Rashidun Caliphate

1718: 3999:, which was sited in the center of the city. Markets were established at convenient points, which were overseen by market officers charged with ensuring the quality of goods. The cities were divided into quarters, and each quarter was reserved for particular tribes. During the reign of Umar, there were restrictions on the construction of palatial buildings by the rich and elites—symbolic of the egalitarian society of Islam, where all were equal—although the restrictions were later revoked by Uthman because of the rise in the overall standard of living, and the construction of two-story buildings were permitted. As a result, many palatial buildings were constructed throughout the empire, including Uthman's huge palace in Medina, 2144: 4161: 3500: 1617: 4579: 2257: 2386: 902: 1703: 2193: 2159: 2081: 4223:, Khalid ibn al-Walid's extraordinary march from the Persian border to Damascus). The cavalry was the army's main strike force and also served as a strategic mobile reserve. The common tactic was to use the infantry and archers to engage and maintain contact with the enemy while the cavalry was held back till the enemy was fully engaged. Once fully engaged, the enemy reserves were held by the infantry and archers, while the cavalry executed a pincer movement (like modern tank and mechanized divisions) to attack the enemy from the sides or to assault their base camps. 1992: 2378: 1232: 871: 63: 1111: 481: 4662: 4118:) and Uthman had "already inaugurated a nepotistic style of government", for which later Caliphs were condemned, and wonders if the idea of a divinely guided "golden age" of early Islam came from a need by late Umayyad and Abbasid religious scholars to differentiate the first caliphs (who had more power in law making) and the contemporary Caliphs who they wanted to defer to them (the ulama) in religious matters. Consequently, the companions were "given a makeover" as "model's of piety and beyond reproach". 1498: 1898:

garrisoned and administered. The continued existence of the Persian government was, however, incitement to revolt in the conquered territories and unlike the Byzantine army, the Sasanian army was continuously striving to regain their lost territories. Finally, Umar pressed forward, which eventually resulted in the wholesale conquest of the Sasanian Empire. Yazdegerd, the Sasanian king, made yet another effort to regroup and defeat the invaders. By 641 he had raised a new force, which made a stand at the

4489: 2750: 4341: 4416: 9792: 2777: 958:, "Successor of the Messenger of God") or simply caliph. Abu Bakr embarked on campaigns to propagate Islam. First he would have to subdue the Arabian tribes, which had claimed that although they pledged allegiance to Muhammad and accepted Islam, they owed nothing to Abu Bakr. As a caliph, Abu Bakr was not a monarch and never claimed such a title; nor did any of his three successors. Rather, their election and leadership were based upon 2491: 2574: 2116: 1346:, a bureau for transacting government affairs. The military was brought directly under state control and into its pay. Crucially, in conquered lands, Umar did not require that non-Muslim populations convert to Islam, nor did he try to centralize government. Instead, he allowed subject populations to retain their religion, language, and customs, and he left their government relatively untouched, imposing only a governor ( 2793:

be the foundation stone of the Caliphate. Caliph Umar has been reported to have said: "O Muslims, straighten me with your hands when I go wrong", and at that instance, a Muslim man stood up and said, "O Amir al-Mu'minin (Leader of the Believers) if you are not straightened by our hands we will use our sword to straighten you!". Hearing this Caliph Umar said "Alhamdulillah (Praise be to Allah) I have such followers."

9781: 562: 1090:, by the hand and offered them to the Ansar as potential choices. He was countered with the suggestion that the Quraysh and the Ansar choose a leader each from among themselves, who would then rule jointly. The group grew heated upon hearing this proposal and began to argue amongst themselves. Umar hastily took Abu Bakr's hand and swore his own allegiance to the latter, an example followed by the gathered men. 4231:

of his Caliphate, adopted a more hands-on approach, directing his generals where to stay and when to move to the next target and who was to command the left and right-wing of the army in each particular battle. This made conquests comparatively slower but made the campaigns well-organized. Uthman and Ali reverted to Abu Bakr's method, giving missions to their generals and leaving the details to them.

2108:, the Byzantine stronghold, was conquered shortly after on 19 September 634. The Byzantine army was given a deadline of 3 days to flee as far as they could, with their families and treasure, or simply agree to stay in Damascus and pay tribute. After the three days had passed, the Muslim cavalry, under Khalid's command, attacked the Roman army by catching up to them using an unknown shortcut at the 4188:. Reconstructing the military equipment of early Muslim armies is problematic. Compared with Roman armies or later medieval Muslim armies, the range of visual representation is very small, often imprecise. Physically, very little material evidence has survived, and much of it is difficult to date. The soldiers wore iron and bronze segmented helmets from Iraq, of Central Asian type. 4146:. The army maintained a very high level of discipline, strategic prowess, and organization, along with the motivation and initiative of the officer corps. For much of its history, this army was one of the most powerful and effective military forces throughout the region. At the height of the Rashidun Caliphate, the maximum size of the army was around 100,000 troops. 1474:

them, at which point, the protesters returned to Uthman's home, bearing the order. Uthman swore that he did not write the order and to talk the protesters down. The protesters responded by demanding he step down as caliph. Uthman refused and returned to his room, whereupon the protesters broke into Uthman's house from the back and killed him while he was reading the

3232:, or consultative assembly. Candidates were usually from the same lineage as the deceased leader, but they were not necessarily his sons. Capable men who would lead well were preferred over an ineffectual direct heir, as there was no basis in the majority Sunni view that the head of state or governor should be chosen based on lineage alone. 1601:, a faction of his former supporters who, as a result of their dissatisfaction with the arbitration, opposed both Ali and Mu'awiya. Weakened by this internal rebellion and a lack of popular support in many provinces, Ali's forces lost control over most of the caliphate's territory to Mu'awiya while large sections of the empire—such as 1570:

It is said, according to Sunni Muslim traditions, that those who were involved in the assassination of Uthman initiated combat, as they were afraid that negotiations between Ali and the opposing army would result in their capture and execution. The battle thus fought was the first battle between Muslims and is known as the

4026:. In important cities, guest houses were constructed to serve traders and merchants coming from faraway places. Roads and bridges were constructed for public use. On the road from Medina to Mecca, shelters, wells, and meal houses were constructed at every stage for the convenience of the people who came for hajj. 3373:

connected with Allah’s Prescribed Punishments?" Then he got up and delivered a sermon saying, "What destroyed the nations preceding you, was that if a noble amongst them stole, they would forgive him, and if a poor person amongst them stole, they would inflict Allah's Legal punishment on him. By Allah, if

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the Muslims won heavy spoils, filling the coffers at Medina. The problem before Umar was what to do with this money. Someone suggested that the money should be kept in the treasury as a reserve for public expenditures. However, this view was not acceptable to the general body of Muslims. Accordingly,

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The judicial administration, like the rest of the administrative structure of the Rashidun Caliphate, was set up by Umar, and it remained basically unchanged throughout the duration of the Caliphate. In order to provide adequate and speedy justice for the people, justice was administered according to

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in April 637. Abu Ubaida sent Amr bin al-As, Yazid bin Abu Sufyan, and Sharjeel bin Hassana back to their areas to reconquer them; most submitted without a fight. Abu Ubaida himself, along with Khalid, moved to northern Syria to reconquer it with a 17,000-man army. Khalid, along with his cavalry, was

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made peace with the Muslims for one year in order to buy time for Heraclius to prepare his defences and raise new armies. The Muslims welcomed the peace and consolidated their control over the conquered territory. However, as soon as the Muslims received the news of reinforcements being sent to Emesa

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Abu Bakr's strategy was to give his generals their mission, the geographical area in which that mission would be carried out, and resources for that purpose. He would then leave it to his generals to accomplish their missions in whatever manner they chose. On the other hand, Umar, in the latter part

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During the reign of Abu Bakr the state was economically weak, while during Umar's reign because of an increase in revenues and other sources of income, the state was on its way to economic prosperity. Hence Umar felt it necessary to treat the officers strictly, in order to prevent corruption. During

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The basic administrative system of the Dar al-Islamiyyah (The House of Islam) was laid down in the days of Muhammad. Caliph Abu Bakr stated in his sermon when he was elected: "If I order any thing that would go against the order of Allah and his Messenger; then do not obey me". This is considered to

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and onto the Iranian plateau. One tradition has it that he wished for a "wall of fire" to keep the Arabs and Persians apart. Later commentators explain this as a common-sense precaution against over-extension of his forces. The Arabs had only recently conquered large territories that still had to be

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and captured it, whereupon 4,000 suspected seditionists were put to death. Subsequently, Ali turned towards Basra and the caliph's army met the rebel army. Though neither Ali nor the leaders of the opposing force, Talha and Zubayr, wanted to fight, a battle broke out at night between the two armies.

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were given pensions on which to live, allowing them to pursue religious studies and exercise spiritual leadership in their communities and beyond. Umar is also remembered for establishing the Islamic calendar; it is lunar-like the Arabian calendar, but the origin is set in 622, the year of the Hijra

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and Muiqib. A separate Accounts Department was also set up to maintain spending records. Later treasuries were set up in the provinces. After meeting the local expenditure the provincial treasuries were required to remit the surplus revenue to the central treasury at Medina. According to Yaqubi the

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Various Islamic lawyers do, however, place multiple conditions, and stipulations—e.g., the poor cannot be penalised for stealing out of poverty—before executing such a law, making it very difficult to reach such a stage. It is well known that, during a time of drought during the Rashidun caliphate,

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Abu Ubaida ordered the Muslim commanders to withdraw from all the conquered areas, return the tributes they had previously gathered, and move towards Yarmuk. Heraclius's army also moved towards Yarmuk, but the Muslim armies reached it in early July 636, a week or two before the Byzantines. Khalid's

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Nevertheless, Abu Bakr and Umar, both prominent companions of Muhammad, upon learning of the meeting became concerned about a potential coup and hastened to the gathering. Upon arriving, Abu Bakr addressed the assembled men with a warning that any attempt to elect a leader outside of Muhammad's own

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Most historical accounts state that, among the Rashidun caliphs, Uthman was the first to strike coins; some accounts, however, state that Umar was the first to do so. When Persia was conquered, three types of coins were current there: the Baghli, of eight dang; Tabari of four dang; and Maghribi of

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The Rashidun army was, in quality and strength, below the standard set by the Sasanian and Byzantine armies. Khalid ibn al-Walid was the first general of the Rashidun Caliphate to successfully conquer foreign lands. During his campaign against the Sasanian Empire (Iraq, 633–634) and the Byzantine

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got 4,000. The ordinary Muslim citizens were given allowances of between 2,000 and 2,500. The regular annual allowance was given only to the urban population because they formed the backbone of the state's economic resources. The Bedouin living in the desert, cut off from the state's affairs, and

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was fought. The battle lasted 6 days during which Abu Ubaida transferred the command of the entire army to Khalid. Outnumbered five-to-one, the Muslims nevertheless defeated the Byzantine army in October 636. Abu Ubaida held a meeting with his high command officers, including Khalid, to decide on

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The prisoners taken in the battle informed them about Emperor Heraclius's plans to take back Syria. They said that an army possibly 200,000 strong would soon emerge to recapture the province. Khalid stopped here on June 636. As soon as Abu Ubaida heard the news of the advancing Byzantine army, he

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After a protest turned into a siege on his house, Uthman refused to initiate any military action, in order to avoid civil war between Muslims and preferred to negotiate a peaceful solution. After the negotiations, the protesters returned but found a man following them, holding an order to execute

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The mosques were not merely places for offering prayers, but also community centers where the faithful gathered to discuss problems of social and cultural importance. During the caliphate of Umar, as many as four thousand mosques were constructed extending from Persia in the east to Egypt in the

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The next question was what system should be adopted for distribution. One suggestion was to distribute it equally on an ad hoc basis. Others objected that, as the spoils were considerable, the proposal would make the people very rich. It was therefore agreed that, instead of ad hoc division, the

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who had committed theft. They asked, "Who will intercede for her with Allah's Apostle?" Some said, "No one dare to do so except Usama bin Zaid the beloved one to Allah's Apostle." When Usama spoke about that to Allah's Apostle Allah's Apostle said: "Do you try to intercede for somebody in a case

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stated that Ali also had support among the Ansar for his succession, explained by the genealogical links he shared with them. Whether his candidacy for the succession was raised during Saqifah is unknown, though it is not unlikely. Abu Bakr later sent Umar to confront Ali to gain his allegiance,

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should be levied in such a way so as to avoid hardship, so as not to affect trade within the Caliphate. The tax was levied only on merchandise meant for sale; goods imported for consumption or personal use but not for sale were not taxed. Merchandise valued at 200 dirhams or less was not taxed.

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briefly assumed the caliphate for six months and came to an agreement with Mu'awiya to fix relations between the two groups of Muslims that were each loyal to one of the two men. The treaty stated that Mu'awiya would not name a successor during his reign, and that he would let the Islamic world

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At the time of an officer's appointment, a complete inventory of all his possessions was prepared and kept on record. If there was later an unusual increase in his possessions, he was immediately called to account, and the unlawful property confiscated by the State. The principal officers were

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From Bosra, Khalid sent orders to the other corps commanders to join him at Ajnadayn, where, according to early Muslim historians, a Byzantine army of 90,000 (modern sources state 9,000) was concentrated to push back the Muslims. The Byzantine army was defeated decisively on 30 July 634 in the

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Then the question arose as to what basis should be used for placing some above others. Some suggested that the Caliph should first get the highest allowance, with the remaining allowances graduating downward from that. Umar rejected the proposal and decided to start with the clan of Muhammad.

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Remember, I have not appointed you as commanders and tyrants over the people. I have sent you as leaders instead, so that the people may follow your example. Give the Muslims their rights and do not beat them lest they become abused. Do not praise them unduly, lest they fall into the error of

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The Muslims were assisted by some Copts, who found the Muslims more tolerant than the Byzantines, and of these, some turned to Islam. In return for a tribute of money and food for the occupation troops, the Christian inhabitants of Egypt were excused from military service and left free in the

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As the Arabs of the Ḥejāz had used the drahms of the Sasanian-style, the only silver coinage in the world at that time, it was natural for them to leave many of the Sasanian mints in operation, striking coins like those of the emperors in every detail except for the addition of brief Arabic

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Umar set up a committee to compile a list of persons by nearness to Muhammad. The committee produced the list clan-wise. Bani Hashim appeared as the first clan, then the clan of Abu Bakr, and then the clan of Umar. Umar accepted the first two placements but relegated his clan lower on the

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The last large garrison of the Byzantine army was at Fahl, which was joined by survivors of Ajnadayn. With this threat at their rear, the Muslim armies could not move further north nor south. Thus Abu Ubaidah decided to deal with the situation, and defeated and routed this garrison at the

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sent an army to re-capture the city. This army, however, could not make it to Damascus and was intercepted by Abu Ubaidah and Khalid on their way to Emesa. The army was destroyed in the battle of Maraj-al-Rome and the second battle of Damascus. Emesa and the strategic town of

1243:. This corps was used to fight the most powerful of the rebel forces. Other corps were given areas of secondary importance in which to bring the less dangerous apostate tribes to submission. Abu Bakr's plan was first to clear Najd and Western Arabia near Medina, then tackle 3076:

The officers were appointed by the Caliph. Every appointment was made in writing. At the time of appointment, an instrument of instructions was issued to regulate the conduct of the governors. On assuming office, the Governor was required to assemble the people in the main

2663:. After apprehending a breach of the treaty, the Arabs re-invaded the island in 654 with five hundred ships. This time, however, a garrison of 12,000 men was left in Cyprus, bringing the island under Muslim influence. After leaving Cyprus, the Muslim fleet headed towards 1802:

in the last week of August 633. Returning from Arabia, he received news that a large Persian army was assembling. Within a few weeks, he decided to defeat them piecemeal in order to avoid the risk of defeat by a large unified Persian army. Four divisions of Persian and

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The basic strategy of early Muslim armies on the campaign was to exploit every possible weakness of the enemy. Their key strength was mobility. The cavalry had both horses and camels, the latter used as both transport and food for long marches through the desert

3228:(1981), argues that the standard Arabian practice during the early Caliphates was for the prominent men of a kinship group, or tribe, to gather after a leader's death and elect a leader from amongst themselves, although there was no specified procedure for this 3126:

the state became more economically prosperous than ever before; the allowance of the citizens was increased by 25%, and the economic condition of the ordinary person was more stable, which led Caliph Uthman to revoke the second and third postulates of the oath.

2713:(the protected people). Those who accepted Islam were treated in a similar manner to other Muslims and were given equivalent rights in legal matters. Non-Muslims were given legal rights according to their faiths' law except where it conflicted with Islamic law. 2907:

Umar had instructed his successor, Uthman, not to make any change in the administrative setup for one year after his death, which Uthman honored; however, after the expiration of the moratorium, he made Egypt one province and created a new province comprising

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clan, who was elected by a six-person committee arranged by Umar. Under Uthman, the caliphate concluded its conquest of Persia in 651 and continued expeditions into the Byzantine territories. During his reign, rebels rose, and he was assassinated in June 656.

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of Muhammad, where he foretold that the caliphate after him would last for 30 years (the length of the Rashidun Caliphate) and would then be followed by kingship (the Umayyad Caliphate was a hereditary monarchy). Furthermore, according to other hadiths in

2225:. The siege of Jerusalem lasted four months, after which the city agreed to surrender, but only to Caliph Umar Ibn Al Khattab in person. Amr ibn Al As suggested that Khalid should be sent as Caliph, because of his very strong resemblance to Caliph Umar. 1885:. After seizing the city, they continued their drive eastwards, following Yazdgird and his remaining troops. Within a short span of time, the Arab armies defeated a major Sasanian counterattack in the Battle of Jalūlā', as well as other engagements at 1093:

Abu Bakr was near-universally accepted as head of the Muslim community (under the title of Caliph) as a result of Saqifah, though he did face contention as a result of the rushed nature of the event. Several companions, most prominent among them being

2424:. The imperial garrisons retreated into the walled towns, where they successfully held out for a year or more. However, the Muslims sent for reinforcements, and the invading army, joined by another 12,000 men in 640, defeated a Byzantine army at the 1327:. These were regions of great wealth controlled by powerful states, but the long conflict between Byzantines and Persians had left both sides militarily exhausted, and the Islamic armies easily prevailed against them. By 640, they had brought all of 1176:, the alms tax, without formally challenging Islam. Many tribal leaders made claims to prophethood; some made it during the lifetime of Muhammad. The first incident of apostasy was fought and concluded while Muhammad still lived; a supposed prophet 3165:

were chosen for their integrity and learning in Islamic law. Wealthy men and men of high social status, compensated highly by the Caliphate, were appointed in order to make them resistant to bribery or undue influence based on social position. The

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Al-Mawardi said that if the rulers meet their Islamic responsibilities to the public, the people must obey their laws, but if they become either unjust or severely ineffective then the Caliph or ruler must be impeached via the Majlis al-Shura.

2617:. Each side also agreed to afford free passage to each other through their respective territories. Nubia agreed to provide 360 slaves to Egypt every year, while Egypt agreed to supply grain, horses, and textiles to Nubia according to demand. 1910:. The Rashidun army, under the command of Umar's appointed general Nu'man ibn Muqarrin al-Muzani, attacked and again defeated the Persian forces. The Muslims proclaimed it the Victory of Victories (Fath alfotuh), as it marked the End of the 1585:, a kinsman of Uthman and governor of the province of Syria. However, it is regarded more as an attempt by Mu'awiya to assume the caliphate, rather than to take revenge for Uthman's murder. Ali fought Mu'awiya's forces to a stalemate at the 3135:, during which people were free to present any complaint against them. In order to minimize the chances of corruption, Umar made it a point to pay high salaries to the staff. Provincial governors received as much as five to seven thousand 2597:. The Muslim army pulled out of Nubia with nothing to show for it. Ten years later, Uthman's governor of Egypt, Abdullah ibn Saad, sent another army to Nubia. This army penetrated deeper into Nubia and laid siege to the Nubian capital of 4130:

and his descendants of the divinely ordained right to leadership. In this Shi'ite perspective, many of the companions and their successors were usurpers, even hypocrites, who never ceased to subvert the religion for their own interests.

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usually denoted a lump-sum duty levied upon the conquered provinces and collected by the officials of the former Byzantine and Sasanian empires, or, more broadly, any kind of tax levied by Muslim conquerors on their non-Muslim subjects,

3455:(632–634) established a house where all money was kept on receipt. As all money was distributed immediately, the treasury generally remained locked up; at the time of Abu Bakr's death, there was only one dirham in the public treasury. 3325:

Islamic lawyers have commented that when the rulers refuse to step down via successful impeachment through the Majlis, becoming dictators through the support of a corrupt army, the majority, upon agreement, has the option to launch a

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And they (the sinners on qiyama) will say, "Our Lord! We obeyed our leaders and our chiefs, and they misled us from the right path. Our Lord! Give them (the leaders) double the punishment you give us and curse them with a very great

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gathered all his officers to plan their next move. Khalid suggested that they should consolidate all of their forces present in the province of Syria (Syria, Jordan, Palestine) and then move towards the plain of Yarmouk for battle.

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and his forces between the Najd and al-Bahrayn, and finally concentrate against the most dangerous enemy, Musaylimah and his allies in al-Yamama. After a series of successful campaigns Khalid ibn al-Walid defeated Musaylimah in the

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Ghabban, A.I.I., Translation and concluding remarks by and Hoyland, R., 2008. The inscription of Zuhayr, the oldest Islamic inscription (24 AH/AD 644–645), the rise of the Arabic script and the nature of the early Islamic state 1.

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of the companions, including the Rashidun Caliphs. Many of the Shi'a do not share the Sunni view that the companions were all models of piety, instead accusing many of them of conspiring after the Prophet's death to dispossess

1409:. Ali was from the Banu Hashim clan (the same clan as Muhammad) of the Quraysh tribe, and he was the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad and had been one of his companions from the inception of his mission. Uthman was from the 2065:

road. At Bosra, the Corps of Abu Ubaidah and Shurhabil joined Khalid, upon which, per Abu Bakr's orders, Khalid assumed overall command from Abu Ubaidah. Bosra, caught unprepared, surrendered after a brief siege in July 634

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were allowed to "practice their religion, and to enjoy a measure of communal autonomy" and were guaranteed their personal safety and security of property, but only in return for paying tax and acknowledging Muslim rule.

