German revolutions of 1848–1849

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Napoleon in 1814, Prussia took over the west bank of the Rhineland. Its government treated the Rhinelanders as subjects and alien peoples, and it began to reinstate the hated feudal structures. Much of the revolutionary impulse in the Rhineland in 1848 was colored by a strong anti-Prussian feeling. The Rhinelanders took careful note of the announcement by King Frederick William IV on 18 March 1848, in Berlin that a United Diet would be formed and that other democratic reforms would be instituted. Elections for the United Diet were indirect. The elections were conducted on the basis of universal male suffrage, and they were to choose the members of the United Diet. Rhinelanders remained hopeful regarding this progress and did not participate in the early round of uprisings that were occurring in other parts of Germany.

1854: 471: 1169:, and the survivors of Willich's Corps crossed over the frontier into the safety of Switzerland. Engels did not reach Switzerland until 25 July 1849. He sent word of his survival to Marx and friends and comrades in London, England. A refugee in Switzerland, Engels began to write about his experiences during the revolution. He published the article, "The Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution." Due to the Prussian Army's ease in crushing the uprising, many South German states came to believe that Prussia, not Austria, was going to be the new power in the region. The suppression of the uprising in Baden and the Palatinate was the end of the German revolutionary uprisings that had begun in the spring of 1848. 1733:, a dancer and actress unacceptable to the aristocracy and the Church. She tried to launch liberal reforms through a Protestant prime minister, which outraged the state's Catholic conservatives. On 9 February, conservatives came out onto the streets in protest. This 9 February 1848, demonstration was the first in that revolutionary year. It was an exception among the wave of liberal protests. The conservatives wanted to be rid of Lola Montez, and had no other political agenda. Liberal students took advantage of the Lola Montez affair to stress their demands for political change. All over Bavaria, students started demonstrating for constitutional reform, just as students were doing in other cities. 878:) were separated only by the Rhine. The uprising in Baden and the Palatinate took place largely in the Rhine Valley along their mutual border, and are considered aspects of the same movement. In May 1849, the Grand Duke was forced to leave Karlsruhe, Baden and seek help from Prussia. Provisional governments were declared in both the Palatinate and Baden. In Baden conditions for the provisional government were ideal: the public and army were both strongly in support of constitutional change and democratic reform in the government. The army strongly supported the demands for a constitution; the state had amply supplied arsenals, and a full exchequer. The Palatinate did not have the same conditions. 1393:, of my company, an exceptionally small man, spoke out at the Council of War and declared that it would be a disgrace if we surrendered to the Revolutionaries without a blow. Thereupon it was resolved to put up a fight. Our main position was to be on the first floor, led, up to by four stone staircases, each of which was allotted to a company. Our firearms, which had been placed in hiding already, were taken out again, and we began to block up the entrances to the staircases. Unfortunately we had no ammunition! This lack was in some degree made good by such officers as were sportsmen and had some powder and shot to distribute, so that firing might have been done by each of the companies; 223: 165: 212: 154: 1381:. The outbreak began at different parts of the city at two o'clock in the afternoon of the 18th, our attention being called to it by the circumstance that shots were fired at the sentinels in front of the Franz Regiment's barracks, which adjoined those of the Cadet Corps. The report went that the Cadet Corps, that breeding place of reaction, was to be up rooted ! This put our superior officers in a very awkward predicament; all connection with the outer world was cut off, and the Franz Regiment, which had been quartered next door to us, had been moved away, so we had to decide for ourselves what to do. General 2222:

however, that the Assembly needed to gain agreement of the monarchs, who were highly reactionary. In addition, only the Kingdom of Prussia had the military force necessary to effect this unification. Many in the Assembly, including Gagern, distrusted the intentions of the Prussian state and its absolutist government. Fearful of losing their positions as servants of the monarchs, the moderate liberals quickly concluded that only negotiations would lead to political progress. The Prussian army ignored the demands for reforms and chased the rump assembly out of Frankfurt in 1849.

1048: 1464: 1287: 2005: 234: 176: 268: 189: 886: 1298:, leaving one person dead and many injured. On 18 March, a large demonstration occurred. After two shots were fired, fearing that some of the 20,000 soldiers would be used against them, demonstrators erected barricades, and a battle ensued until troops were ordered 13 hours later to retreat, leaving hundreds dead. Afterwards, Frederick William attempted to reassure the public that he would proceed with reorganizing his government. The King also approved arming the citizens. 1506: 142: 1347: 1307: 1867: 1605: 1183: 5487: 1572:

and the nobility had exercised over the area previously. The soil of the Rhineland is not the best for agriculture, but forestry has traditionally been a strong industry there. The relative lack of agriculture, late 18th-century elimination of the feudal structure, and the strong logging industry contributed to the industrialization of the Rhineland. With nearby sources of coal in the Mark, and access via the Rhine to the

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realized. They were unwilling to give up any power in its pursuit. As princes quelled rebellions in their territories, they followed the example of Prussia, recalling their elected deputies from the Assembly. Only Prussia, with its overwhelming military might, was able to protect the Frankfurt Assembly from military attack by the princes. But Prussia had its own interests in mind.

1162:, a former Prussian military officer. He was also a member of the Communist League and supported revolutionary change in Germany. The newly formed Willich Corps combined with other revolutionary groups to form an army of about 30,000 strong; it fought to resist the highly trained Prussian troops. Engels fought with the Willich Corps for their entire campaign in the Palatinate. 1142:, at the Second Democratic Congress held in Berlin from 26 October through 30 October 1848. Because of his commitments to the provisional government, D'Ester was unable to attend an important meeting in Paris on behalf of the German Central Committee. He wanted to provide Marx with the mandate to attend the meeting in his place. Marx and Engels met with D'Ester in the town of 2253:, supporters of Austria versus supporters of Prussia. The major conflict that caused the collapse of the Assembly was the stand-off between demands of the moderates to write a democratic constitution and liberals' reliance on negotiation with reactionary monarchs to produce reforms. The various interest groups began to gather outside the Assembly to decide on their tactics. 1544:. In all, about 2,500 combatants manned the barricades during the May Uprising. On 9 May 1849, together with the leaders of the uprising, Wagner left Dresden for Switzerland to avoid arrest. He spent a number of years in exile abroad, in Switzerland, Italy, and Paris. Finally the government lifted its ban against him and he returned to Germany. 1095:

collected on the Palatinate side, but Brentano's government collected it on the Baden side. Due to the continued lack of coordination, Mieroslawski lost battles in Waghausle and Ubstadt in Baden. He and his troops were forced to retreat across the mountains of southern Baden, where they fought a last battle against the Prussians in the town of

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did not find a fully organized state or a full exchequer. Arms in the Palatinate were limited to privately held muskets, rifles and sporting guns. The provisional government of the Palatinate sent agents to France and Belgium to purchase arms but they were unsuccessful. France banned sales and export of arms to either Baden or the Palatinate.

802:, to the provisional parliament. In the minority and frustrated with the lack of progress, Hecker and Struve walked out in protest on 2 April 1848. The walkout and the continuing revolutionary upsurge in Germany spurred the provisional parliament to action; they passed a resolution calling for an All-German National Assembly to be formed. 1758:. The aim of the revolution was to improve the economic and political situation of ordinary citizens in Liechtenstein, primarily fuelled by the worsening economy in the country in the years prior. On 22 March 1848, the people's committee appointed a three-person committee to lead the Liechtenstein revolutionary movement, which included 2210:

group of radical members wanted the assembly to declare itself as a law-giving parliament. They were unable to overcome this fundamental division, and did not take any definitive action toward unification or the introduction of democratic rules. The assembly declined into debate. While the French revolution drew on an existing

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petty bourgeoisie, were starting to vacillate. Rather than working to organize and direct the various factions of protests, they began to draw back from the revolutionary movement, especially the destruction of property. The Committee of Public Safety tried to calm the reformist movement and quell the demonstrations.

2094:, and the office of head of state ("Emperor of the Germans") was to be hereditary and held by the respective King of Prussia. The latter proposal was carried by a mere 290 votes in favour, with 248 abstentions. The constitution was recognized by 29 smaller states but not by Austria, Prussia, Bavaria, 1782:

was formed on 7 March 1849 with 24 elected representatives and acted as the first democratic representation in Liechtenstein, with Schädler was elected as District Administrator. However, after the failure of the German revolutions, Aloys II once again instated absolute power over Liechtenstein on 20

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Following the revolution, a constitutional council was elected on 27 July 1848 in response to popular demand from the revolutionaries, of which Schädler was elected as its president. The primary task of the council was the creation the draft for a new Liechtenstein constitution, of which the work was

1649:. The uprising in Düsseldorf was suppressed the following day on 10 May 1849. In the town of Elberfeld, the uprising showed strength and persistence, as 15,000 workers took to the streets and erected barricades; they confronted the Prussian troops sent to suppress the unrest and to collect a quota of 1600:

In 1848, Prussia controlled the Rhineland as part of "Western Prussia", having first acquired territory in this area in 1614. During the Napoleonic Era, as noted above, the Rhineland west of the Rhine had been incorporated into France and its feudal structures dismantled. But, following the defeat of

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Brentano ordered the day-to-day affairs of the uprising in Baden, and Mieroslawski directed a military command on the Palatinate side. They did not coordinate well. For example, Mieroslawski decided to abolish the long-standing toll on the Mannheim-Ludwigshaven bridge over the Rhine River. It was not

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Ferdinand appointed new, nominally liberal, ministers. The Austrian government drafted a constitution in late April 1848. The people rejected this, as the majority was denied the right to vote. The citizens of Vienna returned to the streets from 26 May through 27, 1848, erecting barricades to prepare

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was greeted with great consternation in Germany, and debated in the Assembly, but it was powerless to control Prussia. On 16 September 1848, the Frankfurt National Assembly approved of the Malmö Treaty by a majority vote. Public support for the National Assembly declined sharply following this vote,

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Meanwhile, the rulers of the German states gradually realised that their positions were no longer under threat. The King of Bavaria had stepped down, but that was only partly the result of pressure from below. As the threat of an armed uprising receded, the monarchs realized unification would not be

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as the first President of the Assembly. He had strong support from the Center-Right Unionist party and some influence with moderates of the left, such that he could control perhaps 250 of the deputies of the Frankfurt Assembly. Gagern strongly supported unification of the German states. He insisted,

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in Berlin and offered him the crown of the Emperor under this new constitution. Frederick William told the delegation that he felt honoured but could only accept the crown with the consent of his peers, the other sovereign monarchs and free cities. But later, in a letter to a relative in England, he

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The Rhineland shared a common history with the Rhenish Hesse, Luxembourg and the Palatinate of having been under the control of Revolutionary and then Napoleonic France from 1795. His rule established social, administrative and legislative measures taken that broke up the feudal rule that the clergy

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Arrived at the Schloss, led by General von Below, himself afoot, we were ushered through "Portal No. I" into the Castle Yard, where General von Prittwitz was to be seen mounted on a chestnut with some officers round about him. We had now to down arms and we began almost to freeze in the cold morning

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Democrats of the Palatinate and across Germany considered the Baden-Palatinate insurrection to be part of the wider all-German struggle for constitutional rights. Franz Sigel, a second lieutenant in the Baden army, a democrat and a supporter of the provisional government, developed a plan to protect

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Baden was the first state in Germany to have popular unrest, despite Baden being one of the most liberal states in Germany. After the news of the February Days in Paris reached Baden, there were several unorganized instances of peasants burning the mansions of local aristocrats and threatening them.

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to obtain arms for the insurgents. Workers from Solingen stormed the arsenal at Gräfrath and obtained arms and cartridges for the insurgents. (As noted above under the heading on "The Palatinate") Frederick Engels was active in the uprising in Elberfeld from 11 May 1849 until the end of the revolt.

