Scientific Revolution

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planets, stars), which were regarded as perfect, permanent, unchangeable, and in religious thought, the realm of heavenly beings. The Earth was even composed of different material, the four elements "earth", "water", "fire", and "air", while sufficiently far above its surface (roughly the Moon's orbit), the heavens were composed of a different substance called "aether". The heliocentric model that replaced it involved the radical displacement of the Earth to an orbit around the Sun; sharing a placement with the other planets implied a universe of heavenly components made from the same changeable substances as the Earth. Heavenly motions no longer needed to be governed by a theoretical perfection, confined to circular orbits.

248: 7933: 1666:, the absurdly large figure of 540 pounds of blood would have to be produced every day. Having this simple mathematical proportion at hand—which would imply a seemingly impossible role for the liver—Harvey went on to demonstrate how the blood circulated in a circle by means of countless experiments initially done on serpents and fish: tying their veins and arteries in separate periods of time, Harvey noticed the modifications which occurred; indeed, as he tied the veins, the heart would become empty, while as he did the same to the arteries, the organ would swell up. This process was later performed on the human body: the physician tied a tight 1715: 926:

philosophers, which Galileo learned when he studied philosophy. He ignored Aristotelianism. In broader terms, his work marked another step towards the eventual separation of science from both philosophy and religion; a major development in human thought. He was often willing to change his views in accordance with observation. In order to perform his experiments, Galileo had to set up standards of length and time, so that measurements made on different days and in different laboratories could be compared in a reproducible fashion. This provided a reliable foundation on which to confirm mathematical laws using inductive reasoning.

316:, there was no mass market on the continent for scientific treatises, as there had been for religious books. Printing decisively changed the way scientific knowledge was created, as well as how it was disseminated. It enabled accurate diagrams, maps, anatomical drawings, and representations of flora and fauna to be reproduced, and printing made scholarly books more widely accessible, allowing researchers to consult ancient texts freely and to compare their own observations with those of fellow scholars. Although printers' blunders still often resulted in the spread of false data (for instance, in Galileo's 1014: 2430:

craftspeople for and at the expense of wealthy patrons. These may have been commissioned as displays of wealth. In addition, the instruments preserved in collections may not have received heavy use in scientific work; instruments that had visibly received heavy use were typically destroyed, deemed unfit for display, or excluded from collections altogether. It is also postulated that the scientific instruments preserved in many collections were chosen because they were more appealing to collectors, by virtue of being more ornate, more portable, or made with higher-grade materials.

1615: 1070: 2564: 1149: 2592: 883: 1307:. One of the most significant books in the history of astronomy, the Astronomia nova provided strong arguments for heliocentrism and contributed valuable insight into the movement of the planets. This included the first mention of the planets' elliptical paths and the change of their movement to the movement of free floating bodies as opposed to objects on rotating spheres. It is recognized as one of the most important works of the Scientific Revolution. Using the accurate observations of 798:. Before beginning this induction, though, the enquirer must free his or her mind from certain false notions or tendencies which distort the truth. In particular, he found that philosophy was too preoccupied with words, particularly discourse and debate, rather than actually observing the material world: "For while men believe their reason governs words, in fact, words turn back and reflect their power upon the understanding, and so render philosophy and science sophistical and inactive." 322:(The Starry Messenger), published in Venice in 1610, his telescopic images of the lunar surface mistakenly appeared back to front), the development of engraved metal plates allowed accurate visual information to be made permanent, a change from previously, when woodcut illustrations deteriorated through repetitive use. The ability to access previous scientific research meant that researchers did not have to always start from scratch in making sense of their own observational data. 431: 9202: 2578: 2547:

time tends to be obscured. Scholars have tried to look into the participation of women in the 17th century in science, and even with sciences as simple as domestic knowledge women were making advances. With the limited history provided from texts of the period we cannot know the extent of women's roles in developing the scientific ideas and inventions. Another idea to consider is the way this period influenced even the women scientists of the periods following it.

1997: 1465: 58: 8326: 238:– that had taken place in the 15th–16th century. "Among the most conspicuous of the revolutions which opinions on this subject have undergone, is the transition from an implicit trust in the internal powers of man's mind to a professed dependence upon external observation; and from an unbounded reverence for the wisdom of the past, to a fervid expectation of change and improvement." This gave rise to the common view of the Scientific Revolution today: 731: 8314: 2266:, as a "...new invention for raising of water and occasioning motion to all sorts of mill work by the impellent force of fire, which will be of great use and advantage for drayning mines, serveing townes with water, and for the working of all sorts of mills where they have not the benefitt of water nor constant windes." The invention was demonstrated to the Royal Society on 14 June 1699, and the machine was described by Savery in his book 8303: 6863: 2105: 1365: 2044:. By investigating the forces on a light metallic needle, balanced on a point, he extended the list of electric bodies and found that many substances, including metals and natural magnets, showed no attractive forces when rubbed. He noticed that dry weather with north or east wind was the most favourable atmospheric condition for exhibiting electric phenomena—an observation liable to misconception until the difference between 2447: 263: 1352:, and other phenomena, Newton removed the last doubts about the validity of the heliocentric model of the cosmos. This work also demonstrated that the motion of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies could be described by the same principles. His prediction that the Earth should be shaped as an oblate spheroid was later vindicated by other scientists. His laws of motion were to be the solid foundation of mechanics; his 2475:

Crombie and William A. Wallace, who proved the preexistence of a wide range of ideas used by the followers of the Scientific Revolution thesis to substantiate their claims. Thus, the idea of a scientific revolution following the Renaissance is—according to the continuity thesis—a myth. Some continuity theorists point to earlier intellectual revolutions occurring in the Middle Ages, usually referring to either a European

2371: 1982:, in which he expounded his corpuscular theory of light. He considered light to be made up of extremely subtle corpuscles, that ordinary matter was made of grosser corpuscles and speculated that through a kind of alchemical transmutation "Are not gross Bodies and Light convertible into one another, ...and may not Bodies receive much of their Activity from the Particles of Light which enter their Composition?" 6851: 774:

and "nature can only be commanded by obeying her". Here is an abstract of the philosophy of this work, that by the knowledge of nature and the using of instruments, man can govern or direct the natural work of nature to produce definite results. Therefore, that man, by seeking knowledge of nature, can reach power over it—and thus reestablish the "Empire of Man over creation," which had been lost by

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to only the classic four: earth, fire, air, and water. He also pleaded that chemistry should cease to be subservient to medicine or to alchemy, and rise to the status of a science. Importantly, he advocated a rigorous approach to scientific experiment: he believed all theories must be tested experimentally before being regarded as true. The work contains some of the earliest modern ideas of

9190: 2234: 1501:. It emphasized the priority of dissection and what has come to be called the "anatomical" view of the body, seeing human internal functioning as an essentially corporeal structure filled with organs arranged in three-dimensional space. This was in stark contrast to many of the anatomical models used previously, which had strong Galenic/Aristotelean elements, as well as elements of 2539:. This approach to the Scientific Revolution reduces it to a period of relearning classical ideas that is very much an extension of the Renaissance. This view does not deny that a change occurred but argues that it was a reassertion of previous knowledge (a renaissance) and not the creation of new knowledge. It cites statements from Newton, Copernicus and others in favour of the 1838: 1231: 2070:. By the end of the 17th century, researchers had developed practical means of generating electricity by friction with an electrostatic generator, but the development of electrostatic machines did not begin in earnest until the 18th century when they became fundamental instruments in the studies about the science of electricity. The first usage of the word 1035:" no field or action at a distance is permitted, particles or corpuscles of matter are fundamentally inert. Motion is caused by direct physical collision. Where natural substances had previously been understood organically, the mechanical philosophers viewed them as machines. As a result, Newton's theory seemed like some kind of throwback to "spooky 579:, demonstrated that calculations could compute the exact positions of the Sun, Moon, stars, and planets in the future and in the past, and showed how these computational models were derived from astronomical observations. As such they formed the model for later astronomical developments. The physical basis for Ptolemaic models invoked layers of 2035:), the Greek word for "amber". Gilbert undertook a number of careful electrical experiments, in the course of which he discovered that many substances other than amber, such as sulphur, wax, glass, etc., were capable of manifesting electrical properties. Gilbert discovered that a heated body lost its electricity and that moisture prevented the 223:'s 1789 work announcing the discovery of oxygen. "Few revolutions in science have immediately excited so much general notice as the introduction of the theory of oxygen ... Lavoisier saw his theory accepted by all the most eminent men of his time, and established over a great part of Europe within a few years from its first promulgation." 588:

centuries and are traditionally held to have had little effect on the re-discovery of such phenomena; whereas the invention of the printing press made the wide dissemination of such incremental advances of knowledge commonplace. Meanwhile, however, significant progress in geometry, mathematics, and astronomy was made in medieval times.