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states that "writers who lived at the same time as the first four caliphs ... recorded next to nothing about them, and their names do not appear on coins, inscriptions, or documents. It is only with the fifth caliph",

1964:; these regions were later re-conquered during Uthman's reign with further expansion into the regions which were not conquered during Umar's reign; hence, the Rashidun Caliphate's frontiers in the east extended to the 4107:(661–680), "that was have evidence of a functioning Arab government, since his name appears on all official state media." However, there do exist inscriptions dating to the period, one of which for instance mentions 969:, were his closest companions by association and support and were often highly praised by Muhammad and delegated roles of leadership within the nascent Muslim community. These caliphs are collectively known in 4029:

Military cantonments were constructed at strategic points. Special stables were provided for cavalry, which could accommodate as many as 4,000 horses. Special pasture grounds were provided and maintained for

3254:. At that meeting, Abu Bakr was elected caliph by the Muslim community. Sunni Muslims developed the belief that the caliph is a temporal political ruler, appointed to rule within the bounds of Islamic law ( 1837:

Khalid then left Mesopotamia to lead another campaign in Syria against the Byzantine Empire, after which Mithna ibn Haris took command in Mesopotamia. The Persians once again concentrated armies to regain

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Uthman's most lasting project was the final compilation of the Qur'an. Under his authority diacritics were written with Arabic letters so that non-native speakers of Arabic could easily read the Qur'an.

1212:). Many tribes claimed that they had submitted to Muhammad and that with Muhammad's death, their allegiance was ended. Caliph Abu Bakr insisted that they had not just submitted to a leader but joined an 3863:

there were two opinions. Some held that it should be the same for all Muslims. Umar, on the other hand, believed that the allowance should be graduated according to one's merit with reference to Islam.

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to clear the flank and rear of Byzantine troops. On their way to Antioch, a Roman army blocked them near a river on which there was an iron bridge. Because of this, the following battle is known as the

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in 636. Umar was then able to transfer forces to the east and resume the offensive against the Sasanians. Umar dispatched 36,000 men along with 7500 troops from the Syrian front, under the command of

3477:, sent his revenue to Umar, amounting to five hundred thousand dirhams. Umar summoned a meeting of his Consultative Assembly and sought the opinion of the Companions about the disposal of the money. 1398:

Before Umar died, he appointed a committee of six men to decide on the next caliph and charged them with choosing one of their own numbers. All of the men, like Umar, were from the tribe of Quraysh.

1252:. The Campaign on the Apostasy was fought and completed during the eleventh year of the Hijri. The year 12 Hijri dawned on 18 March 633 with the Arabian peninsula united under the caliph in Medina. 3449:. Whatever revenues or other amounts were received were distributed immediately. There were no salaries to be paid, and there was no state expenditure, thereby making a public treasury unnecessary. 1184:; he was killed on 30 May 632 (6 Rabi' al-Awwal, 11 Hijri) by Governor Fērōz of Yemen, a Persian Muslim. The news of his death reached Medina shortly after the death of Muhammad. The apostasy of 1794:

in the last week of July 633. By now, almost the whole of Iraq was under Islamic control. Khalid received a call for help from Daumat-ul-jandal in Northern Arabia, where another Muslim general,

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The first Islamic invasion of the Sasanian Empire, launched by Caliph Abu Bakr in 633, was a swift conquest, taking only four months. Abu Bakr sent his general, Khalid ibn al-Walid, to conquer

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observance of their religion and the administration of their affairs. Others sided with the Byzantines, hoping that they would provide a defense against the Arab invaders. During the reign of

2018:. However, their advance was halted by a concentration of the Byzantine army at Ajnadayn. Abu Ubaidah then sent for reinforcements. Abu Bakr ordered Khalid, who by now was planning to attack 3089:

conceit. Do not keep your doors shut in their faces, lest the more powerful of them eat up the weaker ones. And do not behave as if you were superior to them, for that is tyranny over them.

635:. It was ruled by the first four successive caliphs of Muhammad after his death in 632 CE. During its existence, the empire was the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in 2675:

and captured a large part of the island. Soon after this, Uthman was murdered, ending his expansionist policy, and the Muslims accordingly retreated from Sicily. In 655 Byzantine Emperor

1268:. Whether or not he intended a full-out imperial conquest is hard to say; he did, however, set in motion a historical trajectory that in just a few short decades would lead to one of the 1637:

as part of a Kharijite plot to assassinate all the different Islamic leaders in an attempt to end the civil war, but the Kharijites failed to assassinate Mu'awiya and 'Amr ibn al-'As.

11390: 2412:). The power of the Byzantine Empire was shattered during the Muslim conquest of Syria, and therefore the conquest of Egypt was much easier. In 639 some 4000 Rashidun troops led by 4114:

Hoyland also questions the alleged moral superiority of the Rashidun (or at least of Uthman and Ali) to their Umayyad successors, noting Ali was involved in the first civil war (

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advised that the amount should be kept for future needs. Walid bin Hisham suggested that, like the Byzantines, separate departments of treasury and accounts should be set up.

4044:, was a nine-mile (14 km) long canal which brought water from the Tigris to Basra. The Maqal canal was also dug from the Tigris. The Amir al-Mu'minin canal, named for a 4253:

up to of their successor states such as the area Transoxiana from area located in between the Jihun River(Oxus/Amu Darya) and Syr Darya, to Sindh (present day Pakistan), by

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was a reciprocal 10% levy on agricultural land as well as merchandise imported from states that taxed the Muslims on their products. Umar was the first Muslim ruler to levy

1542:, a garrison city in Iraq. Soon thereafter, Ali dismissed several provincial governors, some of whom were relatives of Uthman, and replaced them with trusted aides, such as 7341: 4211:. They also possessed spears and daggers. Umar was the first Muslim ruler to organize the army as a state department, in 637. A beginning was made with the Quraysh and the 1420:, while in the latter half of his reign he met increasing opposition, led by the Egyptians and concentrated around Ali, who would albeit briefly, succeed Uthman as caliph. 3713:, women, children, monks, the old, the sick, hermits and the poor were all exempt. In addition to the exemptions, some needy non-Muslims were given stipends by the state. 1098:, initially refused to acknowledge his authority. Ali may have been reasonably expected to assume leadership, being both cousin and son-in-law to Muhammad. The theologian 737:

in 661 by Mu'awiya. The civil war permanently consolidated the divide between Sunni and Shia Muslims, with Shia Muslims believing Ali to be the first rightful caliph and

4111:

by name and the date of his death, and there were also coins struck during his rule (although as Hoyland notes, they do not bear his name, simply "In the name of God,")

3484:

After consulting the Companions, Umar decided to establish the central Treasury at Medina. Abdullah bin Arqam was appointed as the Treasury Officer. He was assisted by

4056:. During the famine of 639, grain was brought from Egypt to Arabia through this canal, which saved the lives of millions. The Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas canal, named for the 444: 419: 405: 391: 377: 1239:

Abu Bakr planned his strategy accordingly. He divided the Muslim army into several corps. The strongest corps, and the primary force of the Muslims, was the corps of

792:

in the east. The four Rashidun caliphs were chosen by a small electoral body - consisting of prominent members of the high-ranking companions of the Prophet - called

3445:) was the department that dealt with the revenues and all other economic matters of the state. In the time of Muhammad, there was no permanent Bait-ul-Mal or public 2348:

to enter into negotiations with Muawiyah. The truce that followed allowed a short respite and made it possible for Constans II to hold on to the western portions of

2155:

to the overall command of the Muslim armies. The conquest of Syria slowed down under him while he relied heavily on the advice of Khalid, who he kept close at hand.

2175:; Yazid was stationed in Damascus while Amr and Shurhabil marched south to capture Palestine. While the Muslims were at Fahl, sensing the weak defense of Damascus, 1822:. These devastating defeats ended Persian control over Iraq. In December 633, Khalid reached the border city of Firaz, where he defeated the combined forces of the 9531: 2288:

surrendered on 30 October 637 CE. Later during the year, Abu Ubaidah sent Khalid and Iyad ibn Ghanm at the head of two separate armies against the western part of

3980:

were enlarged first during the reign of Umar and then during the reign of Uthman ibn Affan, who not only expanded them but also beautified them on a large scale.

2639:

but Umar rejected the proposal because of the risk to the soldiers. Once Uthman became caliph, however, he approved Muawiyah's request. In 650, Muawiyah attacked

11385: 9413: 8781: 2737:, which were also provided 'protection' by the Caliphate and were not expected to fight. Sometimes, particularly when there were not enough qualified Muslims, 1645:

choose the next leader (this treaty would later be broken by Mu'awiya as he named his son Yazid I successor). Hasan was assassinated, and Mu'awiya founded the

1574:. Ali emerged victoriously and the dispute was settled. The eminent companions of Muhammad, Talha, and Zubayr, were killed in the battle and Ali sent his son 2521:

Uthman gave him permission after considering it in the Majlis al-Shura. A force of 10,000 soldiers was sent as reinforcement. The Rashidun army assembled in

1478:. It was later discovered that the order to kill the rebels did not, in fact, originate from Uthman, but was, rather, part of a conspiracy to overthrow him. 1810:

In November 633, Khalid divided his army into three units, and attacked these auxiliaries one by one from three different sides at night, starting with the

7670: 9398: 2647:, after a brief siege, but signed a treaty with the local rulers. During this expedition, a relative of Muhammad, Umm-Haram, fell from her mule near the 2240:

and reached Qasreen before Abu Ubaidah. The city surrendered to Khalid, and soon after, Abu Ubaidah arrived in June 637. Abu Ubaidah then moved against

62: 5969: 1870:

followed, with the Persians prevailing at first, but, on the third day of fighting, the Muslims gained the upper hand. The legendary Persian general

3270:. The first four caliphs are called the Rashidun, meaning the Rightly Guided Caliphs, because they are believed to have followed the Qur'an and the 11405: 9497: 7546: 1342:

While the caliphate continued its rapid expansion, Umar laid the foundations of a political structure that could hold it together. He created the

3856:

amount of the allowance to the stipend should be determined beforehand and this allowance should be paid regardless of the amount of the spoils.

1284:, but the decisive operation was only undertaken when Khalid, after completing the conquest of Iraq, was transferred to the Syrian front in 634. 1280:. He sent general Khalid ibn al-Walid to invade the Sassanian Empire in 633. He thereafter also sent four armies to invade the Roman province of 1086:, would likely result in dissension as only they can command the necessary respect among the community. He then took Umar and another companion, 6407:

Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen Gibb; Johannes Hendrik Kramers; Bernard Lewis; Charles Pellat; Joseph Schacht (1970). "The Encyclopaedia of Islam".

11415: 3400:, kinship or prejudice. There were also a number of cases where caliphs had to appear before judges as they prepared to deliver their verdict. 2447:, and the incompetence of the Byzantine generals, as well as the loss of most of the Byzantine troops in Syria. Cyrus had persecuted the local 1684:

to the invading Rashidun army, although the civil wars among the Muslims halted the war of conquest for many years, and this gave time for the

1413:

clan of the Quraysh. He was the second cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad and one of the early converts of Islam. Uthman was ultimately chosen.

10179: 3655:, that over a certain amount unused for a year) to give to the poor. All and only those persons whose annual wealth exceeded a minimum level ( 2458:

In 645, during Uthman's reign, the Byzantines briefly regained Alexandria, but it was retaken by Amr in 646. In 654 an invasion fleet sent by

965:

Notably, according to Sunnis, all four Rashidun Caliphs were connected to Muhammad through marriage, were early converts to Islam, were among

5962: 2034: 6395:

He also foretold that there would be a caliphate for thirty years (the length of the Rashidun Caliphate) that would be followed by kingship.

3951:

making no contributions to development, were nevertheless often given stipends. On assuming office, Uthman increased these stipends by 25%.

11410: 6423: 3572:

were used to provide income for the needy, including the poor, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. According to the Islamic jurist

396: 3286:

or remove rulers in the Caliphate. This is usually when the rulers are not meeting public responsibilities obliged upon them under Islam.

2002:

After Khalid consolidated his control of Iraq, Abu Bakr sent four armies to Syria on the Byzantine front under four different commanders:

1889:, and Masabadhan. By the mid-7th century, the Arabs controlled all of Mesopotamia, including the area that is now the Iranian province of 9428: 3306:

upon the people if the caliph began to act with no regard for Islamic law. Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani said that to ignore such a situation is

2518:

sent raiding parties to the west, resulting in considerable booty and encouraging Sa'ad to propose a campaign to conquer the Exarchate.

2404:

In 639, Egypt was a prefecture of the Byzantine Empire. However, it had been occupied just a decade before by the Sasanian Empire under

8245: 7409:

Shadi Hamid (August 2003), "An Islamic Alternative? Equality, Redistributive Justice, and the Welfare State in the Caliphate of Umar",

7301: 4072:. This proposal, however, did not materialize due to unknown reasons, and it was 1200 years later that such a canal was dug—the modern 1497: 7606: 7575: 1775:, fought in mid-May of 633. In the last week of May 633, the capital city of Iraq fell to the Muslims after initial resistance in the 11345: 9502: 9418: 7269: 7126: 7104: 7074: 7044: 6999: 6979: 6963: 6943: 6919: 6899: 6883: 6867: 1553:

Demands to take revenge for the assassination of Caliph Uthman rose among parts of the population, and a large army of rebels led by

9519: 7531:

Zaman, M.Q., 1998. Sectarianism in Pakistan: The radicalization of Shi‘i and Sunni identities. Modern Asian Studies, 32(3), p. 691.

2655:

and was killed. She was buried in that same spot, which became a holy site for many local Muslims and Christians and, in 1816, the

3294:

argued that Islam is the goal of the ummah, so any ruler that deviates from this goal must be impeached. Al-Ghazali believed that

9482: 9403: 3170:

also were not allowed to engage in trade. Judges were appointed in sufficient numbers to staff every district with at least one.

7170: 11365: 11320: 9423: 8313: 6830: 3749:

represented war booty, four-fifths of which was distributed among serving soldiers, while one-fifth was allotted to the state.

2444: 2439:

The ease with which this valuable province was wrenched from the Byzantine Empire appears to have been due to the treachery of

1107:

which may have involved violence. However, after six months the group made peace with Abu Bakr and Ali offered him his fealty.

1416:

Uthman reigned for twelve years as a caliph. During the first half of his reign, he was the most popular caliph among all the

11325: 11132: 10514: 9433: 9390: 8214: 8130: 8066: 8045: 7901: 7394: 7212: 6774: 6746: 6716: 6041: 6000: 2171:

on 23 January 635, which proved to be the "Key to Palestine". After this battle Abu Ubaidah and Khalid marched north towards

1066:

clan. The general belief at the time was that the purpose of the meeting was for the Ansar to decide on a new leader of the

729:, who were former supporters of Ali, rebelled against both Ali and Mu'awiya after refusing to accept the arbitration in the 7424: 2448: 11038: 3651:) is the Islamic equivalent of a luxury tax. It was taken from the Muslims in the amount of 2.5% of their dormant wealth ( 3139:

annually besides their share of the spoils of war (if they were also the commander-in-chief of the army of their sector).

11360: 4245:

The early caliphate naval conquest managed to mark long time legacy of Islamic maritime enterprises from the Conquest of

3818:

Imports by citizens for trade purposes were subject to the customs duty or import tax at lower rates. In the case of the

1920:

was unable to raise another army and became a hunted fugitive. In 642 Umar sent the army to conquer the remainder of the

966: 590: 7148: 3959:

The evaluation greatly contributed to the prosperity of the citizens as trade increased, and their contributions to the

3392:

later formulated the concept of the rule of law, the equal subjection of all classes to the ordinary law of the land. A

1874:

was killed during the battle. According to some sources, the Persian losses were 20,000, and the Arabs lost 10,500 men.

1854:

in which Abu Ubayd was killed. The response was delayed until after a decisive Muslim victory against the Romans in the

1717: 1339:

under the control of the Rashidun Caliphate; Egypt was conquered by 642, and almost the entire Sassanian Empire by 643.

11375: 11184: 10184: 2626: 1743:

in margin/ Fire altar with ribbons and attendants; star and crescent flanking flames; date to left, mint name to right.

1451:

was raided in 652. The Rashidun army fully conquered the Sasanian Empire, and its eastern frontiers extended up to the

11380: 11355: 9828: 9285: 9239: 8899: 8893: 8181: 8106: 8085: 7992: 7880: 7852: 7788: 7311: 6388: 6363: 6302: 6269: 6244: 6219: 6112: 3943: 3710: 4142:

The Rashidun Military was the primary arm of the Islamic armed forces of the seventh century, serving alongside the

3469:

In the time of Umar, things changed. With each conquest, revenue increased. Umar also granted salaries to the army.

2316:, which were all conquered by Khalid in the autumn of 638 CE. During Uthman's reign, the Byzantines recaptured many 2022:, to march from Iraq to Syria with half his army. There were 2 major routes to Syria from Iraq, one passing through 11340: 9156: 9012: 8489: 8385: 6406: 3995:. These cities were laid out according to the principles of urban planning. All streets in these cities led to the 1144:

Troubles emerged soon after Muhammad's death, threatening the unity and stability of the new community and state.

11335: 10810: 9650: 9456: 6840: 6706: 6066: 4928: 1823: 1657:

The Rashidun Caliphate expanded steadily; within the span of 24 years, a vast territory was conquered comprising

9972: 7678: 6463: 4227:

Empire (Syria, 634–638), Khalid developed brilliant tactics that he used effectively against both enemy armies.

2801:

Under Abu Bakr, the empire was not clearly divided into provinces, though it had many administrative districts.

2143: 1790:, and eventually surrendered after a siege of a few weeks in July 633. Khalid then moved towards the south, and 11400: 9715: 9263: 9161: 8238: 8140: 8024: 6736: 5608: 3312:, and those who cannot revolt inside the caliphate should launch a struggle from outside. Al-Asqalani used two 3258:, the rules of life set by Allah in the Qur'an). The job of adjudicating orthodoxy and Islamic law was left to 2676: 2459: 725:), who believed that Uthman's murderers should be punished immediately. Additionally, a third faction known as 7270:"The Muslims Internet Directory: e Process of Choosing the Leader (Caliph) of the Muslims: The Muslim Khilafa" 4160: 1755:. After entering Iraq with his army of 18,000, Khalid won decisive victories in four consecutive battles: the 147: 11350: 11248: 9073: 8832: 8509: 7439:

Shahid Alam, Articulating Group Differences: A Variety of Autocentrisms, Journal of Science and Society, 2003

4607: 4508: 3885: 2840: 1986: 8148: 5173: 4134:

The stark differences in these two views has led to sectarian tension that has even culminated in violence.

3576:(Algazel, 1058–1111), the government was also expected to stockpile food supplies in every region in case a 2462:

was repulsed. After this, no serious effort was made by the Byzantines to regain possession of the country.

2320:

in the region and on Uthman's orders, a series of campaigns were launched to regain control of them. In 647

11370: 11243: 11127: 9635: 9612: 9222: 9078: 9068: 8974: 8627: 3330:

against them. Many noted that this option is only exercised after factoring in the potential cost of life.

2671:

and conquered them without much resistance. From 652 to 654, the Muslims launched a naval campaign against

2363:

in Turkey marked the western frontiers of the Rashidun Caliphate in Anatolia during Caliph Uthman's reign.

3663:

did not include one's primary residence, primary transportation, a moderate amount of woven jewelry, etc.

3499: 11395: 11310: 11253: 10290: 9737: 9602: 9408: 9176: 8969: 8346: 6211: 4207:

shields were also used as protection in combat. The soldiers were usually equipped with swords hung in a

2557:. When the stipulated amount of the tribute was paid, the Muslim forces withdrew to Barqa. Following the 1104: 5103: 11330: 9487: 9370: 8887: 8306: 8016: 7542: 7386: 1799: 7913:"Reformasi Sistem Administrasi Pemerintahan, Penakhlukkan di Darat Dan Dilautan Pada Era Bani Umayyah" 2995:. Each of the 100 or more districts of the empire, along with the main cities, were administered by a 2988:), the remaining ten provinces were under his control, with no change in administrative organization. 2256: 1867: 674:

clan. Under Umar, the caliphate expanded at an unprecedented rate, ruling more than two-thirds of the

11211: 10359: 9923: 9580: 9567: 9268: 9097: 8793: 8515: 8478: 8231: 6424:"The Khilaafah Lasted for 30 Years Then There Was Kingship Which Allaah Gives To Whomever He Pleases" 6140: 4501: 3530:

three dang. Umar (or Uthman, according to some accounts) first struck an Islamic dirham of six dang.

2281: 2152: 2003: 1697: 1316: 1087: 246: 7893:

Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God [2 volumes]

2420:. The Rashidun army crossed into Egypt from Palestine in December 639 and advanced rapidly into the 2385: 11169: 11144: 10994: 10653: 10648: 9732: 9451: 9275: 9048: 8528: 7872: 7838: 6128: 5852: 4064:, the governor of Egypt during the reign of Umar, even proposed the digging of a canal to join the 3709:

imposed on able bodied non-Muslim men of military age since non-Muslims did not have to pay zakāt.

3699: 3239: 3069:

In some districts there were separate military officers, though the governor was in most cases the

2606: 2538: 2372: 2229: 2109: 1882: 1616: 1324: 1320: 937: 6608:, Volume 4, ed. William Bayne Fisher, Richard Nelson Frye (Cambridge University Press, 1999), 5–6. 4578: 3724:

was the income from State land, whether an agricultural land or a meadow or land with any natural

11236: 11117: 10658: 10611: 10554: 10253: 10197: 9945: 9590: 8401: 6762: 5598: 4076:. Shuaibia was the port for Mecca, but it was inconvenient, so Uthman had a new seaport built at 4041: 4040:

were dug to irrigate fields as well as provide drinking water. The Abu Musa canal, named for the

3935: 3848: 3533: 2594: 2271:

Abu Ubaidah and Khalid ibn al-Walid, after conquering all of northern Syria, moved north towards

1863: 1846:

to delay war until reinforcement came from Medina. Umar sent reinforcements under the command of

1468: 1372: 1269: 1003: 906: 583: 283: 8555: 6835: 4215:

and the system was gradually extended to the whole of Arabia and to Muslims of conquered lands.

3489:

salaries and stipends charged to the central treasury amounted to over 30 million dirhams.

2104:

between the Muslims and Byzantines and cleared the way for the former to capture central Syria.