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The members of the Committee for Public Safety could not agree on a common plan, let alone control the various groups taking part in the uprising. The awakened working classes were pursuing their goals with single-minded determination. Citizen-military forces (paramilitary) organized to support the

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affected all males under the age of 40 years, and such a call up was to be done only in time of war, not in peacetime, when it was considered illegal. The Prussian King dissolved the Second Chamber of the United Diet because on 27 March 1849 it passed an unpopular constitution. The entire citizenry

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for the civilian victims of the uprising. He and his ministers and generals wore the revolutionary tricolor of black, red, and gold. Polish prisoners, who had been jailed for planning a rebellion in formerly Polish territories now ruled by Prussia, were liberated and paraded through the city to the

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The Frankfurt Assembly had no powers to raise taxes and relied completely on the goodwill of the monarchs. As many of the members held influential provincial positions, their reluctance to call for radical reforms or annoy their employers meant that they could not raise funds for armed forces, nor

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reflected the many different interests of the German ruling classes. Its members were unable to form coalitions and push for specific goals. The first conflict arose over the goals of the assembly. The moderate liberals wanted to draft a constitution to present to the monarchs, whereas the smaller

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The achievements of the revolutionaries of March 1848 were reversed in all of the German states and by 1851, the Basic Rights had also been abolished nearly everywhere. In the end, the revolution fizzled because of the divisions between the various factions in Frankfurt, the calculating caution of

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The Palatinate traditionally contained more upper-class citizens than other areas of Germany, and they resisted the revolutionary changes. In the Palatinate, the army did not support the revolution, and it was not well supplied. When the insurrectionary government took over in the Palatinate, they

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was a catalyst to revolution throughout the German states. Popular demands were made for an elected representative government and for the unification of Germany. Fear on the part of the princes and rulers of the various German states caused them to concede in the demand for reform. They approved a

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on 18 May 1848. The deputies consisted of 122 government officials, 95 judges, 81 lawyers, 103 teachers, 17 manufacturers and wholesale dealers, 15 physicians, and 40 landowners. A majority of the Assembly were liberals. It became known as the "professors' parliament", as many of its members were

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Engels remained in the Palatinate, where in 1849 he joined citizens at the barricades of Elberfeld in the Rhineland, preparing to fight the Prussian troops expected to attack the uprising. On his way to Elberfeld, Engels took two cases of rifle cartridges which had been gathered by the workers of

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Ferdinand returned to Vienna from Innsbruck on 12 August 1848. Soon after his return, the working-class populace hit the streets again on 21 August to protest high unemployment and the government's decree to reduce wages. On 23 August 1848, Austrian troops opened fire on unarmed demonstrators and

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The upper bourgeoisie were frightened by the armed working classes taking to the streets. They began to separate themselves from the movement for constitutional reform and the Committee of Public Safety, describing the leaders as bloodthirsty terrorists. Leaders of the Committee, who were mostly

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Since the revolutionary events of 1830, Saxony had been ruled as a constitutional monarchy with a two-chamber legislature and an accountable ministry. This constitution continued to serve as the basis of the Saxon government until 1918. The Revolution of 1848 brought more popular reforms in the

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principles, while the working class sought radical improvements to their working and living conditions. As the middle class and working class components of the Revolution split, the conservative aristocracy defeated it. Liberals were forced into exile to escape political persecution, where they

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and Holstein were unsure of what was occurring in Copenhagen. They revolted to found a separate and autonomous province with closer relations with the German states. On 24 March 1848, they set up a new provisional, autonomous government in Holstein and raised a Schleswig-Holstein army of 7,000

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had been sent to Vienna by his left-wing political colleagues on a fact-finding mission to see how Austria's government was rolling back liberal achievements by military force. Blum participated in the street fighting, was arrested and executed on 9 November, despite his claim to immunity from

2038:"). This was an attempt to create a provisional executive power, but it did not get very far since most states failed to fully recognize the new government. The National Assembly lost reputation in the eyes of the German public when Prussia carried through its own political intentions in the 996:. Refusing to shoot insurgent forces who stormed the arsenal on 14 June 1848, Natzmer became a hero to insurgents across Germany. He was sentenced to 15 years in prison for refusing orders to shoot, but in 1849, he escaped prison and fled to the Palatinate to join its insurgent forces. 805:

On 8 April 1848, a law allowing universal suffrage and an indirect (two-stage) voting system was agreed to by the assembly. A new National Assembly was selected, and on 18 May 1848, 809 delegates (585 of whom were elected) were seated at St. Paul's Church in Frankfurt to convene the

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enforce laws they might pass. The hundred or so radicals, who believed that an armed uprising was necessary, lost interest and left the assembly to try to raise forces at a local level to bring about a 'real' revolution. Without a bureaucracy, they could not raise any money.

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were heavily industrialized, with a number of different industries represented. At the beginning of the 19th century, more than 90% of the population of the Rhineland was engaged in agriculture (including lumbering), but by 1933, only 12% were still working in agriculture

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was placed in charge of the peoples' militia. Ludwik Mieroslawski, a Polish-born national who had taken part in the military operations during the Polish uprising of 1830–1831, was placed in charge of the military operation on the Palatinate side of the Rhine River.

2356:. Peasant revolts in 1848–1849 involved more participants than the national revolutions of the period. Most importantly, they were successful bringing the final abolition of serfdom or its remnants across the German Confederation, the Austrian Empire and 1130:, then serving as a member of the provisional government in Baden and the Palatinate. He was a physician, democrat and socialist who had been a member of the Cologne community chapter of the Communist League. D'Ester had been elected as a deputy to the 1423:, by order of General von Prittwitz. We set out just as day was breaking. In the Königstrasse we passed three or four deserted barricades; we could see that most of the windows in the street were broken and that all the houses showed marks of bullets. 1612:

The Prussian government mistook this quietude in the Rhineland for loyalty to the autocratic Prussian government. The Prussian government began offering military assistance to other states in suppressing the revolts in their territories and cities,

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were members of the burghers or liberal bureaucracy. They set about the task of writing a constitution "by agreement with the Crown", but on 9 November, before it had completed its work, the Assembly was adjourned and "for its own safety" moved to

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there. On 29 September 1848, the Austrian troops were defeated by the Hungarian revolutionary forces. On 6 October through 7, 1848, the citizens of Vienna had demonstrated against the emperor's actions against forces in Hungary, resulting in the

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Austria and Prussia withdrew their delegates from the Assembly, which was now little more than a debating club. The radical members were forced to go to Stuttgart, where they sat from 6–18 June as a rump parliament until it too was dispersed by

1158:. The Prussian troops arrived and crushed the uprising in August 1849. Engels and some others escaped to Kaiserslautern. While in Kaiserslautern on 13 June 1849, Engels joined an 800-member group of workers being formed as a military corps by 1487:

On 22 May 1848, another elected assembly sat for the first time in Berlin. They were elected under the law of 8 April 1848, which allowed for universal manhood suffrage and a two-stage voting system. Most of the deputies elected to the

1740:. Ludwig complained that "I could not rule any longer, and I did not want to give up my powers. In order to not become a slave, I became a lord." Although some popular reforms were introduced, the government regained full control. 389:, each of which had distinct revolutions. They were also inspired by the street demonstrations in Paris, France, led by workers and artisans which took place through 22 to 24 February, 1848, and resulted in the abdication of King 1621:. Soon the Prussians discovered that they needed additional troops in this effort. Taking the loyalty of the Rhineland for granted, in the spring of 1849 the Prussian government called up a large portion of the army reserve—the 825:, a journalist who was the leader of the Baden democrats. The arrests caused outrage and a rise in protests. A full-scale uprising broke out on 12 April 1848. The Bavarian government suppressed the revolutionary forces led by 1389:—and some of them were no good as officers, so it was small wonder if a lack of vigour or decision was displayed. It was under debate whether we should not abstain from any attempt at resistance, when the senior lieutenant, 481:

On 13 March 1848, university students mounted a large street demonstration in Vienna, and it was covered by the press across the German-speaking states. Following the important, but relatively minor, demonstrations against

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By 1848, a large industrial working class, the proletariat, had developed and, owing to Napoleonic France, the level of education was relatively high and it was politically active. While in other German states the liberal

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Early in the morning of the 19th—it may have been about 4 o'clock, the shooting had been followed by silence throughout the city—we were given the alarm and had to don our cloaks and fall in with our guns and march to the

2320:, the Habsburgs were ready to deal with the German states. Unable to muster an army and lacking broader support, the Assembly could not resist Austrian power. The Frankfurt National Assembly was dissolved on 31 May 1849. 791:, charged with the task of drafting a new constitution, to be called the "Fundamental Rights and Demands of the German People." The majority of the delegates to the provisional parliament were constitutional monarchists. 1283:, taken by surprise, verbally yielded to all the demonstrators' demands, including parliamentary elections, a constitution, and freedom of the press. He promised that "Prussia was to be merged forthwith into Germany." 377:

of 1832, when public unrest began to grow in the face of heavy taxation and political censorship. The Hambacher Fest is also noteworthy for the Republicans adopting the black-red-gold colours used on today's national

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in Bavaria on 9 February 1848 (see below), the first major revolt of 1848 in German lands occurred in Vienna on 13 March 1848. The demonstrating students in Vienna had been restive and were encouraged by a sermon of

2053:"), or should it exclude Austria, with leadership falling to Prussia ("smaller German solution")? Finally, this question was settled when the Austrian Chancellor introduced a centralised constitution for the entire 2295:

Prussia sent an army to support this independence movement, and ignored the Frankfurt National Assembly when Great Britain and Russia applied international pressure to end the war. The Prussians signed a peace at

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Starting on 18 May 1848, the Frankfurt Assembly worked to find ways to unite the various German states and to write a constitution. The Assembly was unable to pass resolutions and dissolved into endless debate.

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conscripts. In the end, the troops collected only about 40 conscripts from Elberfeld. A Committee of Public Safety was formed in the town, to organize the citizens in revolt. Members of the Committee included

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Hewitson, Mark (2010). "'The Old Forms are Breaking Up, ... Our New Germany Is Rebuilding Itself': Constitutionalism, Nationalism and the Creation of a German Polity During the Revolutions of 1848–49".

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In May 1849, a resurgence of revolutionary activity occurred in Baden. As this was closely connected to the uprising in the Palatinate, it is described below, in the section titled, "The Palatinate."

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By late 1848, the Prussian aristocrats and generals had regained power in Berlin. They had not been defeated permanently during the incidents of March, but had only retreated temporarily. General

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Afraid of suffering the same fate as Louis-Philippe of France, some of the German monarchs acquiesced to the demands of the revolutionaries, at least temporarily. In the south and west, large

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The revolutions spread from France across Europe; demonstrations against the government erupted soon thereafter in both Austria and Germany, beginning with large protests on 13 March 1848, in

901:, a lawyer, democrat and deputy in the Frankfurt Assembly, as the head of the military department in the Palatinate. The first Commander in Chief of the military forces of the Palatinate was 60: 1931:, in the Grand Duchy of Baden, on 6 March 1848, a group of German liberals began to make plans for an election to a German national assembly. This provisional Parliament met on 31 March, in 1435:, and others in the Castle Yard. The streets through which we had passed, and the open places outside the Schloss, had, of course, been empty. Now we saw many waggons and bodies of troops 581: 4644: 498:, the troops fired on the demonstrating students, killing several of them. The new working class of Vienna joined the student demonstrations, developing an armed insurrection. The Diet of 2174:

and Baden were short-lived, as the local militaries, aided by Prussian troops, crushed them quickly. Leaders and participants, if caught, were executed or sentenced to long prison terms.

491:, a liberal priest, on Sunday, 12 March 1848, in their university chapel. The student demonstrators demanded a constitution and a constituent assembly elected by universal male suffrage. 2049:

Should the new united Germany include the German-speaking areas of Austria and thus separate these territories constitutionally from the remaining areas of the Habsburg Empire ("greater

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demanded Metternich's resignation. With no forces rallying to Metternich's defense, Ferdinand reluctantly complied and dismissed him. The former chancellor went into exile in London.

1770:. Together, they managed to maintain order in Liechtenstein and formed a constitutional council. Liechtenstein was a member of the National Assembly in Frankfurt until April 1849. 1634:

of the Rhineland, including the petty bourgeoisie, the grand bourgeoisie and the proletariat, rose up to protect the political reforms which they believed were slipping away.