919:," the "father of modern physics," the "father of science," and "the Father of Modern Science." His original contributions to the science of motion were made through an innovative combination of experiment and mathematics. Galileo was one of the first modern thinkers to clearly state that the laws of nature are mathematical. In 408:

Renaissance and Reformation to the rank of mere episodes, mere internal displacements within the system of medieval Christendom.... looms so large as the real origin both of the modern world and of the modern mentality that our customary periodization of European history has become an anachronism and an encumbrance.

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nature that they pioneered were underpinned in various ways by religious assumptions. ... Yet, many of the leading figures in the scientific revolution imagined themselves to be champions of a science that was more compatible with Christianity than the medieval ideas about the natural world that they replaced.

1899:. Subsequently René Descartes showed, by using geometric construction and the law of refraction (also known as Descartes' law), that the angular radius of a rainbow is 42° (i.e. the angle subtended at the eye by the edge of the rainbow and the rainbow's centre is 42°). He also independently discovered the 1450:," writing that it was enough that the phenomena implied a gravitational attraction, as they did; but they did not so far indicate its cause, and it was both unnecessary and improper to frame hypotheses of things that were not implied by the phenomena. (Here Newton used what became his famous expression " 2437:

Instrument makers of the late 17th and early 18th centuries were commissioned by organizations seeking help with navigation, surveying, warfare, and astronomical observation. The increase in uses for such instruments, and their widespread use in global exploration and conflict, created a need for new

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in 1661, which is seen as a cornerstone book in the field of chemistry. In the work, Boyle presents his hypothesis that every phenomenon was the result of collisions of particles in motion. Boyle appealed to chemists to experiment and asserted that experiments denied the limiting of chemical elements

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is considered to have refined the modern scientific method for alchemy and to have separated chemistry further from alchemy. Although his research clearly has its roots in the alchemical tradition, Boyle is largely regarded today as the first modern chemist and therefore one of the founders of modern

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onto the upper arm of a person. This would cut off blood flow from the arteries and the veins. When this was done, the arm below the ligature was cool and pale, while above the ligature it was warm and swollen. The ligature was loosened slightly, which allowed blood from the arteries to come into the

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of the Earth as the center of the universe had been accepted by all but a few astronomers. In Aristotle's cosmology, Earth's central location was perhaps less significant than its identification as a realm of imperfection, inconstancy, irregularity, and change, as opposed to the "heavens" (Moon, Sun,

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Bacon considered that it is of greatest importance to science not to keep doing intellectual discussions or seeking merely contemplative aims, but that it should work for the bettering of mankind's life by bringing forth new inventions, even stating "inventions are also, as it were, new creations and

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Rapid accumulation of knowledge, which has characterized the development of science since the 17th century, had never occurred before that time. The new kind of scientific activity emerged only in a few countries of Western Europe, and it was restricted to that small area for about two hundred years.

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Newton also developed the theory of gravitation. In 1679, Newton began to consider gravitation and its effect on the orbits of planets with reference to Kepler's laws of planetary motion. This followed stimulation by a brief exchange of letters in 1679–80 with Hooke, opened a correspondence intended

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By the end of the Scientific Revolution the qualitative world of book-reading philosophers had been changed into a mechanical, mathematical world to be known through experimental research. Though it is certainly not true that Newtonian science was like modern science in all respects, it conceptually

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All those ancients knew the first law who attributed to atoms in an infinite vacuum a motion which was rectilinear, extremely swift and perpetual because of the lack of resistance... Aristotle was of the same mind, since he expresses his opinion thus..., speaking of motion in the void where there

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Aristotle recognized four kinds of causes, and where applicable, the most important of them is the "final cause". The final cause was the aim, goal, or purpose of some natural process or man-made thing. Until the Scientific Revolution, it was very natural to see such aims, such as a child's growth,

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he wrote "Philosophy is written in this grand book, the universe ... It is written in the language of mathematics, and its characters are triangles, circles, and other geometric figures;...." His mathematical analyses are a further development of a tradition employed by late scholastic natural

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The period saw a fundamental transformation in scientific ideas across mathematics, physics, astronomy, and biology in institutions supporting scientific investigation and in the more widely held picture of the universe. The Scientific Revolution led to the establishment of several modern sciences.

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was published in 1620, in which he argues man is "the minister and interpreter of nature," "knowledge and human power are synonymous," "effects are produced by the means of instruments and helps," "man while operating can only apply or withdraw natural bodies; nature internally performs the rest,"

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The Aristotelian scientific tradition's primary mode of interacting with the world was through observation and searching for "natural" circumstances through reasoning. Coupled with this approach was the belief that rare events which seemed to contradict theoretical models were aberrations, telling

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Despite these qualifications, the standard theory of the history of the Scientific Revolution claims that the 17th century was a period of revolutionary scientific changes. Not only were there revolutionary theoretical and experimental developments, but that even more importantly, the way in which

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An impetus is an inner force impressed into a moving body from without. It thus contrasts with purely external forces like the action of air on projectiles in Aristotle, and with purely internal forces like the nature of the elements in Aristotle and his followers.… Impetus theories also contrast

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In more recent analysis of the Scientific Revolution during this period, there has been criticism of the dominance of male scientists of the time. Female scholars were not given the opportunities that a male scholar would have had, and the incorporation of women's work in the sciences during this

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Scientific knowledge, according to the Aristotelians, was concerned with establishing true and necessary causes of things. To the extent that medieval natural philosophers used mathematical problems, they limited social studies to theoretical analyses of local speed and other aspects of life. The

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and other disturbances. He conceded that there are limits to the validity of this theory, noting on theoretical grounds that a projectile trajectory of a size comparable to that of the Earth could not possibly be a parabola, but he nevertheless maintained that for distances up to the range of the

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Gravity, interpreted as an innate attraction between every pair of particles of matter, was an occult quality in the same sense as the scholastics' "tendency to fall" had been.... By the mid eighteenth century that interpretation had been almost universally accepted, and the result was a genuine

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In the 16th and 17th centuries, European scientists began increasingly applying quantitative measurements to the measurement of physical phenomena on the Earth. Galileo maintained strongly that mathematics provided a kind of necessary certainty that could be compared to God's: "...with regard to

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Ancient precedent existed for alternative theories and developments which prefigured later discoveries in the area of physics and mechanics; but in light of the limited number of works to survive translation in a period when many books were lost to warfare, such developments remained obscure for

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historians of science have long known that religious factors played a significantly positive role in the emergence and persistence of modern science in the West. Not only were many of the key figures in the rise of science individuals with sincere religious commitments, but the new approaches to

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in 1643. The motivation for the invention was to improve on the suction pumps that were used to raise water out of the mines. Torricelli constructed a sealed tube filled with mercury, set vertically into a basin of the same substance. The column of mercury fell downwards, leaving a Torricellian

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is the hypothesis that there was no radical discontinuity between the intellectual development of the Middle Ages and the developments in the Renaissance and early modern period and has been deeply and widely documented by the works of scholars like Pierre Duhem, John Hermann Randall, Alistair

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Surviving instruments from this period tend to be made of durable metals such as brass, gold, or steel, although examples such as telescopes made of wood, pasteboard, or with leather components exist. Those instruments that exist in collections today tend to be robust examples, made by skilled