1359:

With the bounty secured from conquest, Umar was able to support its faith in material ways: the

1231: 646:

The caliphate arose following Muhammad’s passing in June 632 and the subsequent debate over the

528: 11258: 11159: 11154: 10842: 10790: 10710: 10643: 10547: 10532: 10425: 10192: 10146: 9987: 9874: 9747: 9676: 9645: 9575: 8499: 8494: 8412: 5703: 5648: 4497: 4266: 2151:

On 22 August 634, Abu Bakr died, making Umar his successor. As Umar became caliph, he restored

1356:. These new posts were integral to the efficient network of taxation that financed the empire. 1312: 1281: 1114: 1024: 745: 738: 663: 647: 617: 233: 7891: 6492: 6102: 2733:

The Rashidun caliphs had placed special emphasis on relatively fair and just treatment of the

1680:, the Byzantines, after losing Syria, retreated back to Anatolia. As a result, they also lost 1006:, towards the end times, the Rightly Guided Caliphate will be restored once again by God. The 11189: 11149: 10962: 10837: 9901: 9891: 9850: 9821: 9693: 9671: 8422: 8299: 8198: 7986: 7228: 5693: 5663: 4597: 4434: 4089: 4061: 3910: 3668: 3549: 3299: 2985: 2515: 2507: 2475: 2245: 1791: 1590: 1558: 1099: 11077: 7614: 7583: 7369: 4262: 2984:'s control) and Egypt (lost during the latter years of his caliphate to the rebel troops of 1899: 1702: 1371:

While Umar was leading the morning prayers in 644, he was assassinated by the Persian slave

11282: 11112: 11082: 10957: 10888: 10859: 10778: 10112: 9950: 9940: 9350: 9257: 9202: 8194: 5837: 5718: 4627: 4439: 4240: 4143: 4057: 3852:

a consensus was reached to distribute whatever was received during a year to the citizens.

3844: 3485: 2781: 2425: 2405: 2192: 2158: 2128: 2080: 2015: 2011: 1941: 1877:

Following this Battle, the Arab Muslim armies pushed forward toward the Persian capital of

1851: 1847: 1798:, was trapped among the rebel tribes. Khalid diverted there and defeated the rebels in the 297: 11062: 7277: 7178: 7134: 7112: 7082: 7052: 7003: 6983: 6959: 6939: 6923: 6903: 6879: 6871: 2455:, a seventh-century heresy, and some supposed him to have been a secret convert to Islam. 1991: 1871: 8: 11315: 10974: 10854: 10820: 10722: 10542: 10537: 10349: 10068: 10004: 9879: 9864: 9585: 9461: 9355: 9171: 8610: 8407: 6340: 5990: 5927: 4938: 4518: 4250: 4045: 3879: 3396:(Islamic judge) was also not allowed to discriminate on the grounds of religion, gender, 2753: 2688: 2542: 2503: 2440: 2377: 2085: 1707: 1626: 1571: 1510: 1306: 1240: 548: 10690: 10680: 5243: 2026:

and the other through Daumat ul-Jandal. Khalid took an unconventional route through the

1235:

Tombs of caliphs: Abu Bakr and Umar (right), Medina, present-day Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

11087: 11067: 11050: 11001: 10866: 10675: 10626: 10559: 10477: 10418: 10413: 10408: 10364: 10334: 10124: 9992: 9967: 9752: 9666: 9597: 9507: 9443: 9251: 9227: 8904: 8882: 8842: 8684: 8587: 8504: 8395: 8155:. Brussels: Éditions de l'Institut de philologie et d'histoire orientales. p. 90. 7974: 7966: 7934: 7826: 7818: 7346: 6144: 6083: 6005: 5995: 5633: 5398: 5283: 5143: 4868: 3412: 3404: 3383: 3070: 2590: 2470:, Egypt was captured by rebel troops under the command of former Rashidun army general 2097: 1787: 1594: 1554: 1547: 1393: 1336: 1244: 901: 870: 863:) to be followed and emulated from a religious point of view. This term is not used by 576: 8750: 5223: 2561:, the first Islamic civil war, Muslim forces withdrew from north Africa to Egypt. The 2292:, most of which was conquered without strong resistance, including parts of Anatolia, 1423:

Despite internal troubles, Uthman continued the wars of conquest started by Umar. The

733:. The war led to the overthrow of the Rashidun Caliphate and the establishment of the 11196: 11092: 11028: 11023: 10952: 10849: 10564: 10492: 10487: 10329: 10258: 10241: 10236: 10231: 10031: 9982: 9727: 9722: 9627: 9617: 9607: 9280: 9166: 9118: 8961: 8872: 8575: 8565: 8560: 8550: 8545: 8378: 8210: 8177: 8156: 8126: 8102: 8081: 8062: 8041: 8020: 7978: 7938: 7897: 7876: 7848: 7830: 7784: 7390: 7307: 7208: 6770: 6742: 6732: 6712: 6384: 6359: 6298: 6265: 6240: 6215: 6156: 6108: 6037: 5743: 5588: 5193: 4833: 4823: 4813: 4698: 4612: 4254: 4127: 4099: 3931: 3917: 3860: 3508: 3182:

caliphs were chosen by a small electoral body consisting of prominent members of the

2888: 2812: 2765: 2656: 2648: 2636: 2562: 2289: 2217: 2046: 1961: 1859: 1646: 1581:

Thereafter, there rose another cry for revenge for the blood of Uthman, this time by

1436: 1149: 1095: 757: 734: 538: 533: 510: 505: 500: 437: 7240:

The Cambridge History of Islam, ed. P.M. Holt, Ann K.S. Lambton, and Bernard Lewis,

6858:

A. I. Alkram. "Chapter 19: The Battle of Chains – Chapter 26: The Last Opposition".

6844: 6294: 3094:

his reign, at the time of appointment, every officer was required to swear an oath:

993:). According to Sunni Muslims, the term Rashidun Caliphate is derived from a famous 11045: 10832: 10827: 10783: 10770: 10700: 10668: 10663: 10527: 10522: 10504: 10465: 10398: 10381: 10322: 10312: 10307: 10248: 10204: 10174: 10134: 10117: 10100: 10063: 9814: 9757: 9742: 9492: 9197: 8919: 8857: 8847: 8837: 8822: 8570: 8473: 8445: 8333: 8173: 8116: 7958: 7924: 7810: 6826: 6152: 6136: 6075: 5897: 5893: 5882: 5863: 5528: 5508: 5488: 5408: 5203: 5083: 5008: 4998: 4948: 4878: 4778: 4728: 4523: 4258: 3973: 3478: 3397: 3123: 2959: 2915:

During Uthman's reign the caliphate was divided into twelve provinces. These were:

2541:, the Exarchate was defeated and Gregory was killed due to the superior tactics of 2360: 2305: 2261: 2124: 1929: 1894: 1819: 1811: 1772: 1764: 1756: 1685: 1621: 1586: 1261: 1249: 999: 730: 675: 640: 543: 11263: 11231: 11104: 11072: 11055: 11011: 11006: 10984: 10979: 10937: 10930: 10905: 10765: 10760: 10601: 10482: 10376: 10371: 10339: 10164: 10154: 10048: 10041: 10036: 10021: 9977: 9859: 9845: 9683: 9380: 9325: 9125: 8811: 8771: 8660: 8616: 8390: 8120: 8096: 8056: 8035: 8010: 7866: 7844:

The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu: Translated from Zotenberg's Ethiopic Text

7842: 7778: 7571: 7428: 7202: 6333: 6031: 5833: 5803: 5568: 5558: 5468: 5448: 5338: 5273: 5233: 5213: 5123: 5048: 5038: 5028: 4988: 4958: 4898: 4888: 4768: 4718: 4530: 4424: 3977: 3195: 2644: 2389: 2329: 2237: 2070: 1911: 1881:(also called Madā'in in Arabic), which was quickly evacuated by Yazdgird after a 1831: 1815: 1768: 1760: 1670: 1543: 1311:, which later became the standard title of caliphs. The new caliph continued the 1277: 1265: 890: 801: 781: 687: 679: 608: 410: 382: 36: 10685: 7420: 6489:

Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God

3298:

by a caliph is enough for impeachment. Rather than just relying on impeachment,

3122:

Caliph Umar himself followed the above postulates strictly. During the reign of

2356:, but this plan was not carried out due to the civil war that broke out in 656. 1224:, community) of which he was the new head. The result of this situation was the 1110: 480: 11206: 11201: 11164: 11139: 11122: 11033: 11018: 10989: 10947: 10795: 10755: 10750: 10705: 10631: 10591: 10581: 10571: 10386: 10265: 10159: 10026: 9908: 9795: 9512: 9365: 9207: 8909: 6061: 6057: 5908: 5818: 5762: 5538: 5428: 5358: 5058: 4199:), the one under the main one being shorter or even made of fabric or leather. 4023: 3947: 3903: 3896: 3416: 3343: 3099: 2964: 2706: 2660: 2530: 2353: 2186: 2168: 2101: 2089: 1921: 1843: 1827: 1795: 1776: 1722: 1593:, pronouncing his support for Mu'awiya. After this Ali was forced to fight the 1197: 1063: 7962: 7814: 7156: 744:

The Rashidun Caliphate is characterized by a twenty-five-year period of rapid

11304: 11287: 11174: 10969: 10942: 10915: 10893: 10871: 10638: 10621: 10606: 10450: 10403: 10391: 10317: 10209: 10083: 10078: 10053: 9935: 9698: 9525: 9375: 8914: 8877: 8852: 8689: 8160: 8152: 7929: 7912: 5788: 5293: 5153: 4637: 4633: 4302: 4212: 4185: 4155: 4065: 3996: 3892: 3822:, the rate was 5% and, in the case of the Muslims, 2.5%, the same as that of 3585: 2949: 2944: 2896: 2860: 2854: 2471: 2413: 2317: 2027: 2007: 1917: 1886: 1711: 1641: 1575: 1424: 1192:, who arose before Muhammad's death; other centers of the rebels were in the 1039: 925: 765: 753: 715: 10715: 10695: 6287: 6079: 4661: 3238:

has said that the leader of the Muslims should simply be from the majority.

1260:

After Abu Bakr unified Arabia under Islam, he began the incursions into the

756:

numbered more than 100,000 men at its peak. By the 650s, in addition to the

11179: 10920: 10910: 10876: 10805: 10800: 10727: 10517: 10499: 10460: 10455: 10435: 10430: 10302: 10295: 10285: 10280: 10275: 10169: 10107: 10088: 10073: 10009: 9785: 9710: 9360: 9212: 9090: 8806: 8655: 8640: 8354: 7946: 6132: 5792: 5263: 5018: 3983:

During the caliphate of Umar, many new cities were founded. These included

3875:

The main provisions of the final scale of allowance approved by Umar were:

3787: 3369: 3282:

Sunni Islamic lawyers have commented on when it is permissible to disobey,

3235: 3046: 2909: 2769: 2554: 2550: 2546: 2297: 2206: 2120: 2050: 1842:, while Mithna ibn Haris withdrew from central Iraq to the region near the 1783: 1606: 1515: 1428: 1181: 864: 851:) means "rightly-guided". The reign of these four caliphs is considered in 785: 769: 566: 7611:

The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State

7580:

The Armies of the Caliphs: Military and Society in the Early Islamic State

6062:"Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia" 4195:. There are also references to the practice of wearing two coats of mail ( 3377:, the daughter of Muhammad (my daughter) stole, I would cut off her hand." 2228:

Khalid was recognized and eventually, Caliph Umar ibn Al Khattab came and

2216:

Nothing further happened until the third week of August, during which the

1893:. It is said that Caliph Umar did not wish to send his troops through the 10898: 10883: 10732: 10445: 10354: 10344: 10270: 9918: 9913: 9337: 8827: 8735: 8635: 8522: 8206: 7862: 5652: 5418: 5328: 5113: 4968: 4918: 4619: 4115: 3512: 3470: 3464: 3433: 3408: 3353: 3283: 3221: 2878: 2874: 2749: 2558: 2452: 2432:, which was surrendered to him by a treaty signed on 8 November 641. The 2345: 2038: 2030:, and after a perilous march of 5 days, appeared in north-western Syria. 2023: 1937: 1933: 1839: 1748: 1658: 1589:, and then lost a controversial arbitration that ended with the arbiter, 1492: 1328: 1161: 970: 959: 882: 852: 749: 707: 699: 310: 269: 8080:. Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide. Oxford University Press. 7822: 7798: 4488: 4415: 4340: 2352:. In 654–655, on the orders of Uthman, an expedition prepared to attack 666:. His brief reign ended in August 634 when he died and was succeeded by 10925: 10742: 10616: 10576: 10509: 9640: 8722: 8679: 8650: 8002:

In God's Path: the Arab Conquests and the Creation of an Islamic Empire

6087: 5938: 5578: 5548: 5378: 5183: 4748: 4359: 4204: 4122: 4104: 4073: 3924: 3888:, the uncle of Muhammad, received an annual allowance of 7,000 dirhams; 3703: 3573: 3569: 3516: 3327: 3295: 3291: 2981: 2954: 2904: 2892: 2632: 2549:

sued for peace, agreeing to pay an annual tribute. Instead of annexing

2429: 2421: 2409: 2325: 2324:, the governor of Syria, sent an expedition against Anatolia, invading 2321: 2147:

Syrian tile panel (c. 1600) with the names of the four Rashidun Caliphs

2074: 1949: 1804: 1752: 1734: 1726: 1634: 1598: 1582: 1225: 1189: 1177: 928:

debated which of them should succeed him in running the affairs of the

918: 789: 726: 711: 424: 7970: 7171:"John, Bishop of Nikiu: Chronicle. London (1916). English Translation" 10815: 10586: 10470: 10440: 10221: 10095: 9886: 9345: 8776: 8718: 8665: 8533: 7241: 5923: 5878: 5848: 5773: 5758: 5163: 5133: 4978: 4738: 4678: 4371: 4364: 4270: 4192: 4010:

quarters, government offices and residences for officers were sited.

3504: 3303: 3026: 3013: 2848: 2635:, sent a request to build a naval force to invade the islands of the 2614: 2602: 2526: 2222: 2176: 2132: 2057:

were the first to fall to the invading Muslims. Khalid marched on to

2019: 1969: 1890: 1878: 1807:

Arab auxiliaries were present at Hanafiz, Zumiel, Sanni, and Muzieh.

1475: 1432: 1185: 1071: 655: 636: 628: 463: 140: 86: 8199:"The Rightly Guided Caliphs: The Range of Views Preserved in Ḥadīth" 3769:

Initially, after the first Muslim conquests in the seventh century,

1733:) mint. Dated YE 25 = AH 36 (AD 656). Sasanian style bust imitating 855:

to have been 'rightly-guided', meaning that it constitutes a model (

10216: 9999: 9957: 9896: 9688: 9184: 9042: 8994: 8788: 8694: 8645: 8373: 8265: 8223: 8147:. Corpus Bruxellense Historiae Byzantinae (in French). French ed.: 6708:

Parable and Politics in Early Islamic History: The Rashidun Caliphs

5707: 5478: 5438: 5388: 5348: 5253: 4908: 4858: 4758: 4446: 4378:

On 23 August 634, Abu Bakr fell sick and he developed a high fever.

4316: 4294: 4181: 4169: 3577: 3565: 3452: 3446: 3357: 3263: 3179: 3056: 3023: 2996: 2992: 2805: 2620: 2578: 2490: 2301: 2272: 2210: 2136: 2105: 2062: 1953: 1730: 1677: 1666: 1610: 1417: 1172:. In some cases, entire tribes apostatized. Others merely withheld 1165: 1145: 975: 941: 914: 835: 671: 651: 632: 166: 6239:(illustrated ed.). Hymns Ancient and Modern Ltd. p. 37. 3496:, which, in large cities, was protected by as many as 400 guards. 2776: 2573: 2115: 10129: 10058: 10014: 9869: 9703: 9299: 8987: 8867: 8745: 8740: 8727: 8711: 8704: 8699: 8431: 8203:

Political Quietism in Islam: Sunni and Shi'i Practice and Thought

6356:

Muslim Nationhood in India: Perceptions of Seven Eminent Thinkers

6163: 5867: 5777: 5747: 5682: 5518: 5498: 5458: 5368: 5303: 5093: 4708: 4590: 4208: 4200: 4173: 4165: 4069: 4053: 3790:

paid by dhimmis. Muslim landowners, on the other hand, paid only

3725: 3537: 3520: 3474: 3374: 3259: 3251: 3183: 3149: 3036: 2980:

During Ali's reign, with the exception of Syria (which was under

2974: 2652: 2598: 2534: 2511: 2495: 2433: 2417: 2349: 2341: 2337: 2333: 2313: 2285: 2265: 2181: 2054: 1957: 1903: 1738: 1410: 1083: 1028: 1007: 945: 886: 867:, who reject the rule of the first three caliphs as illegitimate. 777: 9930: 8125:. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. p. 268. 7049:

The Sword of Allah: Khalid bin Al-Waleed: His Life and Campaigns

3492:

A separate building was constructed for the royal treasury, the

3001: 2196:

Map detailing the route of the Muslim invasion of northern Syria

1932:(which included the modern Iranian Khorasan province and modern 741:

after Muhammad, favouring his bloodline connection to Muhammad.

9962: 9837: 9217: 9191: 9150: 9111: 9028: 8941: 8862: 8764: 8674: 8605: 8600: 8367: 8291: 8275: 6622:

Battles That Changed History: An Encyclopedia of World Conflict

6293:(illustrated, annotated ed.). Marshall Cavendish. p. 5942: 5822: 5678: 4688: 4636:

in 661. He ruled for five to six months and then abdicated for

4464: 4246: 4077: 3992: 3775: 3758: 3581: 3541: 3349: 3339: 3308: 3271: 3136: 3078: 2919: 2844: 2820: 2757: 2700: 2687:) but it was defeated: both sides suffered heavy losses in the 2680: 2672: 2668: 2640: 2309: 2293: 2241: 2209:

defeated the Christian Arab auxiliaries of the Roman army in a

2162:

Map detailing the route of the Muslim invasion of central Syria

2042: 1996: 1945: 1855: 1662: 1602: 1535: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1402: 1376: 1365: 1360: 1303:) as his successor. Upon his accession, Umar adopted the title 1292:

Before dying in August 634 from an illness, Abu Bakr appointed

1157: 994: 929: 922: 858: 761: 683: 659: 345: 193: 112: 96: 68: 8145:

Byzance et les Arabes, Tome I: La dynastie d'Amorium (820–867)

7783:, Cambridge, New York, Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, 6383:. Sira: Companion- versus Caliph-Oriented History: Routledge. 4006:

Many buildings were built for administrative purposes. In the

10596: 9466: 9291: 9245: 9233: 9035: 9021: 8980: 8757: 8595: 8452: 8438: 8359: 8322: 7576:"Chapter Seven: Weapons and equipment in early Muslim armies" 6578:

Citizenship in the Arab World: Kin, Religion and Nation-state

6208:

Indonesia, Islam, and Democracy: Dynamics in a Global Context

6010: 5912: 5667: 5637: 4349: 4095: 4037: 3988: 3795: 3737: 3680: 3656: 3637: 3389: 3365: 3267: 3229: 3189: 2969: 2939: 2929: 2924: 2870: 2864: 2830: 2816: 2761: 2726: 2684: 2664: 2586: 2522: 2397: 2393: 2260:

Map detailing the route of Khalid ibn al-Walid's invasion of

2172: 2058: 1965: 1681: 1566: 1562: 1502: 1452: 1343: 1332: 1214: 1173: 1153: 1075: 1067: 795: 773: 682:. Umar was assassinated in November 644 and was succeeded by 130: 7705: 6234: 2233:

sent to Hazir and Abu Ubaidah moved to the city of Qasreen.

67:

The Rashidun Caliphate at its greatest extent, under Caliph

9132: 9104: 9054: 9001: 8946: 8459: 8270: 7693: 7638: 6677:. 3. Arab Renaissance House – Beirut, Lebanon. p. 370. 5807: 4389: 4108: 4049: 4019: 3984: 3393: 3313: 3157: 3132: 2934: 2884: 2834: 2826: 2785: 2610: 2276: 2244:, with Khalid, as usual, commanding the cavalry. After the 1925: 1907: 1782:

After resting his armies, Khalid moved in June 633 towards

1539: 1435:

and even raided Spain, conquering the coastal areas of the

1348: 1293: 1273: 1193: 1169: 933: 881:, imitating Byzantine coins, featuring a Byzantine figure ( 703: 667: 181: 101: 9806: 8012:

The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate

7717: 3161:(judges) were appointed at all administrative levels. The 2589:

during the Caliphate of Umar in 642, but failed after the

1010:

believe the first three caliphs to be legitimate leaders.

714:

was unrecognized by Uthman's kinsman and Syria's governor

8280: 7729: 7370:

https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/coins-and-coinage-

6795: 6104:

Managing Diversity in Organizations: A Global Perspective

4564: 4548: 3706: 3553: 3250:

Following the death of Muhammad, a meeting took place at

2479: 2467: 1524: 1506: 1406: 695: 205: 11391:

States and territories disestablished in the 7th century

7253: 6127: 3411:

were replaced by a law governed by the state due to the

3386:

were suspended until the effects of the drought passed.

3242:

also wrote that the leader must come from the majority.

2609:. As the Muslims were unable to overpower Makuria, they 2436:

seems to have surrendered with scarcely any opposition.

1070:

among themselves, with the intentional exclusion of the

7890:

Fitzpatrick, Coeli; Walker, Adam Hani (25 April 2014).

7753: 7741: 7650: 6688: 6686: 6684: 6668: 6666: 6664: 6662: 6660: 6658: 3081:, and read the instrument of instructions before them. 2502:

After the withdrawal of the Byzantines from Egypt, the

2381:

Map detailing the route of the Muslim invasion of Egypt

1995:

Map detailing the Rashidun Caliphate's invasion of the

1078:), though this has later become the subject of debate. 1038:

After Muhammad's death in June 632, a gathering of the

6643: 6381:

Medieval Islamic Historiography: Remembering Rebellion

6260:

Anheier, Helmut K.; Juergensmeyer, Mark, eds. (2012).

6131:; Marín, Manuela; Ayalon, A. (1960–2007). "Shūrā". In 4094:

Some secular scholars have questioned the traditional

4080:. Uthman also reformed the city's police departments. 3118:

That he would always keep his door open to the public.

2510:, its dominions extended from the borders of Egypt to 1565:, set out to fight the perpetrators. The army reached 1534:) was elected caliph by the rebels and townspeople of 1128: Expansion during the Rashidun Caliphate, 632–661 6807: 6175: 3584:

occurred. The Caliphate was thus one of the earliest

3407:, the legal scholars and jurists who once upheld the 2605:

in the center of the city, but Makuria also won this

2416:

were sent by Umar to conquer the land of the ancient

2248:

the city finally agreed to surrender in October 637.