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pushed forward to the Marschallbrücke and averted all possibility of danger for us. The noise of the fighting died down now a little, only to revive again in the evening. The

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Mieck, Ilja (1992). "Preußen von 1807–1850. Reformen, Restauration und Revolution" [Prussia 1807–1850. Reforms, Restoration and Revolution]. In Büsch, Otto (ed.).

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Ludwig tried to institute a few minor reforms but they proved insufficient to quell the storm of protests. On 16 March 1848, Ludwig I abdicated in favor of his eldest son

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Although the achievements of the March Revolution were rolled back in many German states, the discussions in Frankfurt continued, increasingly losing touch with events.

702: 667: 2214:, the democratic and liberal forces in Germany of 1848 were confronted with the need to build a nation state and a constitution at the same time, which overtaxed them. 1709:

On 10 May 1849, he was in Solingen and making his way toward Elberfeld. He obtained two cases of cartridges from the arsenal at Gräfrath and carried them to Elberfeld.

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Despite Sigel's plan, the new insurgent government did not go on the offensive. The uprising in Karlsruhe and the Grand Duchy of Baden was eventually suppressed by the

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into a Constituent Assembly to be elected by the people. Other concessions were less substantial, and generally addressed the reorganizing and unification of Germany.

574: 1135: 1011: 4910: 692: 412:, and his going into exile in Britain. Because of the date of the Vienna demonstrations, the protests throughout Germany are usually called the March Revolution ( 4621: 1661: 1657: 677: 3057: 1439:. Prisoners were being brought in every now and again and taken into the Castle cellars. After a wait of two hours or so we were given orders to march back to 717: 687: 657: 629: 3305: 2950: 1087: 697: 682: 3829: 3797: 3765: 3702: 3700: 3534: 3532: 3530: 3528: 3487: 3485: 3437: 3435: 3133: 3131: 3043: 3041: 3024: 3022: 3020: 2987: 2985: 2822: 2820: 1697: 1888: 1681: 1200: 1071: 662: 567: 2864: 2229:

The Assembly members were highly motivated for reform, but the major divides among them became obvious and inhibited progress; for instance, advocates of

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On 13 March, after warnings by the police against public demonstrations went unheeded, the army charged a group of people returning from a meeting in the

3697: 3633: 3617: 3601: 3585: 3525: 3482: 3432: 3128: 3038: 3017: 2982: 2934: 2817: 2801: 2785: 1775: 1665: 1000:, a former Prussian officer, also joined Palatinate forces. Organizing the artillery and providing services in the ordnance shops was Lieutenant Colonel 712: 707: 642: 2848: 750:. After news broke of revolutionary victories in February 1848 in Paris, uprisings occurred throughout Europe, including Austria and the German states. 525:

In late September 1848, Emperor Ferdinand, who was also King Ferdinand V of Hungary, decided to send Austrian and Croatian troops to Hungary to crush a

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In December 1848 the "Basic Rights for the German People" proclaimed equal rights for all citizens before the law. On 28 March 1849, the draft of the

1361:, who in March 1848 was a sixteen-year-old student at the Royal Prussian Cadet Corps, gave a vivid description of the revolutionary events in Berlin: 1247: 333:, liberalism and parliamentarianism, demonstrated popular discontent with the traditional, largely autocratic political structure of the thirty-nine 3214: 1219: 4983: 2316:. Its strongest support came from the southern provinces, where there was a tradition of opposition to the local rulers. After Austria crushed the 1701: 2162:

wrote that he felt deeply insulted by being offered a crown "from the gutter", "disgraced by the stink of revolution, defiled with dirt and mud".

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without the prior consent of Parliament. A similar discrediting occurred when Austria suppressed a popular uprising in Vienna by military force.

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Finally, on 18 May 1848, the National Assembly opened its session in St. Paul's Church. Of the 586 delegates of the first freely elected German

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Emperor Ferdinand and his chief advisor Metternich directed troops to crush the demonstration. When demonstrators moved to the streets near the

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air. It was very pleasant for us, therefore, when we were taken, troop by troop, into the kitchen, and given coffee. There was now a lively

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Disorder fomented by republican agitators continued in Baden. Fearing greater riots, the Baden government began to increase the size of its

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became Grand Duke. His reign brought liberal reforms in constitutional, civil and criminal law, and in education. In 1832 Baden joined the

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Encouraged by similar uprisings the same year, demonstrations emerged which caused increased opposition against the absolute monarchy of

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led the uprisings of 1848, in the Rhineland the proletariat was asserting its interests openly against the bourgeoisie as early as 1840.

1233: 4883: 1576:, the west bank of the Rhine in the Rhineland became the premier industrial area in Germany in the 19th century. By 1848, the towns of 783: 446: 1317: 5545: 5540: 5273: 4850: 2317: 1991: 467:

of this confederation. The (German) Austrian chancellor Klemens von Metternich had dominated Austrian politics from 1815 until 1848.

1668:, a lawyer and a liberal who was also the public prosecutor in Elberfeld. Members of the Palatinate provisional government included 1215: 2144:"): representation was proportional to taxes paid, so that more than 80% of the electorate controlled only one-third of the seats. 1997: 1967: 1950:, so many were professors (94), teachers (30) or had a university education (233) that it was called a "professors' parliament" (" 321:

that broke out in many European countries. They were a series of loosely coordinated protests and rebellions in the states of the

1979: 1472: 973: 1536:

from 3–9 May 1849, he supported the provisional government. Others participating in the Uprising were the Russian revolutionary

773:, and other German states. The surprisingly strong popular support for these movements forced rulers to give in to many of the 2581: 1020:

the reform movement in Karlsruhe and the Palatinate. He recommended using a corps of the Baden army to advance on the town of

4600: 4212: 4009: 3981: 3665: 3355: 2631: 2271:. Like many other events of 1848, the Danish conflict was sparked by a street demonstration. On 21 March 1848, the people of 1476:

academics in addition to their other responsibilities. The one working-class member was Polish and, like colleagues from the

3649: 2178:

the liberals, the failure of the left to marshal popular support and the overwhelming superiority of the monarchist forces.

1853: 1385:

was a feeble old man, Lieut.-Colonel Richter and our company commanders were all elderly—most of them had taken part in the

5555: 5550: 4976: 1704:. On 17 May through 18, 1849, a group of workers and democrats from Trier and neighboring townships stormed the arsenal at 1532:

passionately engaged himself in the revolution in Dresden, supporting the democratic-republican movement. Later during the

514:. Ferdinand issued two manifestos on 16 May 1848, and 3 June 1848, which gave concessions to the people. He converted the 470: 1749: 905:, a former Austrian officer who commanded the national guard in Vienna during the 1848 uprising. He was soon replaced by 1833:

against the Prussian forces. It began on 20 March 1848, and resulted in Prussia demoting the Grand Duchy to an ordinary

1471:

A Constituent National Assembly was elected from various German states in late April and early May 1848 and gathered in

761:, an assembly of people from Baden adopted a resolution demanding a bill of rights. Similar resolutions were adopted in 5043: 3073: 1960: 386: 98: 31: 2019:, the assembly started on its ambitious plan to create a modern constitution as the foundation for a unified Germany. 5560: 4767: 4575: 4552: 4484: 4432: 4235: 4187: 4160: 4056: 3423: 2467: 2131: 1914: 1755: 1266: 1240: 2920: 2918: 2901: 2899: 2312:

had been founded partly following the revolutionary events in Vienna, Austria, which resulted in the fall of Prince

1896: 722: 5303: 4920: 1397:

we secured from the Franz Regiment's barracks. However, things were not to become serious, for a battalion of the

5466: 5308: 4969: 3147: 3089: 3001: 2966: 2915: 2896: 2880: 2158: 2111: 1522: 1398: 1280: 821:

and to seek assistance from neighboring states. The Baden government sought to suppress the revolts by arresting

227: 216: 3456: 3454: 5530: 5293: 5188: 4903: 4862: 2300:, requiring them to remove all Prussian troops from the two duchies and agree to all other Danish demands. The 2292:

soldiers. Unification opinion in the German states supported annexing the provinces of Schleswig and Holstein.

2135: 2123: 2119: 1892: 1792: 1204: 1279:

In March 1848, crowds of people gathered in Berlin to present their demands in an "address to the king". King

534:. As a result, Emperor Ferdinand I fled Vienna on 7 October 1848, taking up residence in the fortress town of 5318: 5076: 4933: 3451: 1127: 193: 4647:[March Revolution 1848: When the king orders to "clean the palace square", a bloody battle begins]. 2122:

of his own which was based upon the work of the Assembly yet maintained the ultimate authority of the king.

1563:

community. In mid-century, some lived in cities, but many developed substantial farms to the west in Texas.

459:

in 1806, it was succeeded by a similarly loose coalition of states known as the German Confederation at the

5535: 5525: 4928: 4898: 4888: 4760: 4705: 4179: 2565: 2126:

and amended frequently in the following years, the constitution provided for an appointed upper house, the

1448: 1327: 743: 739: 526: 4335:

Mattheisen, Donald J. (1983). "History as Current Events: Recent Works on the German Revolution of 1848".

3347:

A Field Marshal's Memoirs: From the Diary, Correspondence and Reminiscences of Alfred, Count von Waldersee

2714: 2712: 2710: 2708: 2706: 5313: 5257: 4855: 3555: 2739: 2737: 2735: 2733: 2731: 2689: 2687: 2551: 2549: 2309: 2039: 902: 890: 795: 5278: 4645:"Märzrevolution 1848: Als der König befiehlt, "den Schlossplatz zu säubern", beginnt ein blutiger Kampf" 3681: 3389: 3387: 3163: 2045:

Nonetheless, discussions on the future constitution had started. The main questions to be decided were:

1117:, Germany, to observe the events of the region. From 1 June 1848, Engels and Marx became editors of the 5520: 5515: 5348: 5086: 5059: 4828: 4567: 4476: 4424: 4281: 4247: 3943: 2769: 2703: 2268: 2115: 2107: 1842: 1818: 1489: 1131: 1086:, a journalist and a democrat in Baden; and Gustav Struve, another journalist and democrat from Baden. 2728: 2684: 2597: 2546: 1415:, amidst the same kind of continuous but unsystematic fighting which the Guards also had encountered. 1096: 5383: 5298: 5208: 4833: 4713: 3384: 1814: 1460:. Some 40,000 people accompanied these fallen demonstrators to their burial place at Friedrichshain. 933: 394: 5038: 1029: 762: 5461: 5338: 4592: 3973: 3736: 3285: 3269: 2455: 2284: 2027: 2008: 1877: 1759: 1737: 1494: 1365:

Those March days of 1848 left the most lasting impression on us young soldiers. From the so-called

814:, a right-center journalist, was among those elected as deputy to the Frankfurt National Assembly. 390: 3890: 3198: 1134:

in 1848. D'Ester had been elected to the Central committee of the German Democrats, together with

5404: 5283: 5217: 5159: 4948: 4544: 4001: 3969:

The Nation in the Village: The Genesis of Peasant National Identity in Austrian Poland, 1848–1914

2127: 2091: 1881: 1533: 1390: 1386: 1193: 1082:, a journalist and a democrat from Baden. Leaders of the constitutional forces in Baden included 1066:, a lawyer and democrat from Baden, headed its government, wielding absolute power. He appointed 969: 830: 614: 559: 515: 5197: 4672: 3184: 3182: 1078:

was appointed as Minister of the Interior. Other members of the provisional government included

619: 5353: 5328: 5239: 4992: 4893: 3299: 2313: 2264:, the German Navy, on 14 June 1848, which was significant to Germany's future power and reach. 2085: 2067:

Should it be a federation of relatively independent states or have a strong central government?

2023: 1936: 1673: 1051: 1041: 992:. Hermann von Natzmer was the former Prussian officer who had been in charge of the arsenal of 898: 788: 672: 409: 405: 238: 52: 4626: 3230: 2459: 2167: 1830: 1447:

On 21 March, the King proceeded through the streets of Berlin to attend a mass funeral at the

5333: 3856: 3792: 3345: 3321: 3179: 2205:

The Revolution of 1848 failed in its attempt to unify the German-speaking states because the

3878: 3368: 2301: 5456: 5378: 5358: 5343: 5226: 5179: 5064: 2407: 2341: 2267:

The powerlessness of the Frankfurt Assembly, however, was reflected in the debate over the

1947: 1806: 1358: 1350: 1047: 997: 807: 766: 735: 624: 430: 322: 282: 145: 121: 5435: 382:

as a symbol of the Republican movement and of the unity among the German-speaking people.