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conception of the Scientific Revolution. However, he states: "The makers of the revolution—Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, Descartes, Newton, and many others—had to selectively appropriate relevant ideas, transform them, and create new auxiliary concepts in order to complete their task... In the

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There remains simple experience; which, if taken as it comes, is called accident, if sought for, experiment. The true method of experience first lights the candle , and then by means of the candle shows the way ; commencing as it does with experience duly ordered and digested, not bungling or

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and a second prism could recompose the multicoloured spectrum into white light. He also showed that the coloured light does not change its properties by separating out a coloured beam and shining it on various objects. Newton noted that regardless of whether it was reflected or scattered or

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was a 20th century astronomer who benefitted from the laws and theories developed from this period; she made several advances in the century following the Scientific Revolution. It was an important period for the future of science, including the incorporation of women into fields using the

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Since that revolution turned the authority in English not only of the Middle Ages but of the ancient world—since it started not only in the eclipse of scholastic philosophy but in the destruction of Aristotelian physics—it outshines everything since the rise of Christianity and reduces the

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The idea that modern science took place as a kind of revolution has been debated among historians. A weakness of the idea of a scientific revolution is the lack of a systematic approach to the question of knowledge in the period comprehended between the 14th and 17th centuries, leading to

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formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation which dominated scientists' view of the physical universe for the next three centuries. By deriving Kepler's laws of planetary motion from his mathematical description of gravity, and then using the same principles to account for the

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ultimate analysis, even if the revolution was rooted upon a multicultural base it is the accomplishment of Europeans in Europe." Critics note that lacking documentary evidence of transmission of specific scientific ideas, Bala's model will remain "a working hypothesis, not a conclusion".

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with flaps that could suck the air from any vessel that it was connected to. In 1657, he pumped the air out of two conjoined hemispheres and demonstrated that a team of sixteen horses were incapable of pulling it apart. The air pump construction was greatly improved by Hooke in 1658.

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by Al Van Helden "The Hague discussed the patent applications first of Hans Lipperhey of Middelburg, and then of Jacob Metius of Alkmaar... another citizen of Middelburg, Sacharias Janssen had a telescope at about the same time but was at the Frankfurt Fair where he tried to sell

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nothing about nature as it "naturally" was. During the Scientific Revolution, changing perceptions about the role of the scientist in respect to nature, the value of evidence, experimental or observed, led towards a scientific methodology in which empiricism played a large role.

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Harvey estimated the capacity of the heart, how much blood is expelled through each pump of the heart, and the number of times the heart beats in half an hour. From these estimations, he demonstrated that according to Gaelen's theory that blood was continually produced in the

649:, by which analysis of known facts produced further understanding. In practice, many scientists and philosophers believed that a healthy mix of both was needed—the willingness to question assumptions, yet also to interpret observations assumed to have some degree of validity. 2059:. In 1675 Boyle stated that electric attraction and repulsion can act across a vacuum. One of his important discoveries was that electrified bodies in a vacuum would attract light substances, this indicating that the electrical effect did not depend upon the air as a medium. 2433:

Intact air pumps are particularly rare. The pump at right included a glass sphere to permit demonstrations inside the vacuum chamber, a common use. The base was wooden, and the cylindrical pump was brass. Other vacuum chambers that survived were made of brass hemispheres.

1311:, Kepler proposed that the planets move around the Sun not in circular orbits but in elliptical ones. Together with Kepler´s other laws of planetary motion, this allowed him to create a model of the Solar System that was an improvement over Copernicus' original system. 980:

Philosophy is written in this grand book—I mean the universe—which stands continually open to our gaze, but it cannot be understood unless one first learns to comprehend the language and interpret the characters in which it is written. It is written in the language of

2535:. Aristotle even explicitly argues against some of the ideas that were espoused during the Scientific Revolution, such as heliocentrism. The basic ideas of the scientific method were well known to Archimedes and his contemporaries, as demonstrated in the discovery of 1769:

in 1556. His work describes the highly developed and complex processes of mining metal ores, metal extraction and metallurgy of the time. His approach removed the mysticism associated with the subject, creating the practical base upon which others could build.

556:, which was unchanging and moved naturally with uniform circular motion. In the Aristotelian tradition, astronomical theories sought to explain the observed irregular motion of celestial objects through the combined effects of multiple uniform circular motions. 1735:, became an increasingly important aspect of scientific thought in the course of the 16th and 17th centuries. The importance of chemistry is indicated by the range of important scholars who actively engaged in chemical research. Among them were the astronomer 1089:

The first moves towards the institutionalization of scientific investigation and dissemination took the form of the establishment of societies, where new discoveries were aired, discussed, and published. The first scientific society to be established was the

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is no impediment he writes: 'Why a body once moved should come to rest anywhere no one can say. For why should it rest here rather than there ? Hence either it will not be moved, or it must be moved indefinitely, unless something stronger impedes it.'

3217:, that Christianity was fundamentally responsible for the successes of seventeenth-century science. It would be a mistake of equal magnitude, however, to overlook the intricate interlocking of scientific and religious concerns throughout the century. 1331:

all helped to discredit the Aristotelian philosophy and the Ptolemaic theory of the Solar System. Through their combined discoveries, the heliocentric system gained support, and at the end of the 17th century it was generally accepted by astronomers.

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demonstrates that nearly all of the so-called revolutionary results of the so-called Scientific Revolution were in actuality restatements of ideas that were in many cases older than those of Aristotle and in nearly all cases at least as old as

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The philosophical underpinnings of the Scientific Revolution were laid out by Francis Bacon, who has been called the father of empiricism. His works established and popularised inductive methodologies for scientific inquiry, often called the

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Newton had also specifically attributed the inherent power of inertia to matter, against the mechanist thesis that matter has no inherent powers. But whereas Newton vehemently denied gravity was an inherent power of matter, his collaborator

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are suggested sporadically in ancient discussion of motion, the salient point is that Newton's theory differed from ancient understandings in key ways, such as an external force being a requirement for violent motion in Aristotle's theory.

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On 28 November 1660, the "1660 committee of 12" announced the formation of a "College for the Promoting of Physico-Mathematical Experimental Learning", which would meet weekly to discuss science and run experiments. At the second meeting,

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A new view of nature emerged, replacing the Greek view that had dominated science for almost 2,000 years. Science became an autonomous discipline, distinct from both philosophy and technology, and came to be regarded as having utilitarian

7030: 756:, or simply the scientific method. His demand for a planned procedure of investigating all things natural marked a new turn in the rhetorical and theoretical framework for science, much of which still surrounds conceptions of proper 1382:

to elicit contributions from Newton to Royal Society transactions. Newton's reawakening interest in astronomical matters received further stimulus by the appearance of a comet in the winter of 1680–81, on which he corresponded with

786:, developing his scientific method, consisting of procedures for isolating the formal cause of a phenomenon (heat, for example) through eliminative induction. For him, the philosopher should proceed through inductive reasoning from 3483:

with theories of inertia which replaced them in the seventeenth to eighteenth centuries.… Such inertial ideas are merely sporadic in Antiquity and not consciously attended to as a separate option. Aristotle, for example, argues in

2351:. From these experiments Newton concluded that no improvement could be made in the refracting telescope. However, he was able to demonstrate that the angle of reflection remained the same for all colors, so he decided to build a 1314:

Galileo's main contributions to the acceptance of the heliocentric system were his mechanics, the observations he made with his telescope, as well as his detailed presentation of the case for the system. Using an early theory of

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In 1666, Newton argued that the faults of the refracting telescope were fundamental because the lens refracted light of different colors differently. He concluded that light could not be refracted through a lens without causing

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tried to demonstrate that the Sun was the center of the universe. Few were bothered by this suggestion, and the pope and several archbishops were interested enough by it to want more detail. His model was later used to create

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arm, since arteries are deeper in the flesh than the veins. When this was done, the opposite effect was seen in the lower arm. It was now warm and swollen. The veins were also more visible, since now they were full of blood.