1850:. This army was defeated by the Sasanian army at the 1134: Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661–750 932:

while Muhammad's household was busy with his burial.

7447: 7445: 6783: 6681: 6655: 6640:, Vol. 1, ed. Stanley Sandler (ABC-CLIO, 2002), 458. 6259: 4568: 4479: 4405: 4331: 3368:: The people of Quraish worried about the lady from 3187: 1975: 1834:. This was the last battle in his conquest of Iraq. 1523:

Following Uthman's assassination, Muhammad's cousin

1304: 987: 856: 841: 833: 793: 622: 44: 7949:(October 1972). "The Murder of the Caliph Uthman". 7868:

Muhammad and the Believers, at the Origins of Islam

6481: 6187: 3262:, judiciary, or specialists individually termed as 2804:Under Umar the Empire was divided into a number of 1315:begun by his predecessor, pushing further into the 948:soon following suit. Abu Bakr adopted the title of 8170:Justice Without Frontiers: Furthering Human Rights 7799:"Arab Attacks on Rhodes in the Pre-Ottoman Period" 6441: 6358:. Kanishka Publishers, Distributors. p. 173. 6332: 6286: 3591: 3173: 3084:Umar's general instructions to his officers were: 2741:were given important positions in the government. 2691:, and the emperor himself narrowly avoided death. 1767:, fought in May 633 (where he successfully used a 1691: 1255: 313:(internal conflict) ends after Hasan's abdication 7889: 7442: 7038: 7036: 6539: 6527: 6378: 4537:Assassinated at the end of a siege upon his house 3131:required to come to Mecca on the occasion of the 2694: 2568: 11302: 7613:. London: Routledge. p. 183. Archived from 7607:"Chapter Eight: Fortification and siege warfare" 7582:. London: Routledge. p. 168. Archived from 7374: 6760: 6284: 6036:. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 126–132. 4164:Rashidun soldier wears an iron-bronze helmet, a 3909:Those who had become Muslims by the time of the 3458: 3005:). Other officers at the provincial level were: 2709:, and Christians—in conquered lands were called 2621:Conquest of the islands of the Mediterranean Sea 1401:The committee narrowed down the choices to two: 7207:. Princeton University Press. pp. 10, 20. 7081:. The Sword of Allah. p. 1. Archived from 6597: 6595: 6330: 3798:, which carried a much lower rate of taxation. 3525:on their coins, instead of designing a new one. 2679:led a fleet in person to attack the Muslims at 2553:, the Muslims preferred to make North Africa a 2236:Khalid defeated a strong Byzantine army at the 2189:and eventually captured the city in March 636. 1914:, shattering the last strongest Sasanian army. 1609:, the coastal areas of Spain and some forts in 11386:States and territories established in the 630s 7780:A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period 7566: 7564: 7509: 7493: 7033: 6675:First Islamic Arab State (1–41 AH/ 623–661 CE) 6205: 6056: 3946:received an allowance of 3,000 dirhams, while 3403:According to Noah Feldman, a law professor at 2284:. The Muslim army defeated the Byzantines and 2185:and Chalcis, they marched against Emesa, laid 1980: 9822: 8307: 8239: 7463: 6638:Ground Warfare: An International Encyclopedia 5970: 4060:, brought water to Anbar from the Euphrates. 3838: 2529:, and from there they marched west, captured 2506:declared its independence. Under its exarch, 1763:, fought in the third week of April 633; the 1721:Coin of the Rashidun Caliphate. Imitation of 1018: 706:. Ali presided over the civil war called the 584: 334:6,400,000 km (2,500,000 sq mi) 11279:"Empire" as a description of foreign policy 7951:International Journal of Middle East Studies 7570: 7339: 7290:Sahih Bukhari, Volume 4, Book 56, Number 681 7149:"Catholic Encyclopedia: Cyrus of Alexandria" 7079:Khalid bin Al-Waleed: His Life and Campaigns 7028:Yarmuk 636 AD – The Muslim Conquest of Syria 6860:Khalid bin Al-Waleed: His Life and Campaigns 6592: 6572: 6570: 6568: 6566: 6469: 4555: 4471: 4396: 4323: 4014:were constructed to house official records. 3916:Those who became Muslims at the time of the 3693: 3646: 3115:That he would not keep a porter at his door. 2631:During Umar's reign, the governor of Syria, 1219: 1058:), the natives of Medina, took place in the 980: 953: 846: 467: 28: 8167: 7847:. Merchantville, NJ: Evolution Publishing. 7561: 7408: 7368:inscriptions like besmellāh in the margins. 7327: 7264: 7262: 6754: 6602:The Arab Conquest of Iran and its Aftermath 4276: 4003:, constructed from his personal resources. 3277: 3203: 2744: 2565:would later re-invade North Africa in 664. 1513:(16th-century miniature from a copy of the 1486: 1382: 1043: 809: 9829: 9815: 8314: 8300: 8246: 8232: 8168:Weeramantry, Judge Christopher G. (1997). 6421: 6353: 5977: 5963: 3826:. The levy was thus regarded as a part of 3596:The economic resources of the State were: 3142: 2485: 1462: 591: 577: 61: 8115: 8075: 7928: 7776: 7723: 7711: 6741:, Oxford University Press, p. 1892, 6563: 6181: 6094: 6029: 4172:leather armour. His sword is hung from a 2796: 2611:negotiated a mutual non-aggression treaty 2428:. Amr next proceeded in the direction of 2251: 2073:), effectively ending the dynasty of the 1287: 1033: 967:ten who were explicitly promised paradise 8193: 8139: 8037:A Concise History of Sunnis & Shi'is 8008: 7910: 7796: 7759: 7747: 7735: 7699: 7656: 7644: 7259: 6857: 6825: 6704: 6692: 6649: 6515: 6475: 6459: 6237:Understanding Islam: The First Ten Steps 6169: 4159: 4083: 3498: 2991:The provinces were further divided into 2863:was divided in two provinces: Aylya and 2775: 2748: 2572: 2489: 2384: 2376: 2344:in 650–651 forced the Byzantine Emperor 2255: 2191: 2157: 2142: 2114: 2079: 1990: 1716: 1701: 1624:, from a 14th-century manuscript of the 1615: 1496: 1481: 1230: 1109: 900: 869: 11406:7th-century disestablishments in Africa 11103: 7837: 7604: 7540: 7333: 6769:(6th ed.). New York: McGraw Hill. 6731: 6580:(Amsterdam University Press, 2009), 52. 6235:C. T. R. Hewer; Allan Anderson (2006). 4626:Assassinated during Fajr prayer in the 4022:were constructed for the first time in 3906:got an allowance of 6,000 dirhams each; 3073:of the army quartered in the province. 1122: Expansion under Muhammad, 622–632 905:Rashidun Caliphate at greatest extent ( 11303: 8054: 8033: 7861: 7454: 7299: 7254:Bosworth, Marín & Ayalon 1960–2007 7042: 6813: 6801: 6193: 6149:Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition 6100: 1649:, supplanting the Rashidun Caliphate. 658:clan, was elected the first caliph in 11416:7th-century disestablishments in Asia 9810: 9552: 9320: 8936: 8295: 8227: 7945: 7402: 7380: 7221: 7200: 6880:"Chapter 20: The Battle of the River" 6789: 6672: 6335:The first Muslims: history and memory 6107:. Taylor & Francis. p. 159. 6001:The ten to whom Paradise was promised 3274:(example) of Muhammad in all things. 2760:, the empire's first capital, in the 2478:, the governor of Egypt appointed by 2006:(acting as their supreme commander), 1652: 1387: 1188:was led by another supposed prophet, 702:clan, who transferred the capital to 9321: 8937: 8253: 8094: 7803:Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 7668: 7411:Renaissance: Monthly Islamic Journal 6980:"Chapter 25: Daumat-ul-Jandal Again" 6487:Coeli Fitzpatrick, Adam Hani Walker 6447: 4655:Historical Arab states and dynasties 4632:After his death he was succeeded by 4191:The standard form of body armor was 4018:was used to house royal treasuries. 3109:That he would not wear fine clothes. 2843:was divided into two provinces, the 2366: 1613:—were also lost to outside empires. 1352:) and a financial officer called an 1152:with the exception of the people in 11411:Historical transcontinental empires 8098:Islam and Contemporary Civilisation 7917:Jurnal Kajian Ekonomi Hukum Syariah 6960:"Chapter 24: Anbar and Ain-ut-Tamr" 6705:El-Hibri, Tayeb (19 October 2010). 4556: 4472: 4397: 4324: 4180:The Rashidun army was divided into 3694: 3647: 3199: 3112:That he would not eat sifted flour. 1220: 981: 954: 847: 805: 760:, the caliphate had subjugated the 670:, his appointed successor from the 612: 468: 29: 13: 7383:Medieval Islamic Political Thought 6940:"Chapter 23: The Conquest of Hira" 6868:"Chapter 19: The Battle of Chains" 6264:. Sage Publications. p. 151. 4176:, and he carries a leather shield. 3515:, the picture of the last emperor 2887:was divided into three provinces: 2784:, the empire's second capital, in 2627:History of Islam in southern Italy 2585:A campaign was undertaken against 2332:. In 648 the Rashidun army raided 748:followed by a five-year period of 14: 11427: 7797:Bosworth, C. Edmund (July 1996). 7488:Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy 7000:"Chapter 26: The Last Opposition" 6966:from the original on 6 March 2002 6946:from the original on 6 March 2002 6886:from the original on 6 March 2002 3316:from the Qur'an to justify this: 2705:The non-Muslim monotheists—Jews, 1976:Wars against the Byzantine Empire 1792:conquered the city of Ein ul Tamr 694:He was subsequently succeeded by 664:conquest of the Arabian Peninsula 16:First Islamic caliphate (632–661) 11346:History of the Arabian Peninsula 9791: 9790: 9779: 9300:Schools of islamic jurisprudence 8490:Timeline of the history of Islam 8321: 7549:from the original on 16 May 2011 7075:"Chapter 32: The Battle of Fahl" 6920:"Chapter 22: The River of Blood" 6900:"Chapter 21: The Hell of Walaja" 6862:. The Sword of Allah. p. 1. 6157:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_1063 5076:Western dynasties and caliphates 4660: 4577: 4487: 4414: 4339: 4234: 4149: 3813:. Umar issued instructions that 3766:was a tax on agricultural land. 2873:was divided into two provinces: 2829:was divided into two provinces, 2815:was divided into two provinces, 1633:In 661, Ali was assassinated by 1578:to escort Aisha back to Medina. 1538:. He transferred the capital to 874:Coin of the Rashidun Caliphate, 560: 479: 442: 417: 403: 389: 375: 9651:List of ex-Muslim organisations 8040:. Georgetown University Press. 7999: 7662: 7629: 7598: 7534: 7525: 7515: 7499: 7479: 7469: 7433: 7361: 7320: 7293: 7284: 7247: 7234: 7194: 7185: 7163: 7141: 7119: 7097: 7067: 7020: 6851: 6841:Encyclopedia Iranica Foundation 6819: 6725: 6698: 6627: 6611: 6583: 6554: 6545: 6533: 6521: 6509: 6496: 6453: 6415: 6411:. 3 (Parts 57–58). Brill: 1164. 6400: 6372: 6347: 6324: 6311: 6278: 6253: 6067:International Studies Quarterly 4453:Assassinated by a Persian slave 4385:23 August 634 – 3 November 644 3966: 3592:Economic resources of the State 3427: 3245: 3174:Electing or appointing a caliph 2451:. He was one of the authors of 1948:(part of modern-day Pakistan), 1692:Conquest of the Sasanian Empire 1529: 1298: 1256:Expeditions to Persia and Syria 979:, or "Rightly Guided" caliphs ( 720: 631:to succeed the Islamic prophet 529:Umayyad Caliphate in al-Andalus 8122:The Byzantine Revival, 780–842 7340:Noah Feldman (16 March 2008). 6738:Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium 6540:Fitzpatrick & Walker (2014 6528:Fitzpatrick & Walker (2014 6422:Aqidah.Com (1 December 2009). 6262:Encyclopedia of Global Studies 6228: 6199: 6121: 6050: 6023: 4509:Umm Hakim bint Abd al-Muttalib 4460:11 November 644 – 20 June 656 3552:, since the time of Umar. The 3503:The Rashidun caliphs used the 3333: 2724:were also required to pay the 2695:Treatment of conquered peoples 2569:Campaign against Nubia (Sudan) 2221:future conquests, settling on 1924:. The entirety of present-day 1866:against the Persian army. The 1276:, the richest province of the 1: 11366:Medieval history of Palestine 11321:Former countries in West Asia 7991:: CS1 maint: date and year ( 7541:Fratini, Dan (1 April 2006). 7306:. A&C Black. p. 61. 6711:. Columbia University Press. 6606:The Cambridge History of Iran 6504:The Essentials of Ibadi Islam 6016: 4608:Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib 4544:20 June 656 – 29 January 661 4257:, naval cove of privateer in 3954: 3942:Under this scale, Umar's son 3882:received 12,000 dirhams each; 3459:Establishment of Bait-ul-Maal 3352:establishes the principle of 2300:. Other columns were sent to 1987:Muslim conquest of the Levant 1505:, battling the fourth caliph 1204:) and South Arabia (known as 1148:spread to every tribe in the 1139: 875: 650:. Muhammad's close companion 72: 11326:Countries in medieval Africa 9636:Apostasy in Islam by country 9503:Liberalism and progressivism 8201:. In al-Sarhan, Saud (ed.). 8076:Sowerwine, James E. (2010). 8055:Netton, Ian Richard (2013). 7777:Abun-Nasr, Jamil M. (1987), 7303:Islam Today: An Introduction 7045:"Chapter 31: The Unkind Cut" 6831:"Ḥasan B. ʿAli B. Abi Ṭāleb" 6604:, 'Abd Al-Husein Zarrinkub, 3938:received 2,000 dirhams each. 3927:received 3,000 dirhams each. 3920:received 3,000 dirhams each; 3899:received 5,000 dirhams each; 3833: 3830:rather than a separate tax. 2537:, Gregory's capital. In the 1902:, some forty miles south of 1439:, as well as the islands of 827: 648:succession to his leadership 7: 9836: 8000:Hoyland, Robert G. (2015). 7545:. Military History Online. 7543:"The Battle Of Yarmuk, 636" 7051:. p. 1. Archived from 7030:, p. 43: gives 9,000–10,000 7002:. p. 1. Archived from 6982:. p. 1. Archived from 6922:. p. 1. Archived from 6902:. p. 1. Archived from 6870:. p. 1. Archived from 6212:Equinox Publishing (London) 4796:Arab empires and caliphates 4647: 4600:, Muhammad's granddaughter. 4569: 4480: 4406: 4332: 4312:8 June 632 – 22 August 634 4137: 3891:The grandsons of Muhammad, 3886:`Abbas ibn `Abd al-Muttalib 3786:, which later emerged as a 3659:) were collected from. The 3419:in the early 19th century. 3266:and collectively named the 3226:The Early Islamic Conquests 3188: 3104:which was a symbol of pride 2545:. Afterward, the people of 2084:Map detailing the route of 1981:Conquest of Byzantine Syria 1928:was conquered, followed by 1830:and Christian Arabs in the 1759:, fought in April 633; the 1706:Map detailing the route of 1561:and the widow of Muhammad, 1364:when Muhammad emigrated to 1305: 1168:and the Bani Abdul Qais of 988: 857: 842: 834: 794: 623: 45: 10: 11432: 11361:Medieval history of Jordan 9553: 8017:Cambridge University Press 8009:Madelung, Wilferd (1997). 8004:. Oxford University Press. 7769: 7387:Edinburgh University Press 6767:The Middle East: A History 6409:The Encyclopaedia of Islam 6379:Heather N. Keaney (2013). 6321:(I.B.Tauris, 2015), 51–54. 6172:, pp. 63, 72, note 1. 4511:, Muhammad's paternal aunt 4238: 4153: 4087: 3839:Beginning of the allowance 3756: 3735: 3678: 3635: 3462: 3431: 3422: 3337: 2698: 2643:, conquering the capital, 2624: 2601:. The Muslims damaged the 2370: 1984: 1800:Battle of Daumat-ul-jandal 1695: 1490: 1466: 1391: 1270:largest empires in history 1022: 1019:Abu Bakr's reign (632–634) 1013: 122:Various regional languages 11376:Medieval history of Syria 11272: 11224: 10741: 10145: 9844: 9774: 9659: 9626: 9566: 9562: 9548: 9475: 9442: 9414:Geography and cartography 9389: 9336: 9332: 9316: 9142: 9064: 9011: 8960: 8956: 8932: 8802: 8626: 8586: 8469: 8421: 8345: 8341: 8330: 8261: 7963:10.1017/S0020743800025216 7906:– via Google Books. 7815:10.1017/S1356186300007161 7330:, pp. 132 & 135) 6673:شبارو, عصام محمد (1995). 6285:Claire Alkouatli (2007). 3752: 3540:were introduced in early 3098:That he would not ride a 2336:. A major offensive into 2282:Battle of the Iron Bridge 2153:Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah 2100:. It was the first major 2004:Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah 1698:Muslim conquest of Persia 1323:territory, and went into 1088:Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah 944:, with the Ansar and the 940:pledged their loyalty to 896: 613:ٱلْخِلَافَةُ ٱلرَّاشِدَةُ 469: 354: 338: 330: 325: 321: 307: 294: 280: 266: 258:• Ascension of Umar 256: 243: 230: 226: 218: 214: 199: 187: 175: 160: 156: 146: 136: 126: 118: 108: 92: 82: 60: 55: 30:ٱلْخِلَافَةُ ٱلرَّاشِدَةُ 23: 11381:Muslim conquest of Egypt 11356:Medieval history of Iraq 9733:Islamic view of miracles 7930:10.37567/shar-e.v6i2.227 7911:Frastuti, Melia (2020). 7873:Harvard University Press 7677:. Oxford. Archived from 7427:August 25, 2011, at the 7381:Crone, Patricia (2005), 7127:"The Conquest of Emessa" 6763:Fisher, Sydney Nettleton 6576:Gianluca Paolo Parolin, 6331:Asma Afsaruddin (2008). 