8: 5399: 5323: 5248: 5235: 4843: 4783: 2394: 2218: 2171: 2061: 2016: 1726: 1323: 945: 914: 871: 862:

in the Rhineland on 6 May 1849. However, the uprisings soon spread to the Grand Duchy of

434: 318: 256: 48: 4155:. New German-American Studies/Neue Deutsch-Amerikanische Studien. New York: Peter Lang. 2623:

The Survival of the Habsburg Empire: Radetzky, the Imperial Army and the Class War, 1848

1837:. Nevertheless, both Prussian-held Polish-speaking territories of Province of Posen and 5424: 5111: 5028: 5023: 5018: 4523: 4405: 4397: 4360: 4264: 2448: 2280: 2206: 2150: 2095: 1959:

There were few practical politicians. Some 400 delegates can be identified in terms of

1463: 1286: 1166: 989: 929: 875: 858:

When the revolutionary upsurge revived in the spring of 1849, the uprisings started in

849: 460: 4494:

Robertson, Priscilla (1969). "Students on the Barricades: Germany and Austria, 1848".

787:

provisional parliament, which was convened from 31 March 1848, until 4 April 1848, in

5368: 5288: 5131: 5033: 4596: 4571: 4548: 4537: 4515: 4503: 4480: 4470: 4453: 4428: 4409: 4389: 4352: 4307: 4231: 4208: 4183: 4172: 4156: 4137: 4116: 4089: 4062: 4052: 4005: 3977: 3936: 3419: 3351: 3258: 3117: 2753: 2627: 2473: 2463: 2416: 2276: 2181:

Many disappointed German patriots went to the United States, among them most notably

2145: 1834: 1594: 1552: 1518: 1295: 924:

Other noteworthy military officers serving the provisional government in the city of

910: 853: 799: 452: 338: 5149: 5140: 4507: 4381: 4344: 4323: 4299: 4256: 2240: 2190: 2004: 1627:

in Westphalia and the Rhineland. This action was opposed: the order to call up the

1556: 1106: 1005: 906: 826: 592: 555: 426: 4716:[Constitution of the German Empire ("Constitution of St. Paul's Church")] 3760: 2170:

troops. Armed uprisings in support of the constitution, especially in Saxony, the

1841:

were formally integrated into Germany only 17 years later, upon foundation of the

1763: 1008:

and one of the founders of the Cologne Workers Association in 1848, editor of the

5451: 5430: 5417: 5011: 5006: 4915: 4586: 4447: 4418: 4198: 3995: 3967: 2621: 2337: 2232: 2054: 2050: 2026:, support of local issues over pan-German issues, and Austro-Prussian conflicts. 1821:

in the late 18th century. The Greater Poland Uprising of 1848, also known as the

1537: 1412: 1139: 1063: 961: 834: 770: 606: 531: 474: 379: 342: 334: 326: 197: 66: 4029: 2011:

proclamation to the German people upon appointment as Administrator of the Realm

1452:

acclaim of the people. The 254 persons killed during the riots were laid out on

510:, where they spent the next few months surrounded by the loyal peasantry of the 5491: 5446: 5410: 4278:

Restoration, Revolution, Reaction: Economics and Politics in Germany, 1815–1871

2329: 2275:

protested in the streets to demand a liberal Constitution. The majority in the

2194: 2033: 1973: 1798: 1693: 1685: 1529: 1457: 1408: 1394: 1346: 1159: 1143: 1079: 937: 925: 822: 393:

and his exile to Britain. In France the revolution of 1848 became known as the

374: 354: 4734: 3262: 2385: 2305:

and the radical republicans publicly stated their opposition to the Assembly.

1109:

took part in the uprising in Baden and the Palatinate. On 10 May 1848, he and

5504: 5442: 5091: 4807: 4519: 4457: 4393: 4356: 4311: 4066: 3121: 2477: 2353: 1940: 1826: 1436: 1420: 1372: 1353:

gave an account of the events of March 1848 in Berlin as seen by the soldiers

1067: 1059: 957: 918: 637: 499: 451:

In 1848, Austria was the predominant German state. After the collapse of the

330: 74: 4120: 4093: 2380: 1805:

were German states, the respective roughly corresponding territories of the

1585: 1505: 885: 267: 5363: 5081: 4867: 4606: 4588:

Defining Germany: The 1848 Frankfurt Parliamentarians and National Identity

4461: 4438: 4225: 4218: 4015: 3987: 3361: 2637: 2361: 2261: 2211: 1838: 1810: 1767: 1729:

lost prestige because of his open relationship with his favourite mistress

1560: 1541: 1432: 949: 738:

had a liberal constitution from 1811 until reaction resulted in Grand Duke

648: 543: 488: 278: 4245:

Hamerow, Theodore S. (1954). "History and the German Revolution of 1848".

4082:

Hans Kudlich, zum hundertsten Geburtstage des schlesischen Bauernbefreiers

3824: 5373: 4961: 4802: 4303: 4086:

Hans Kudlich, on the hundredth birthday of the Silesian peasant liberator

2333: 2250: 2186: 2182: 2114:

immediately rejoined the old forces. In November, the king dissolved the

2072: 1730: 1677: 1664:, another lawyer and democrat, elected as chairman of the Committee, and 1100: 977: 965: 953: 483: 2217:

When the Frankfurt Assembly opened on 18 May 1848, the deputies elected

1551:

In 1849, many Saxon residents emigrated to the United States, including

1155: 141: 5070: 4797: 4527: 4401: 4364: 4268: 2272: 1928: 1453: 1207: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 1083: 941: 818: 811: 747: 349: 337:

of the Confederation that inherited the German territory of the former

5121: 4752: 4670:[German March Revolution of 1848: a success despite failure]. 3997:

Freedom's Price: Serfdom, Subjection, and Reform in Prussia, 1648–1848

2328:

Nationalism did not become the usual way of founding and legitimising

1525:

to engage in electoral reform, social justice and for a constitution.

5472: 4812: 4319: 2443: 2390: 2246: 2157:

On 2 April 1849, a delegation of the National Assembly met with King

1932: 1802: 1638: 1608:

Arbeiterdelegation 1848 vor dem Magistrat by Johann Peter Hasenclever

1573: 1382: 1110: 1037: 1033: 1025: 1021: 981: 917:

was given supreme command of the armed forces in the Palatinate, and

867: 859: 507: 358: 4511: 4348: 4260: 2450:

The revolution of 1848–49: articles from the Neue Rheinische Zeitung

2057:, thus delegates had to give up their hopes for a "Greater Germany". 1866: 1822: 1604: 1182: 4943: 4649: 4385: 2345: 1646: 1642: 1623: 1151: 758: 456: 4449:

Germany in Power and Eclipse: The Background of German Development

3743:

Jahrbuch des Historischen Vereins für das Fürstentum Liechtenstein

2297: 2110:

led the troops who recaptured Berlin for the old powers, and King

589: 542:. On 2 December 1848, Ferdinand abdicated in favour of his nephew 4204: 3418:] (in German). Vol. 2. Berlin: de Gruyter. p. 233. 2357: 2349: 2283:

were German-speaking. However, the Duke of both duchies was King

1722: 1581: 1514: 1440: 1114: 1070:

as War Minister. Later, Eichfeld was replaced as War Minister by

539: 535: 495: 4372:

O'Boyle, Lenore (1961). "The Democratic Left in Germany, 1848".

3852: 3501: 3070:, pp. 176, 728, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 437:, written constitutions, arming of the people and a Parliament. 4735:"Historical Atlas of Europe (21 March 1848): March Revolutions" 3318:, pp. 147–239, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 3227:, pp. 202–204, Letter from Engels to Jenny Marx (25 July 1849). 2963:, pp. 195–196, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 2653: 2651: 2649: 2647: 1688:

were among the other of the leaders of the Elberfeld uprising.

1577: 993: 401: 70: 4668:"Deutsche Märzrevolution von 1848: ein Erfolg trotz Scheitern" 4034:

Bauernbefreier Hans Kudlich und seine Denkmäler, Gedenkstätten

3282:, pp. 202–204, Letter from Engels to Jenny Marx (25 July 1849) 4228:

The Revolutions in Europe, 1848–1849: From Reform to Reaction

2336:. In the mid-19th century, over 90% of the population in the 2090:

constitution was finally passed. The new Germany was to be a

1477: 1016:

and a member of the Rhenish District Committee of Democrats.

863: 511: 373:

The groundwork of the 1848 uprising was laid as early as the

362: 4624:[Speech: Remembering the March Revolution of 1848]. 4226:

Evans, R. J. W.; Hartmut Pogge von Strandmann, eds. (2000).

3716: 3573: 3513: 3470: 2836: 2644: 2877:, p. 1193, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 2534: 2501: 2288: 1939:. Its members called for free elections to an assembly for 1705: 4049:

Hans Kudlich : (1823–1917) : cesta života a mýtu

3713:, p. 164, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 3646:, p. 160, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 3630:, p. 162, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 3614:, p. 158, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 3598:, p. 156, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 3545:, p. 157, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 3498:, p. 155, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 3448:, p. 154, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 3144:, p. 186, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 3054:, p. 180, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 3035:, p. 184, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 2998:, p. 174, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 2947:, p. 195, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 2833:, p. 189, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 2814:, p. 172, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 2798:, p. 175, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 1637:

On 9 May 1849, uprisings occurred in the Rhenish towns of

1617:. Dresden, the Palatinate, Baden, Wűrttemberg, Franconia, 2861:, p. 17, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 2491: 2489: 2487: 4143:

Revolutionary Spring: Fighting for a New World 1848–1849

4088:] (in German). Verlag der Buchdruckerei K. Pickert. 2413:

Revolutionary Spring: Fighting for a New World 1848–1849

2287:, the last absolute monarch of Denmark. The citizens of 1040:. Sigel failed to account for dealing with the separate 1024:

and declare the Hohenzollern Republic, then to march on

385:

Activism for liberal reforms spread through many of the

2446:; Engels, Friedrich (1972). "Foreword (S.Z. Leviova)". 2260:

The Frankfurt National Assembly did agree to found the

1825:

Uprising, was an unsuccessful military insurrection of

368: 3853:"Emigrant's Map and Guide for Routes to North America" 2674: 2672: 2670: 2668: 2666: 2484: 2360:. The leader of the anti-serfdom peasant movement was 1165:

The Prussians defeated this revolutionary army at the

4150: 2524: 2522: 2520: 2518: 2516: 2064:, have an elected monarch, or even become a republic? 1146:. Marx obtained the mandate and headed off to Paris. 506:

for an army attack. Ferdinand and his family fled to

357:. Many emigrated to the United States, settling from 3877:

Staas, Christian; Ullrich, Volker (24 August 2010).