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and Isaac Newton. Unlike the mechanical philosophy, the chemical philosophy stressed the active powers of matter, which alchemists frequently expressed in terms of vital or active principles—of spirits operating in nature.

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In the original Italian: "... ma di quelle poche intese dall'intelletto umano credo che la cognizione agguagli la divina nella certezza obiettiva, poiché arriva a comprenderne la necessità ..." (from the copy at the

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as conceived in the 17th century, natural and artificial circumstances were set aside as a research tradition of systematic experimentation was slowly accepted by the scientific community. The philosophy of using an

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which soon followed and were not to be improved upon for more than 200 years. Many of these advancements continue to be the underpinnings of non-relativistic technologies in the modern world. He used the Latin word

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serving as the first president. A second royal charter was signed on 23 April 1663, with the king noted as the founder and with the name of "the Royal Society of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge";

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was influential because of the inherent interest of its subject matter as well as for the rigorous way in which Gilbert describes his experiments and his rejection of ancient theories of magnetism. According to

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reversion (which is not the same as a retrogression) to a scholastic standard. Innate attractions and repulsions joined size, shape, position and motion as physically irreducible primary properties of matter.

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transmitted, it stayed the same colour. Thus, he observed that colour is the result of objects interacting with already-coloured light rather than objects generating the colour themselves. This is known as

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together with man's original purity. In this way, he believed, would mankind be raised above conditions of helplessness, poverty and misery, while coming into a condition of peace, prosperity and security.

203:, who described a two-stage process of sweeping away the old and establishing the new. There continues to be scholarly engagement regarding the boundaries of the Scientific Revolution and its chronology. 2039:

of all bodies. He noticed that electrified substances attracted all other substances indiscriminately, whereas a magnet only attracted iron. The many discoveries of this nature earned Gilbert the title

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mirrors for reflecting telescopes, building the first parabolic Newtonian telescope and a Gregorian telescope with accurately shaped mirrors. These were successfully demonstrated to the Royal Society.

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opened up new applications of the methods of mathematics to science. Newton taught that scientific theory should be coupled with rigorous experimentation, which became the keystone of modern science.

908:, "Gilbert... book on magnetism published in 1600, is one of the finest examples of inductive philosophy that has ever been presented to the world. It is the more remarkable, because it preceded the 1209:

As the Scientific Revolution was not marked by any single change, the following new ideas contributed to what is called the Scientific Revolution. Many of them were revolutions in their own fields.

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resembled ours in many ways. Many of the hallmarks of modern science, especially with regard to its institutionalization and professionalization, did not become standard until the mid-19th century.

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actual measurement of a physical quantity, and the comparison of that measurement to a value computed on the basis of theory, was largely limited to the mathematical disciplines of astronomy and

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Robert Boyle worked frequently at the new science of electricity and added several substances to Gilbert's list of electrics. He left a detailed account of his researches under the title of

716:(1689), in which he maintained that the only true knowledge that could be accessible to the human mind was that which was based on experience. He wrote that the human mind was created as a 7842: 2284:

was the first, and most famous, of three generations of the Darby family who played an important role in the Industrial Revolution. He developed a method of producing high-grade iron in a

43: 4151: 1782:, which he presented in 1662: the law describes the inversely proportional relationship between the absolute pressure and volume of a gas, if the temperature is kept constant within a 499:

had changed drastically over the years and in many cases had been discredited. The ideas that remained, which were transformed fundamentally during the Scientific Revolution, include:

767:(The Great Instauration). For Bacon, this reformation would lead to a great advancement in science and a progeny of inventions that would relieve mankind's miseries and needs. His 4225: 4144: 683:, had begun the intellectual movement toward empiricism. The term British empiricism came into use to describe philosophical differences perceived between two of its founders 7257: 8033: 5733: 6229: 3830: 3469: 1168:, who was appointed in 1684. These experiments varied in their subject area and were important in some cases and trivial in others. The society began publication of 5591: 2169:

who first used two such scales sliding by one another to perform direct multiplication and division and thus is credited as the inventor of the slide rule in 1622.

3869: 2498:, the central role assigned to the Sun in Copernican heliocentrism—have to be seen as rooted in multicultural influences on Europe. He sees specific influences in 6318: 782:

For this purpose of obtaining knowledge of and power over nature, Bacon outlined in this work a new system of logic he believed to be superior to the old ways of

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to aid computation. The 'Gunter's scale' was a large plane scale, engraved with various scales, or lines. Natural lines, such as the line of chords, the line of

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for example, leading to a mature adult. Intelligence was assumed only in the purpose of man-made artifacts; it was not attributed to other animals or to nature.

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are placed on one side of the scale and the corresponding artificial or logarithmic ones were on the other side. This calculating aid was a predecessor of the

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was appointed as curator of experiments in November. This initial royal favour has continued, and since then every monarch has been the patron of the society.

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McEvoy, John G. (March 1975). "A "Revolutionary" Philosophy of Science: Feyerabend and the Degeneration of Critical Rationalism into Sceptical Fallibilism".

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constructed powerful single lens microscopes and made extensive observations that he published around 1660, paving the way for the science of microbiology.

10369: 5397: 2355:. It was completed in 1668 and is the earliest known functional reflecting telescope. 50 years later, Hadley developed ways to make precision aspheric and 1061:

1713 second edition which he edited, and contradicted Newton. And it was Cotes's interpretation of gravity rather than Newton's that came to be accepted.

645:

approach to obtain knowledge—to abandon assumption and to attempt to observe with an open mind—was in contrast with the earlier, Aristotelian approach of

5429: 2510:, which carried implicitly a new mode of mathematical atomic thinking, and the heliocentrism rooted in ancient Egyptian religious ideas associated with 10244: 4676: 4545: 6199: 7822: 4936: 1658:. He noticed that the two ventricles move together almost simultaneously and not independently like had been thought previously by his predecessors. 7036: 63: 6708:

The Beginnings of Western Science: The European Scientific Tradition in Philosophical, Religious, and Institutional Context, 600 B.C. to A.D. 1450

6551:

The Beginnings of Western Science: The European Scientific Tradition in Philosophical, Religious, and Institutional Context, 600 B.C. to A.D. 1450

1778:

chemistry, and one of the pioneers of modern experimental scientific method. Although Boyle was not the original discoverer, he is best known for

8363: 5526: 5312: 4635: 4305: 4147:: "... the knowledge of those few comprehended by humane understanding, equalleth the divine, as to the certainty objectivè ..." p. 92 (from the 4126: 1170: 4042: 1821: 1356:

combined terrestrial and celestial mechanics into one great system that seemed to be able to describe the whole world in mathematical formulae.

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demonstrated mistakes in Galen's ideas. Vesalius dissected human corpses, whereas Galen dissected animal corpses. Published in 1543, Vesalius'

1102:

The scientific network which centered on Gresham College played a crucial part in the meetings which led to the formation of the Royal Society.

7160: 6115: 4616: 4148: 2307:

first appeared in the Netherlands in 1608, apparently the product of spectacle makers experimenting with lenses. The inventor is unknown, but

2187:, building on Pascal's work, became one of the most prolific inventors in the field of mechanical calculators; he was the first to describe a 1373: 285: 179: 10409: 6896: 6419: 6116:"REFA, Revista Electrónica de Fuentes y Archivos del Centro de Estudios Históricos Prof. Carlos S.A. Segreti, publicacion periodica digital" 3153: 3127: 125: 9754: 7884: 4271: 4917: 4386: 3891:

Finocchiaro, Maurice A. (2007). "The Person of the Millennium: The Unique Impact of Galileo on World History ? By Manfred Weidhorn".

929:

Galileo showed an appreciation for the relationship between mathematics, theoretical physics, and experimental physics. He understood the

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demonstrate a detailed description of the human body and compare what he had found during his dissections to what others like Galen and

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whose "confident and emphatic announcement" in the modern progress of science inspired the creation of scientific societies such as the

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ed. H.W. Turnbull, Cambridge University Press 1960; at page 297, document No. 235, letter from Hooke to Newton dated 24 November 1679.

