. A side sliding (side running)
1273:
1047:AC. It is now only used for the
945:, the Netherlands, New Zealand (
60:
25:
4469:Railway electrification systems
3954:Moody, G T (1960). "Part One".
3725:
3700:
3683:
3651:
3622:
3603:Sarah Saunders (28 June 2012).
3497:
3483:
3458:
3432:
3377:"Start Slow With Bullet Trains"
3345:
3333:
3315:
3292:
3287:Brake specific fuel consumption
3279:
3270:Brake specific fuel consumption
3261:
3236:
3227:
3217:
3190:
3165:
3140:
3115:
3090:
3071:
3053:
3040:
3017:
2998:
2935:
2922:
2909:
2884:
2859:
2834:
2139:needs additional citations for
2008:
1861:Three-phase alternating current
1627:Hz AC overhead lines in Austria
1466:which roll on a pair of narrow
1367:. The same system was used for
1004:and in Denmark on the suburban
890:in France is electrified using
505:can switch to different supply
110:. Electric railways use either
3974:(Jane's) Urban Transit Systems
2780:
2755:
2729:
2707:
2693:
2675:
2665:"A train ride through history"
2657:
2536:Battery electric multiple unit
2108:Such installations are in the
1890:
1711:Hz, with voltage boosted to 12
1478:provided outside the running '
1371:'s earliest underground line,
1258:
1:
3764:Amtrak: Past, Present, Future
3340:Railway Gazette International
2632:
2119:
1223:
1151:Bordeaux-Hendaye railway line
214:electro-diesel multiple units
4474:Tram electrification systems
4289:Electro-diesel multiple unit
3639:(in German). Berlin, Germany
3552:"Network Rail – Cable Theft"
3523:Royal Meteorological Society
3383:. 2 May 2011. Archived from
3299:Wang, Ucilia (25 May 2011).
1738:being opened to traffic on 1
1549:operate in the same manner.
1023:DC was used in 1954 for the
1015:In the United Kingdom, 1,500
7:
3989:; Literary Licensing, LLC.
3525:(rmets.org). Archived from
2787:pamela (19 February 2021).
2498:
2096:Double-stack rail transport
2090:Double-stack rail transport
1742:December 1909. Victoria to
1412:linear induction propulsion
1208:kV. In the 1980s and 1990s
221:double-stack rail transport
79:, and is electrified using
44:, and is electrified using
10:
5031:
4715:Transfer table (traverser)
4244:Conduit current collection
4051:
3987:J. B. Lippincott & Co.
3947:
3942:
3889:. London: Atlantic Books.
3885:Wolmar, Christian (2013).
3857:Electric Euston to Glasgow
2546:Conduit current collection
2419:
2093:
1987:fossil fuel power stations
1896:AC versus DC for mainlines
1864:
1809:
1596:
1429:
1262:
1227:
1129:networks, as well as some
925:
271:Gross-Lichterfelde Tramway
241:
223:regarding clearances with
210:Electro-diesel locomotives
4952:
4870:
4765:
4703:ground-level power supply
4611:
4523:
4461:
4333:
4307:
4284:Electro-diesel locomotive
4264:Railway electric traction
4254:
4234:Ground-level power supply
4206:
4175:
4092:Железнодорожный транспорт
2571:Ground-level power supply
2163:"Railway electrification"
1800:7. Locomotive transformer
555:
552:
493:Ground-level power supply
4094:(magazine), #12, 1974 p.
3152:www.allaboutcircuits.com
2601:Overhead conductor rails
1582:variable frequency drive
1212:was being tested on the
1100:Kolkata suburban railway
578:
573:
570:
565:
560:
73:London metropolitan area
71:in England connects the
5005:Electric rail transport
4688:Railway electrification
4214:Railway electrification
4169:Railway electrification
4044:Charles Scribner's Sons
4022:Charles Scribner's Sons
3928:Siemens Mobility Global
3712:www.rapidtransition.org
3558:(www.networkrail.co.uk)
2817:"Railway Handbook 2015"
2354:have to be altered for
1949:Lots Road Power Station
1113:DC voltages between 600
910:in Angers, France uses
553:Electrification system
180:that turns the train's
120:electric multiple units
114:(hauling passengers or
100:Railway electrification
69:South Eastern Main Line
4315:Traction power network
4279:Electric multiple unit
3924:"Rail Electrification"
3909:www.investindia.gov.in
3762:Wilner, Frank (2012).
3327:24 August 2012 at the
2616:Traction current pylon
2493:Trans-Siberian Railway
2346:
2304:
1956:
1940:Electric versus diesel
1880:
1816:AC power is used at 60
1807:
1764:Sutton railway station
1628:
1455:
1344:
1243:
953:), the United States (
923:
899:
435:
106:for the propulsion of
4827:Platform screen doors
4325:Traction powerstation
4012:Martin, T. Commerford
3842:. London: Ian Allan.
3444:Bromsgrove Advertiser
2621:Traction powerstation
2310:
2290:
1947:
1874:
1785:
1693:Pennsylvania Railroad
1614:
1510:. This and all other
1450:vehicle. The lateral
1439:
1338:
1237:
1039:, now converted to 25
949:), Singapore (on the
905:
885:
513:Standardised voltages
380: Non-electrified
374:
4777:Anti-trespass panels
4134:at Wikimedia Commons
3357:22 June 2013 at the
2932:, 3rd edition (2007)
2717:(in Chinese (China))
2687:House of Switzerland
2650:P. M. Kalla-Bishop,
2556:Dual electrification
2269:regenerative braking
2148:improve this article
1979:regenerative braking
1970:Regenerative braking
1853:kV from each other;
1464:move on rubber tyres
1426:Rubber-tyred systems
1297:improve this section
1216:near Leningrad (now
1169:GWh per year per 100
1029:regenerative braking
503:electric locomotives
178:regenerative braking
112:electric locomotives
4624:Classification yard
4320:Traction substation
4274:Electric locomotive
4239:Stud contact system
3966:422–431. (suggests
3855:Nock, O.S. (1974).