2323: 2134:, elected by universal manhood suffrage but under a 2071:

Soon events began to overtake discussions. Delegate

1692:

uprising. Military leaders of these forces included

1126:

In late 1848, Marx and Engels intended to meet with

4446:Pollock, James Kerr; Thomas, Homer Leonard (1952). 2663: 1566: 1467:

The dead are laid out on the Gendarmenmarkt, Berlin

1375:we could see the erection of the barricades on the 4536: 4171: 3830:Historisches Lexikon des Fürstentums Liechtenstein 3798:Historisches Lexikon des Fürstentums Liechtenstein 3766:Historisches Lexikon des Fürstentums Liechtenstein 2513: 2447: 2397:, and his eventual downfall in the 1848 uprisings. 2076:prosecution as a member of the National Assembly. 833:on 20 April 1848, ending what became known as the 429:and mass demonstrations took place. They demanded 303:), the opening phase of which was also called the 4566:. New Approaches to European History. Cambridge: 2015:Under the chairmanship of the liberal politician 1848: 285:, the first national parliament in German history 5502: 4109:Hans Kudlich, der bauernbefreier des jahres 1848 4046: 4032:[Hans Kudlich – the peasant liberator]. 1857:National assembly's meeting in St. Paul's Church 1154:, when those workers had stormed the arsenal at 4622:"Rede: Erinnern an die Märzrevolution von 1848" 4328:Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Collected Works 4130: 3965: 1786: 1028:. After inciting Stuttgart and the surrounding 4200:The 1848 Revolutions in German-speaking Europe 1783:July 1852 and disbanded the district council. 779:(demands of March) almost without resistance. 4977: 4768: 4445: 3885:(in German). No. 3/2010. pp. 22–28. 3579: 3519: 3507: 3476: 2842: 2657: 1521:, the people took to the streets asking King 1320:to certain ideas, incidents, or controversies 575: 4115:] (in German). Verlagsanstalt Moldavia. 3876: 2365: 2352:or some lingering elements of the system of 2238: 2230: 2200: 2139: 2083: 2031: 1963:– usually named after their meeting places: 1951: 1650: 1628: 1402: 1376: 1366: 1118: 1009: 774: 742:revoking the constitution in 1825. In 1830, 348:The middle-class elements were committed to 4543:. Oxford History of Modern Europe. Oxford: 4371: 4113:Hans Kudlich, the peasant liberator of 1848 3790: 3734: 2438: 2436: 1895:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1672:, serving as Minister of the Interior, and 962:Otto Julius Bernhard von Corvin-Wiersbitzki 897:The provisional government first appointed 789:St. Paul's Church in Frankfurt am Main 341:after its dismantlement as a result of the 4991: 4984: 4970: 4775: 4761: 4642: 4334: 4318: 4047:Kladiwa, Pavel; Pokludová, Andrea (2012). 3949: 3917:. Copenhagen: Host & Son. p. 211. 3896: 3738:Liechtensteiner Ärzte des 19. Jahrhunderts 3706: 3687: 3671: 3655: 3639: 3623: 3607: 3591: 3538: 3491: 3460: 3441: 3393: 3374: 3327: 3311: 3291: 3275: 3236: 3220: 3204: 3188: 3169: 3153: 3137: 3095: 3079: 3063: 3047: 3028: 3007: 2991: 2972: 2956: 2940: 2924: 2905: 2886: 2870: 2854: 2826: 2807: 2791: 2775: 2759: 2743: 2718: 2693: 2603: 2587: 2571: 2555: 2442: 2030:was chosen as a temporary head of state (" 2022:From the beginning the main problems were 1813:had been under Prussian control since the 1330:this issue before removing this message. 582: 568: 447:Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire 59: 4493: 4468: 3722: 3343: 2540: 2507: 2348:. Most of them suffered the indignity of 2318:Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states 1976:– Right centre/Liberal-conservative (120) 1915:Learn how and when to remove this message 1267:Learn how and when to remove this message 4288: 3887:Interview with historian August Winkler. 3822: 3791:Rheinberger, Rudolf (31 December 2011). 3758: 3678:, pp. 713, 722, 739, Biographical notes. 3111: 2433: 2003: 1852: 1660:, a democrat and a lawyer in Elberfeld; 1603: 1504: 1462: 1345: 1285: 1046: 884: 469: 266: 4782: 4561: 4534: 4275: 4244: 4153:Germans and the Revolution of 1848–1849 4151:Davis Randers-Pehrson, Justine (1999). 3926: 3924: 3912: 3662:, pp. 722–723, 732, Biographical notes. 921:was given field command of the troops. 909:, a former Polish staff general in the 829:with the aid of Prussian troops at the 345:. This process began in the mid-1840s. 14: 5503: 4665: 4416: 4106: 4079: 3786: 3784: 3754: 3752: 3252: 2101: 1473:St. Paul's Church in Frankfurt am Main 404:. This resulted in the resignation of 30:For other revolutions in Germany, see 27:German part of the Revolutions of 1848 4965: 4756: 4643:Duderstedt, Andreas (18 March 2023). 4472:Revolutions of 1848: A Social History 4136: 3993: 3823:Frommelt, Fabian (31 December 2011). 3818: 3816: 3759:Quaderer, Rupert (31 December 2011). 3728: 3409: 3298:, pp. 214–216, Letter from Engels to 2373: 2193:. Such emigrants became known as the 1290:Barricades at Alexander Platz, Berlin 563: 463:in 1815. Austria served as President 4584: 4196: 4169: 3921: 3116:. Progress Publishers. p. 166. 2678: 2619: 2528: 2495: 2154:elected under the new constitution. 1893:adding citations to reliable sources 1860: 1540:and the German working-class leader 1421:Schloss (the Royal Palace in Berlin) 1300: 1205:adding citations to reliable sources 1176: 1099:, on the frontier between Baden and 1032:, the military corps would march to 369:Events leading up to the revolutions 117:introduction of liberal constitution 4732: 4564:The European Revolutions, 1848–1851 4230:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 4051:(in Czech). University of Ostrava. 4030:"Hans Kudlich – der Bauernbefreier" 3915:A History of the Kingdom of Denmark 3781: 3749: 3412:Handbuch der preußischen Geschichte 3255:Frederick Engels : a biography 1750:Revolution of 1848 in Liechtenstein 1324:create a more balanced presentation 988:, Friedrich Karl, Franz Hecker and 261:~400,000 among peasants and workers 77:in the background, on 19 March 1848 24: 5044:States of the German Confederation 4714:"Verfassung des Deutschen Reiches" 4702:History of Modern Germany Lectures 4695: 4614: 3813: 3257:. Zeit im Bild. pp. 205–207. 3112:Fedoseev, Petr Nikolaevic (1973). 3086:, pp. 713, 735, Biographical note. 2626:. Addison-Wesley Longman Limited. 936:, Captain Rudolph von Manteuffel, 911:Polish insurgent army of 1830–1831 329:. The revolutions, which stressed 32:German revolution (disambiguation) 25: 5572: 4689: 2594:, p. 457, "Revolution in Vienna". 2324:Peasant success of the revolution 1216:"German revolutions of 1848–1849" 843: 115:Establishment of German state and 5546:1849 in the German Confederation 5541:1848 in the German Confederation 5485: 4666:Maksan, Oliver (18 March 2023). 4330:. New York: International Press. 3930: 2279:and in the southern part of the 1943:– and the German states agreed. 1865: 1743: 1567:The Rhineland or Rhenish Prussia 1305: 1181: 1036:and set up camp in the state of 232: 221: 210: 187: 174: 163: 152: 140: 5511:German revolutions of 1848–1849 4698:"1848: Revolution and Reaction" 4100: 4073: 4040: 4022: 3966:Stauter-Halsted, Keely (2015). 3959: 3906: 3870: 3845: 3548: 3403: 3337: 3246: 3105: 2613: 2112:Frederick William IV of Prussia 1523:Frederick Augustus II of Saxony 1192:needs additional citations for 291:German revolutions of 1848–1849 42:German Revolutions of 1848–1849 4337:The American Historical Review 3879:"Deutschlands sonderbarer Weg" 3344:Waldersee, Alfred von (2019). 1849:National Assembly in Frankfurt 1793:Greater Poland Uprising (1848) 1559:, and created what became the 1357:In his memoirs, Field Marshal 455:, which had been dissolved by 317:), were initially part of the 69:: Cheering revolutionaries in 18:Revolutions of 1848 in Germany 13: 1: 5319:Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust 4469:Robertson, Priscilla (1952). 4374:The Journal of Modern History 4292:The English Historical Review 4036:(in German). 3 February 2014. 2422: 2393:'s affair with Bavarian King 1994:– Left/Liberal democrats (60) 870:. The state of Baden and the 408:as chief minister to Emperor 301:Deutsche Revolution 1848/1849 4180:University of Michigan Press 4131:General and cited references 3793:"Schädler, Karl (1804–1872)" 3735:Rheinberger, Rudolf (1991). 3416:Handbook of Prussian History 3160:, p. 718, Biographical note. 3102:, p. 728, Biographical note. 3014:, p. 714, Biographical note. 2979:, p. 710, Biographical note. 2931:, p. 729, Biographical note. 2912:, p. 719, Biographical note. 2893:, p. 195, Biographical note. 2427: 2389:lavishly depicts the famous 2136:three-class system of voting 1787:Greater Poland and Pomerelia 7: 5556:1849 in the Austrian Empire 5551:1848 in the Austrian Empire 5467:Schleswig–Holstein question 5314:Friedrich Daniel Bassermann 4496:Political Science Quarterly 4197:Hahn, Hans Joachim (2001). 2401: 2370:('liberator of peasants'). 2310:Frankfurt National Assembly 2040:Schleswig-Holstein Question 1509:The May uprising in Dresden 903:Daniel Fenner von Fenneberg 891:Battle of Kirchheimbolanden 866:, when a riot broke out in 796:Friedrich Karl Franz Hecker 10: 5577: 5349:Karl August von Hardenberg 5087:North German Confederation 5060:Confederation of the Rhine 4568:Cambridge University Press 4562:Sperber, Jonathan (2005). 4535:Sheehan, James J. (1990). 