6030:Versteegh, Kees (2014). 5104:Umayyad state of Córdoba 4586:Muhammad's first cousin. 4277:List of Rashidun caliphs 3731: 3674: 3631: 3278:Accountability of rulers 2745:Political administration 2373:Muslim conquest of Egypt 2308:, the important city of 2110:battle of Maraj-al-Debaj 1487:Crisis and fragmentation 1383:Uthman's reign (644–656) 982:الْخُلَفاءُ الرّاشِدُونَ 938:Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah 272:and Ascension of Uthman 11341:History of Central Asia 9488:Creationism (evolution) 8205:. London and New York: 8101:. Academic Monographs. 7201:Lewis, Bernard (1984). 6618:Battle of Yarmouk River 6560:Tabari: Vol. 2, p. 467. 6206:Azyumardi Azra (2006). 6080:10.1111/0020-8833.00053 4504:, Muhammad's daughters. 3963:increased accordingly. 3936:Battle of al-Qadisiyyah 3913:got 4,000 dirhams each; 3849:Battle of al-Qadisiyyah 3801: 3519:) by adding the phrase 3143:Judicial administration 2808:which were as follows: 2659:was built there by the 2595:First Battle of Dongola 2533:, and then advanced to 2486:Conquest of the Maghreb 2445:Patriarch of Alexandria 2443:, prefect of Egypt and 2296:and the area up to the 1868:Battle of al-Qādisiyyah 1597:against the rebellious 1469:Assassination of Uthman 1463:Assassination of Uthman 1004:Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal 917:'s death in 632 CE (11 907:orthographic projection 716:Mu'awiya ibn Abu Sufyan 284:Assassination of Uthman 109:Official languages 11336:Early Muslim conquests 9748:Persecution of Muslims 9646:List of former Muslims 8495:Succession to Muhammad 8141:Vasiliev, Alexander A. 8058:Encyclopaedia of Islam 8015:. Cambridge, England: 7675:Oxford Islamic studies 7605:Kennedy, Hugh (2001). 6589:Tabari: Vol. 2, p. 518 6319:Islam: An Introduction 6101:Triana, María (2017). 4593:, Muhammad's daughter. 4177: 4098:view of the Rashidun. 4048:, was dug to join the 3880:The widows of Muhammad 3716: 3548:(charity), one of the 3526: 3379: 3323: 3091: 2797:Districts or provinces 2789: 2773: 2582: 2499: 2401: 2382: 2268: 2252:Occupation of Anatolia 2197: 2163: 2148: 2140: 2092: 1999: 1744: 1714: 1630: 1520: 1361:companions of Muhammad 1288:Umar's reign (634–644) 1272:. Abu Bakr began with 1236: 1136: 1034:Accession to Caliphate 1025:Succession to Muhammad 989:al-Khulafāʾ ar-Rāšidūn 955:خَلِيفةُ رَسُولِ اللهِ 910: 893: 678:and nearly the entire 624:al-Khilāfah ar-Rāšidah 234:Succession to Muhammad 46:al-Khilāfah ar-Rāšidah 11401:661 disestablishments 11249:Medieval great powers 9532:Conversion to mosques 9399:Alchemy and chemistry 8195:Melchert, Christopher 8034:McHugo, John (2017). 7490:, 19(2), pp. 210–237. 7229:Encyclopedia of Islam 6761:Ochsenweld, William; 6624:(ABC-CLIO, 2010), 92. 5694:Sultanate of Zanzibar 5609:Mutawakkilite Kingdom 4628:Great Mosque of Kufah 4435:Al-Khattab ibn Nufayl 4163: 4121:This is in-line with 4090:Shia view of Abu Bakr 4084:Assessment and legacy 4046:title created by Umar 3911:Treaty of Hudaybiyyah 3859:On the amount of the 3669:Five Pillars of Islam 3550:Five Pillars of Islam 3502: 3362: 3318: 3300:Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani 3236:Abu Bakr Al-Baqillani 3086: 2779: 2752: 2625:Further information: 2576: 2508:Gregory the Patrician 2493: 2476:Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr 2388: 2380: 2371:Further information: 2259: 2230:Jerusalem surrendered 2195: 2161: 2146: 2118: 2083: 1994: 1985:Further information: 1786:, which resisted and 1720: 1705: 1696:Further information: 1619: 1500: 1482:Ali's reign (656–661) 1379:to lead the prayers. 1234: 1113: 904: 873: 780:in the west; and the 286:and Ascension of Ali 270:Assassination of Umar 119:Common languages 11351:7th century in Egypt 11259:European colonialism 11244:Ancient great powers 9258:Ma malakat aymanukum 8833:Association football 8732:Moderate Kharijites 8095:Rane, Halim (2010). 8078:Caliph and Caliphate 7389:, pp. 308–309, 7300:Geaves, Ron (2010). 7191:Nadvi (2000), p. 522 7131:Khalid bin Al-Waleed 7109:Khalid bin Al-Waleed 6847:on 17 November 2013. 6836:Encyclopædia Iranica 6502:Valerie J. Hoffman, 6339:. Oneworld. p. 6317:Catharina Raudvere, 4598:Umama bint Abi al-As 4241:Early Caliphate navy 4203:and large wooden or 3930:The veterans of the 3923:The veterans of the 3902:The veterans of the 3872:relationship scale. 3845:Battle of the Yarmuk 3782:was synonymous with 3486:Abdur Rahman bin Awf 3360:and accountability: 3240:Abu Hanifa an-Nu‘man 3053:Sahib-ul-Bait-ul-Mal 2782:Great Mosque of Kufa 2577:The Grand Mosque of 2426:Battle of Heliopolis 2033:The border forts of 2016:Shurhabil ibn Hasana 2012:Yazid ibn Abu Sufyan 1852:Battle of the Bridge 1848:Abu Ubayd al-Thaqafi 1676:Unlike the Sasanian 1620:Illustration of the 950:Khalīfaṫ Rasūl Allāh 298:Assassination of Ali 11371:7th century in Iran 11254:Modern great powers 7714:, pp. 285–286. 7671:"Islam and the Sea" 7647:, pp. 157–158. 7460:Lewis (2002), p. 72 7105:"The Eve of Yarmuk" 6874:on 26 January 2002. 6804:, pp. 157–159. 6354:Safia Amir (2000). 6033:The Arabic Language 5991:The Four Companions 4671:Ancient Arab states 4519:Affan ibn Abi al-As 4440:Hantama bint Hisham 4251:Battle of the Masts 3702:: cizye). It was a 3564:) collected in the 3384:capital punishments 3150:principles of Islam 2754:Al-Masjid an-Nabawi 2543:Abdullah ibn Zubayr 2504:Exarchate of Africa 2494:The Roman ruins of 2304:as far west as the 2275:taking the fort of 2086:Khalid ibn al-Walid 1864:Sa`d ibn Abī Waqqās 1708:Khalid ibn al-Walid 1572:Battle of the Camel 1511:Battle of the Camel 1241:Khalid ibn al-Walid 1062:(courtyard) of the 549:Sharifian Caliphate 523:Parallel caliphates 11396:632 establishments 11311:Rashidun Caliphate 9753:Quran and miracles 9667:Criticism of Islam 9371:Geometric patterns 9223:Gender segregation 8794:Non-denominational 8209:. pp. 63–79. 7839:Charles, Robert H. 7702:, p. 131-207. 7681:on 27 January 2014 7451:Ali (1990), p. 507 7347:The New York Times 7181:on 9 January 2011. 7175:www.tertullian.org 7085:on 10 January 2003 6733:Kazhdan, Alexander 6620:, Spencer Tucker, 6139:; Bosworth, C.E.; 6060:(September 1997). 6006:Timeline of Medina 5996:Islamic Golden Age 5736:Current monarchies 5399:Sharifate of Mecca 4869:Emirate of Tbilisi 4859:Emirate of Armenia 4709:Kingdom of Osroene 4427:, Muhammad's wife. 4352:, Muhammad's wife. 4293:Relationship with 4178: 3527: 3473:, the Governor of 3443:the house of money 3405:Harvard University 3071:commander-in-chief 3065:, the Chief Judge. 2790: 2774: 2583: 2516:Abdullah ibn Sa'ad 2500: 2402: 2383: 2269: 2198: 2164: 2149: 2141: 2098:Battle of Ajnadayn 2093: 2000: 1900:Battle of Nihawānd 1818:, and finally the 1745: 1715: 1669:, and most of the 1653:Military expansion 1631: 1595:Battle of Nahrawan 1548:Salman the Persian 1521: 1501:Muhammad's widow, 1394:Election of Uthman 1388:Election of Uthman 1245:Malik ibn Nuwayrah 1237: 1208:and including the 1180:arose and invaded 1137: 1100:Ibrahim al-Nakha'i 1008:Zaydi Shia Muslims 911: 894: 746:military expansion 698:, a member of the 686:, a member of the 605:Rashidun Caliphate 496:Rashidun Caliphate 247:Conquest of Persia 25:Rashidun Caliphate 11331:7th-century Islam 11298: 11297: 11220: 11219: 11185:Polish–Lithuanian 10360:Gurjara-Pratihara 9804: 9803: 9770: 9769: 9766: 9765: 9738:Domestic violence 9728:Islamic terrorism 9723:Islamic extremism 9544: 9543: 9540: 9539: 9312: 9311: 9308: 9307: 9098:Marriage contract 8928: 8927: 8888:Political aspects 8617:Story of Prophets 8386:Prophets of Islam 8289: 8288: 8216:978-1-83860-765-4 8132:978-0-8047-1462-4 8117:Treadgold, Warren 8068:978-1-135-17960-1 8047:978-1-62-616587-8 7903:978-1-61069-178-9 7871:. Cambridge, MA: 7738:, pp. 68–69. 7726:, pp. 55–58. 7669:Fromherz, Allen. 7396:978-0-7486-2194-1 7214:978-0-691-00807-3 7204:The Jews of Islam 7159:on 24 March 2011. 7055:on 5 January 2003 6926:on 22 August 2002 6827:Madelung, Wilferd 6776:978-0-07-244233-5 6748:978-0-19-504652-6 6718:978-0-231-52165-9 6551:Balazuri: p. 113. 6518:, pp. 32–33) 6043:978-0-7486-4529-9 5987: 5986: 5952: 5951: 5727: 5726: 5719:Tippu Tip's State 5617: 5616: 5589:Emirate of Beihan 5321:Arabian Peninsula 5312: 5311: 5067: 5066: 4851:Eastern dynasties 4842: 4841: 4787: 4786: 4699:Nabataean Kingdom 4689:Kingdom of Lihyan 4645: 4644: 4613:Fatimah bint Asad 4128:Ali ibn Abi Talib 4100:Robert G. Hoyland 4042:governor of Basra 3944:Abdullah ibn Umar 3932:Battle of Yarmouk 3918:Conquest of Mecca 3509:Star and crescent 3415:of Sharia by the 2766:Arabian Peninsula 2657:Hala Sultan Tekke 2637:Mediterranean Sea 2613:with their king, 2563:Umayyad Caliphate 2449:Coptic Christians 2367:Conquest of Egypt 2218:Battle of Yarmouk 2177:Emperor Heraclius 1968:and north to the 1966:lower river Indus 1872:Rostam Farrokhzād 1860:Battle of Yarmouk 1824:Sasanian Persians 1647:Umayyad Caliphate 1453:lower Indus River 1437:Iberian Peninsula 1373:Abu Lu'lu'a Firuz 1150:Arabian Peninsula 1115:Islamic conquests 1096:Ali ibn Abi Talib 758:Arabian Peninsula 735:Umayyad Caliphate 662:and he began the 621: 601: 600: 539:Almohad Caliphate 534:Fatimid Caliphate 511:Ottoman Caliphate 506:Abbasid Caliphate 501:Umayyad Caliphate 458: 457: 454: 453: 450: 449: 438:Umayyad Caliphate 430: 429: 11423: 11101: 11100: 10766:Austro-Hungarian 10466:Chagatai Khanate 9831: 9824: 9817: 9808: 9807: 9794: 9793: 9786:Islam portal 9784: 9783: 9782: 9564: 9563: 9556: 9550: 9549: 9391:Medieval science 9334: 9333: 9324: 9318: 9317: 8975:Economic history 8958: 8957: 8934: 8933: 8920:Islam by country 8705:Bektashi Alevism 8343: 8342: 8334:Outline of Islam 8316: 8309: 8302: 8293: 8292: 8255:Rashidun Caliphs 8248: 8241: 8234: 8225: 8224: 8220: 8187: 8174:Brill Publishers 8164: 8136: 8112: 8091: 8072: 8051: 8030: 8005: 7996: 7990: 7982: 7942: 7932: 7907: 7886: 7858: 7834: 7793: 7763: 7757: 7751: 7745: 7739: 7733: 7727: 7721: 7715: 7709: 7703: 7697: 7691: 7690: 7688: 7686: 7666: 7660: 7654: 7648: 7642: 7636: 7633: 7627: 7626: 7624: 7622: 7602: 7596: 7595: 7593: 7591: 7568: 7559: 7558: 7556: 7554: 7538: 7532: 7529: 7523: 7513: 7507: 7497: 7491: 7483: 7477: 7467: 7461: 7458: 7452: 7449: 7440: 7437: 7431: 7418: 7406: 7400: 7399: 7378: 7372: 7365: 7359: 7358: 7356: 7354: 7337: 7331: 7328:Weeramantry 1997 7324: 7318: 7317: 7297: 7291: 7288: 7282: 7281: 7276:. Archived from 7274:www.2muslims.com 7266: 7257: 7251: 7245: 7238: 7232: 7225: 7219: 7218: 7198: 7192: 7189: 7183: 7182: 7177:. Archived from 7167: 7161: 7160: 7155:. Archived from 7145: 7139: 7138: 7137:on 6 March 2007. 7133:. Archived from 7123: 7117: 7116: 7115:on 2 April 2007. 7111:. Archived from 7101: 7095: 7094: 7092: 7090: 7071: 7065: 7064: 7062: 7060: 7040: 7031: 7024: 7018: 7015: 7013: 7011: 6995: 6993: 6991: 6975: 6973: 6971: 6955: 6953: 6951: 6935: 6933: 6931: 6915: 6913: 6911: 6895: 6893: 6891: 6875: 6863: 6855: 6849: 6848: 6843:. Archived from 6823: 6817: 6811: 6805: 6799: 6793: 6787: 6781: 6780: 6758: 6752: 6751: 6729: 6723: 6722: 6702: 6696: 6690: 6679: 6678: 6670: 6653: 6647: 6641: 6634:Khalid ibn Walid 6631: 6625: 6615: 6609: 6599: 6590: 6587: 6581: 6574: 6561: 6558: 6552: 6549: 6543: 6537: 6531: 6525: 6519: 6513: 6507: 6500: 6494: 6485: 6479: 6473: 6467: 6457: 6451: 6445: 6439: 6438: 6436: 6434: 6419: 6413: 6412: 6404: 6398: 6397: 6376: 6370: 6369: 6351: 6345: 6344: 6338: 6328: 6322: 6315: 6309: 6308: 6292: 6282: 6276: 6275: 6257: 6251: 6250: 6232: 6226: 6225: 6203: 6197: 6191: 6185: 6179: 6173: 6167: 6161: 6160: 6125: 6119: 6118: 6098: 6092: 6091: 6054: 6048: 6047: 6027: 5979: 5972: 5965: 5740: 5739: 5704:Nabahani dynasty 5649:Nabahani dynasty 5634:Makhzumi dynasty 5630: 5629: 5325: 5324: 5080: 5079: 4879:Emirate of Crete 4855: 4854: 4800: 4799: 4779:Kingdom of Kinda 4729:Kingdom of Hatra 4679:Kingdom of Qedar 4675: 4674: 4664: 4652: 4651: 4581: 4572: 4559: 4558: 4524:Arwa bint Kurayz 4491: 4483: 4475: 4474: 4418: 4409: 4400: 4399: 4343: 4335: 4327: 4326: 4281: 4280: 4263:Cordoban Emirate 4259:La Garde-Freinet 4058:governor of Kufa 3974:Masjid an-Nabawi 3778:. At that time, 3697: 3696: 3650: 3649: 3479:Uthman ibn Affan 3217: 3214: 3211: 3208: 3205: 3201: 3193: 2361:Taurus Mountains 2306:Taurus Mountains 2262:Eastern Anatolia 2246:Battle of Aleppo 2125:Haram Ash-Sharif 1930:Greater Khorasan 1895:Zagros Mountains 1820:Battle of Zumail 1812:Battle of Muzieh 1773:Battle of Ullais 1765:Battle of Walaja 1757:Battle of Chains 1686:Byzantine Empire 1627:Tarikh-i Bal'ami 1622:Battle of Siffin 1587:Battle of Siffin 1533: 1531: 1447:. Also, coastal 1377:Suhayb ibn Sinan 1317:Sassanian Empire 1313:war of conquests 1310: 1307:amir al-mu'minin 1302: 1300: 1262:Byzantine Empire 1250:Battle of Yamama 1223: 1222: 1133: 1127: 1121: 1068:Muslim community 1057: 1054: 1051: 1048: 1045: 1000:Sunan Abu Dawood 991: 984: 983: 957: 956: 880: 877: 862: 850: 849: 845: 839: 832:The Arabic word 823: 820: 817: 814: 811: 807: 799: 731:Battle of Siffin 724: 722: 676:Byzantine Empire 641:Northeast Africa 627:) was the first 626: 616: 614: 593: 586: 579: 567:Islam portal 565: 564: 563: 544:Sokoto Caliphate 483: 474: 473: 471: 460: 459: 446: 445: 434: 433: 421: 420: 407: 406: 397:Byzantine Empire 393: 392: 379: 378: 372: 371: 356: 355: 210: 171: 77: 74: 65: 50: 49: 48: 40: 32: 31: 21: 20: 11431: 11430: 11426: 11425: 11424: 11422: 11421: 11420: 11301: 11300: 11299: 11294: 11283:American Empire 11268: 11264:African empires 11216: 11099: 10791:Central African 10737: 10555:Romano-Germanic 10141: 9875:Middle Assyrian 9848: 9840: 9835: 9805: 9800: 9780: 9778: 9762: 9684:Cultural Muslim 9655: 9622: 9568:Other religions 9558: 9554: 9536: 9471: 9438: 9385: 9328: 9326:Islamic studies 9322: 9304: 9138: 9083: 9060: 9007: 8952: 8951: 8924: 8873:Moral teachings 8816: 8798: 8772:Nation of Islam 8685:Twelver Shi'ism 8622: 8588:Religious texts 8582: 8500:Early conquests 8483: 8465: 8417: 8337: 8326: 8320: 8290: 8285: 8257: 8252: 8217: 8190: 8184: 8133: 8109: 8088: 8069: 8048: 8027: 7984: 7983: 7904: 7883: 7863:Donner, Fred M. 7855: 7791: 7772: 7767: 7766: 7758: 7754: 7746: 7742: 7734: 7730: 7722: 7718: 7710: 7706: 7698: 7694: 7684: 7682: 7667: 7663: 7655: 7651: 7643: 7639: 7634: 7630: 7620: 7618: 7603: 7599: 7589: 7587: 7569: 7562: 7552: 7550: 7539: 7535: 7530: 7526: 7514: 7510: 7498: 7494: 7484: 7480: 7468: 7464: 7459: 7455: 7450: 7443: 7438: 7434: 7429:Wayback Machine 7407: 7403: 7397: 7379: 7375: 7366: 7362: 7352: 7350: 7338: 7334: 7325: 7321: 7314: 7298: 7294: 7289: 7285: 7280:on 7 July 2011. 7268: 7267: 7260: 7252: 7248: 7239: 7235: 7226: 7222: 7215: 7199: 7195: 7190: 7186: 7169: 7168: 7164: 7147: 7146: 7142: 7125: 7124: 7120: 7103: 7102: 7098: 7088: 7086: 7073: 7072: 7068: 7058: 7056: 7041: 7034: 7025: 7021: 7009: 7007: 7006:on 6 March 2002 6998: 6989: 6987: 6986:on 6 March 2002 6978: 6969: 6967: 6958: 6949: 6947: 6938: 6929: 6927: 6918: 6909: 6907: 6906:on 6 March 2002 6898: 6889: 6887: 6878: 6866: 6856: 6852: 6824: 6820: 6812: 6808: 6800: 6796: 6788: 6784: 6777: 6759: 6755: 6749: 6730: 6726: 6719: 6703: 6699: 6691: 6682: 6671: 6656: 6648: 6644: 6636:, Timothy May, 6632: 6628: 6616: 6612: 6600: 6593: 6588: 6584: 6575: 6564: 6559: 6555: 6550: 6546: 6538: 6534: 6526: 6522: 6514: 6510: 6501: 6497: 6486: 6482: 6474: 6470: 6458: 6454: 6446: 6442: 6432: 6430: 6420: 6416: 6405: 6401: 6391: 6377: 6373: 6366: 6352: 6348: 6329: 6325: 6316: 6312: 6305: 6283: 6279: 6272: 6258: 6254: 6247: 6233: 6229: 6222: 6204: 6200: 6192: 6188: 6180: 6176: 6168: 6164: 6145:Heinrichs, W.P. 6126: 6122: 6115: 6099: 6095: 6055: 6051: 6044: 6028: 6024: 6019: 5983: 5954: 5953: 5737: 5729: 5728: 5664:Mahdali dynasty 5627: 5619: 5618: 5559:Muscat and Oman 5329:Imamate of Oman 5322: 5314: 5313: 5077: 5069: 5068: 4852: 4844: 4843: 4797: 4789: 4788: 4719:Emesene Dynasty 4672: 4650: 4552: 4468: 4393: 4320: 4307:Notable events 4279: 4243: 4237: 4158: 4152: 4140: 4092: 4086: 4062:'Amr ibn al-'As 3978:Masjid al-Haram 3969: 3957: 3841: 3836: 3804: 3761: 3755: 3740: 3734: 3719: 3700:Ottoman Turkish 3683: 3677: 3640: 3634: 3594: 3467: 3461: 3436: 3430: 3425: 3390:Islamic jurists 3356:in relation to 3346: 3336: 3280: 3260:Islamic lawyers 3248: 3215: 3212: 3209: 3206: 3176: 3145: 3043:Sahib-ul-Ahdath 3033:Sahib-ul-Kharaj 2986:Amr ibn Al-A'as 2857:was a province. 