3838:Nock, O.S. (1965).
3789:(1). January 2021.
3739:on 4 September 2015
3248:rail.nridigital.com
3197:Linder, C. (2002).
3084:www.infovisual.info
2626:Traction substation
2611:Stud contact system
2596:Multi-system (rail)
2433:kV, either 50 or 60
2293:Royal Border Bridge
1553:Alternating current
1512:rubber-tyred metros
1458:A few lines of the
1414:system used on the
1121:V are used by most
1049:Tyne and Wear Metro
951:North East MRT line
459:Alternating current
291:Baltimore Belt Line
191:Swiss confederation
128:generating stations
118:in separate cars),
36:in France connects
4883:Motive power depot
4837:Signalling control
4299:Rubber-tyred metro
4176:Current collectors
3387:on 28 January 2012
3274:Heat of combustion
3127:energyeducation.ca
3067:on 10 August 2004.
2983:10.3390/en14144156
2976:(14). MDPI: 4156.
2867:"Frank J. Sprague"
2541:Battery locomotive
2471:Swiss rail network
2360:railway signalling
2347:
2305:
2301:protected monument
2102:height restriction
1957:
1953:London Underground
1881:
1808:
1804:9. Autotransformer
1629:
1456:
1432:Rubber-tyred metro
1404:Vancouver SkyTrain
1384:earthed (grounded)
1349:London Underground
1345:
1341:London Underground
1244:
1088:New Jersey Transit
1080:Harlowton, Montana
924:
900:
436:
297:longer distances.
287:Richmond, Virginia
132:transmission lines
4992:
4991:
4710:Railway turntable
4531:
4482:
4481:
4130:Media related to
4112:. 1980 (4th ed.).
4110:978-5-277-00191-2
4083:978-5-277-01046-4
4039:Sidney Howe Short
3996:978-1-258-03284-5
3956:Southern Electric
3815:978-0-903489-15-7
3466:"Rail – Analysis"
2743:. 14 October 2007
2566:Fifth rail system
2551:Current collector
2323:may be 9 ft
2224:
2223:
2216:
2198:
2072:Maintenance costs
2040:dual mode engines
2019:high speed trains
1960:Energy efficiency
1837:kV, although 12.5
1679:rotary converters
1333:
1332:
1325:
1137:Medium-voltage DC
1090:, converted to 25
1051:. In India, 1,500
961:district and the
870:
869:
170:energy efficiency
5022:
4887:Railway workshop
4603:Transition curve
4573:Fastening system
4527:
4509:
4502:
4495:
4486:
4485:
4162:
4155:
4148:
4139:
4138:
4129:
4097:
4047:
4029:
4026:Internet Archive
4007:
4001:Internet Archive
3969:
3965:
3959:
3938:
3936:
3934:
3919:
3917:
3915:
3900:
3881:
3874:Walker, Robert.
3870:
3851:
3834:
3833:. February 2015.
3828:
3819:
3808:(6th ed.).
3798:
3797:– via PWI.
3777:
3773:978-0911382-59-4
3749:
3748:
3746:
3744:
3729:
3723:
3722:
3720:
3718:
3704:
3698:
3697:
3695:
3687:
3681:
3680:
3678:
3676:
3670:
3664:. Archived from
3663:
3655:
3649:
3648:
3646:
3644:
3629:Nachmann, Lars.
3626:
3620:
3619:
3617:
3615:
3600:
3594:
3593:
3591:
3589:
3574:
3568:
3567:
3565:
3563:
3548:
3542:
3541:
3539:
3537:
3531:
3520:
3512:
3506:
3501:
3495:
3487:
3481:
3480:
3478:
3476:
3462:
3456:
3455:
3453:
3451:
3446:. 8 January 2008
3436:
3430:
3429:
3427:
3425:
3420:on 19 April 2013
3414:Cumbernauld News
3406:
3397:
3396:
3394:
3392:
3373:
3362:
3349:
3343:
3337:
3331:
3319:
3313:
3312:
3310:
3308:
3296:
3290:
3283:
3277:
3265:
3259:
3258:
3256:
3254:
3240:
3234:
3231:
3225:
3221:
3215:
3214:
3194:
3188:
3187:
3185:
3183:
3169:
3163:
3162:
3160:
3158:
3144:
3138:
3137:
3135:
3133:
3119:
3113:
3112:
3110:
3108:
3094:
3088:
3087:
3075:
3069:
3068:
3057:
3051:
3044:
3038:
3037:
3021:
3015:
3014:
3012:
3002:
2996:
2995:
2985:
2961:
2950:
2948:
2944:
2939:
2933:
2926:
2920:
2913:
2907:
2906:
2904:
2902:
2888:
2882:
2881:
2879:
2877:
2871:Encyclopedia.com