3377: 1274:, but more significantly at the time, the authority of Aristotle. The discoveries of Kepler and Galileo gave the theory credibility. 10324: 8982: 5670: 1938: 1137: 5552: 145: 9598: 8419: 7372: 5997: 5760: 1353: 1304: 671:

By the start of the Scientific Revolution, empiricism had already become an important component of science and natural philosophy.

188: 4885: 9238: 8648: 7797: 7774: 7530: 7478: 5737: 3748: 2631: 1493: 763:

Bacon proposed a great reformation of all process of knowledge for the advancement of learning divine and human, which he called

712: 343: 137: 7065: 3302:

Espinoza, Fernando (2005). "An analysis of the historical development of ideas about motion and its implications for teaching".

381:

Many contemporary writers and modern historians claim that there was a revolutionary change in world view. In 1611 English poet

211:

Great advances in science have been termed "revolutions" since the 18th century. For example, in 1747, the French mathematician

9686: 7382: 7120: 7055: 7045: 6855: 3568: 487:. Some scholars have noted a direct tie between "particular aspects of traditional Christianity" and the rise of science. The " 8096: 7060: 541:. All bodies naturally moved in straight lines until they reached the sphere appropriate to their elemental composition—their 19:

This article is about a period in the history of science. For the process of scientific progress via revolutions, proposed by

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Dampier, W.C.D. (1905). The theory of experimental electricity. Cambridge physical series. Cambridge [Eng.: University Press.

5036: 4400: 4371: 4036: 3957: 3863: 3824: 3698: 3649: 3455: 3202: 3068: 2799: 2480: 1319:, Galileo could explain why rocks dropped from a tower fall straight down even if the Earth rotates. His observations of the 484: 5502: 5137: 3770: 2096:

As an aid to scientific investigation, various tools, measuring aids and calculating devices were developed in this period.

7409: 7070: 1386:. After the exchanges with Hooke, Newton worked out proof that the elliptical form of planetary orbits would result from a 1278: 967:

those few which the human intellect does understand, I believe its knowledge equals the Divine in objective certainty..."

857:

Gilbert was an early advocate of this method. He passionately rejected both the prevailing Aristotelian philosophy and the

823: 703:

were the philosophy's primary exponents who developed a sophisticated empirical tradition as the basis of human knowledge.

5945: 2940: 8641: 8356: 7972: 7957: 7907: 7508: 7219: 6948: 5885: 3122: 1174:

from 1665, the oldest and longest-running scientific journal in the world, which established the important principles of

722:, a "blank tablet," upon which sensory impressions were recorded and built up knowledge through a process of reflection. 672: 158: 5144:: (The intellectual rise in electricity) from antiquity to the days of Benjamin Franklin. New York: J. Wiley & Sons. 4931: 1189:

in 1666. In contrast to the private origins of its British counterpart, the academy was founded as a government body by

148:

transformed the views of society about nature. The Scientific Revolution took place in Europe in the second half of the

8391: 7421: 6315: 4709: 7399: 5907: 941:(y) varying as the square of the abscissa (x). Galilei further asserted that the parabola was the theoretically ideal 10429: 9002: 8997: 8950: 8631: 7922: 7211: 7014: 6889: 6837: 6558: 6447: 6403: 6367: 5014: 4870: 4815: 4726:

Achillini, Alessandro (1975). "Anatomical Notes by the Great Alexander Achillinus of Bologna". In Lind, L. R. (ed.).

4660: 4561: 4340: 4258: 4237: 4072: 3981: 3730: 3678: 2999: 2738: 5260: 10259: 9620: 7877: 7807: 7632: 5211: 1295: 802:

imitations of divine works". He explored the far-reaching and world-changing character of inventions, such as the

10359: 10294: 9339: 9012: 8220: 7827: 7729: 7627: 7448: 3487:

4.8 that in a vacuum a moving body would never stop, but the possible implications for inertia are not discussed.

2610: 2507: 2490:

history of the birth of modern science. Bala proposes that the changes involved in the Scientific Revolution—the

2476: 2381:. Many new instruments were devised in this period, which greatly aided in the expansion of scientific knowledge. 3345:

Eastwood, Bruce S. (1982). "Kepler as Historian of Science: Precursors of Copernican Heliocentrism according to

1414:

was published on 5 July 1687 with encouragement and financial help from Halley. In this work, Newton states the

10455: 9550: 9182: 8349: 8258: 8164: 7952: 6955: 6657:

The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: Their Religious, Institutional, and Intellectual Contexts

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These physicians and natural philosophers were influenced by the "new science", as promoted by Bacon in his

950:

artillery of his day, the deviation of a projectile's trajectory from a parabola would be only very slight.

329:

introduced the term "scientific revolution", centering his analysis on Galileo. The term was popularized by

10314: 10299: 10194: 8872: 8865: 8230: 8192: 7947: 7622: 6882: 3450:. G – Reference, Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series. Cornell University Press. p. 348. 2731:

On the Threshold of Exact Science: Selected Writings of Anneliese Maier on Late Medieval Natural Philosophy

2296:. This was a major step forward in the production of iron as a raw material for the Industrial Revolution. 2130:

their logarithmic tables embodied a computational advance that made calculations by hand much quicker. His

2127: 887: 173:

focused to some degree on recovering the knowledge of the ancients and is considered to have culminated in

7932: 5109: 2906: 2889: 2319:. Galileo was one of the first scientists to use this tool for his astronomical observations in 1609. The 247: 9720: 9231: 8724: 8699: 8684: 8329: 8225: 8182: 7870: 7817: 7676: 7473: 7087: 6027:

Kemp, Martin (1991). "'Intellectual Ornaments': Style, Function and society in Some Instruments of Art".

2275: 815: 7567: 2856:

Clairaut, Alexis-Claude (1747). "Du système du Monde, Dans Les Principes de la gravitation universelle".

2625: 2183:

in 1645 launched the development of mechanical calculators first in Europe and then all over the world.

514:. The terrestrial and celestial regions were made up of different elements which had different kinds of 9591: 9314: 8073: 7617: 7612: 7535: 7438: 7404: 7367: 7226: 7113: 6985: 6339: 5855: 5523: 4553: 3664: 1415: 1186: 875:. From these experiments, he concluded that the Earth was itself magnetic and that this was the reason 835: 608: 553: 470: 413: 184: 170: 5309: 5205: 4827:

Hannaway, O. (1986). "Laboratory Design and the Aim of Science: Andreas Libavius versus Tycho Brahe".

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It is also true that many of the important figures of the Scientific Revolution shared in the general

10239: 10199: 9640: 8897: 8877: 8785: 8781: 8704: 8396: 8317: 7912: 7582: 7498: 7152: 7082: 5338: 4301: 4018: 2569: 2491: 1917: 1399: 970:

Galileo anticipates the concept of a systematic mathematical interpretation of the world in his book

742: 619:, Newton attributed his law of gravity and his first law of motion to a range of historical figures. 595:

respect for ancient learning and cited ancient pedigrees for their innovations. Copernicus, Galileo,

530: 526: 4613: 3799: 2874: 2821:

Cohen, I. Bernard (1976). "The Eighteenth-Century Origins of the Concept of Scientific Revolution".

1630:. Harvey demonstrated that blood circulated around the body, rather than being created in the liver. 10339: 10067: 9829: 9789: 9779: 9727: 8902: 8542: 8527: 8516: 8493: 8129: 7917: 7453: 7394: 7377: 7362: 7307: 6919: 6123: 5975: 4275: 2676:

Moody, Ernest A. (1951). "Galileo and Avempace: The Dynamics of the Leaning Tower Experiment (I)".