4477:Princeton University Press 4282:Princeton University Press 4276:Hamerow, Theodore (1967). 4248:American Historical Review 2364:, subsequently revered as 2332:across Europe until after 2148:was a member of the first 2116:Prussian National Assembly 1843:North German Confederation 1819:Second Partition of Poland 1797:While technically neither 1790: 1774:done primarily by him and 1747: 1716: 1490:Prussian National Assembly 1172: 1132:Prussian National Assembly 1128:Karl Ludwig Johann D'Ester 847: 794:Baden sent two democrats, 784:March Revolution in Vienna 553: 444: 440: 29: 5482: 5392: 5266: 5100: 5077:German Empire (1848–1849) 5052: 4999: 4876: 4821: 4790: 4728:: 101–147. 28 April 1849. 4539:German History, 1770–1866 4174:Germany: A Modern History 3580:Pollock & Thomas 1952 3520:Pollock & Thomas 1952 3508:Pollock & Thomas 1952 3477:Pollock & Thomas 1952 3253:Gemkow, Heinrich (1972). 2843:Pollock & Thomas 1952 2658:Pollock & Thomas 1952 2201:Failure of the revolution 2130:, and a lower house, the 2000:– Far left/Democrats (40) 1970:– Right/Conservative (40) 1500: 1004:. He was a member of the 934:Alexander Schimmelpfennig 603: 249: 244:No centralised leadership 203: 133: 89:February 1848 – July 1849 81: 58: 46: 41: 5561:19th-century revolutions 5462:Greater Austria proposal 4593:Harvard University Press 3974:Cornell University Press 3556:"The Revolution of 1848" 3467:, pp. 662–663, Note 139. 2578:, pp. 642–643, Note 298. 2456:International Publishers 2285:Frederick VII of Denmark 2132:House of Representatives 2060:Should Germany become a 2028:Archduke John of Austria 1495:Brandenburg an der Havel 757:On 27 February 1848, in 748:(Prussian) Customs Union 549: 391:Louis-Philippe of France 5405:Austro-Prussian rivalry 5218:"Blood and Iron" speech 5189:Greater Poland uprising 5160:Frankfurter Wachensturm 4585:Vick, Brian E. (2002). 4545:Oxford University Press 4425:Charles Scribner's Sons 4170:Dill, Marshall (1970). 4146:. Penguin Random House. 4002:Oxford University Press 3913:Lauring, Palle (1960). 3741:. Vol. 89. Vaduz: 2269:Danish Conflict of 1848 2092:constitutional monarchy 1534:May Uprising in Dresden 1480:, not taken seriously. 1449:Friedrichshain cemetery 1391:Besserer von Dahlfingen 1120:Neue Rheinische Zeitung 970:Johann Gottfried Kinkel 831:Battle on the Scheideck 651:(9 May – 23 July 1849): 640:(21–25 September 1848): 5418:Das Lied der Deutschen 5354:Klemens von Metternich 5329:Johann Gottlieb Fichte 5039:Kingdom of Württemberg 4993:Unification of Germany 3950:Marx & Engels 1977 3897:Marx & Engels 1977 3707:Marx & Engels 1977 3688:Marx & Engels 1977 3672:Marx & Engels 1977 3656:Marx & Engels 1977 3640:Marx & Engels 1977 3624:Marx & Engels 1977 3608:Marx & Engels 1977 3592:Marx & Engels 1977 3560:German-American Corner 3539:Marx & Engels 1977 3492:Marx & Engels 1977 3461:Marx & Engels 1977 3442:Marx & Engels 1977 3394:Marx & Engels 1977 3375:Marx & Engels 1977 3328:Marx & Engels 1977 3312:Marx & Engels 1977 3300:Jakob Lukas Schabelitz 3292:Marx & Engels 1977 3276:Marx & Engels 1977 3237:Marx & Engels 1977 3221:Marx & Engels 1977 3205:Marx & Engels 1977 3189:Marx & Engels 1977 3170:Marx & Engels 1977 3154:Marx & Engels 1977 3138:Marx & Engels 1977 3114:Karl Marx: A Biography 3096:Marx & Engels 1977 3080:Marx & Engels 1977 3064:Marx & Engels 1977 3048:Marx & Engels 1977 3029:Marx & Engels 1977 3008:Marx & Engels 1977 2992:Marx & Engels 1977 2973:Marx & Engels 1977 2957:Marx & Engels 1977 2941:Marx & Engels 1977 2925:Marx & Engels 1977 2906:Marx & Engels 1977 2887:Marx & Engels 1977 2871:Marx & Engels 1977 2855:Marx & Engels 1977 2827:Marx & Engels 1977 2808:Marx & Engels 1977 2792:Marx & Engels 1977 2776:Marx & Engels 1977 2760:Marx & Engels 1977 2744:Marx & Engels 1977 2719:Marx & Engels 1977 2694:Marx & Engels 1977 2604:Marx & Engels 1977 2588:Marx & Engels 1977 2572:Marx & Engels 1977 2556:Marx & Engels 1977 2366: 2239: 2231: 2140: 2086:Paulskirchenverfassung 2084: 2032: 2012: 1952: 1858: 1674:Theodor Ludwig Greiner 1662:Ernst Hermann Höchster 1651: 1629: 1609: 1548:government of Saxony. 1510: 1468: 1445: 1403: 1399:1st Regiment of Guards 1377: 1367: 1354: 1291: 1119: 1055: 1042:Free City of Frankfurt 1030:Kingdom of Württemberg 1012:Neue Kölnische Zeitung 1010: 899:Joseph Martin Reichard 894: 775: 478: 419: 410:Ferdinand I of Austria 314: 300: 286: 239:Klemens von Metternich 204:Commanders and leaders 198:German revolutionaries 53:unification of Germany 5531:Rebellions in Germany 5334:Johann Gustav Droysen 5304:Frederick William III 4417:Palmer, Alan (1976). 4107:Walter, Hans (1907). 4080:Koberg, Karl (1923). 3994:Eddie, S. A. (2013). 3857:World Digital Library 2007: 1982:– Centre/Liberal (40) 1856: 1658:Karl Nickolaus Riotte 1607: 1517:, the capital of the 1508: 1466: 1363: 1349: 1289: 1064:Lorenz Peter Brentano 1050: 888: 473: 406:Prince von Metternich 270: 217:Frederick Augustus II 5457:German reunification 5379:Wilhelm von Humboldt 5344:John, King of Saxony 5309:Frederick William IV 5258:Treaty of Versailles 5227:Second Schleswig War 5198:Punctation of Olmütz 5180:Frankfurt Parliament 5065:German Confederation 4708:on 10 December 2005. 4673:Neue Zürcher Zeitung 3933:A History of Prussia 2408:Bourgeois revolution 2342:German Confederation 2237:versus advocates of 2159:Frederick William IV 2141:Dreiklassenwahlrecht 1953:Professorenparlament 1889:improve this section 1807:Grand Duchy of Posen 1359:Alfred von Waldersee 1351:Alfred von Waldersee 1281:Frederick William IV 1201:improve this article 998:Gustav Adolph Techow 808:Frankfurt Parliament 527:democratic rebellion 431:freedom of the press 323:German Confederation 283:Frankfurt parliament 228:Frederick William IV 146:German Confederation 122:German Confederation 5536:Revolutions of 1848 5526:Protests in Germany 5324:Heinrich von Gagern 5249:Franco-Prussian War 5236:Austro-Prussian War 4784:Revolutions of 1848 4722:Reichs-Gesetz-Blatt 4627:Der Bundespräsident 3956:, p. 638, Note 271. 3725:, pp. 180–181. 3694:, p. 664, Note 149. 3510:, pp. 414–415. 3176:, p. 666, Note 164. 2782:, p. 580, Note 342. 2725:, p. 625, Note 167. 2610:, p. 643, Note 298. 2562:, p. 637, Note 264. 2543:, pp. 206–236. 2510:, pp. 188–205. 2498:, pp. 104–105. 2379:The second half of 2219:Heinrich von Gagern 2102:Backlash in Prussia 2062:hereditary monarchy 2017:Heinrich von Gagern 1988:– Left centre (100) 1831:Ludwik Mierosławski 1088:John Phillip Becker 1054:burns, 15 June 1849 946:Friedrich von Beust 915:Ludwik Mieroslawski 609:(13–27 April 1848): 591:Battles during the 435:freedom of assembly 395:February Revolution 319:Revolutions of 1848 257:German Federal Army 111:Rebellion quelled 49:Revolutions of 1848 5492:Germany portal 5425:Die Wacht am Rhein 5209:Dresden Conference 5112:Congress of Vienna 5029:Kingdom of Prussia 5024:Kingdom of Hanover 5019:Kingdom of Bavaria 4304:10.1093/ehr/ceq276 4298:(516): 1173–1214. 4138:Clark, Christopher 3937:Barnes & Noble 3350:. Borodino Books. 2750:, p. 606, Note 10. 2700:, p. 606, Note 12. 2374:In popular culture 2302:Armistice of Malmö 2281:Duchy of Schleswig 2207:Frankfurt Assembly 2013: 1961:political factions 1859: 1682:Franz Heinrch Zitz 1610: 1511: 1469: 1355: 1292: 1167:Battle of Rinnthal 1072:Rudolph Mayerhofer 1056: 990:Herman von Natzmer 976:, Karl Emmermann, 930:Friedrich Strasser 895: 876:Kingdom of Bavaria 874:(then part of the 850:Elberfeld uprising 479: 461:Congress of Vienna 427:popular assemblies 335:independent states 287: 281:, hung inside the 170:Kingdom of Prussia 5521:Conflicts in 1849 5516:Conflicts in 1848 5498: 5497: 5436:Lützow Free Corps 5369:Otto von Bismarck 5289:Eduard von Simson 5132:Wartburg Festival 5034:Kingdom of Saxony 4959: 4958: 4696:Rempel, Gerhard. 4602:978-0-674-00911-0 4324:Engels, Friedrich 4214:978-0-582-35765-5 4011:978-0-19-966275-3 3983:978-1-5017-0223-5 3761:"Revolution 1848" 3745:. pp. 54–55. 3400:, p. 605, Note 9. 3357:978-1-163-18135-5 2633:978-0-582-50711-1 2620:Sked, A. (1979). 2417:Christopher Clark 2277:Duchy of Holstein 2146:Otto von Bismarck 1986:Württemberger Hof 1937:St. Paul's Church 1925: 1924: 1917: 1835:Province of Posen 1776:Michael Menzinger 1666:Alexis Heintzmann 1595:petty bourgeoisie 1555:. They landed in 1553:Michael Machemehl 1519:Kingdom of Saxony 1387:War of Liberation 1344: 1343: 1322:. Please help to 1314:This section may 1277: 1276: 1269: 1251: 854:Palatine uprising 800:Gustav von Struve 732: 731: 453:Holy Roman Empire 339:Holy Roman Empire 265: 264: 159:Kingdom of Saxony 129: 128: 16:(Redirected from 5568: 5490: 5489: 5488: 5439: 5255: 5246: 5233: 5224: 5215: 5206: 5195: 5186: 5177: 5170: 5156: 5150:Hambach Festival 5147: 5141:Carlsbad Decrees 5138: 5129: 5118: 5109: 5015: 4986: 4979: 4972: 4963: 4962: 4777: 4770: 4763: 4754: 4753: 4749: 4747: 4745: 4729: 4719: 4709: 4704:. Archived from 4685: 4683: 4681: 4662: 4660: 4658: 4639: 4637: 4635: 4610: 4581: 4558: 4542: 4531: 4490: 4465: 4452:. Van Nostrand. 4442: 4413: 4368: 4343:(5): 1219–1237. 