2863:
2857:
2856:
2854:
2852:
2838:
2832:
2831:
2829:
2827:
2821:
2813:
2804:
2803:
2801:
2799:
2784:
2778:
2777:
2775:
2773:
2759:
2753:
2752:
2750:
2748:
2733:
2727:
2726:
2724:
2722:
2711:
2705:
2704:
2697:
2691:
2690:
2679:
2673:
2672:
2669:SWI swissinfo.ch
2661:
2655:
2648:
2529:
2524:
2523:
2515:
2510:
2509:
2469:As of 2023, the
2465:
2461:
2458:
2457:
2453:
2450:
2444:
2440:
2436:
2432:
2387:
2336:
2335:
2331:
2328:
2317:double-stack car
2219:
2212:
2208:
2205:
2199:
2197:
2156:
2132:
2124:
2061:push-pull trains
2045:double-stack car
1999:renewable energy
1995:district cooling
1991:district heating
1930:
1877:Jungfrau Railway
1855:autotransformers
1852:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1806:10. Running rail
1802:8. Overhead line
1792:3. Overhead line
1773:
1769:
1756:Southern Railway
1741:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1676:
1672:
1669:
1668:
1664:
1661:
1655:
1651:
1648:
1647:
1643:
1640:
1634:
1626:
1622:
1541:
1535:
1533:
1532:
1528:
1525:
1517:
1485:
1409:
1366:
1364:
1359:
1355:
1328:
1321:
1317:
1314:
1308:
1277:
1269:
1249:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1191:
1183:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1120:
1116:
1109:
1105:
1097:
1093:
1069:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1046:
1042:
1022:
1018:
1011:
995:
983:
963:South Shore Line
944:
941:
935:
921:
919:
915:
894:
865:
858:
851:
844:
837:
829:
823:
819:
809:
802:
795:
788:
781:
773:
769:
759:
752:
745:
738:
731:
724:
715:
708:
701:
694:
687:
680:
671:
664:
657:
650:
643:
636:
627:
620:
613:
606:
599:
589:
550:
549:
546:
542:
538:
524:
520:
433:
424:
415:
409:
405:
399:
395:
389:
385:
379:
338:
336:
187:renewable energy
136:electric utility
89:
64:
52:
29:
5030:
5029:
5025:
5024:
5023:
5021:
5020:
5019:
4995:
4994:
4993:
4988:
4948:
4866:
4842:Structure gauge
4797:Defect detector
4769:
4761:
4607:
4563:Clip and scotch
4553:Breather switch
4519:
4513:
4483:
4478:
4457:
4329:
4303:
4250:
4202:
4171:
4166:
4122:
4095:
4054:
3997:
3967:
3963:
3950:
3945:
3932:
3930:
3922:
3913:
3911:
3903:
3897:
3867:
3826:
3822:
3816:
3802:Keenor, Garry.
3780:
3774:
3758:
3756:Further reading
3753:
3752:
3742:
3740:
3731:
3730:
3726:
3716:
3714:
3706:
3705:
3701:
3693:
3689:
3688:
3684:
3674:
3672:
3668:
3661:
3657:
3656:
3652:
3642:
3640:
3636:Naturschutzbund
3627:
3623:
3613:
3611:
3601:
3597:
3587:
3585:
3576:
3575:
3571:
3561:
3559:
3550:
3549:
3545:
3535:
3533:
3532:on 4 March 2016
3529:
3518:
3514:
3513:
3509:
3502:
3498:
3488:
3484:
3474:
3472:
3464:
3463:
3459:
3449:
3447:
3440:"Electric Idea"
3438:
3437:
3433:
3423:
3421:
3408:
3407:
3400:
3390:
3388:
3375:
3374:
3365:
3359:Wayback Machine
3350:
3346:
3338:
3334:
3329:Wayback Machine
3320:
3316:
3306:
3304:
3297:
3293:
3284:
3280:
3266:
3262:
3252:
3250:
3242:
3241:
3237:
3232:
3228:
3222:
3218:
3195:
3191:
3181:
3179:
3171:
3170:
3166:
3156:
3154:
3146:
3145:
3141:
3131:
3129:
3121:
3120:
3116:
3106:
3104:
3102:Mit Engineering
3096:
3095:
3091:
3078:Dery, Bernard.
3076:
3072:
3059:
3058:
3054:
3045:
3041:
3022:
3018:
3010:
3004:
3003:
2999:
2962:
2953:
2946:
2942:
2940:
2936:
2927:
2923:
2914:
2910:
2900:
2898:
2892:"Frank Sprague"
2890:
2889:
2885:
2875:
2873:
2865:
2864:
2860:
2850:
2848:
2840:
2839:
2835:
2825:
2823:
2819:
2815:
2814:
2807:
2797:
2795:
2785:
2781:
2771:
2769:
2761:
2760:
2756:
2746:
2744:
2735:
2734:
2730:
2720:
2718:
2713:
2712:
2708:
2703:. 12 June 2020.