2085: 1957:

and that are refracted by accelerating toward the denser medium, but he had to associate them with

1896: 1714: 905: 538: 4440: 1759:

metals were an important source of information for early chemists in the 16th century, among them

871:

and magnetism. In this work, he describes many of his experiments with his model Earth called the

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was said in his own life to have created a revolution". The word was also used in the preface to

5665: 4279: 4136: 3949: 3939: 10289: 10279: 9868: 9799: 9784: 9265: 9224: 9095: 9085: 8503: 8429: 8386: 8235: 8177: 8144: 8111: 7977: 7802: 7792: 7557: 7520: 7493: 7387: 6962: 4901: 4492:"Commentary on Ernan McMullin, "The Impact of Newton's Principia on the Philosophy of Science"" 3945: 3408: 2615: 2413: 2218: 2180: 2135: 1002: 308:

The Scientific Revolution was enabled by advances in book production. Before the advent of the

38: 6549:

A survey of the debate over the significance of these antecedents is in Lindberg, D.C. (1992)

5795: 5639: 5228:

Histoire des instruments et machines à calculer, trois siècles de mécanique pensante 1642–1942

3814: 3611: 3445: 3155:

Science, Religion, and A.D. White: Seeking Peace in the "Warfare Between Science and Theology"

2979: 1013: 814:. Despite his influence on scientific methodology, he rejected correct novel theories such as 623:

scientists worked was radically changed. For instance, although intimations of the concept of

10399: 10374: 10304: 9987: 9715: 9488: 9446: 8945: 8940: 8892: 8860: 8850: 8809: 8466: 8372: 8306: 8212: 8197: 8149: 7849: 7756: 7642: 7426: 7339: 7314: 7106: 6969: 6924: 5688: 5575: 4973: 3786: 2987: 2861: 2352: 2080: 1949:

of light into colours. The interest of the Royal Society encouraged him to publish his notes

1791: 1720: 1682:

science as we know it today, and he has been named "the father of modern dentistry". Surgeon

1419: 1190: 1129: 1032: 938: 377:(Since the 19th century, scientific knowledge has been assimilated by the rest of the world). 280: 96: 5331: 3853: 521:

The terrestrial region, according to Aristotle, consisted of concentric spheres of the four

479:

learning and science in the Middle Ages, as it had been elaborated and further developed by

10394: 10149: 10062: 10040: 9963: 9959: 9888: 9804: 9749: 9744: 9567: 9411: 9300: 8925: 8920: 8795: 8679: 8584: 8557: 8439: 8283: 8278: 8202: 8091: 8081: 7763: 7483: 7240: 7050: 7025: 6072: 3521: 3311: 2398: 2348: 2336: 2320: 2304: 2139: 2045: 1687: 1580: 1521: 1452: 1435: 1036: 491:" was still an important intellectual framework in the 17th century, although by that time 466: 352: 196: 100: 2522:

A third approach takes the term "Renaissance" literally as a "rebirth". A closer study of

1698:

is sometimes referred to as a "father of physiology" because of his exemplary teaching in

843:

erratic, and from it deducing axioms , and from established axioms again new experiments.

8: 10419: 10284: 10154: 9944: 9873: 9630: 9603: 9586: 9574: 9396: 9352: 8987: 8669: 8562: 8537: 8522: 8451: 8288: 8253: 8245: 8134: 8124: 7572: 7552: 7468: 7458: 7319: 6905: 6426: 6380: 6063:

Schaffer, Simon (2011). "Easily Cracked: Scientific Instruments in States of Disrepair".

5543: 2605: 2356: 2340: 2210: 2188: 1973: 1946: 1900: 1884: 1674:

Various other advances in medical understanding and practice were made. French physician

1667: 1596: 1403:

in 1684. This tract contained the nucleus that Newton developed and expanded to form the

1175: 1153: 990: 646: 642: 496: 454: 330: 302: 200: 153: 121: 6076: 6005: 5772: 3904: 3525: 3315: 3102: 2781:

Juan Valdez, The Snow Cone Diaries: A Philosopher's Guide to the Information Age, p 367.

1607:" to describe the study of the body's function and was the first person to describe the 416:

attributes Christianity to having contributed to the rise of the Scientific Revolution:

10139: 10055: 10045: 9878: 9841: 9771: 9710: 9693: 9647: 9557: 9471: 9285: 9135: 9090: 8977: 8800: 8621: 8456: 8446: 8263: 8119: 8101: 8086: 7893: 7787: 7503: 7416: 7144: 6774: 6532: 6524: 6181: 6096: 5377: 5369: 5280: 5155:

Experiments and notes about the mechanical origin or production of particular qualities

5069: 4882: 4844: 4767: 4742: 4730:. Independence Square Philadelphia: The American Philosophical Society. pp. 42–65. 4527: 4519: 3908: 3745:

History of the Royal Society: from its Institution to the End of the Eighteenth Century

3693:

Durant, Will. The Story of Philosophy. Page 101 Simon & Schuster Paperbacks. 1926.

3400: 3327: 2838: 2693: 2458: 2359: 2278:. Consequently, Newcomen can be regarded as a forefather of the Industrial Revolution. 1904: 1847:

Opticks: or, A Treatise of the Reflexions, Refractions, Inflexions and Colours of Light

1614: 1565: 1390: 1263: 1057:

made gravity also an inherent power of matter, as set out in his famous preface to the

612: 492: 313: 283:(initiated in 1543) and to be complete in the "grand synthesis" of Isaac Newton's 1687 141: 117: 2717:. Madison, Univ. of Wisconsin Pr. pp. 218–19, 252–55, 346, 409–16, 547, 576–78, 673–82 326: 10269: 10171: 10159: 10144: 10124: 10035: 9982: 9954: 9936: 9739: 9615: 9608: 9421: 9369: 9347: 9275: 9194: 8967: 8824: 8614: 8579: 8473: 8412: 8313: 8018: 7746: 7718: 7600: 7577: 7525: 7443: 7329: 6833: 6815: 6780: 6759: 6740: 6719: 6679: 6660: 6616: 6576: 6554: 6536: 6443: 6399: 6363: 6284: 6259: 6173: 6165: 6088: 6040: 5820: 5694: 5645: 5581: 5472: 5435: 5381: 5231: 5184: 5073: 5032: 5010: 4953: 4945: 4866: 4848: 4811: 4772: 4656: 4557: 4531: 4511: 4420: 4367: 4254: 4233: 4068: 4032: 3977: 3953: 3912: 3859: 3820: 3726: 3694: 3674: 3668: 3645: 3598: 3564: 3461: 3451: 3404: 3331: 3323: 3198: 3195:

God & Nature: Historical Essays on the Encounter Between Christianity and Science

3190: 3186: 3064: 2995: 2734: 2548: 2527: 2471: 2470:

misunderstandings on the value and role of modern authors. From this standpoint, the

2402: 2184: 2146: 2131: 2109: 2063: 2000: 1805: 1760: 1651: 1573: 1387: 1267: 1243: 738: 680: 637: 580: 566: 522: 480: 235: 220: 10414: 9065: 6185: 6100: 5110:

The Encyclopedia Americana; a library of universal knowledge, vol. X, pp. 172ff

3089:

The Copernican Revolution: Planetary Astronomy in the Development of Western Thought

2438:

methods of manufacture and repair, which would be met by the Industrial Revolution.

1654:, while the contraction of the right ventricle propels its charge of blood into the 1197:, when it received the name of 'Royal Academy of Sciences' and was installed in the 1069: 688: 10030: 10020: 9846: 9794: 9698: 9562: 9451: 9401: 9379: 9374: 9305: 9165: 9120: 9100: 8636: 8626: 8609: 8139: 7706: 7682: 7658: 7488: 7234: 7020: 6991: 6516: 6489: 6359: 6157: 6080: 6032: 5402: 5361: 5272: 5061: 4836: 4762: 4754: 4503: 3900: 3529: 3392: 3319: 2830: 2685: 2523: 2166: 1929: 1925: 1695: 1655: 1529: 1488: 1487:

had dominated European medical thinking for over a millennium. The Flemish scholar

1468: 1447: 1320: 1271: 1223: 1117: 562: 434: 369: 318: 5414: 5204: 3974:

Galileo and His Sources: The Heritage of the Collegio Romano in Galileo's Science,

1683: 1588: 1148: 583:, though the most complex models were inconsistent with this physical explanation. 403:

Butterfield was less disconcerted but nevertheless saw the change as fundamental:

10404: 10344: 10229: 10077: 10072: 10050: 9970: 9924: 9681: 9635: 9533: 9510: 9493: 9466: 9251: 9155: 9115: 9037: 8992: 8829: 8734: 8719: 8694: 8508: 8488: 7694: 7463: 7357: 6809: 6734: 6596:

Silva, Vanessa (2014). "Beyond the Academy – Histories of Gender and Knowledge".