4331: 4315: 4285: 4272: 4241: 4222: 4193: 4177: 4166: 4147: 4125: 4124: 4104: 4098: 4097: 4077: 4071: 4070: 4044: 4038: 4037: 4026: 4020: 4019: 3991: 3963: 3957: 3947: 3941: 3940: 3928: 3919: 3918: 3910: 3904: 3894: 3888: 3886: 3874: 3868: 3867: 3865: 3863: 3849: 3843: 3842: 3840: 3838: 3820: 3811: 3810: 3808: 3806: 3788: 3779: 3778: 3776: 3774: 3756: 3747: 3746: 3732: 3726: 3720: 3714: 3704: 3695: 3685: 3679: 3669: 3663: 3653: 3647: 3637: 3631: 3621: 3615: 3605: 3599: 3589: 3583: 3577: 3571: 3570: 3568: 3566: 3552: 3546: 3536: 3523: 3517: 3511: 3505: 3499: 3489: 3480: 3474: 3468: 3458: 3449: 3439: 3430: 3429: 3407: 3401: 3391: 3382: 3372: 3366: 3365: 3341: 3335: 3325: 3319: 3309: 3303: 3302:(24 August 1849) 3289: 3283: 3273: 3267: 3266: 3250: 3244: 3234: 3228: 3218: 3212: 3202: 3196: 3186: 3177: 3167: 3161: 3151: 3145: 3135: 3126: 3125: 3109: 3103: 3093: 3087: 3077: 3071: 3061: 3055: 3045: 3036: 3026: 3015: 3005: 2999: 2989: 2980: 2970: 2964: 2954: 2948: 2938: 2932: 2922: 2913: 2903: 2894: 2884: 2878: 2868: 2862: 2852: 2846: 2840: 2834: 2824: 2815: 2805: 2799: 2789: 2783: 2773: 2767: 2757: 2751: 2741: 2726: 2716: 2701: 2691: 2682: 2676: 2661: 2655: 2642: 2641: 2617: 2611: 2601: 2595: 2585: 2579: 2569: 2563: 2553: 2544: 2538: 2532: 2526: 2511: 2505: 2499: 2493: 2482: 2481: 2453: 2440: 2369: 2244: 2241:Kleindeutschland 2236: 2191:Friedrich Hecker 2143: 2118:and put forth a 2089: 2037: 1955: 1920: 1913: 1909: 1906: 1900: 1869: 1861: 1780:District Council 1698:Feliks Trociński 1670:Nikolaus Schmitt 1654: 1632: 1557:Galveston, Texas 1528:German composer 1413:Frankfurter Gate 1407:advanced to the 1406: 1380: 1370: 1339: 1336: 1309: 1308: 1301: 1272: 1265: 1261: 1258: 1252: 1250: 1209: 1185: 1177: 1122: 1107:Frederick Engels 1015: 1006:Communist League 1002:Freidrich Anneke 907:Felix Raquilliet 827:Friedrich Hecker 778: 598: 595: 594:Baden Revolution 584: 577: 570: 561: 560: 556:Baden Revolution 417: 353:became known as 325:, including the 312: 305:March Revolution 298: 237: 236: 235: 226: 225: 224: 215: 214: 213: 192: 191: 190: 180: 178: 177: 169: 167: 166: 158: 156: 155: 144: 101:, Central Europe 83: 82: 63: 39: 38: 21: 5576: 5575: 5571: 5570: 5569: 5567: 5566: 5565: 5501: 5500: 5499: 5494: 5486: 5484: 5478: 5452:German question 5433: 5431:Flag of Germany 5400:Alsace–Lorraine 5388: 5274:Baron von Stein 5262: 5253: 5244: 5240:Peace of Prague 5231: 5222: 5213: 5204: 5193: 5184: 5175: 5168: 5154: 5145: 5136: 5127: 5116: 5107: 5096: 5048: 5012:Austria-Hungary 5009: 5007:Austrian Empire 4995: 4990: 4960: 4955: 4940:United Kingdom 4925:Ottoman Empire 4884:Austrian Empire 4872: 4817: 4786: 4781: 4743: 4741: 4733:Westera, Rick. 4717: 4712: 4692: 4679: 4677: 4656: 4654: 4633: 4631: 4620: 4617: 4615:Further reading 4603: 4578: 4555: 4512:10.2307/2147265 4487: 4435: 4349:10.2307/1904890 4261:10.2307/1842744 4238: 4215: 4190: 4163: 4133: 4128: 4105: 4101: 4078: 4074: 4059: 4045: 4041: 4028: 4027: 4023: 4012: 3984: 3964: 3960: 3948: 3944: 3929: 3922: 3911: 3907: 3895: 3891: 3883:ZEIT Geschichte 3875: 3871: 3861: 3859: 3851: 3850: 3846: 3836: 3834: 3821: 3814: 3804: 3802: 3789: 3782: 3772: 3770: 3757: 3750: 3733: 3729: 3721: 3717: 3705: 3698: 3686: 3682: 3670: 3666: 3654: 3650: 3638: 3634: 3622: 3618: 3606: 3602: 3590: 3586: 3578: 3574: 3564: 3562: 3554: 3553: 3549: 3537: 3526: 3518: 3514: 3506: 3502: 3490: 3483: 3475: 3471: 3459: 3452: 3440: 3433: 3426: 3408: 3404: 3392: 3385: 3373: 3369: 3358: 3342: 3338: 3326: 3322: 3310: 3306: 3290: 3286: 3274: 3270: 3251: 3247: 3235: 3231: 3219: 3215: 3203: 3199: 3187: 3180: 3168: 3164: 3152: 3148: 3136: 3129: 3110: 3106: 3094: 3090: 3078: 3074: 3062: 3058: 3046: 3039: 3027: 3018: 3006: 3002: 2990: 2983: 2971: 2967: 2955: 2951: 2939: 2935: 2923: 2916: 2904: 2897: 2885: 2881: 2869: 2865: 2853: 2849: 2841: 2837: 2825: 2818: 2806: 2802: 2790: 2786: 2774: 2770: 2758: 2754: 2742: 2729: 2717: 2704: 2692: 2685: 2677: 2664: 2656: 2645: 2634: 2618: 2614: 2602: 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5: 5574: 5564: 5563: 5558: 5553: 5548: 5543: 5538: 5533: 5528: 5523: 5518: 5513: 5496: 5495: 5483: 5480: 5479: 5477: 5476: 5469: 5464: 5459: 5454: 5449: 5447:Lesser Germany 5440: 5428: 5421: 5414: 5411:Burschenschaft 5407: 5402: 5396: 5394: 5390: 5389: 5387: 5386: 5381: 5376: 5371: 5366: 5361: 5356: 5351: 5346: 5341: 5336: 5331: 5326: 5321: 5316: 5311: 5306: 5301: 5299:Franz Joseph I 5296: 5291: 5286: 5281: 5276: 5270: 5268: 5264: 5263: 5261: 5260: 5251: 5242: 5229: 5220: 5211: 5202: 5201: 5200: 5191: 5182: 5165: 5164: 5163: 5152: 5143: 5134: 5114: 5104: 5102: 5098: 5097: 5095: 5094: 5089: 5084: 5079: 5074: 5067: 5062: 5056: 5054: 5050: 5049: 5047: 5046: 5041: 5036: 5031: 5026: 5021: 5016: 5003: 5001: 4997: 4996: 4989: 4988: 4981: 4974: 4966: 4957: 4956: 4954: 4953: 4952: 4951: 4946: 4938: 4937: 4936: 4931: 4923: 4918: 4913: 4908: 4907: 4906: 4901: 4896: 4891: 4880: 4878: 4874: 4873: 4871: 4870: 4865: 4860: 4859: 4858: 4848: 4847: 4846: 4836: 4831: 4825: 4823: 4819: 4818: 4816: 4815: 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2683: 2681:, p. 105. 2662: 2660:, p. 612. 2643: 2632: 2612: 2596: 2580: 2564: 2545: 2541:Robertson 1952 2533: 2531:, p. 106. 2512: 2508:Robertson 1952 2500: 2483: 2468: 2431: 2429: 2426: 2424: 2421: 2420: 2419: 2410: 2403: 2400: 2399: 2398: 2375: 2372: 2367:Bauernbefreier 2325: 2322: 2202: 2199: 2195:Forty-Eighters 2128:House of Lords 2103: 2100: 2069: 2068: 2065: 2058: 2034:Reichsverweser 2002: 2001: 1995: 1989: 1983: 1977: 1971: 1941:all of Germany 1923: 1922: 1873: 1871: 1864: 1850: 1847: 1799:Greater Poland 1791:Main article: 1788: 1785: 1748:Main article: 1745: 1742: 1718: 1715: 1702:Christian Zinn 1694:August Willich 1686:Ludwig Blenker 1641:, Düsseldorf, 1568: 1565: 1530:Richard Wagner 1502: 1499: 1458:Gendarmenmarkt 1409:Alexanderplatz 1371:alongside the 1342: 1341: 1326:. Discuss and 1313: 1311: 1304: 1275: 1274: 1189: 1187: 1180: 1174: 1171: 1160:August Willich 1144:Kaiserslautern 1113:traveled from 1080:Joseph Fickler 1076:Florian Mördes 938:Albert Clement 926:Kaiserslautern 893:, 14 June 1849 845: 844:The Palatinate 842: 823:Joseph Fickler 730: 729: 726: 725: 720: 715: 710: 705: 700: 695: 690: 685: 680: 675: 670: 665: 660: 654: 633: 632: 627: 622: 617: 611: 604: 601: 600: 587: 586: 579: 572: 564: 554:Main article: 551: 548: 522:shot several. 477:, October 1848 445:Main article: 442: 439: 420:Märzrevolution 375:Hambacher Fest 370: 367: 355:Forty-Eighters 315:Märzrevolution 277:, possibly by 263: 262: 259: 252: 251: 247: 246: 241: 206: 205: 201: 200: 184: 183: 182: 171: 160: 136: 135: 131: 130: 127: 126: 125: 124: 118: 108: 104: 103: 97: 95: 91: 90: 87: 79: 78: 65:Origin of the 56: 55: 44: 43: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5573: 5562: 5559: 5557: 5554: 5552: 5549: 5547: 5544: 5542: 5539: 5537: 5534: 5532: 5529: 5527: 5524: 5522: 5519: 5517: 5514: 5512: 5509: 5508: 5506: 5493: 5481: 5475: 5474: 5470: 5468: 5465: 5463: 5460: 5458: 5455: 5453: 5450: 5448: 5444: 5443:Pan-Germanism 5441: 5437: 5432: 5429: 5427: 5426: 5422: 5420: 5419: 5415: 5413: 5412: 5408: 5406: 5403: 5401: 5398: 5397: 5395: 5391: 5385: 5382: 5380: 5377: 5375: 5372: 5370: 5367: 5365: 5362: 5360: 5357: 5355: 5352: 5350: 5347: 5345: 5342: 5340: 5339:Archduke John 5337: 5335: 5332: 5330: 5327: 5325: 5322: 5320: 5317: 5315: 5312: 5310: 5307: 5305: 5302: 5300: 5297: 5295: 5292: 5290: 5287: 5285: 5282: 5280: 5277: 5275: 5272: 5271: 5269: 5265: 5259: 5252: 5250: 5243: 5241: 5237: 5230: 5228: 5221: 5219: 5212: 5210: 5203: 5199: 5192: 5190: 5183: 5181: 5174: 5173: 5172: 5166: 5162: 5161: 5153: 5151: 5144: 5142: 5135: 5133: 5126: 5125: 5124: 5123: 5115: 5113: 5106: 5105: 5103: 5099: 5093: 5092:German Empire 5090: 5088: 5085: 5083: 5080: 5078: 5075: 5073: 5072: 5068: 5066: 5063: 5061: 5058: 5057: 5055: 5051: 5045: 5042: 5040: 5037: 5035: 5032: 5030: 5027: 5025: 5022: 5020: 5017: 5013: 5008: 5005: 5004: 5002: 4998: 4994: 4987: 4982: 4980: 4975: 4973: 4968: 4967: 4964: 4950: 4947: 4945: 4942: 4941: 4939: 4935: 4932: 4930: 4927: 4926: 4924: 4922: 4919: 4917: 4914: 4912: 4909: 4905: 4902: 4900: 4897: 4895: 4892: 4890: 4887: 4886: 4885: 4882: 4881: 4879: 4875: 4869: 4866: 4864: 4861: 4857: 4854: 4853: 4852: 4849: 4845: 4842: 4841: 4840: 4837: 4835: 4832: 4830: 4827: 4826: 4824: 4820: 4814: 4811: 4809: 4808:Republicanism 4806: 4804: 4801: 4799: 4796: 4795: 4793: 4789: 4785: 4778: 4773: 4771: 4766: 4764: 4759: 4758: 4755: 4740: 4736: 4731: 4727: 4724:(in German). 4723: 4715: 4711: 4707: 4703: 4699: 4694: 4693: 4675: 4674: 4669: 4664: 4652: 4651: 4646: 4641: 4629: 4628: 4623: 4619: 4618: 4608: 4604: 4598: 4594: 4590: 4589: 4583: 4579: 4577:0-521-83907-6 4573: 4569: 4565: 4560: 4556: 4554:0-19-822120-7 4550: 4546: 4541: 4540: 4533: 4529: 4525: 4521: 4517: 4513: 4509: 4505: 4501: 4497: 4492: 4488: 4486:0-691-00756-X 4482: 4478: 4474: 4473: 4467: 4463: 4459: 4455: 4451: 4450: 4444: 4440: 4436: 4434:0-684-14683-5 4430: 4426: 4422: 4421: 4415: 4411: 4407: 4403: 4399: 4395: 4391: 4387: 4383: 4379: 4375: 4370: 4366: 4362: 4358: 4354: 4350: 4346: 4342: 4338: 4333: 4329: 4325: 4321: 4317: 4313: 4309: 4305: 4301: 4297: 4293: 4287: 4283: 4280:. 