2699:
2698:
2694:
2681:
2680:
2676:
2663:
2662:
2658:
2649:
2640:
2635:
2630:
2525:
2518:
2511:
2504:
2501:
2486:Israel Railways
2482:Indian Railways
2463:
2459:
2455:
2451:
2448:
2446:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2430:
2424:
2418:
2385:
2333:
2329:
2326:
2324:
2285:
2232:noise pollution
2220:
2209:
2203:
2200:
2157:
2155:
2145:
2133:
2122:
2098:
2092:
2083:
2074:
2035:Network effects
2032:
2011:
1962:
1942:
1918:
1898:
1893:
1869:
1863:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1825:
1821:
1817:
1814:
1805:
1803:
1801:
1799:
1797:
1795:
1794:4. Running rail
1793:
1791:
1790:2. Power supply
1789:
1787:
1780:
1771:
1767:
1739:
1726:In the UK, the
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1659:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1638:
1636:
1632:
1624:
1620:
1609:
1597:Main articles:
1595:
1578:induction motor
1555:
1537:
1530:
1526:
1523:
1521:
1520:4 ft
1519:
1515:
1483:
1434:
1428:
1407:
1400:Millennium Line
1362:
1361:
1357:
1353:
1329:
1318:
1312:
1309:
1294:
1278:
1267:
1261:
1247:
1240:Bucharest Metro
1232:
1226:
1214:October Railway
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1189:
1181:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1139:
1118:
1114:
1107:
1103:
1095:
1091:
1067:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1044:
1040:
1020:
1016:
1009:
993:
981:
970:Link light rail
939:
937:
933:
930:
917:
913:
911:
892:
880:
875:
863:
856:
849:
842:
835:
827:
825:
821:
817:
807:
800:
793:
786:
779:
771:
767:
757:
750:
743:
736:
729:
722:
713:
706:
699:
692:
685:
678:
669:
662:
655:
648:
641:
634:
625:
618:
611:
604:
597:
587:
580:
575:
567:
562:
544:
540:
536:
522:
518:
515:
473:Contact system
431:
429:
422:
420:
413:
411:
407:
403:
401:
397:
393:
391:
387:
383:
381:
377:
369:
334:
332:
244:
229:Indian Railways
97:
96:
95:
94:
93:
84:
77:Strait of Dover
65:
56:
55:
54:
50:
30:
17:
12:
11:
5:
5028:
5018:
5017:
5012:
5010:Rail transport
5007:
4990:
4989:
4987:
4986:
4985:
4984:
4983:
4982:
4967:
4962:
4956:
4954:
4950:
4949:
4947:
4946:
4941:
4940:
4939:
4934:
4929:
4924:
4914:
4913:
4912:
4907:
4899:
4894:
4889:
4880:
4874:
4872:
4868:
4867:
4865:
4864:
4859:
4854:
4849:
4844:
4839:
4834:
4832:Railway signal
4829:
4824:
4819:
4817:Level crossing
4814:
4809:
4804:
4799:
4794:
4789:
4784:
4779:
4773:
4771:
4763:
4762:
4760:
4759:
4754:
4749:
4744:
4742:Track geometry
4739:
4734:
4733:
4732:
4722:
4717:
4712:
4707:
4706:
4705:
4700:
4695:
4693:overhead lines
4685:
4680:
4679:
4678:
4668:
4667:
4666:
4656:
4651:
4646:
4644:Gauntlet track
4641:
4636:
4631:
4626:
4621:
4615:
4613:
4609:
4608:
4606:
4605:
4600:
4595:
4590:
4588:Minimum radius
4585:
4580:
4575:
4570:
4565:
4560:
4555:
4550:
4545:
4540:
4534:
4532:
4521:
4520:
4517:infrastructure
4512:
4511:
4504:
4497:
4489:
4480:
4479:
4477:
4476:
4471:
4465:
4463:
4459:
4458:
4456:
4455:
4450:
4448:United Kingdom
4445:
4440:
4435:
4430:
4425:
4420:
4415:
4410:
4409:
4408:
4398:
4393:
4388:
4383:
4378:
4373:
4368:
4363:
4358:
4353:
4348:
4343:
4337:
4335:
4331:
4330:
4328:
4327:
4322:
4317:
4311:
4309:
4305:
4304:
4302:
4301:
4296:
4291:
4286:
4281:
4276:
4271:
4266:
4260:
4258:
4252:
4251:
4249:
4248:
4247:
4246:
4241:
4231:
4226:
4221:
4216:
4210:
4208:
4207:Power delivery
4204:
4203:
4201:
4200:
4195:
4190:
4185:
4179:
4177:
4173:
4172:
4165:
4164:
4157:
4150:
4142:
4136:
4135:
4121:
4120:External links
4118:
4117:
4116:
4113:
4102:
4099:
4088:
4085:
4075:
4072:
4069:
4066:
4053:
4050:
4049:
4048:
4030:
4008:
3995:
3976:
3971:
3960:
3949:
3946:
3944:
3941:
3940:
3939:
3920:
3901:
3896:978-0857890375
3895:
3882:
3871:
3866:978-0711005303
3865:
3852:
3835:
3820:
3814:
3799:
3778:
3772:
3757:
3754:
3751:
3750:
3724:
3699:
3682:
3671:on 6 June 2020
3659:"2019 年铁道统计公报"
3650:
3621:
3595:
3584:. 27 June 2012
3569:
3543:
3507:
3496:
3482:
3457:
3431:
3398:
3363:
3344:
3332:
3314:
3291:
3278:
3260:
3235:
3226:
3216:
3189:
3164:
3139:
3114:
3089:
3070:
3052:
3039:
3032:(in Russian),
3016:
2997:
2951:
2934:
2921:
2908:
2883:
2858:
2846:Siemens Global
2833:
2805:
2779:
2754:
2728:
2706:
2692:
2674:
2656:
2637:
2636:
2634:
2631:
2629:
2628:
2623:
2618:
2613:
2608:
2603:
2598:
2593:
2588:
2583:
2578:
2573:
2568:
2563:
2558:
2553:
2548:
2543:
2538:
2532:
2531:
2530:
2516:
2500:
2497:
2417:
2414:
2413:
2412:
2404:
2401:
2390:
2382:
2371:
2367:
2364:track circuits
2343:overall height
2284:
2281:
2280:
2279:
2275:
2272:
2265:
2262:
2259:
2253:
2250:
2247:
2228:multiple units
2222:
2221:
2136:
2134:
2127:
2121:
2118:
2091:
2088:
2082:
2079:
2073:
2070:
2053:multiple units
2031:
2030:Network effect
2028:
2010:
2007:
1993:or to produce
1961:
1958:
1941:
1938:
1897:
1894:
1892:
1889:
1865:Main article:
1862:
1859:
1810:Main article:
1796:5. Feeder line
1779:
1776:
1760:Coulsdon North
1744:Crystal Palace
1619:train using 15
1594:
1591:
1554:
1551:
1539:standard gauge
1496:traction motor
1430:Main article:
1427:
1424:
1358:−210 V DC
1354:+420 V DC
1331:
1330:
1281:
1279:
1272:
1260:
1257:
1228:Main article:
1225:
1222:
1138:
1135:
1076:Milwaukee Road
959:Metra Electric
926:Main article:
908:Angers tramway
897:overhead lines
879:
878:Overhead lines
876:
874:
873:Direct current
871:
868:
867:
860:
853:
846:
839:
832:
830:Hz (IEC 60850)
824:Hz (EN 50163)
812:
811:
804:
797:
790:
783:
776:
762:
761:
754:
747:
740:
733:
726:
718:
717:
710:
703:
696:
689:
682:
674:
673:
666:
659:
652:
645:
638:
630:
629:
622:
615:
608:
601:
594:
583:
582:
577:
572:
569:
564:
558:
557:
554:
514:
511:
498:
497:
496:
495:
490:
485:
480:
477:Overhead lines
471:
470:
469:
468:
467:
456:
453:Direct current
445:
421:
412:
402:
392:
382:
376:
368:
367:Classification
365:
361:United Kingdom
243:
240:
225:overhead lines
182:kinetic energy
124:passenger cars
108:rail transport
104:electric power
102:is the use of
66:
59:
58:
57:
51:25 kV AC 50 Hz
46:overhead lines
31:
24:
23:
22:
21:
20:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5027:
5016:
5013:
5011:
5008:
5006:
5003:
5002:
5000:
4981:
4978:
4977:
4976:
4973:
4972:
4971:
4968:
4966:
4963:
4961:
4958:
4957:
4955:
4951:
4945:
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4933:
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4923:
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4911:
4908:
4906:
4903:
4902:
4900:
4898:
4895:
4893:
4890:
4888:
4884:
4881:
4879:
4878:Coaling tower
4876:
4875:
4873:
4869:
4863:
4860:
4858:
4855:
4853:
4850:
4848:
4847:Signal bridge
4845:
4843:
4840:
4838:
4835:
4833:
4830:
4828:
4825:
4823:
4822:Loading gauge
4820:
4818:
4815:
4813:
4810:
4808:
4805:
4803:
4800:
4798:
4795:
4793:
4790:
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4780:
4778:
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4774:
4772:
4768:
4764:
4758:
4755:
4753:
4750:
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4745:
4743:
4740:
4738:
4735:
4731:
4730:refuge siding
4728:
4727:
4726:
4723:
4721:
4718:
4716:
4713:
4711:
4708:
4704:
4701:
4699:
4696:
4694:
4691:
4690:
4689:
4686:
4684:
4681:
4677:
4676:tramway track
4674:
4673:
4672:
4669:
4665:
4662:
4661:
4660:
4657:
4655:
4652:
4650:
4647:
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4640:
4637:
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4627:
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4610:
4604:
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4579:
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4536:
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4533:
4530:
4526:
4522:
4518:
4510:
4505:
4503:
4498:
4496:
4491:
4490:
4487:
4475:
4472:
4470:
4467:
4466:
4464:
4460:
4454:
4453:United States
4451:
4449:
4446:
4444:
4441:
4439:
4436:
4434:
4431:
4429:
4426:
4424:
4421:
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4411:
4407:
4404:
4403:
4402:
4399:
4397:
4394:
4392:
4389:
4387:
4384:
4382:
4379:
4377:
4374:
4372:
4369:
4367:
4364:
4362:
4359:
4357:
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4349:
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4344:
4342:
4339:
4338:
4336:
4332:
4326:
4323:
4321:
4318:
4316:
4313:
4312:
4310:
4308:Power network
4306:
4300:
4297:
4295:
4292:
4290:
4287:
4285:
4282:
4280:
4277:
4275:
4272:
4270:
4267:
4265:
4262:
4261:
4259:
4257:
4256:Rolling stock
4253:
4245:
4242:
4240:
4237:
4236:
4235:
4232:
4230:
4227:
4225:
4222:
4220:
4219:Overhead line
4217:
4215:
4212:
4211:
4209:
4205:
4199:
4196:
4194:
4191:
4189:
4186:
4184:
4183:Bow collector
4181:
4180:
4178:
4174:
4170:
4163:
4158:
4156:
4151:
4149:
4144:
4143:
4140:
4133:
4128:
4124:
4123:
4114:
4111:
4107:
4103:
4100:
4093:
4089:
4086:
4084:
4080:
4076:
4073:
4070:
4067:
4064:
4063:5-88998-425-X
4060:
4056:
4055:
4045:
4041:
4040:
4035:
4034:Malone, Dumas
4031:
4027:
4023:
4019:
4018:
4013:
4009:
4006:
4002:
3998:
3992:
3988:
3984:
3983:
3977:
3975:
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3961:
3957:
3952:
3951:
3929:
3925:
3921:
3910:
3906:
3902:
3898:
3892:
3888:
3883:
3879:
3878:
3872:
3868:
3862:
3859:. Ian Allan.