2799: 2747: 2703: 2697: 2629: 2623: 2571: 2488: 2390:Al-Azhar Mosque 2375: 2369: 2330:Caesarea Mazaca 2254: 2238:Battle of Hazir 2088:'s invasion of 2071:Battle of Bosra 1989: 1983: 1978: 1832:Battle of Firaz 1816:Battle of Sanni 1769:pincer movement 1761:Battle of River 1710:'s conquest of 1700: 1694: 1671:Sasanian Empire 1655: 1591:'Amr ibn al-'As 1544:Malik al-Ashtar 1528: 1495: 1489: 1484: 1471: 1465: 1396: 1390: 1385: 1375:. He appointed 1297: 1290: 1278:Sasanian Empire 1266:Sasanian Empire 1258: 1200:(known then as 1142: 1135: 1131: 1129: 1125: 1123: 1119: 1074:(migrants from 1055: 1052: 1049: 1046: 1036: 1031: 1023:Main articles: 1021: 1016: 899: 891:globus cruciger 878: 830: 821: 818: 815: 812: 782:Iranian Plateau 776:to present-day 750:internal strife 719: 680:Sasanian Empire 597: 561: 559: 554: 553: 524: 516: 515: 491: 490:Main caliphates 466: 443: 418: 411:Sasanian Empire 404: 390: 383:State of Medina 376: 350: 314: 300: 287: 273: 259: 249: 236: 208: 202: 201:• 656–661 190: 189:• 644–656 178: 177:• 634–644 169: 163: 162:• 632–634 100: 78: 75: 51: 43: 42: 41: 34: 26: 17: 12: 11: 5: 11429: 11419: 11418: 11413: 11408: 11403: 11398: 11393: 11388: 11383: 11378: 11373: 11368: 11363: 11358: 11353: 11348: 11343: 11338: 11333: 11328: 11323: 11318: 11313: 11296: 11295: 11293: 11292: 11291: 11290: 11285: 11276: 11274: 11270: 11269: 11267: 11266: 11261: 11256: 11251: 11246: 11241: 11240: 11239: 11228: 11226: 11222: 11221: 11218: 11217: 11215: 11214: 11209: 11204: 11199: 11194: 11193: 11192: 11182: 11177: 11172: 11167: 11162: 11157: 11152: 11147: 11142: 11137: 11136: 11135: 11130: 11120: 11115: 11109: 11107: 11098: 11097: 11096: 11095: 11090: 11085: 11080: 11075: 11065: 11060: 11059: 11058: 11048: 11043: 11042: 11041: 11036: 11031: 11021: 11016: 11015: 11014: 11009: 10999: 10998: 10997: 10992: 10987: 10982: 10977: 10967: 10966: 10965: 10960: 10950: 10945: 10940: 10935: 10934: 10933: 10928: 10923: 10918: 10913: 10903: 10902: 10901: 10896: 10886: 10881: 10880: 10879: 10874: 10864: 10863: 10862: 10857: 10847: 10846: 10845: 10840: 10830: 10825: 10824: 10823: 10818: 10813: 10808: 10803: 10793: 10788: 10787: 10786: 10781: 10773: 10768: 10763: 10758: 10753: 10747: 10745: 10739: 10738: 10736: 10735: 10730: 10725: 10720: 10719: 10718: 10713: 10708: 10703: 10698: 10693: 10688: 10678: 10673: 10672: 10671: 10666: 10661: 10656: 10651: 10646: 10636: 10635: 10634: 10629: 10624: 10619: 10609: 10604: 10599: 10594: 10589: 10584: 10579: 10574: 10569: 10568: 10567: 10562: 10552: 10551: 10550: 10545: 10540: 10535: 10530: 10525: 10512: 10507: 10502: 10497: 10496: 10495: 10490: 10485: 10475: 10474: 10473: 10468: 10463: 10458: 10448: 10443: 10438: 10433: 10428: 10423: 10422: 10421: 10416: 10411: 10406: 10396: 10395: 10394: 10389: 10384: 10379: 10369: 10368: 10367: 10362: 10357: 10347: 10342: 10337: 10332: 10327: 10326: 10325: 10320: 10315: 10305: 10300: 10299: 10298: 10293: 10288: 10283: 10278: 10273: 10263: 10262: 10261: 10256: 10246: 10245: 10244: 10239: 10234: 10229: 10219: 10214: 10213: 10212: 10202: 10201: 10200: 10195: 10187: 10182: 10177: 10172: 10167: 10162: 10157: 10151: 10149: 10147:Post-classical 10143: 10142: 10140: 10139: 10138: 10137: 10127: 10122: 10121: 10120: 10115: 10105: 10104: 10103: 10093: 10092: 10091: 10086: 10081: 10076: 10071: 10066: 10056: 10051: 10046: 10045: 10044: 10039: 10034: 10029: 10019: 10018: 10017: 10012: 10002: 9997: 9996: 9995: 9990: 9985: 9980: 9975: 9965: 9960: 9955: 9954: 9953: 9948: 9946:Middle Kingdom 9943: 9933: 9928: 9927: 9926: 9921: 9916: 9906: 9905: 9904: 9902:Neo-Babylonian 9899: 9894: 9892:Old Babylonian 9884: 9883: 9882: 9877: 9867: 9862: 9856: 9854: 9842: 9841: 9834: 9833: 9826: 9819: 9811: 9802: 9801: 9799: 9798: 9788: 9775: 9772: 9771: 9768: 9767: 9764: 9763: 9761: 9760: 9755: 9750: 9745: 9740: 9735: 9730: 9725: 9720: 9719: 9718: 9708: 9707: 9706: 9701: 9696: 9686: 9681: 9680: 9679: 9674: 9663: 9661: 9660:Related topics 9657: 9656: 9654: 9653: 9648: 9643: 9638: 9632: 9630: 9624: 9623: 9621: 9620: 9615: 9610: 9605: 9600: 9595: 9594: 9593: 9588: 9583: 9572: 9570: 9560: 9559: 9546: 9545: 9542: 9541: 9538: 9537: 9535: 9534: 9529: 9522: 9517: 9516: 9515: 9505: 9500: 9495: 9490: 9485: 9479: 9477: 9473: 9472: 9470: 9469: 9464: 9459: 9454: 9448: 9446: 9440: 9439: 9437: 9436: 9431: 9426: 9421: 9416: 9411: 9406: 9401: 9395: 9393: 9387: 9386: 9384: 9383: 9378: 9373: 9368: 9363: 9358: 9353: 9348: 9342: 9340: 9330: 9329: 9314: 9313: 9310: 9309: 9306: 9305: 9303: 9302: 9297: 9296: 9295: 9283: 9281:Sources of law 9278: 9273: 9272: 9271: 9261: 9254: 9249: 9242: 9237: 9230: 9225: 9220: 9215: 9210: 9205: 9200: 9195: 9188: 9181: 9180: 9179: 9174: 9169: 9159: 9154: 9146: 9144: 9140: 9139: 9137: 9136: 9129: 9122: 9115: 9108: 9101: 9094: 9086: 9084: 9082: 9081: 9076: 9071: 9065: 9062: 9061: 9059: 9058: 9051: 9046: 9039: 9032: 9025: 9017: 9015: 9009: 9008: 9006: 9005: 8998: 8991: 8984: 8977: 8972: 8966: 8964: 8954: 8953: 8950: 8949: 8944: 8938: 8930: 8929: 8926: 8925: 8923: 8922: 8917: 8912: 8907: 8905:Social welfare 8902: 8897: 8890: 8885: 8880: 8875: 8870: 8865: 8860: 8855: 8850: 8845: 8840: 8835: 8830: 8825: 8819: 8817: 8815: 8814: 8809: 8803: 8800: 8799: 8797: 8796: 8791: 8786: 8785: 8784: 8774: 8769: 8768: 8767: 8762: 8761: 8760: 8755: 8754: 8753: 8748: 8743: 8730: 8716: 8715: 8714: 8709: 8708: 8707: 8697: 8692: 8687: 8677: 8672: 8671: 8670: 8669: 8668: 8658: 8653: 8648: 8643: 8632: 8630: 8624: 8623: 8621: 8620: 8613: 8608: 8603: 8598: 8592: 8590: 8584: 8583: 8581: 8580: 8579: 8578: 8573: 8568: 8563: 8558: 8553: 8548: 8543: 8531: 8526: 8519: 8512: 8510:Historiography 8507: 8502: 8497: 8492: 8486: 8484: 8482: 8481: 8476: 8470: 8467: 8466: 8464: 8463: 8456: 8449: 8442: 8435: 8427: 8425: 8419: 8418: 8416: 8415: 8410: 8405: 8398: 8393: 8388: 8383: 8382: 8381: 8371: 8364: 8363: 8362: 8351: 8349: 8339: 8338: 8331: 8328: 8327: 8319: 8318: 8311: 8304: 8296: 8287: 8286: 8284: 8283: 8278: 8273: 8268: 8262: 8259: 8258: 8251: 8250: 8243: 8236: 8228: 8222: 8221: 8215: 8189: 8188: 8182: 8165: 8149:Henri Grégoire 8137: 8131: 8113: 8107: 8092: 8086: 8073: 8067: 8052: 8046: 8031: 8025: 8006: 7997: 7957:(4): 450–469. 7943: 7923:(2): 119–127. 7908: 7902: 7887: 7881: 7859: 7853: 7835: 7809:(2): 157–164. 7794: 7789: 7773: 7771: 7768: 7765: 7764: 7762:, p. 308. 7752: 7750:, p. 139. 7740: 7728: 7724:Abun-Nasr 1987 7716: 7712:Treadgold 1988 7704: 7692: 7661: 7659:, p. 122. 7649: 7637: 7628: 7617:on 5 June 2011 7597: 7586:on 5 June 2011 7560: 7533: 7524: 7508: 7492: 7478: 7462: 7453: 7441: 7432: 7401: 7395: 7373: 7360: 7342:"Why Shariah?" 7332: 7319: 7312: 7292: 7283: 7258: 7246: 7233: 7220: 7213: 7193: 7184: 7162: 7140: 7118: 7096: 7066: 7032: 7019: 7017: 7016: 6996: 6976: 6956: 6936: 6916: 6896: 6876: 6850: 6818: 6816:, p. 358. 6806: 6794: 6792:, p. 457. 6782: 6775: 6753: 6747: 6735:, ed. (1991), 6724: 6717: 6697: 6680: 6654: 6642: 6626: 6610: 6591: 6582: 6562: 6553: 6544: 6532: 6530:, p. 186) 6520: 6516:Madelung (1997 6508: 6495: 6480: 6476:Madelung (1997 6468: 6452: 6440: 6414: 6399: 6389: 6371: 6364: 6346: 6323: 6310: 6303: 6277: 6270: 6252: 6245: 6227: 6220: 6198: 6186: 6182:Sowerwine 2010 6174: 6162: 6141:van Donzel, E. 6129:Bosworth, C.E. 6120: 6113: 6093: 6058:Rein Taagepera 6049: 6042: 6021: 6020: 6018: 6015: 6014: 6013: 6008: 6003: 5998: 5993: 5985: 5984: 5982: 5981: 5974: 5967: 5959: 5956: 5955: 5950: 5949: 5946: 5935: 5934: 5931: 5920: 5919: 5916: 5905: 5904: 5901: 5890: 5889: 5886: 5875: 5874: 5871: 5860: 5859: 5856: 5845: 5844: 5841: 5830: 5829: 5826: 5815: 5814: 5811: 5800: 5799: 5796: 5785: 5784: 5781: 5770: 5769: 5766: 5763:Ras al Khaymah 5755: 5754: 5751: 5738: 5735: 5734: 5731: 5730: 5725: 5724: 5721: 5715: 5714: 5711: 5700: 5699: 5696: 5690: 5689: 5686: 5679:Mazrui dynasty 5675: 5674: 5671: 5660: 5659: 5656: 5645: 5644: 5641: 5628: 5625: 5624: 5621: 5620: 5615: 5614: 5611: 5605: 5604: 5601: 5595: 5594: 5591: 5585: 5584: 5581: 5575: 5574: 5571: 5565: 5564: 5561: 5555: 5554: 5551: 5545: 5544: 5541: 5535: 5534: 5531: 5525: 5524: 5521: 5515: 5514: 5511: 5505: 5504: 5501: 5495: 5494: 5491: 5485: 5484: 5481: 5475: 5474: 5471: 5465: 5464: 5461: 5455: 5454: 5451: 5445: 5444: 5441: 5435: 5434: 5431: 5425: 5424: 5421: 5415: 5414: 5411: 5405: 5404: 5401: 5395: 5394: 5391: 5385: 5384: 5381: 5375: 5374: 5371: 5365: 5364: 5361: 5355: 5354: 5351: 5345: 5344: 5341: 5335: 5334: 5331: 5323: 5320: 5319: 5316: 5315: 5310: 5309: 5306: 5300: 5299: 5296: 5290: 5289: 5286: 5280: 5279: 5276: 5270: 5269: 5266: 5260: 5259: 5256: 5250: 5249: 5246: 5240: 5239: 5236: 5230: 5229: 5226: 5220: 5219: 5216: 5210: 5209: 5206: 5200: 5199: 5196: 5190: 5189: 5186: 5180: 5179: 5176: 5170: 5169: 5166: 5160: 5159: 5156: 5150: 5149: 5146: 5140: 5139: 5136: 5130: 5129: 5126: 5120: 5119: 5116: 5110: 5109: 5106: 5100: 5099: 5096: 5094:Fihrid Emirate 5090: 5089: 5086: 5078: 5075: 5074: 5071: 5070: 5065: 5064: 5061: 5055: 5054: 5051: 5045: 5044: 5041: 5035: 5034: 5031: 5025: 5024: 5021: 5015: 5014: 5011: 5005: 5004: 5001: 4995: 4994: 4991: 4985: 4984: 4981: 4975: 4974: 4971: 4965: 4964: 4961: 4955: 4954: 4951: 4945: 4944: 4941: 4935: 4934: 4931: 4925: 4924: 4921: 4915: 4914: 4911: 4905: 4904: 4901: 4895: 4894: 4891: 4885: 4884: 4881: 4875: 4874: 4871: 4865: 4864: 4861: 4853: 4850: 4849: 4846: 4845: 4840: 4839: 4836: 4830: 4829: 4826: 4820: 4819: 4816: 4810: 4809: 4806: 4798: 4795: 4794: 4791: 4790: 4785: 4784: 4781: 4775: 4774: 4771: 4765: 4764: 4761: 4755: 4754: 4751: 4745: 4744: 4741: 4735: 4734: 4731: 4725: 4724: 4721: 4715: 4714: 4711: 4705: 4704: 4701: 4695: 4694: 4691: 4685: 4684: 4681: 4673: 4670: 4669: 4666: 4665: 4657: 4656: 4649: 4646: 4643: 4642: 4641: 4640: 4630: 4622: 4617: 4616: 4615: 4610: 4603: 4602: 4601: 4594: 4587: 4582: 4575: 4545: 4541: 4540: 4539: 4538: 4533: 4528: 4527: 4526: 4521: 4514: 4513: 4512: 4505: 4492: 4485: 4461: 4457: 4456: 4455: 4454: 4449: 4444: 4443: 4442: 4437: 4430: 4429: 4428: 4419: 4412: 4386: 4382: 4381: 4380: 4379: 4374: 4369: 4368: 4367: 4362: 4355: 4354: 4353: 4344: 4337: 4313: 4309: 4308: 4305: 4300: 4297: 4291: 4288: 4285: 4278: 4275: 4239:Main article: 4236: 4233: 4154:Main article: 4151: 4148: 4139: 4136: 4085: 4082: 4024:Muslim history 3968: 3965: 3956: 3953: 3948:Usama ibn Zaid 3940: 3939: 3928: 3921: 3914: 3907: 3904:Battle of Badr 3900: 3897:Husayn ibn Ali 3889: 3883: 3840: 3837: 3835: 3832: 3803: 3800: 3794:, a religious 3757:Main article: 3754: 3751: 3736:Main article: 3733: 3730: 3718: 3715: 3679:Main article: 3676: 3673: 3667:is one of the 3636:Main article: 3633: 3630: 3629: 3628: 3623: 3618: 3613: 3608: 3603: 3593: 3590: 3586:welfare states 3568:of an Islamic 3534:Social welfare 3463:Main article: 3460: 3457: 3432:Main article: 3429: 3426: 3424: 3421: 3417:Ottoman Empire 3348:The following 3344:Islamic ethics 3335: 3332: 3279: 3276: 3247: 3244: 3224:, in his book 3175: 3172: 3144: 3141: 3120: 3119: 3116: 3113: 3110: 3107: 3067: 3066: 3060: 3050: 3040: 3030: 3020:Katib-ud-Diwan 3017: 2978: 2977: 2972: 2967: 2962: 2957: 2952: 2947: 2942: 2937: 2932: 2927: 2922: 2901: 2900: 2882: 2868: 2858: 2852: 2838: 2824: 2798: 2795: 2746: 2743: 2696: 2693: 2622: 2619: 2570: 2567: 2539:ensuing battle 2487: 2484: 2368: 2365: 2354:Constantinople 2253: 2250: 2169:Battle of Fahl 2121:Jami'a Al-Aqsa 2102:pitched battle 1982: 1979: 1977: 1974: 1922:Persian Empire 1844:Arabian desert 1796:Iyad ibn Ghanm 1777:Battle of Hira 1723:Sasanid Empire 1693: 1690: 1654: 1651: 1532: 656–661 1491:Main article: 1488: 1485: 1483: 1480: 1467:Main article: 1464: 1461: 1392:Main article: 1389: 1386: 1384: 1381: 1301: 634–644 1289: 1286: 1257: 1254: 1198:Eastern Arabia 1141: 1138: 1130: 1124: 1118: 1105:an altercation 1035: 1032: 1020: 1017: 1015: 1012: 898: 895: 879: 647–670 829: 826: 768:in the north; 723: 661–680 599: 598: 596: 595: 588: 581: 573: 570: 569: 556: 555: 552: 551: 546: 541: 536: 531: 525: 522: 521: 518: 517: 514: 513: 508: 503: 498: 492: 489: 488: 485: 484: 476: 475: 456: 455: 452: 451: 448: 447: 440: 431: 428: 427: 422: 414: 413: 408: 400: 399: 394: 386: 385: 380: 368: 367: 362: 352: 351: 349: 348: 342: 340: 336: 335: 332: 328: 327: 323: 322: 319: 318: 315: 308: 305: 304: 301: 295: 292: 291: 288: 281: 278: 277: 274: 267: 264: 263: 260: 257: 254: 253: 250: 244: 241: 240: 237: 231: 228: 227: 224: 223: 220: 216: 215: 212: 211: 203: 200: 197: 196: 191: 188: 185: 184: 179: 176: 173: 172: 164: 161: 158: 157: 154: 153: 150: 144: 143: 138: 134: 133: 128: 124: 123: 120: 116: 115: 110: 106: 105: 94: 90: 89: 84: 80: 79: 66: 58: 57: 53: 52: 27: 24: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 11428: 11417: 11414: 11412: 11409: 11407: 11404: 11402: 11399: 11397: 11394: 11392: 11389: 11387: 11384: 11382: 11379: 11377: 11374: 11372: 11369: 11367: 11364: 11362: 11359: 11357: 11354: 11352: 11349: 11347: 11344: 11342: 11339: 11337: 11334: 11332: 11329: 11327: 11324: 11322: 11319: 11317: 11314: 11312: 11309: 11308: 11306: 11289: 11288:Soviet empire 11286: 11284: 11281: 11280: 11278: 11277: 11275: 11273:Miscellaneous 11271: 11265: 11262: 11260: 11257: 11255: 11252: 11250: 11247: 11245: 11242: 11238: 11235: 11234: 11233: 11230: 11229: 11227: 11223: 11213: 11210: 11208: 11205: 11203: 11200: 11198: 11195: 11191: 11188: 11187: 11186: 11183: 11181: 11178: 11176: 11173: 11171: 11168: 11166: 11163: 11161: 11158: 11156: 11153: 11151: 11148: 11146: 11143: 11141: 11138: 11134: 11131: 11129: 11126: 11125: 11124: 11121: 11119: 11116: 11114: 11111: 11110: 11108: 11106: 11102: 11094: 11091: 11089: 11086: 11084: 11081: 11079: 11076: 11074: 11071: 11070: 11069: 11066: 11064: 11061: 11057: 11054: 11053: 11052: 11049: 11047: 11044: 11040: 11037: 11035: 11032: 11030: 11027: 11026: 11025: 11022: 11020: 11017: 11013: 11010: 11008: 11005: 11004: 11003: 11000: 10996: 10993: 10991: 10988: 10986: 10983: 10981: 10978: 10976: 10973: 10972: 10971: 10968: 10964: 10961: 10959: 10956: 10955: 10954: 10951: 10949: 10946: 10944: 10941: 10939: 10936: 10932: 10929: 10927: 10924: 10922: 10919: 10917: 10914: 10912: 10909: 10908: 10907: 10904: 10900: 10897: 10895: 10892: 10891: 10890: 10887: 10885: 10882: 10878: 10875: 10873: 10872:German Empire 10870: 10869: 10868: 10865: 10861: 10858: 10856: 10853: 10852: 10851: 10848: 10844: 10841: 10839: 10836: 10835: 10834: 10831: 10829: 10826: 10822: 10819: 10817: 10814: 10812: 10809: 10807: 10804: 10802: 10799: 10798: 10797: 10794: 10792: 10789: 10785: 10782: 10780: 10777: 10776: 10774: 10772: 10769: 10767: 10764: 10762: 10759: 10757: 10754: 10752: 10749: 10748: 10746: 10744: 10740: 10734: 10731: 10729: 10726: 10724: 10721: 10717: 10714: 10712: 10709: 10707: 10704: 10702: 10699: 10697: 10694: 10692: 10689: 10687: 10684: 10683: 10682: 10679: 10677: 10674: 10670: 10667: 10665: 10662: 10660: 10657: 10655: 10652: 10650: 10647: 10645: 10642: 10641: 10640: 10637: 10633: 10630: 10628: 10625: 10623: 10620: 10618: 10615: 10614: 10613: 10612:Turco-Persian 10610: 10608: 10605: 10603: 10600: 10598: 10595: 10593: 10590: 10588: 10585: 10583: 10580: 10578: 10575: 10573: 10570: 10566: 10563: 10561: 10558: 10557: 10556: 10553: 10549: 10546: 10544: 10541: 10539: 10536: 10534: 10531: 10529: 10526: 10524: 10521: 10520: 10519: 10516: 10513: 10511: 10508: 10506: 10503: 10501: 10498: 10494: 10491: 10489: 10486: 10484: 10481: 10480: 10479: 10476: 10472: 10469: 10467: 10464: 10462: 10459: 10457: 10454: 10453: 10452: 10449: 10447: 10444: 10442: 10439: 10437: 10434: 10432: 10429: 10427: 10424: 10420: 10417: 10415: 10412: 10410: 10407: 10405: 10402: 10401: 10400: 10397: 10393: 10390: 10388: 10385: 10383: 10380: 10378: 10375: 10374: 10373: 10370: 10366: 10363: 10361: 10358: 10356: 10353: 10352: 10351: 10348: 10346: 10343: 10341: 10338: 10336: 10333: 10331: 10328: 10324: 10321: 10319: 10316: 10314: 10311: 10310: 10309: 10306: 10304: 10301: 10297: 10294: 10292: 10289: 10287: 10284: 10282: 10279: 10277: 10274: 10272: 10269: 10268: 10267: 10264: 10260: 10257: 10255: 10252: 10251: 10250: 10247: 10243: 10240: 10238: 10235: 10233: 10230: 10228: 10225: 10224: 10223: 10220: 10218: 10215: 10211: 10208: 10207: 10206: 10203: 