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1984: 1981: 1978: 1975: 1972: 1969: 1966: 1965: 1964: 1962: 1957: 1954: 1949: 1944: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1930: 1919: 1916: 1908: 1905:December 2023 1898: 1894: 1890: 1884: 1883: 1879: 1874:This section 1872: 1868: 1863: 1862: 1855: 1846: 1844: 1840: 1836: 1832: 1829:troops under 1828: 1824: 1820: 1816: 1812: 1808: 1804: 1800: 1794: 1784: 1781: 1777: 1771: 1769: 1765: 1764:Karl Schädler 1761: 1757: 1751: 1744:Liechtenstein 1741: 1739: 1738:Maximilian II 1734: 1732: 1728: 1724: 1714: 1710: 1707: 1703: 1699: 1695: 1689: 1687: 1683: 1679: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1663: 1659: 1653: 1648: 1644: 1640: 1635: 1631: 1626: 1625: 1620: 1616: 1606: 1602: 1598: 1596: 1590: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1575: 1564: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1549: 1545: 1543: 1539: 1535: 1531: 1526: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1507: 1498: 1496: 1491: 1485: 1481: 1479: 1474: 1465: 1461: 1459: 1455: 1450: 1444: 1442: 1438: 1434: 1433:aides-de-camp 1430: 1424: 1422: 1416: 1414: 1410: 1405: 1400: 1396: 1392: 1388: 1384: 1379: 1374: 1369: 1362: 1360: 1352: 1348: 1338: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1319: 1312: 1303: 1302: 1299: 1297: 1288: 1284: 1282: 1271: 1268: 1260: 1249: 1246: 1242: 1239: 1235: 1232: 1228: 1225: 1221: 1218: – 1217: 1213: 1212:Find sources: 1206: 1202: 1196: 1195: 1190:This section 1188: 1184: 1179: 1178: 1170: 1168: 1163: 1161: 1157: 1153: 1147: 1145: 1141: 1137: 1133: 1129: 1124: 1121: 1116: 1112: 1108: 1104: 1102: 1098: 1092: 1089: 1085: 1081: 1077: 1073: 1069: 1068:Karl Eichfeld 1065: 1061: 1060:Bavarian Army 1053: 1049: 1045: 1043: 1039: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1023: 1017: 1014: 1013: 1007: 1003: 999: 995: 991: 987: 983: 979: 975: 971: 967: 963: 959: 958:Gustav Struve 955: 951: 947: 943: 939: 935: 931: 927: 922: 920: 919:Franz Sznayde 916: 912: 908: 904: 900: 892: 887: 883: 879: 877: 873: 869: 865: 861: 855: 851: 841: 838: 836: 832: 828: 824: 820: 815: 813: 809: 803: 801: 797: 792: 790: 785: 780: 777: 772: 768: 764: 760: 755: 751: 749: 745: 741: 737: 724: 721: 719: 716: 714: 711: 709: 706: 704: 701: 699: 696: 694: 691: 689: 686: 684: 681: 679: 676: 674: 671: 669: 666: 664: 661: 659: 656: 655: 653: 652: 650: 645: 644: 641: 639: 638:Struve Putsch 631: 628: 626: 623: 621: 618: 616: 613: 612: 610: 608: 602: 596: 585: 580: 578: 573: 571: 566: 565: 562: 557: 547: 545: 541: 537: 533: 528: 523: 519: 517: 516:Imperial Diet 513: 509: 503: 501: 500:Lower Austria 497: 492: 490: 485: 476: 472: 468: 466: 462: 458: 454: 448: 438: 436: 432: 428: 423: 421: 416: 411: 407: 403: 398: 396: 392: 388: 387:German states 383: 381: 376: 366: 364: 360: 356: 351: 346: 344: 340: 336: 332: 331:pan-Germanism 328: 324: 320: 316: 311: 306: 302: 297: 292: 284: 280: 276: 275: 271:The painting 269: 260: 258: 254: 253: 248: 245: 242: 240: 229: 218: 208: 207: 202: 199: 195: 194:German Empire 185: 172: 161: 150: 149: 148: 147: 143: 138: 137: 132: 123: 119: 114: 113: 112: 109: 106: 105: 100: 99:German states 96: 93: 92: 88: 85: 84: 80: 76: 75:Berlin Palace 72: 68: 62: 57: 54: 50: 45: 40: 37: 33: 19: 5471: 5423: 5416: 5409: 5364:Napoleon III 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Retrieved 4738: 4725: 4721: 4706:the original 4701: 4678:. Retrieved 4671: 4655:. Retrieved 4648: 4632:. Retrieved 4625: 4607:Google Books 4605:– via 4587: 4563: 4538: 4499: 4495: 4471: 4462:Google Books 4460:– via 4448: 4439:Google Books 4437:– via 4423:. New York: 4419: 4377: 4373: 4340: 4336: 4327: 4295: 4291: 4277: 4255:(1): 27–44. 4252: 4246: 4227: 4219:Google Books 4217:– via 4199: 4173: 4152: 4141: 4112: 4108: 4102: 4085: 4081: 4075: 4048: 4042: 4033: 4024: 4016:Google Books 4014:– via 3996: 3988:Google Books 3986:– via 3968: 3961: 3953: 3945: 3932: 3931:Koch, H. W. 3914: 3908: 3900: 3892: 3882: 3872: 3860:. Retrieved 3847: 3835:. Retrieved 3828: 3803:. Retrieved 3796: 3771:. Retrieved 3764: 3737: 3730: 3718: 3710: 3691: 3683: 3675: 3667: 3659: 3651: 3643: 3635: 3627: 3619: 3611: 3603: 3595: 3587: 3575: 3563:. Retrieved 3559: 3550: 3542: 3515: 3503: 3495: 3472: 3464: 3445: 3415: 3411: 3405: 3397: 3378: 3370: 3362:Google Books 3360:– via 3346: 3339: 3331: 3323: 3315: 3307: 3295: 3287: 3279: 3271: 3254: 3248: 3240: 3232: 3224: 3216: 3208: 3200: 3192: 3173: 3165: 3157: 3149: 3141: 3113: 3107: 3099: 3091: 3083: 3075: 3067: 3059: 3051: 3032: 3011: 3003: 2995: 2976: 2968: 2960: 2952: 2944: 2936: 2928: 2909: 2890: 2882: 2874: 2866: 2858: 2850: 2838: 2830: 2811: 2803: 2795: 2787: 2779: 2771: 2763: 2755: 2747: 2722: 2697: 2638:Google Books 2636:– via 2622: 2615: 2607: 2599: 2591: 2583: 2575: 2567: 2559: 2536: 2503: 2449: 2384: 2383:' 1955 film 2362:Hans Kudlich 2354:forced labor 2327: 2307: 2294: 2266: 2262:Reichsflotte 2259: 2255: 2228: 2224: 2216: 2212:nation state 2204: 2180: 2176: 2164: 2156: 2149: 2120:constitution 2105: 2098:and Saxony. 2081: 2078: 2070: 2044: 2021: 2014: 1958: 1945: 1926: 1911: 1902: 1887:Please help 1875: 1839:West Prussia 1811:West Prussia 1796: 1772: 1768:Ludwig Grass 1760:Peter Kaiser 1753: 1735: 1720: 1711: 1700:and Captain 1690: 1636: 1622: 1618: 1614: 1611: 1599: 1591: 1570: 1561:German Texan 1550: 1546: 1542:Stephen Born 1527: 1512: 1486: 1482: 1470: 1446: 1428: 1425: 1417: 1404:Leibregiment 1364: 1356: 1332: 1318:undue weight 1315: 1293: 1278: 1263: 1254: 1244: 1237: 1230: 1223: 1211: 1199:Please help 1194:verification 1191: 1164: 1148: 1125: 1105: 1093: 1057: 1052:Ludwigshafen 1018: 986:Colonel Kurz 950:Eugen Oswald 923: 896: 880: 857: 839: 816: 804: 793: 781: 756: 752: 734: 698:Ladenburg II 673:Ludwigshafen 649:Baden Mutiny 647: 646: 636: 635: 605: 544:Franz Joseph 524: 520: 504: 493: 489:Anton Füster 480: 464: 450: 424: 399: 384: 372: 347: 304: 290: 288: 279:Philipp Veit 272: 243: 139: 134:Belligerents 110: 47:Part of the 36: 5374:Robert Blum 5171:Revolutions 4877:By location 4803:Nationalism 4676:(in German) 4653:(in German) 4630:(in German) 4506:: 367–379. 3862:13 February 3837:24 December 3833:(in German) 3805:24 December 3801:(in German) 3773:24 December 3769:(in German) 2458:. pp. 2386:Lola Montès 2334:World War I 2251:Protestants 2187:Franz Sigel 2183:Carl Schurz 2168:Württemberg 2108:von Wrangel 2073:Robert Blum 2024:regionalism 1998:Donnersberg 1968:Café Milani 1731:Lola Montez 1678:Karl Hecker 1454:catafalques 1437:bivouacking 1431:of mounted 1429:va-et-vient 1136:Reichenbach 1101:Switzerland 978:Franz Sigel 966:Joseph Moll 954:Amand Goegg 763:Württemberg 683:Ladenburg I 484:Lola Montez 5505:Categories 5071:Zollverein 4921:Luxembourg 4798:Liberalism 4320:Marx, Karl 4000:. Oxford: 3935:. London: 3263:1006205627 2444:Marx, Karl 2423:References 2381:Max Ophüls 2314:Metternich 2273:Copenhagen 2172:Palatinate 1948:parliament 1929:Heidelberg 1586:Düsseldorf 1296:Tiergarten 1257:March 2018 1227:newspapers 1084:Karl Blind 942:Zychlinski 913:. Finally 872:Palatinate 812:Karl Mathy 688:Hirschhorn 658:Heppenheim 630:Dossenbach 620:Günterstal 597:of 1848/49 465:ex officio 5473:Sonderweg 5384:Wilhelm I 5359:Ludwig II 5279:Charles I 5245:1870–1871 5205:1850-1851 5176:1848–1849 5117:1815–1848 5108:1814–1815 4934:Wallachia 4899:Vojvodina 4844:Schleswig 4822:By nation 4813:Socialism 4744:21 August 4739:Omniatlas 4520:0032-3195 4458:930492299 4410:144825914 4394:0022-2801 4357:0002-8762 4312:0013-8266 4067:829661791 3825:"Landrat" 3565:21 August 3334:, p. 613. 3243:, p. 673. 3195:, p. 447. 3122:914905293 2679:Dill 1970 2529:Dill 1970 2496:Dill 1970 2478:925314360 2428:Citations 2391:courtesan 2247:Catholics 1980:Landsberg 1933:Frankfurt 1876:does not 1845:in 1866. 1803:Pomerelia 1639:Elberfeld 1574:North Sea 1411:from the 1383:von Below 1335:June 2020 1111:Karl Marx 1038:Franconia 1034:Nuremberg 1026:Stuttgart 1022:Hechingen 982:Nerlinger 868:Karlsruhe 860:Elberfeld 718:Gernsbach 693:Waghäusel 615:Scheideck 508:Innsbruck 415:‹See Tfd› 359:Wisconsin 310:‹See Tfd› 296:‹See Tfd› 4929:Moldavia 4904:Slovakia 4851:Italians 4680:18 March 4657:18 March 4650:Die Welt 4634:18 March 4420:Bismarck 4326:(1977). 4140:(2023). 4121:82210275 4094:44077068 3992: ; 3381:, p. 16. 2402:See also 2395:Ludwig I 2346:peasants 2340:and the 1756:Aloys II 1727:Ludwig I 1652:Landwehr 1647:Solingen 1643:Iserlohn 1630:Landwehr 1624:Landwehr 1368:Spielhof 1156:Gräfrath 1152:Solingen 980:, Major 759:Mannheim 703:Sinsheim 678:Käfertal 663:Weinheim 625:Freiburg 457:Napoleon 418:German: 313:German: 299:German: 274:Germania 255:~45,000 250:Strength 94:Location 51:and the 5393:Related 5294:Franz I 5122:Vormärz 5010:(later 4949:Ireland 4944:Britain 4911:Belgium 4889:Hungary 4839:Germans 4528:2147265 4402:1877214 4365:1904890 4269:1842744 4205:Longman 2358:Prussia 2350:serfdom 2249:versus 2151:Landtag 2096:Hanover 1897:removed 1882:sources 1725:, King 1723:Bavaria 1717:Bavaria 1582:Cologne 1515:Dresden 1456:on the 1441:Potsdam 1328:resolve 1241:scholar 1173:Prussia 1140:Hexamer 1115:Cologne 972:, Herr 940:, Herr 928:, were 744:Leopold 740:Louis I 723:Rastatt 713:Durlach 708:Ubstadt 643:Staufen 540:Moravia 536:Olomouc 496:Hofburg 441:Austria 350:liberal 5267:People 5256: 5247: 5234: 5225: 5216: 5207: 5196: 5187: 5178: 5157: 5148: 5139: 5130: 5119: 5110: 5101:Events 5053:Unions 5000:States 4916:Brazil 4894:Prague 4868:Swedes 4856:Sicily 4834:French 4791:Ideals 4599: 4574: 4551: 4526: 4518: 4483: 4456: 4431: 4408: 4400: 4392: 4363: 4355: 4310: 4267: 4234: 4211: 4186: 4159: 4119: 4092: 4065: 4055: 4008: 3980: 3422: 3354: 3261: 3120: 2630: 2476: 2466: 2330:states 1974:Casino 1827:Polish 1778:. 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German revolutions of 1848–1849

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