3858:
3853:
3849:
3845:
3841:
3836:
3832:
3825:
3821:
3817:
3811:
3807:
3806:
3800:
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3606:
3599:
3583:
3579:
3573:
3557:
3553:
3547:
3528:
3524:
3517:
3511:
3504:
3500:
3492:
3486:
3471:
3467:
3461:
3445:
3441:
3435:
3419:
3415:
3411:
3405:
3403:
3386:
3382:
3381:Miller-McCune
3378:
3372:
3370:
3368:
3360:
3356:
3353:
3348:
3341:
3336:
3330:
3326:
3323:
3318:
3302:
3295:
3288:
3282:
3275:
3271:
3264:
3249:
3245:
3239:
3230:
3220:
3212:
3208:
3204:
3200:
3193:
3178:
3177:www.irfca.org
3174:
3168:
3153:
3149:
3143:
3128:
3124:
3118:
3103:
3099:
3093:
3085:
3081:
3074:
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3062:
3056:
3049:
3043:
3035:
3031:
3027:
3020:
3009:
3008:
3001:
2993:
2989:
2984:
2979:
2975:
2971:
2967:
2960:
2958:
2956:
2938:
2931:
2925:
2918:
2912:
2897:
2893:
2887:
2872:
2868:
2862:
2847:
2843:
2837:
2818:
2812:
2810:
2794:
2790:
2783:
2768:
2764:
2758:
2742:
2741:@businessline
2738:
2732:
2716:
2710:
2702:
2696:
2688:
2684:
2678:
2670:
2666:
2660:
2653:
2647:
2645:
2643:
2638:
2627:
2624:
2622:
2619:
2617:
2614:
2612:
2609:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2594:
2592:
2589:
2587:
2584:
2582:
2579:
2577:
2574:
2572:
2569:
2567:
2564:
2562:
2559:
2557:
2554:
2552:
2549:
2547:
2544:
2542:
2539:
2537:
2534:
2533:
2528:
2527:Trains portal
2522:
2517:
2514:
2513:Energy portal
2508:
2503:
2496:
2494:
2489:
2487:
2483:
2478:
2476:
2472:
2467:
2427:
2423:
2410:
2405:
2402:
2399:
2398:overhead line
2395:
2391:
2383:
2380:
2376:
2372:
2368:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2348:
2344:
2341:, making the
2340:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2309:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2289:
2283:Disadvantages
2276:
2273:
2270:
2266:
2263:
2260:
2258:
2254:
2251:
2248:
2245:
2244:Diesel engine
2241:
2237:
2236:
2235:
2233:
2229:
2218:
2215:
2207:
2204:February 2023
2196:
2193:
2189:
2186:
2182:
2179:
2175:
2172:
2168:
2165: –
2164:
2160:
2159:Find sources:
2153:
2149:
2143:
2142:
2137:This section
2135:
2131:
2126:
2125:
2117:
2115:
2111:
2106:
2103:
2097:
2087:
2081:Sparks effect
2078:
2069:
2067:
2062:
2057:
2054:
2048:
2046:
2041:
2036:
2027:
2023:
2020:
2016:
2006:
2004:
2003:nuclear power
2000:
1996:
1992:
1988:
1983:
1980:
1974:
1971:
1967:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1937:
1934:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1914:
1910:
1907:
1903:
1888:
1886:
1878:
1873:
1868:
1858:
1856:
1813:
1798:6. Pantograph
1784:
1775:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1737:
1733:
1732:London Bridge
1729:
1724:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1680:
1618:
1613:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1590:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1574:
1570:
1565:
1562:
1560:
1550:
1548:
1544:
1540:
1516:1,435 mm
1513:
1509:
1508:running rails
1505:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1490:of a powered
1489:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1453:
1449:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1433:
1423:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1408:650 V DC
1405:
1401:
1397:
1392:
1389:
1385:
1380:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1350:
1342:
1337:
1327:
1324:
1316:
1313:November 2022
1306:
1302:
1298:
1292:
1291:
1287:
1282:This section
1280:
1276:
1271:
1270:
1266:
1256:
1253:
1241:
1236:
1231:
1221:
1219:
1215:
1195:
1187:
1178:
1152:
1148:
1142:
1134:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1111:
1101:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1073:
1064:
1050:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1013:
1007:
1003:
999:
991:
987:
979:
975:
971:
967:
964:
960:
956:
952:
948:
942:
929:
928:Overhead line
909:
904:
898:
895:
889:
884:
861:
854:
847:
840:
833:
831:
814:
813:
805:
798:
791:
784:
777:
775:
764:
763:
755:
748:
741:
734:
727:
720:
719:
711:
704:
697:
690:
683:
676:
675:
667:
660:
653:
646:
639:
632:
631:
623:
616:
609:
602:
595:
593:
585:
584:
559:
551:
548:
543:50163 and IEC
533:
531:
526:
510:
508:
504:
494:
491:
489:
486:
484:
481:
478:
475:
474:
472:
466:
463:
462:
460:
457:
454:
451:
450:
449:
446:
444:
441:
440:
439:
428:
419:
373:
364:
362:
358:
354:
350:
346:
342:
330:
325:
323:
319:
318:United States
315:
311:
307:
303:
298:
294:
292:
288:
284:
283:Frank Sprague
280:
279:Overhead line
276:
272:
267:
265:
264:New York City
261:
257:
253:
249:
239:
236:
234:
233:China Railway
230:
226:
222:
217:
215:
211:
207:
206:capital costs
202:
200:
196:
192:
188:
183:
179:
175:
171:
167:
166:diesel engine
162:
160:
156:
152:
151:overhead line
148:
143:
141:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
117:
113:
109:
105:
101:
92:
88:
82:
78:
74:
70:
63:
53:
47:
43:
39:
35:
28:
19:
4862:Wayside horn
4812:Interlocking
4792:Catch points
4752:Water trough
4687:
4654:Passing loop
4634:Pocket track
4619:Balloon loop
4583:Ladder track
4294:Multi-system
4213:
4198:Contact shoe
4193:Trolley pole
4168:
4091:
4038:
4024:– via
4016:
4004:
3999:– via
3981:
3955:
3931:. Retrieved
3927:
3912:. Retrieved
3908:
3886:
3876:
3856:
3839:
3831:Network Rail
3830:
3804:
3786:
3782:
3763:
3741:. Retrieved
3737:the original
3727:
3715:. Retrieved
3711:
3702:
3685:
3673:. Retrieved
3666:the original
3653:
3641:. Retrieved
3634:
3624:
3612:. Retrieved
3608:
3598:
3588:15 September
3586:. Retrieved
3581:
3572:
3562:15 September
3560:. Retrieved
3556:Network Rail
3546:
3536:15 September
3534:. Retrieved
3527:the original
3510:
3499:
3485:
3473:. Retrieved
3469:
3460:
3448:. Retrieved
3443:
3434:
3422:. Retrieved
3418:the original
3413:
3389:. Retrieved
3385:the original
3380:
3347:
3335:
3317:
3305:. Retrieved
3303:. Gigaom.com
3294:
3281:
3263:
3251:. Retrieved
3247:
3238:
3229:
3219:
3202:
3198:
3192:
3180:. Retrieved
3176:
3167:
3155:. Retrieved
3151:
3142:
3130:. Retrieved
3126:
3117:
3105:. Retrieved
3101:
3092:
3083:
3073:
3065:the original
3055:
3047:
3042:
3033:
3029:
3019:
3006:
3000:
2973:
2969:
2937:
2929:
2924:
2916:
2911:
2899:. Retrieved
2896:Lemelson MIT
2895:
2886:
2874:. Retrieved
2870:
2861:
2849:. Retrieved
2845:
2836:
2824:. Retrieved
2796:. Retrieved
2792:
2782:
2770:. Retrieved
2767:ResearchGate
2766:
2757:
2745:. Retrieved
2740:
2731:
2719:. Retrieved
2709:
2695:
2686:
2677:
2668:
2659:
2651:
2490:
2479:
2468:
2428:
2425:
2352:obstructions
2257:fossil fuels
2239:
2225:
2210:
2201:
2191:
2184:
2177:
2170:
2158:
2146:Please help
2141:verification
2138:
2107:
2099:
2084:
2075:
2049:
2033:
2024:
2012:
2009:Power output
1984:
1975:
1966:prime movers
1963:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1899:
1882:
1815:
1752:West Norwood
1725:
1683:
1630:
1584:, a special
1566:
1563:
1559:transformers
1556:
1545:between the
1514:that have a
1500:contact shoe
1494:carries one
1457:
1452:contact shoe
1393:
1381:
1346:
1319:
1310:
1295:Please help
1283:
1245:
1179:
1143:
1140:
1112:
1072:Soviet Union
1065:
1014:
1008:system (1650
1002:Cascais Line
957:area on the
931:
534:
527:
516:
499:
437:
326:
299:
295:
268:
245:
237:
218:
203:
197:electrified
163:
144:
140:transformers
99:
98:
18:
4787:Buffer stop
4747:Water crane
4659:Track gauge
4598:Tie/Sleeper
4433:Switzerland
4423:Former USSR
4396:New Zealand
4229:Fourth rail
3933:17 February
3717:17 February
3505:AAR Plate H
3475:17 February
3450:27 February
3424:27 February
3391:27 February
3253:17 February
3036:(14): 38–44
2928:IEC 60850:
2798:17 February
2793:Railway PRO
2561:Electromote
2445:kV 16.7 or
2409:pantographs
2114:well-wagons
2100:Due to the
1902:transformed
1891:Comparisons
1885:three-phase
1748:Peckham Rye
1573:transformer
1460:Paris Métro
1448:Paris Métro
1420:Canada Line
1416:Innovia ART
1373:Milan Metro
1259:Fourth rail
1157:kV DC, to 9
1033:East London
996:V south of
992:, and 3,000
978:cog railway
893:25 kV 50 Hz
888:LGV Sud-Est
770:kV AC, 16.7
488:Fourth rail
302:Switzerland
277:, Germany.
252:steam power
199:its network
159:pickup shoe
38:Grand Paris
4999:Categories
4960:Industrial
4944:Water stop
4905:for trains
4897:Roundhouse
4871:Structures
4857:Train stop
4807:Guard rail
4782:Block post
4770:and safety
4767:Signalling
4698:third rail
4671:Rail track
4664:dual gauge
4548:Baulk road
4334:By country
4224:Third rail
4188:Pantograph
3914:9 November
3743:9 November
3307:4 February
3182:9 November
3157:9 November
3132:9 November
3107:9 November
2915:EN 50163:
2633:References
2420:See also:
2394:third rail
2375:pantograph
2240:power loss
2174:newspapers
2120:Advantages
2094:See also:
2066:capacitors
1699:adopted 11
1673:Hz to 16.7
1652:Hz (the 50
1476:guide bars
1363:630 V
1263:See also:
1252:skin depth
1230:Third rail
1224:Third rail
1218:Petersburg
1127:trolleybus
1037:Manchester
998:Maastricht
990:Betuwelijn
984:kV on the
966:interurban
947:Wellington
581:temporary
576:permanent
568:permanent
563:temporary
483:Third rail
479:(catenary)
359:, and the
195:hydropower
155:third rail
81:third rail
4910:for goods
4852:Tell-tale
4683:Rail yard
4649:Guide bar
4629:Headshunt
4612:Trackwork
4578:Fishplate
4568:Date nail
4529:(history)
4386:Lithuania
4341:Australia
4269:Power car
4065:, 520 pp.