10199: 10196: 10194: 10191: 10190: 10188: 10186: 10183: 10181: 10178: 10176: 10173: 10171: 10168: 10166: 10163: 10161: 10158: 10156: 10153: 10152: 10150: 10148: 10144: 10136: 10133: 10132: 10131: 10128: 10126: 10123: 10119: 10116: 10114: 10111: 10110: 10109: 10106: 10102: 10099: 10098: 10097: 10094: 10090: 10087: 10085: 10082: 10080: 10077: 10075: 10072: 10070: 10067: 10065: 10062: 10061: 10060: 10057: 10055: 10052: 10050: 10047: 10043: 10040: 10038: 10035: 10033: 10030: 10028: 10025: 10024: 10023: 10020: 10016: 10013: 10011: 10008: 10007: 10006: 10003: 10001: 9998: 9994: 9991: 9989: 9986: 9984: 9981: 9979: 9976: 9974: 9971: 9970: 9969: 9966: 9964: 9961: 9959: 9956: 9952: 9949: 9947: 9944: 9942: 9939: 9938: 9937: 9934: 9932: 9929: 9925: 9922: 9920: 9917: 9915: 9912: 9911: 9910: 9907: 9903: 9900: 9898: 9895: 9893: 9890: 9889: 9888: 9885: 9881: 9878: 9876: 9873: 9872: 9871: 9868: 9866: 9863: 9861: 9858: 9857: 9855: 9852: 9847: 9843: 9839: 9832: 9827: 9825: 9820: 9818: 9813: 9812: 9809: 9797: 9789: 9787: 9777: 9776: 9773: 9759: 9756: 9754: 9751: 9749: 9746: 9744: 9741: 9739: 9736: 9734: 9731: 9729: 9726: 9724: 9721: 9717: 9714: 9713: 9712: 9709: 9705: 9702: 9700: 9699:Post-Islamism 9697: 9695: 9692: 9691: 9690: 9687: 9685: 9682: 9678: 9675: 9673: 9670: 9669: 9668: 9665: 9664: 9662: 9658: 9652: 9649: 9647: 9644: 9642: 9639: 9637: 9634: 9633: 9631: 9629: 9625: 9619: 9616: 9614: 9611: 9609: 9606: 9604: 9601: 9599: 9596: 9592: 9591:Protestantism 9589: 9587: 9584: 9582: 9579: 9578: 9577: 9574: 9573: 9571: 9569: 9565: 9561: 9551: 9547: 9533: 9530: 9528: 9527: 9523: 9521: 9518: 9514: 9511: 9510: 9509: 9506: 9504: 9501: 9499: 9496: 9494: 9491: 9489: 9486: 9484: 9481: 9480: 9478: 9474: 9468: 9465: 9463: 9460: 9458: 9455: 9453: 9450: 9449: 9447: 9445: 9441: 9435: 9432: 9430: 9429:Ophthalmology 9427: 9425: 9422: 9420: 9417: 9415: 9412: 9410: 9407: 9405: 9402: 9400: 9397: 9396: 9394: 9392: 9388: 9382: 9379: 9377: 9374: 9372: 9369: 9367: 9364: 9362: 9359: 9357: 9354: 9352: 9349: 9347: 9344: 9343: 9341: 9339: 9335: 9331: 9327: 9319: 9315: 9301: 9298: 9294: 9293: 9289: 9288: 9287: 9284: 9282: 9279: 9277: 9274: 9270: 9267: 9266: 9265: 9262: 9260: 9259: 9255: 9253: 9250: 9248: 9247: 9243: 9241: 9238: 9236: 9235: 9231: 9229: 9226: 9224: 9221: 9219: 9216: 9214: 9211: 9209: 9206: 9204: 9201: 9199: 9196: 9194: 9193: 9189: 9187: 9186: 9182: 9178: 9177:Death penalty 9175: 9173: 9170: 9168: 9165: 9164: 9163: 9160: 9158: 9155: 9153: 9152: 9148: 9147: 9145: 9143:Other aspects 9141: 9135: 9134: 9130: 9128: 9127: 9123: 9121: 9120: 9116: 9114: 9113: 9109: 9107: 9106: 9102: 9100: 9099: 9095: 9093: 9092: 9088: 9087: 9085: 9080: 9077: 9075: 9072: 9070: 9067: 9066: 9063: 9057: 9056: 9052: 9050: 9047: 9045: 9044: 9040: 9038: 9037: 9033: 9031: 9030: 9026: 9024: 9023: 9019: 9018: 9016: 9014: 9010: 9004: 9003: 8999: 8997: 8996: 8992: 8990: 8989: 8985: 8983: 8982: 8978: 8976: 8973: 8971: 8968: 8967: 8965: 8963: 8959: 8955: 8948: 8947:Jurisprudence 8945: 8943: 8940: 8939: 8935: 8931: 8921: 8918: 8916: 8913: 8911: 8908: 8906: 8903: 8901: 8898: 8896: 8895: 8891: 8889: 8886: 8884: 8881: 8879: 8876: 8874: 8871: 8869: 8866: 8864: 8861: 8859: 8856: 8854: 8851: 8849: 8846: 8844: 8841: 8839: 8836: 8834: 8831: 8829: 8826: 8824: 8821: 8820: 8818: 8813: 8810: 8808: 8805: 8804: 8801: 8795: 8792: 8790: 8787: 8783: 8780: 8779: 8778: 8775: 8773: 8770: 8766: 8763: 8759: 8756: 8752: 8749: 8747: 8744: 8742: 8739: 8738: 8737: 8734: 8733: 8731: 8729: 8726: 8725: 8724: 8720: 8717: 8713: 8710: 8706: 8703: 8702: 8701: 8698: 8696: 8693: 8691: 8688: 8686: 8683: 8682: 8681: 8678: 8676: 8673: 8667: 8664: 8663: 8662: 8659: 8657: 8654: 8652: 8649: 8647: 8644: 8642: 8639: 8638: 8637: 8634: 8633: 8631: 8629: 8628:Denominations 8625: 8619: 8618: 8614: 8612: 8609: 8607: 8604: 8602: 8599: 8597: 8594: 8593: 8591: 8589: 8585: 8577: 8574: 8572: 8569: 8567: 8564: 8562: 8559: 8557: 8554: 8552: 8549: 8547: 8544: 8542: 8541: 8537: 8536: 8535: 8532: 8530: 8527: 8525: 8524: 8520: 8518: 8517: 8513: 8511: 8508: 8506: 8503: 8501: 8498: 8496: 8493: 8491: 8488: 8487: 8485: 8480: 8477: 8475: 8472: 8471: 8468: 8462: 8461: 8457: 8455: 8454: 8450: 8448: 8447: 8443: 8441: 8440: 8436: 8434: 8433: 8429: 8428: 8426: 8424: 8420: 8414: 8413:Holiest sites 8411: 8409: 8408:Judgement Day 8406: 8404: 8403: 8399: 8397: 8394: 8392: 8389: 8387: 8384: 8380: 8377: 8376: 8375: 8372: 8370: 8369: 8365: 8361: 8358: 8357: 8356: 8353: 8352: 8350: 8348: 8344: 8340: 8336: 8335: 8329: 8324: 8317: 8312: 8310: 8305: 8303: 8298: 8297: 8294: 8282: 8279: 8277: 8274: 8272: 8269: 8267: 8264: 8263: 8260: 8256: 8249: 8244: 8242: 8237: 8235: 8230: 8229: 8226: 8218: 8212: 8208: 8204: 8200: 8196: 8192: 8191: 8185: 8183:90-411-0241-8 8179: 8175: 8171: 8166: 8162: 8158: 8154: 8153:Marius Canard 8150: 8146: 8142: 8138: 8134: 8128: 8124: 8123: 8118: 8114: 8110: 8108:9780522857283 8104: 8100: 8099: 8093: 8089: 8087:9780199806003 8083: 8079: 8074: 8070: 8064: 8061:. Routledge. 8060: 8059: 8053: 8049: 8043: 8039: 8038: 8032: 8028: 8022: 8018: 8014: 8013: 8007: 8003: 7998: 7994: 7988: 7980: 7976: 7972: 7968: 7964: 7960: 7956: 7952: 7948: 7947:Hinds, Martin 7944: 7940: 7936: 7931: 7926: 7922: 7918: 7914: 7909: 7905: 7899: 7895: 7894: 7888: 7884: 7882:9780674050976 7878: 7874: 7870: 7869: 7864: 7860: 7856: 7854:9781889758879 7850: 7846: 7845: 7840: 7836: 7832: 7828: 7824: 7820: 7816: 7812: 7808: 7804: 7800: 7795: 7792: 7790:0-521-33767-4 7786: 7782: 7781: 7775: 7774: 7761: 7760:Madelung 1997 7756: 7749: 7748:Madelung 1997 7744: 7737: 7736:Madelung 1997 7732: 7725: 7720: 7713: 7708: 7701: 7700:Vasiliev 1935 7696: 7680: 7676: 7672: 7665: 7658: 7657:Frastuti 2020 7653: 7646: 7645:Bosworth 1996 7641: 7635:Augus Mcbride 7632: 7616: 7612: 7608: 7601: 7585: 7581: 7577: 7573: 7567: 7565: 7548: 7544: 7537: 7528: 7521: 7519: 7518:In God's Path 7512: 7505: 7503: 7502:In God's Path 7496: 7489: 7482: 7475: 7473: 7472:In God's Path 7466: 7457: 7448: 7446: 7436: 7430: 7426: 7422: 7416: 7412: 7405: 7398: 7392: 7388: 7384: 7377: 7371: 7364: 7349: 7348: 7343: 7336: 7329: 7323: 7315: 7313:9781847064783 7309: 7305: 7304: 7296: 7287: 7279: 7275: 7271: 7265: 7263: 7255: 7250: 7243: 7237: 7230: 7227:Cl. Cahen in 7224: 7216: 7210: 7206: 7205: 7197: 7188: 7180: 7176: 7172: 7166: 7158: 7154: 7150: 7144: 7136: 7132: 7128: 7122: 7114: 7110: 7106: 7100: 7084: 7080: 7076: 7070: 7054: 7050: 7046: 7039: 7037: 7029: 7023: 7005: 7001: 6997: 6985: 6981: 6977: 6965: 6962:. p. 1. 6961: 6957: 6945: 6942:. p. 1. 6941: 6937: 6925: 6921: 6917: 6905: 6901: 6897: 6885: 6882:. p. 1. 6881: 6877: 6873: 6869: 6865: 6864: 6861: 6854: 6846: 6842: 6838: 6837: 6832: 6828: 6822: 6815: 6810: 6803: 6798: 6791: 6786: 6778: 6772: 6768: 6764: 6757: 6750: 6744: 6740: 6739: 6734: 6728: 6720: 6714: 6710: 6709: 6701: 6694: 6693:Madelung 1997 6689: 6687: 6685: 6676: 6669: 6667: 6665: 6663: 6661: 6659: 6652:, p. 49. 6651: 6650:Madelung 1997 6646: 6639: 6635: 6630: 6623: 6619: 6614: 6607: 6603: 6598: 6596: 6586: 6579: 6573: 6571: 6569: 6567: 6557: 6548: 6541: 6536: 6529: 6524: 6517: 6512: 6505: 6499: 6493: 6491:(2014), p. 3 6490: 6484: 6478:, p. 32) 6477: 6472: 6465: 6461: 6460:Madelung 1997 6456: 6450:, p. 83. 6449: 6444: 6429: 6425: 6418: 6410: 6403: 6396: 6392: 6390:9781134081066 6386: 6382: 6375: 6367: 6365:9788173913358 6361: 6357: 6350: 6342: 6337: 6336: 6327: 6320: 6314: 6306: 6304:9780761421207 6300: 6296: 6291: 6290: 6281: 6273: 6271:9781412994224 6267: 6263: 6256: 6248: 6246:9780334040323 6242: 6238: 6231: 6223: 6221:9789799988812 6217: 6214:. p. 9. 6213: 6209: 6202: 6196:, p. 93. 6195: 6190: 6183: 6178: 6171: 6170:Melchert 2020 6166: 6158: 6154: 6150: 6146: 6142: 6138: 6137:Bianquis, Th. 6134: 6130: 6124: 6116: 6114:9781317423683 6110: 6106: 6105: 6097: 6089: 6085: 6081: 6077: 6073: 6069: 6068: 6063: 6059: 6053: 6045: 6039: 6035: 6034: 6026: 6022: 6012: 6009: 6007: 6004: 6002: 5999: 5997: 5994: 5992: 5989: 5988: 5980: 5975: 5973: 5968: 5966: 5961: 5960: 5958: 5957: 5947: 5944: 5940: 5937: 5936: 5932: 5929: 5925: 5922: 5921: 5917: 5914: 5910: 5907: 5906: 5902: 5899: 5895: 5892: 5891: 5887: 5884: 5880: 5877: 5876: 5872: 5869: 5865: 5862: 5861: 5857: 5854: 5853:Umm al-Quwain 5850: 5847: 5846: 5842: 5839: 5835: 5832: 5831: 5827: 5824: 5820: 5817: 5816: 5812: 5809: 5805: 5802: 5801: 5797: 5794: 5790: 5787: 5786: 5782: 5779: 5775: 5772: 5771: 5767: 5764: 5760: 5757: 5756: 5752: 5749: 5745: 5742: 5741: 5733: 5732: 5722: 5720: 5717: 5716: 5712: 5709: 5705: 5702: 5701: 5697: 5695: 5692: 5691: 5687: 5684: 5680: 5677: 5676: 5672: 5669: 5665: 5662: 5661: 5657: 5654: 5650: 5647: 5646: 5642: 5639: 5635: 5632: 5631: 5623: 5622: 5612: 5610: 5607: 5606: 5602: 5600: 5597: 5596: 5592: 5590: 5587: 5586: 5582: 5580: 5577: 5576: 5572: 5570: 5567: 5566: 5562: 5560: 5557: 5556: 5552: 5550: 5547: 5546: 5542: 5540: 5537: 5536: 5532: 5530: 5527: 5526: 5522: 5520: 5517: 5516: 5512: 5510: 5507: 5506: 5502: 5500: 5497: 5496: 5492: 5490: 5487: 5486: 5482: 5480: 5477: 5476: 5472: 5470: 5467: 5466: 5462: 5460: 5457: 5456: 5452: 5450: 5447: 5446: 5442: 5440: 5437: 5436: 5432: 5430: 5427: 5426: 5422: 5420: 5417: 5416: 5412: 5410: 5407: 5406: 5402: 5400: 5397: 5396: 5392: 5390: 5387: 5386: 5382: 5380: 5377: 5376: 5372: 5370: 5367: 5366: 5362: 5360: 5357: 5356: 5352: 5350: 5347: 5346: 5342: 5340: 5337: 5336: 5332: 5330: 5327: 5326: 5318: 5317: 5307: 5305: 5302: 5301: 5297: 5295: 5292: 5291: 5287: 5285: 5282: 5281: 5277: 5275: 5272: 5271: 5267: 5265: 5262: 5261: 5257: 5255: 5252: 5251: 5247: 5245: 5242: 5241: 5237: 5235: 5232: 5231: 5227: 5225: 5222: 5221: 5217: 5215: 5212: 5211: 5207: 5205: 5202: 5201: 5197: 5195: 5192: 5191: 5187: 5185: 5182: 5181: 5177: 5175: 5172: 5171: 5167: 5165: 5162: 5161: 5157: 5155: 5154:Muslim Sicily 5152: 5151: 5147: 5145: 5142: 5141: 5137: 5135: 5132: 5131: 5127: 5125: 5122: 5121: 5117: 5115: 5112: 5111: 5107: 5105: 5102: 5101: 5097: 5095: 5092: 5091: 5087: 5085: 5082: 5081: 5073: 5072: 5062: 5060: 5057: 5056: 5052: 5050: 5047: 5046: 5042: 5040: 5037: 5036: 5032: 5030: 5027: 5026: 5022: 5020: 5017: 5016: 5012: 5010: 5007: 5006: 5002: 5000: 4997: 4996: 4992: 4990: 4987: 4986: 4982: 4980: 4977: 4976: 4972: 4970: 4967: 4966: 4962: 4960: 4957: 4956: 4952: 4950: 4947: 4946: 4942: 4940: 4937: 4936: 4932: 4930: 4927: 4926: 4922: 4920: 4917: 4916: 4912: 4910: 4907: 4906: 4902: 4900: 4897: 4896: 4892: 4890: 4887: 4886: 4882: 4880: 4877: 4876: 4872: 4870: 4867: 4866: 4862: 4860: 4857: 4856: 4848: 4847: 4837: 4835: 4832: 4831: 4827: 4825: 4822: 4821: 4817: 4815: 4812: 4811: 4807: 4805: 4802: 4801: 4793: 4792: 4783:450 AD–550 AD 4782: 4780: 4777: 4776: 4772: 4770: 4767: 4766: 4762: 4760: 4757: 4756: 4752: 4750: 4747: 4746: 4742: 4740: 4737: 4736: 4732: 4730: 4727: 4726: 4723:64 BC–300s AD 4722: 4720: 4717: 4716: 4713:132 BC–244 AD 4712: 4710: 4707: 4706: 4703:400 BC–106 AD 4702: 4700: 4697: 4696: 4693:600 BC–100 BC 4692: 4690: 4687: 4686: 4683:800 BC–300 BC 4682: 4680: 4677: 4676: 4668: 4667: 4663: 4659: 4658: 4654: 4653: 4639: 4635: 4631: 4629: 4625: 4624: 4623: 4621: 4618: 4614: 4611: 4609: 4606: 4605: 4604: 4599: 4595: 4592: 4588: 4585: 4584: 4583: 4580: 4576: 4574: 4573: 4571: 4566: 4565: 4560: 4551: 4550: 4546: 4543: 4542: 4536: 4535: 4534: 4532: 4529: 4525: 4522: 4520: 4517: 4516: 4515: 4510: 4506: 4503: 4499: 4495: 4494: 4493: 4490: 4486: 4484: 4482: 4476: 4467: 4466: 4462: 4459: 4458: 4452: 4451: 4450: 4448: 4445: 4441: 4438: 4436: 4433: 4432: 4431: 4426: 4422: 4421: 4420: 4417: 4413: 4411: 4410: 4408: 4401: 4392: 4391: 4387: 4384: 4383: 4377: 4376: 4375: 4373: 4370: 4366: 4363: 4361: 4358: 4357: 4356: 4351: 4347: 4346: 4345: 4342: 4338: 4336: 4334: 4328: 4319: 4318: 4314: 4311: 4310: 4306: 4304: 4301: 4298: 4296: 4292: 4290:Calligraphic 4289: 4286: 4283: 4282: 4274: 4273:in later era 4272: 4268: 4264: 4260: 4256: 4252: 4249:, the famous 4248: 4242: 4235:Rashidun navy 4232: 4228: 4224: 4222: 4216: 4214: 4210: 4206: 4202: 4198: 4194: 4189: 4187: 4186:light cavalry 4183: 4175: 4171: 4167: 4162: 4157: 4156:Rashidun Army 4150:Rashidun army 4147: 4145: 4144:Rashidun navy 4135: 4132: 4129: 4124: 4123:Shi'ite views 4119: 4117: 4112: 4110: 4106: 4101: 4097: 4091: 4081: 4079: 4075: 4071: 4067: 4066:Mediterranean 4063: 4059: 4055: 4051: 4047: 4043: 4039: 4035: 4033: 4027: 4025: 4021: 4017: 4013: 4009: 4008:Dar-ul-Amarat 4004: 4002: 3998: 3997:Friday mosque 3994: 3990: 3986: 3981: 3979: 3975: 3964: 3962: 3952: 3949: 3945: 3937: 3933: 3929: 3926: 3925:Apostasy wars 3922: 3919: 3915: 3912: 3908: 3905: 3901: 3898: 3894: 3893:Hasan ibn Ali 3890: 3887: 3884: 3881: 3878: 3877: 3876: 3873: 3869: 3865: 3862: 3857: 3853: 3850: 3846: 3831: 3829: 3825: 3821: 3816: 3812: 3808: 3799: 3797: 3793: 3789: 3785: 3781: 3777: 3772: 3767: 3765: 3760: 3750: 3748: 3744: 3739: 3729: 3727: 3723: 3714: 3712: 3708: 3705: 3701: 3691: 3687: 3682: 3672: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3658: 3654: 3644: 3639: 3627: 3624: 3622: 3619: 3617: 3614: 3612: 3609: 3607: 3604: 3602: 3599: 3598: 3597: 3589: 3587: 3583: 3579: 3575: 3571: 3567: 3563: 3559: 3555: 3551: 3547: 3543: 3539: 3535: 3531: 3524: 3523: 3518: 3514: 3510: 3506: 3501: 3497: 3495: 3490: 3487: 3482: 3480: 3476: 3472: 3466: 3456: 3454: 3450: 3448: 3444: 3440: 3435: 3420: 3418: 3414: 3410: 3406: 3401: 3399: 3395: 3391: 3387: 3385: 3378: 3376: 3371: 3367: 3361: 3359: 3355: 3351: 3345: 3341: 3331: 3329: 3322: 3317: 3315: 3311: 3310: 3305: 3301: 3297: 3293: 3287: 3285: 3275: 3273: 3269: 3265: 3261: 3257: 3253: 3243: 3241: 3237: 3233: 3231: 3227: 3223: 3219: 3197: 3192: 3191: 3185: 3181: 3171: 3169: 3164: 3160: 3159: 3155:Accordingly, 3153: 3151: 3140: 3138: 3134: 3128: 3125: 3117: 3114: 3111: 3108: 3105: 3101: 3097: 3096: 3095: 3090: 3085: 3082: 3080: 3074: 3072: 3064: 3061: 3058: 3054: 3051: 3048: 3044: 3041: 3038: 3034: 3031: 3028: 3025: 3021: 3018: 3015: 3011: 3008: 3007: 3006: 3004: 3003: 2998: 2994: 2989: 2987: 2983: 2976: 2973: 2971: 2968: 2966: 2963: 2961: 2958: 2956: 2953: 2951: 2948: 2946: 2943: 2941: 2938: 2936: 2933: 2931: 2928: 2926: 2923: 2921: 2918: 2917: 2916: 2913: 2911: 2906: 2898: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2883: 2880: 2876: 2872: 2869: 2866: 2862: 2859: 2856: 2853: 2850: 2846: 2842: 2839: 2836: 2832: 2828: 2825: 2822: 2818: 2814: 2811: 2810: 2809: 2807: 2802: 2794: 2787: 2783: 2778: 2771: 2768:(present-day 2767: 2763: 2759: 2755: 2751: 2742: 2740: 2736: 2731: 2729: 2728: 2723: 2718: 2714: 2712: 2708: 2702: 2692: 2690: 2686: 2682: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2666: 2662: 2658: 2654: 2650: 2646: 2642: 2638: 2634: 2628: 2618: 2616: 2612: 2608: 2604: 2600: 2596: 2592: 2588: 2581:, Sudan, 2013 2580: 2575: 2566: 2564: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2540: 2536: 2532: 2528: 2524: 2519: 2517: 2513: 2509: 2505: 2497: 2492: 2483: 2481: 2477: 2474:, who killed 2473: 2472:Amr ibn al-As 2469: 2463: 2461: 2456: 2454: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2437: 2435: 2431: 2427: 2423: 2419: 2415: 2414:Amr ibn al-As 2411: 2407: 2399: 2395: 2391: 2387: 2379: 2374: 2364: 2362: 2357: 2355: 2351: 2347: 2343: 2339: 2335: 2331: 2327: 2323: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2307: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2278: 2274: 2267: 2263: 2258: 2249: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2234: 2231: 2226: 2224: 2219: 2214: 2212: 2208: 2202: 2194: 2190: 2188: 2183: 2178: 2174: 2170: 2160: 2156: 2154: 2145: 2138: 2134: 2130: 2126: 2122: 2117: 2113: 2111: 2107: 2103: 2099: 2091: 2087: 2082: 2078: 2076: 2072: 2069: 2064: 2060: 2056: 2052: 2048: 2044: 2040: 2036: 2031: 2029: 2028:Syrian Desert 2025: 2021: 2017: 2013: 2009: 2008:Amr ibn al-As 2005: 1998: 1993: 1988: 1973: 1971: 1967: 1963: 1959: 1955: 1951: 1947: 1943: 1939: 1935: 1931: 1927: 1923: 1919: 1915: 1913: 1909: 1905: 1901: 1896: 1892: 1888: 1887:Qasr-e Shirin 1884: 1880: 1875: 1873: 1869: 1865: 1861: 1857: 1853: 1849: 1845: 1841: 1835: 1833: 1829: 1825: 1821: 1817: 1813: 1808: 1806: 1801: 1797: 1793: 1789: 1785: 1780: 1778: 1774: 1770: 1766: 1762: 1758: 1754: 1750: 1742: 1741: 1736: 1732: 1728: 1724: 1719: 1713: 1709: 1704: 1699: 1689: 1687: 1683: 1679: 1674: 1672: 1668: 1664: 1660: 1650: 