3795:2057-2425
3342:Oct 2014.
3211:0013-5437
2992:1996-1073
2464:1.5 kV DC
2356:clearance
2321:container
2313:clearance
1906:rectified
1685:In the US
1580:fed by a
1569:resistors
1547:roll ways
1488:wheel set
1480:roll ways
1468:roll ways
1284:does not
1242:, Romania
1117:V and 750
968:line and
820:kV AC, 50
465:Frequency
396: 1.5
386: 750
329:commuters
174:emissions
147:conductor
75:with the
4965:Military
4922:building
4892:Platform
4802:Derailer
4720:Roll way
4639:Junction
4538:Axe ties
4406:timeline
4391:Malaysia
4036:(1928).
3968:24 kV DC
3848:59003738
3609:ITV News
3582:ITV News
3494:traffic.
3355:Archived
3325:Archived
2970:Energies
2901:2 August
2876:2 August
2851:2 August
2826:4 August
2499:See also
2379:catenary
1758:serving
1736:Victoria
1695:and the
1586:inverter
1534: in
1484:750 V DC
1472:concrete
1443:from an
1210:12 kV DC
1202:25 kV AC
1198:12 kV DC
1186:ignitron
1123:tramways
1025:Woodhead
986:HSL-Zuid
571:Nominal
556:Voltage
507:voltages
427:25 kV AC
418:15 kV AC
337: km
172:, lower
42:Normandy
4975:station
4970:Private
4917:Station
4593:Profile
4543:Ballast
4443:Ukraine
4361:Germany
4351:Estonia
4346:Austria
4052:Russian
3948:English
3943:Sources
3643:20 July
2454:⁄
2439:3 kV DC
2332:⁄
2319:. Each
2297:England
2188:scholar
2056:coupled
1665:⁄
1644:⁄
1623:kV 16.7
1529:⁄
1402:of the
1305:removed
1290:sources
1012:V DC).
1006:S-train
974:Seattle
955:Chicago
579:Maximum
574:Maximum
566:Minimum
561:Minimum
448:Current
443:Voltage
406: 3
357:Germany
242:History
116:freight
5015:Trains
4737:Switch
4725:Siding
4525:Tracks
4438:Turkey
4428:Sweden
4418:Russia
4413:Poland
4401:Norway
4381:Latvia
4356:France
4108:
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3675:7 June
3209:
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2943:
2919:(2007)
2772:1 July
2747:1 July
2721:1 July
2460:
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2435:
2431:
2389:lines.
2386:
2370:level.
2315:for a
2190:
2183:
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2169:
2161:
2015:ICE TD
1985:Large
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1847:
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1839:
1835:
1831:
1826:
1822:
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1772:
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1740:
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1691:, the
1687:, the
1675:
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1621:
1605:, and
1388:bonded
1377:line 1
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725:kV DC
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353:France
320:, the
312:, and
310:France
306:Sweden
275:Berlin
262:, and
260:London
256:Berlin
248:diesel
4953:Types
4932:ghost
4927:clock
4901:Shed
4515:Rail
4462:Lists
4376:Japan
4366:India
3827:(PDF)
3694:(PDF)
3669:(PDF)
3662:(PDF)
3614:7 May
3530:(PDF)
3519:(PDF)
3224:97–99
3201:[
3011:(PDF)
2820:(PDF)
2195:JSTOR
2181:books
1770:kV 25
1719:kV 60
1703:kV 25
1543:track
1504:wagon
1492:bogie
1445:MP 89
1441:Bogie
1369:Milan
1131:metro
1106:kV 50
1086:(now
1078:from
1059:kV 50
932:1,500
799:17.25
712:1,950
705:1,800
698:1,500
691:1,000
684:1,000
681:V DC
677:1,500
668:1,000
637:V DC
461:(AC)
410:kV DC
400:kV DC
349:Japan
345:India
341:China
314:Italy
4980:list
4937:list
4558:Cant
4371:Iran
4106:ISBN
4079:ISBN
4059:ISBN
3991:ISBN
3935:2023
3916:2022
3891:ISBN
3861:ISBN
3844:OCLC
3810:ISBN
3791:ISSN
3768:ISBN
3745:2022
3719:2023
3677:2020
3645:2016
3616:2014
3590:2012
3564:2012
3538:2012
3489:Per
3477:2023
3452:2012
3426:2012
3393:2012
3309:2016
3255:2023
3207:ISSN
3184:2022
3159:2022
3134:2022
3109:2022
2988:ISSN
2949:kV).
2903:2024
2878:2024
2853:2024
2828:2017
2800:2023
2774:2020
2749:2020
2723:2020
2491:The
2484:and
2339:rail
2299:, a
2291:The
2242:see
2167:news
1904:and
1875:The
1829:16.7
1762:and
1723:Hz.
1398:and
1396:Expo
1394:The
1347:The
1339:The
1288:any
1286:cite
1125:and
1110:Hz.
1035:and
988:and
906:The
886:The
855:27.5
834:17.5
455:(DC)
390:V DC
231:and
212:and
85:750
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4098:39+
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2978:doi
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1635:kV
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866:kV
859:kV
852:kV
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838:kV
810:kV
803:kV
796:kV
789:kV
782:kV
760:kV
756:3.9
753:kV
749:3.6
746:kV
739:kV
732:kV
661:900
654:750
647:500
640:500
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617:720
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774:Hz
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716:V
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665:V
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628:V
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