1648: 1643: 1638: 1636: 1629: 1628: 1623: 1618: 1614: 1612: 1608: 1604: 1600: 1596: 1592: 1588: 1584: 1579: 1577: 1576:Hasan ibn Ali 1573: 1568: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1551: 1549: 1545: 1541: 1537: 1526: 1518: 1517: 1512: 1508: 1504: 1499: 1494: 1479: 1477: 1470: 1460: 1456: 1454: 1450: 1446: 1442: 1438: 1434: 1430: 1426: 1425:Rashidun army 1421: 1419: 1414: 1412: 1408: 1404: 1399: 1395: 1380: 1378: 1374: 1369: 1367: 1362: 1357: 1355: 1351: 1350: 1345: 1340: 1338: 1334: 1330: 1326: 1322: 1319:, north into 1318: 1314: 1309: 1308: 1295: 1285: 1283: 1279: 1275: 1271: 1267: 1263: 1253: 1251: 1246: 1242: 1233: 1229: 1227: 1217: 1216: 1211: 1207: 1203: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1187: 1183: 1179: 1175: 1171: 1167: 1163: 1159: 1155: 1151: 1147: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1106: 1103:resulting in 1101: 1097: 1091: 1089: 1085: 1079: 1077: 1073: 1069: 1065: 1061: 1041: 1030: 1026: 1011: 1009: 1005: 1001: 996: 992: 990: 978: 977: 972: 968: 963: 961: 951: 947: 943: 939: 935: 931: 927: 924: 920: 916: 908: 903: 892: 888: 884: 872: 868: 866: 861: 860: 854: 844: 838: 837: 825: 803: 798: 797: 791: 787: 783: 779: 775: 771: 767: 766:Transcaucasus 763: 759: 755: 754:Rashidun Army 751: 747: 742: 740: 736: 732: 728: 717: 713: 709: 705: 701: 697: 692: 689: 685: 681: 677: 673: 669: 665: 661: 657: 653: 649: 644: 642: 638: 634: 630: 625: 619: 610: 606: 594: 589: 587: 582: 580: 575: 574: 572: 571: 568: 558: 557: 550: 547: 545: 542: 540: 537: 535: 532: 530: 527: 526: 520: 519: 512: 509: 507: 504: 502: 499: 497: 494: 493: 487: 486: 482: 478: 477: 465: 462: 461: 441: 439: 436: 435: 432: 426: 423: 416: 415: 412: 409: 402: 401: 398: 395: 388: 387: 384: 381: 374: 373: 370: 369: 366: 363: 361: 358: 357: 353: 347: 344: 343: 341: 337: 333: 329: 324: 320: 316: 312: 306: 302: 299: 293: 289: 285: 279: 275: 271: 265: 261: 255: 251: 248: 242: 238: 235: 229: 225: 221: 217: 213: 207: 204: 198: 195: 192: 186: 183: 180: 174: 168: 165: 159: 155: 151: 149: 145: 142: 139: 135: 132: 129: 125: 121: 117: 114: 111: 107: 103: 98: 95: 91: 88: 85: 81: 70: 64: 59: 54: 47: 38: 22: 19: 11039:Contemporary 10889:Indo-Persian 10877:Nazi Germany 10821:Contemporary 10723:Vijayanagara 10622:Great Seljuk 10533:Thessalonica 10461:Golden Horde 10226: 10101:Carthaginian 9880:Neo-Assyrian 9865:Neo-Sumerian 9711:Islamophobia 9576:Christianity 9524: 9457:Contemporary 9351:Architecture 9290: 9256: 9244: 9232: 9190: 9183: 9149: 9131: 9126:Nikah mut'ah 9124: 9117: 9110: 9103: 9096: 9089: 9053: 9041: 9034: 9027: 9020: 9000: 8993: 8986: 8979: 8892: 8615: 8539: 8538: 8521: 8514: 8458: 8451: 8444: 8437: 8430: 8423:Five Pillars 8400: 8366: 8355:God in Islam 8332: 8254: 8202: 8169: 8144: 8121: 8097: 8077: 8057: 8036: 8011: 8001: 7987:cite journal 7954: 7950: 7920: 7919:(in Malay). 7916: 7896:. ABC-CLIO. 7892: 7867: 7843: 7806: 7802: 7779: 7755: 7743: 7731: 7719: 7707: 7695: 7683:. Retrieved 7679:the original 7674: 7664: 7652: 7640: 7631: 7621:10 September 7619:. Retrieved 7615:the original 7610: 7600: 7590:10 September 7588:. Retrieved 7584:the original 7579: 7572:Hugh Kennedy 7551:. Retrieved 7536: 7527: 7517: 7511: 7501: 7495: 7487: 7481: 7471: 7465: 7456: 7435: 7414: 7410: 7404: 7382: 7376: 7363: 7351:. Retrieved 7345: 7335: 7322: 7302: 7295: 7286: 7278:the original 7273: 7249: 7236: 7223: 7203: 7196: 7187: 7179:the original 7174: 7165: 7157:the original 7152: 7143: 7135:the original 7130: 7121: 7113:the original 7108: 7099: 7087:. Retrieved 7083:the original 7078: 7069: 7057:. Retrieved 7053:the original 7048: 7043:A.I. Akram. 7027: 7026:D. Nicolle, 7022: 7008:. Retrieved 7004:the original 6988:. Retrieved 6984:the original 6968:. Retrieved 6948:. Retrieved 6928:. Retrieved 6924:the original 6908:. Retrieved 6904:the original 6888:. Retrieved 6872:the original 6859: 6853: 6845:the original 6834: 6821: 6809: 6797: 6785: 6766: 6756: 6737: 6727: 6707: 6700: 6674: 6645: 6637: 6633: 6629: 6621: 6617: 6613: 6605: 6601: 6585: 6577: 6556: 6547: 6542:, p. 4) 6535: 6523: 6511: 6506:(2012), p. 6 6503: 6498: 6488: 6483: 6471: 6455: 6443: 6431:. 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Tauris 7553:29 November 6814:Netton 2013 6802:Donner 2010 6194:McHugo 2017 6133:Bearman, P. 5653:Pate Island 5626:East Africa 5419:Sulaymanids 5359:Ukhaidhirds 5144:Sulaymanids 5114:Muhallabids 5019:Munqidhites 4919:Shirvanshah 4773:300s–602 AD 4743:196–1100 AD 4733:100s–241 AD 4620:Banu Hashim 4596:Husband of 4589:Husband of 4531:Banu Umayya 4502:Umm Kulthum 4496:Husband of 4116:First Fitna 4032:Bait-ul-Mal 4016:Bait-ul-Mal 3556:(including 3542:Islamic law 3513:fire temple 3471:Abu Huraira 3465:Bayt al-mal 3434:Bayt al-mal 3409:rule of law 3354:rule of law 3334:Rule of law 3222:Fred Donner 2879:Lower Egypt 2875:Upper Egypt 2677:Constans II 2559:First Fitna 2460:Constans II 2453:monothelism 2346:Constans II 2187:siege to it 2024:Mesopotamia 1942:Balochistan 1938:Transoxania 1934:Afghanistan 1883:brief siege 1840:Mesopotamia 1814:, then the 1771:), and the 1749:Mesopotamia 1729:type. BYS ( 1665:, parts of 1659:Mesopotamia 1493:First Fitna 1329:Mesopotamia 1162:Banu Thaqif 1082:tribe, the 1064:Banu Sa'ida 971:Sunni Islam 883:Constans II 853:Sunni Islam 840:(singular: 708:First Fitna 700:Banu Hashim 688:Banu Umayya 360:Preceded by 311:First Fitna 11316:Caliphates 11305:Categories 11197:Portuguese 11078:Revival Le 11068:Vietnamese 10711:Later Tran 10681:Vietnamese 10577:Singhasari 10565:Holy Roman 10189:Bulgarian 10125:Satavahana 10096:Phoenician 10032:Achaemenid 9993:Indo-Greek 9973:Macedonian 9887:Babylonian 9641:Ex-Muslims 9526:Shu'ubiyya 9520:Psychology 9508:Literature 9498:Inventions 9444:Philosophy 9252:Leadership 9228:Honorifics 8883:Philosophy 8690:Isma'ilism 8651:Maturidism 8534:Caliphates 8505:Golden Age 8396:Revelation 8026:0521646960 7685:31 October 7153:New Advent 6790:Hinds 1972 6428:Aqidah.Com 6074:(3): 495. 6017:References 5939:Hashemites 5894:Al Maktoum 5864:Al Khalifa 5549:Upper Yafa 5539:Ya'arubids 5379:Qarmatians 5264:Sumadihids 4753:220–638 AD 4749:Ghassanids 4500:and later 4423:Father of 4360:Abu Quhafa 4348:Father of 4265:, and the 4205:wickerwork 4105:Muawiyah I 4088:See also: 4074:Suez Canal 3955:Evaluation 3843:After the 3728:reserves. 3704:per capita 3574:Al-Ghazali 3570:government 3517:Khosrau II 3364:Narrated ‘ 3338:See also: 3328:revolution 3296:oppression 3292:Al-Juwayni 3039:Collector. 2982:Muawiyah I 2955:Azerbaijan 2893:Azerbaijan 2699:See also: 2645:Constantia 2633:Muawiyah I 2498:(Sufetula) 2468:Caliph Ali 2430:Alexandria 2422:Nile Delta 2406:Khosrau II 2326:Cappadocia 2075:Ghassanids 1970:Oxus River 1956:(Russia), 1950:Azerbaijan 1906:in modern 1828:Byzantines 1753:Ridda wars 1751:after the 1735:Khosrau II 1727:Khosrau II 1640:Ali's son 1635:Ibn Muljam 1599:Kharijites 1433:Byzantines 1427:conquered 1226:Ridda wars 1202:al-Bahrayn 1190:Musaylimah 1178:Aswad Ansi 1140:Ridda wars 926:companions 790:South Asia 727:Kharijites 712:suzerainty 425:Ghassanids 137:Government 76: 654 11190:Couronian 10828:Ethiopian 10816:Manchukuo 10771:Brazilian 10617:Ghaznavid 10587:Srivijaya 10538:Trebizond 10523:Byzantine 10505:North Sea 10500:Norwegian 10488:Almoravid 10471:Ilkhanate 10441:Majapahit 10414:Muromachi 10323:Solomonic 10308:Ethiopian 10222:Caliphate 10155:Aragonese 9983:Ptolemaic 9758:Symbolism 9716:Incidents 9694:Criticism 9586:Mormonism 9483:Astrology 9409:Cosmology 9404:Astronomy 9346:Arabesque 9213:Etiquette 9172:Blasphemy 8962:Economics 8777:Ahmadiyya 8719:Muhakkima 8666:Wahhabism 8656:Mu'tazili 8641:Ash'arism 8161:181731396 7979:159763369 7939:234578454 7841:(2007) . 7831:163550092 7516:Hoyland, 7500:Hoyland, 7470:Hoyland, 7353:5 October 7242:Cambridge 7010:21 August 6990:21 August 6970:21 August 6950:21 August 6930:21 August 6910:21 August 6890:21 August 6448:Rane 2010 6433:16 August 5924:Al Sharqi 5879:Al Nuaimi 5849:Al Mualla 5838:Abu Dhabi 5834:Al Nahyan 5774:Al Qasimi 5759:Al Qasimi 5723:1860–1887 5713:1858–1895 5698:1856–1964 5688:1746–1828 5673:1277–1495 5658:1203–1894 5613:1926–1970 5603:1906–1934 5593:1903–1967 5583:1858–1967 5579:Qu'aitids 5573:1836–1921 5569:Rashidids 5563:1820–1970 5553:1800–1967 5543:1624–1742 5533:1597–1872 5523:1463–1521 5513:1454–1526 5503:1395–1967 5499:Kathirids 5493:1305–1487 5489:Jarwanids 5483:1253–1320 5473:1229–1454 5463:1159–1174 5453:1154–1624 5449:Nabhanids 5443:1083–1174 5433:1076–1253 5423:1063–1174 5413:1047–1138 5409:Sulayhids 5308:1837–1969 5304:Senussids 5298:1554–1659 5288:1230–1492 5278:1049–1078 5268:1041–1091 5258:1039–1110 5248:1031–1091 5244:Jawharids 5238:1027–1063 5234:Muzaynids 5228:1026–1057 5224:Hammudids 5218:1023–1062 5214:Yahsubids 5208:1023–1091 5198:1020–1086 5188:1013–1039 5178:1012–1051 5168:1004–1412 5134:Aghlabids 5063:1697–1842 5053:1517–1865 5043:1480–1677 5033:1517–1697 5023:1025–1157 5013:1024–1080 5009:Mirdasids 4999:Numayrids 4979:Jarrahids 4969:Mazyadids 4949:Hamdanids 4939:Hashimids 4899:Habbarids 4889:Dulafids 4739:Tanukhids 4570:Al-Haydar 4372:Banu Taym 4365:Umm Khayr 4333:Al-Siddiq 4271:Aghlabids 4193:chainmail 4034:animals. 3972:west. Al- 3861:allowance 3834:Allowance 3522:bismillah 3507:symbols ( 3505:Sassanids 3321:curse"... 3304:rebellion 3264:Mujtahids 3178:The four 3027:Secretary 3014:Secretary 2993:districts 2905:testament 2861:Palestine 2849:Euphrates 2806:provinces 2667:and then 2649:Salt Lake 2615:Qalidurut 2603:cathedral 2591:Makurians 2527:Cyrenaica 2223:Jerusalem 2133:Jerusalem 2020:Ctesiphon 1918:Yazdegerd 1912:Sasanians 1891:Khuzestan 1879:Ctesiphon 1805:Christian 1740:bismillah 1431:from the 1418:Rashiduns 1337:Palestine 1321:Byzantine 1186:al-Yamama 1117:622–750: 1072:Muhajirun 828:Etymology 656:Banu Taym 654:, of the 637:West Asia 629:caliphate 618:romanized 464:Caliphate 141:Caliphate 127:Religion 104:(656–661) 99:(632–656) 87:Caliphate 11170:Japanese 11133:Scottish 11113:American 11105:Colonial 11034:Imperial 11002:Moroccan 10938:Japanese 10916:Afsharid 10775:Burmese 10761:Austrian 10716:Later Le 10691:Early Le 10676:Venetian 10602:Tiwanaku 10515:Hellenic 10478:Moroccan 10409:Kamakura 10399:Japanese 10382:Saffarid 10335:Georgian 10249:Chalukya 10227:Rashidun 10217:Calakmul 10185:Bruneian 10064:Haryanka 10042:Sasanian 10037:Parthian 9988:Bactrian 9978:Seleucid 9958:Goguryeo 9936:Egyptian 9870:Assyrian 9860:Akkadian 9851:Colonies 9796:Category 9689:Islamism 9672:Muhammad 9628:Apostasy 9603:Hinduism 9493:Feminism 9424:Medicine 9264:Military 9218:Gambling 9167:Apostasy 9162:Criminal 9074:Marriage 9043:Tayammum 8995:Murabaha 8868:Madrasas 8858:Holidays 8848:Clothing 8843:Children 8838:Calendar 8789:Quranism 8723:Khawarij 8695:Alawites 8646:Atharism 8540:Rashidun 8379:In Islam 8374:Muhammad 8266:Abu Bakr 8197:(2020). 8143:(1935). 8119:(1988). 7865:(2010). 7823:25183178 7574:(2001). 7547:Archived 7522:: p. 227 7506:: p. 134 7425:Archived 6964:Archived 6944:Archived 6884:Archived 6829:(2003). 6765:(2004). 6147:(eds.). 5928:Fujairah 5909:Al Thani 5819:Al Sabah 5708:Wituland 5643:896–1279 5599:Idrisids 5529:Qasimids 5509:Tahirids 5479:Usfurids 5469:Rasulids 5439:Zurayids 5403:968–1925 5389:Wajihids 5383:899–1077 5373:897–1962 5363:865–1066 5349:Yufirids 5343:819–1138 5339:Ziyadids 5333:751–1970 5274:Tahirids 5204:Abbadids 5184:Tujibids 5158:831–1091 5124:Idrisids 5108:756–1031 5088:710–1019 5084:Salihids 5049:Harfushs 5039:Turabays 5003:990–1081 4993:990–1096 4989:Uqaylids 4983:970–1107 4973:961–1150 4963:955–1071 4959:Rawadids 4953:890–1004 4943:869–1075 4923:861–1538 4909:Kaysites 4903:854–1011 4873:736–1122 4838:909–1171 4834:Fatimids 4828:750–1258 4824:Abbasids 4814:Umayyads 4804:Rashidun 4769:Lakhmids 4759:Salihids 4648:See also 4638:Mu'awiya 4634:Al-Hasan 4481:Al-Ghani 4447:Banu Adi 4407:Al-Faruq 4317:Abu Bakr 4299:Parents 4295:Muhammad 4201:Hauberks 4182:infantry 4170:lamellar 4138:Military 4001:Al-Zawar 3934:and the 3788:poll tax 3743:Ghanimah 3578:disaster 3566:treasury 3538:pensions 3453:Abu Bakr 3447:treasury 3358:nepotism 3302:obliged 3200:شُـوْرَى 3180:Rashidun 3059:Officer. 3057:Treasury 3024:Military 2997:governor 2960:Khorasan 2889:Khorasan 2847:and the 2681:Phoinike 2661:Ottomans 2593:won the 2579:Khartoum 2535:Sufetula 2418:pharaohs 2322:Muawiyah 2302:Anatolia 2273:Anatolia 2211:skirmish 2137:Ash-Sham 2129:Old City 2106:Damascus 2063:Damascus 2061:via the 1954:Dagestan 1731:Bishapur 1678:Persians 1667:Anatolia 1611:Anatolia 1583:Mu'awiya 1264:and the 1206:al-Yaman 1146:Apostasy 976:Rashidun 942:Abu Bakr 915:Muhammad 836:rāshidūn 672:Banu Adi 652:Abu Bakr 633:Muhammad 339:Currency 167:Abu Bakr 11237:largest 11232:Empires 11212:Swedish 11207:Spanish 11202:Russian 11165:Italian 11140:Chinese 11128:English 11123:British 11118:Belgian 11093:Vietnam 11083:Tay son 11029:Tsarist 11024:Russian 11019:Ottoman 10985:Dzungar 10980:Khoshut 10953:Mexican 10948:Maratha 10931:Pahlavi 10911:Safavid 10906:Iranian 10833:Haitian 10796:Chinese 10756:Ashanti 10728:Wagadou 10654:Eastern 10649:Western 10632:Timurid 10592:Tibetan 10582:Songhai 10572:Serbian 10493:Almohad 10483:Idrisid 10387:Samanid 10377:Tahirid 10372:Iranian 10350:Kannauj 10330:Genoese 10266:Chinese 10259:Eastern 10254:Western 10242:Fatimid 10237:Abbasid 10232:Umayyad 10205:Burmese 10165:Ayyubid 10160:Angevin 10130:Xianbei 10118:Eastern 10113:Western 10059:Magadha 10022:Iranian 10015:Xiongnu 10000:Hittite 9909:Chinese 9897:Kassite 9846:Ancient 9838:Empires 9743:Nursing 9704:Qutbism 9618:Sikhism 9613:Judaism 9608:Jainism 9598:Druzism 9434:Physics 9381:Pottery 9366:Gardens 9361:Carpets 9276:Slavery 9198:Divorce 9185:Dhabiĥa 9013:Hygiene 8988:Takaful 8970:Banking 8900:Science 8894:Qurbani 8863:Mosques 8823:Animals 8812:Culture 8746:Nukkari 8741:Azzabas 8728:Azariqa 8712:Zaydism 8700:Alevism 8576:Ottoman 8566:Almohad 8561:Fatimid 8556:Córdoba 8551:Abbasid 8546:Umayyad 8479:Leaders 8474:History 8432:Shahada 8347:Beliefs 7770:Sources 7476:: p. 98 7231:– Jizya 7089:16 July 7059:16 July 6088:2600793 5868:Bahrain 5804:Al Said 5789:Al Saud 5778:Sharjah 5748:Morocco 5744:'Alawis 5683:Mombasa 5519:Jabrids 5459:Mahdids 5429:Uyunids 5393:926–965 5369:Rassids 5353:847–997 5294:Saadids 5284:Nasrids 5194:Amirids 5174:Bakrids 5164:Kanzids 5148:814–922 5138:800–909 5128:788–974 5118:771–793 5098:745-757 5059:Shihabs 5029:Ma'nids 4933:864–928 4929:Alavids 4913:860–964 4893:840–897 4883:824–961 4863:654–884 4818:661–750 4808:632–661 4591:Fatimah 4498:Ruqayya 4325:أبو بكر 4287:Caliph 4284:Period 4269:by the 4255:Umayyad 4209:baldric 4197:dir’ayn 4174:baldric 4166:hauberk 4070:Red Sea 4068:to the 4054:Red Sea 4052:to the 3820:dhimmis 3776:dhimmis 3726:mineral 3475:Bahrain 3441:(lit., 3423:Economy 3284:impeach 3252:Saqifah 3207: 3186:called 3184:Quraysh 3137:dirhams 3102:horse ( 3037:Revenue 2975:Maghreb 2903:In his 2772:), 2008 2758:Medinah 2739:dhimmis 2735:dhimmis 2722:Dhimmis 2717:Dhimmis 2711:dhimmis 2653:Larnaca 2599:Dongola 2531:Tripoli 2512:Morocco 2496:Sbeitla 2434:Thebaid 2350:Armenia 2342:Isauria 2338:Cilicia 2334:Phrygia 2314:Malatya 2286:Antioch 2266:Armenia 2182:Chalcis 2055:Hawarin 2047:Sukhnah 1962:Georgia 1958:Armenia 1904:Hamadan 1858:at the 1737:right; 1509:in the 1411:Umayyad 1221:أُمَّـة 1084:Quraysh 1060:Saqifah 1053:Helpers 1047: 1029:Saqifah 1014:History 973:as the 946:Quraysh 930:Muslims 923:Medinan 921:), his 887:scepter 813: 778:Tunisia 764:to the 710:as his 620:: 472:‎ 309:• 296:• 282:• 268:• 252:633–654 245:• 232:• 219:History 170:(first) 93:Capital 56:632–661 11175:Mongol 11160:German 11155:French 11145:Danish 11088:Dainam 11063:Tongan 11051:Somali 11046:Sokoto 11012:'Alawi 10990:Kalmyk 10970:Mongol 10963:Second 10943:Korean 10894:Mughal 10884:Indian 10867:German 10860:Second 10850:French 10843:Second 10779:Second 10751:Afghan 10743:Modern 10669:Kyrgyz 10664:Uighur 10659:Second 10639:Turkic 10607:Toltec 10543:Epirus 10528:Nicaea 10451:Mongol 10404:Yamato 10340:Huetar 10198:Second 10135:Rouran 10084:Shunga 10079:Maurya 10054:Kushan 10027:Median 10005:Hunnic 9963:Harsha 9555: 9513:poetry 9323: 9208:Ethics 9192:Dhimmi 9151:Baligh 9112:Mahram 9069:Family 9049:Toilet 9029:Miswak 8782:Lahori 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