6460: 6423: 6322: 5814: 5720: 5713: 5530: 5496: 5316: 5141: 5134: 4889: 4713: 4691: 4680: 4639: 4620: 4404: 4229: 4177: 4155: 4122: 3766: 3752: 3743: 3709: 3210: 3058: 2791: 2726: 2281: 2271: 2138:. The way was opened to later scientific advances, particularly in astronomy and 2036: 1913:

Christiani Hugenii Zuilichemii, dum viveret Zelhemii toparchae, opuscula posthuma

1826: 1765: 1675: 1557: 1549: 1289: 1283: 1247: 1235: 1161: 1078: 1021: 752: 696: 596: 488: 348: 298: 272: 267: 252: 227: 212: 6507:

Africa, Thomas W. (1961). "Copernicus' Relation to Aristarchus and Pythagoras".

6036: 5816:

Wonderful Inventions: From the Mariner's Compass to the Electric Telegraph Cable

2591: 2514:. Bala argues that by ignoring such multicultural impacts we have been led to a 912:

of Bacon, in which the inductive method of philosophizing was first explained."

10434: 10354: 10309: 10249: 10214: 10006: 9919: 9824: 9732: 9523: 9357: 9280: 9206: 9075: 8935: 8574: 8483: 7737: 7562: 7545: 7515: 7302: 6941: 5937: 5406: 4191: 4132: 2944: 2660: 2583: 2540: 2499: 2308: 2255: 2162: 2004: 1892: 1866: 1779: 1635: 1623: 1545: 1541: 1383: 1251: 1164:. Its early meetings included experiments performed first by Hooke and then by 1082: 803: 795: 476: 309: 24: 5877: 4758: 2262:. The first working steam engine was patented in 1698 by the English inventor 2088:

demonstrated that electricity could be "transmitted" through metal filaments.

199:

saw the concept of a scientific revolution emerge in the 18th-century work of

10449: 10389: 10274: 10189: 10134: 9994: 9914: 9809: 9659: 9652: 9545: 9498: 9391: 9247: 9125: 9060: 9032: 8960: 8689: 8604: 7782: 7664: 7606: 6169: 5674: 5492: 4949: 4515: 4441:"Molecular Expressions: Science, Optics and You - Timeline - Johannes Kepler" 3418: 2982:. In Cantor, Geoffrey; Olby, Robert; Christie, John; Hodge, Jonathon (eds.). 2332: 2285: 2263: 2239: 2200: 2192: 2172: 2154: 2150: 2075: 1783: 1748: 1533: 1525: 1509: 1394: 1133: 1091: 1074: 934: 882: 858: 769: 734: 692: 684: 600: 294: 290: 256: 34: 9216: 5915: 4957: 4703: 3197:, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, pp. 5, 12, 3060:

Controversy in marketing theory: for reason, realism, truth, and objectivity

10424: 10224: 10129: 9975: 9949: 9858: 9540: 9528: 9476: 9436: 9431: 9295: 9290: 9170: 9150: 9105: 9080: 9070: 9042: 8972: 8930: 8804: 8758: 8729: 8709: 7670: 7540: 7349: 7324: 7287: 7129: 6177: 6092: 4808:

Soul Made Flesh: The Discovery of the Brain – and How It Changed the World.

3396: 3214: 2597: 2515: 2450: 2390: 2378: 2312: 2259: 2244: 2196: 1841: 1774: 1755:

Practical attempts to improve the refining of ores and their extraction to

1744: 1608: 1368: 1300: 1258: 1142: 1125: 1108: 1017: 216: 174: 5052:

Dobbs, J.T. (December 1982), "Newton's Alchemy and His Theory of Matter",

4776: 4336: 3027:

Anthony Corones, "Copernicus, Printing and the Politics of Knowledge." in

10364: 10112: 10107: 10099: 10084: 9909: 9814: 9625: 9461: 9426: 9406: 9386: 9364: 9329: 9160: 9145: 9130: 9110: 9027: 8955: 8772: 8762: 8749: 8714: 8664: 8594: 8547: 8434: 8424: 7688: 7297: 7176: 7077: 6351: 6148:

Bennett, Jim (1 December 2011). "Early Modern Mathematical Instruments".

4993: 4186: 2511: 2406: 2386: 2289: 2251: 2206: 2134:

used a set of numbered rods as a multiplication tool using the system of

2119: 2113: 1962: 1861:). In it, he describes the inverse-square law governing the intensity of 1736: 1642:

in 1628. Harvey made a detailed analysis of the overall structure of the

1600: 1569: 1537: 1308: 1179: 1165: 1054: 982: 972: 921: 868: 775: 757: 718: 592: 430: 338: 149: 68: 20: 8341: 2941:"Empiricism: The influence of Francis Bacon, John Locke, and David Hume" 1996: 1464: 1136:

was signed on 15 July 1662 creating the "Royal Society of London", with

599:

and Newton all traced different ancient and medieval ancestries for the

57: 9895: 9883: 9853: 9819: 9759: 9441: 9047: 8776: 8767: 8754: 8498: 8461: 7812: 7700: 5284: 4523: 4491: 2842: 2697: 2532: 2454: 2222: 2203:

system, the foundation of virtually all modern computer architectures.

1903:, and his essay on optics was the first published mention of this law. 1888: 1740: 1650:, showing how their pulsation depends upon the contraction of the left 1604: 1498: 942: 892: 863: 707: 700: 676: 662: 382: 9201: 6874: 6528: 6200:"King's Collections : Online Exhibitions : Boyle's air-pump" 5373: 3816:

Renaissance Genius: Galileo Galilei & His Legacy to Modern Science

3533: 2577: 1576:

and the fullest description of the anatomy of the brain yet advanced.

730: 359:, which it replaced—cannot be directly compared without meaning loss. 10329: 10166: 9901: 9863: 9456: 9270: 8814: 8407: 7862: 3149: 2991: 2729:(1982) "Galileo and the Scholastic Theory of Impetus", pp. 103–23 in 2486:

Another contrary view has been recently proposed by Arun Bala in his

2417: 2199:, the first mass-produced mechanical calculator. He also refined the 2123: 2016: 1942: 1728: 1679: 1502: 1239: 1194: 1040: 819: 807: 783: 615:, Wallace, Wren and others. While preparing a revised edition of his 503: 279:

The Scientific Revolution is traditionally assumed to start with the

192: 113: 6830:

The Invention of Science: A New History of the Scientific Revolution

6598:

Journal of the International Committee for the History of Technology

5276: 4992:

Levine, Ira. N (1978). "Physical Chemistry" University of Brooklyn:

4684: 3670:

The Edge of Objectivity: An Essay in the History of Scientific Ideas

2834: 2792:"PHYS 200 – Lecture 3 – Newton's Laws of Motion – Open Yale Courses" 2689: 2339:

that flawed the accuracy of refracting telescopes. His design, the "

495:

had moved away from much of it. Key scientific ideas dating back to

10319: 10015: 9836: 9664: 9579: 9518: 9481: 8834: 8552: 7334: 7275: 7098: 6520: 6493: 6161: 6084: 5469:

Links in the History of Engineering and Technology from Tudor Times

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Links in the History of Engineering and Technology from Tudor Times

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Studies in Pre-Vesalian Anatomy: Biography, Translations, Documents

4507: 4028: 2536: 2487: 2374: 2293: 2270:(1702), in which he claimed that it could pump water out of mines. 2104: 1870: 1831:

Ad Vitellionem paralipomena quibus astronomiae pars optica traditur

1801: 1756: 1724:, a foundational text of chemistry, written by Robert Boyle in 1661 1584: 1364: 946: 930: 872: 575: 5431:

Engineers: From the Great Pyramids to the Pioneers of Space Travel

4672:

On the meaning and origins of this expression, see Kirsten Walsh,

4135:(2nd ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 3723:

The Medieval Machine: The Industrial Revolution of the Middle Ages

3465: 2446: 1924:

Newton investigated the refraction of light, demonstrating that a

262: 10234: 10089: 10001: 8532: 8187: 7292: 7280: 7168: 6862: 2495: 2370: 2316: 2214: 1978: 1846: 1732: 1561: 1540:, and discovered the canal which passes in the fetus between the 1513: 1428: 1349: 1316: 998: 876: 867:

was written in 1600, and he is regarded by some as the father of

811: 624: 570: 446: 231: 4337:"Philosophical Transactions − the world's first science journal" 2233: 1976:

to transmit forces between particles. In 1704, Newton published

1446:(1713), Newton firmly rejected such criticisms in a concluding " 10254: 8599: 7846: 6850: 5337:. New York and London: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. pp. 2394: 1878: 1699: 1647: 1628:

Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus

1553: 1517: 1439: 1198: 1098:

in the 1640s and 1650s. According to a history of the college:

960: 511: 450: 6258:(Second ed.). University of Chicago Press. pp. 1–2. 5108:

Maver, William, Jr.: "Electricity, its History and Progress",

1907:

wrote several works in the area of optics. These included the

1094:

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The Dialogue of Civilizations and the Birth of Modern Science

2025: 1869:, as well as the astronomical implications of optics such as 1862: 1691: 1663: 1643: 1484: 1476: 1341: 1324: 791: 507: 438: 6462:

The Dialogue of Civilizations in the Birth of Modern Science

6316:

Medieval Christianity and the Rise of Modern Science, Part 2

5967: 5847: 4302:"Prince of Wales opens Royal Society's refurbished building" 2274:

perfected the practical steam engine for pumping water, the

1442:

agencies" into science. Later, in the second edition of the

10349: 8478: 6694:

The Scientific Revolution and the Origins of Modern Science

6649:

The Rise of Modern Science Explained: A Comparative History

6396:

The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China and the West

5768: 3589: 1958: 1933: 1865:, reflection by flat and curved mirrors, and principles of 1797: 1619: 1345: 1039:". According to Thomas Kuhn, Newton and Descartes held the 787: 475:

The Scientific Revolution was built upon the foundation of

442: 5319:. Groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk. Retrieved on 26 September 2011. 4642:. Groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk. Retrieved on 26 September 2011. 2424: 2331:(1663). He argued that a mirror shaped like the part of a 1837: 1230: 997:, which gave the first symbolic notation of parameters in 6701:

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5908:"University of Toronto Scientific Instruments Collection" 5104: 5102: 3014:

Owen Gingerich, "Copernicus and the Impact of Printing."

2750: 2748: 2746: 2506:

leading to the perception of the world as a machine, the

1591:

was an Italian anatomist who wrote an early anatomy text

1471:'s intricately detailed drawings of human dissections in 1391:

inversely proportional to the square of the radius vector

1043:

that God conserved the amount of motion in the universe:

347:

emphasizes that different theoretical frameworks—such as

6440:

Dialogue of Civilizations in the Birth of Modern Science

5498:

The Miner's Friend: Or, an Engine to Raise Water by Fire

5261:"A Review of a Case against Blaise Pascal and His Heirs" 2663:, (Madison: Univ. of Wisconsin Pr. pp. 217, 225, 296–67. 2268:

The Miner's Friend; or, An Engine to Raise Water by Fire

1587:

had found and notes their similarities and differences.

945:

of a uniformly accelerated projectile in the absence of

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1953:. Newton argued that light is composed of particles or 1560:; gave the first correct views of the structure of the 1257:

Copernicus' 1543 work on the heliocentric model of the

552:

The celestial region was made up of the fifth element,

6736:

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6417:

Whose Science is Arabic Science in Renaissance Europe?

5099: 4716:. Archive.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved on 26 September 2011. 3767:"A Short History of Science to the Nineteenth Century" 2935: 2933: 2743: 1895:, in 1621. It had been published earlier in 984 AD by 915:

Galileo Galilei has been called the "father of modern

16:

Emergence of modern science in the early modern period

6795:

To Explain the World: The Discovery of Modern Science

5848:"The Collection of Historical Scientific Instruments" 5120: 5118: 4932:"The diving "Law-ers": A brief resume of their lives" 4112:. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr. pp. 180–84, 198–202. 3644:, Princeton: Princeton University Press, p. 84, 3425:

Newton, Isaac (1962). Hall, A.R.; Hall, M.B. (eds.).

1303:, providing one of the foundations for his theory of 545:. All other terrestrial motions were non-natural, or 6334:

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3161:, The Biologos Foundation, p. 4, archived from 3039: 3037: 2559: 1877:

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1789:

Boyle is also credited for his landmark publication

1335:

This work culminated in the work of Newton, and his

1112:, from approximately 1645 onwards. A group known as 1085:, and was the first scientific society in the world. 6398:, 2nd. ed., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 5546:

The Galileo Project > Science > The Telescope

2930: 2254:was best known for his pioneering invention of the 1427:(weight) for the effect that would become known as 1377:

developed the first set of unified scientific laws.

1277:Kepler was an astronomer who is best known for his 1116:was run under a set of rules still retained by the 5330: 5115: 3344: 3301: 2926:. Vol. 25 (15th ed.). 1993. p. 830. 2126:as a powerful mathematical tool. With the help of 1941:. From this work he concluded that any refracting 425: 7823:Statal Institute of Higher Education Isaac Newton 6506: 5968:"Dioptrice : pre-1775 refracting telescopes" 5819:. London: George Routledge and Sons. p. 41. 5796:"On the Early History of the Air-pump in England" 4937:South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society Journal 4577:Correspondence of Isaac Newton, vol. 2, 1676–1687 4110:Astronomies and Cultures in Early Medieval Europe 3851: 3712:Collegiate Dictionary, 2000, CD-ROM, version 2.5. 3351:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 3034: 10447: 7037:Astronomer Copernicus, or Conversations with God 6651:(Cambridge University Press, 2015). vi + 296 pp. 5714:telescopeѲptics.net – 8.2. Two-mirror telescopes 5112:. (1918). 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Sterling Publishing Company. p. 219. 1238:, one of the founders and fathers of modern 191:, thereby completing the synthesis of a new 6610: 6385:. London, G. Allen & Unwin ltd. p. 188. 6354:, Dalafi, H.R. and Hassan, Mohamed (1994). 5806: 5215:. London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1885–1900. 4743:"Niccolò Massa, His Family and His Fortune" 4550:The composition of Kepler's Astronomia nova 4102: 3890: 3371: 3369: 3209:It would be indefensible to maintain, with 2715:The Science of Mechanics in the Middle Ages 1873:and the apparent sizes of heavenly bodies. 1568:in man; gave the first good account of the 1528:. He verified the observation of anatomist 1475:helped to overturn the medical theories of 289:. Much of the change of attitude came from 9239: 9225: 8364: 8350: 8302: 7885: 7871: 7121: 7107: 6897: 6883: 6802:Never at Rest: A Biography of Isaac Newton 6336:Islamic Technology: An Illustrated History 5938:"Adler Planetarium Collections Department" 5248:. Paris: Presses universitaires de France. 4704:Page through a virtual copy of Vesalius's 4016: 3812: 3673:. Princeton University Press. p. 74. 3106:, (New York: Macmillan Co., 1959) p. viii. 2984:Companion to the History of Modern Science 2733:. Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Pr. 2621:History of science and technology in China 2311:applied for the first patent, followed by 2112:, an early calculating device invented by 1552:and its connections with the stomach, the 1508:Besides the first good description of the 1193:. Its rules were set down in 1699 by King 164:On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres 9020: 8983:Relationship between religion and science 8371: 6758:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 6718:. Los Angeles: The J. Paul Getty Museum. 5736:. amazing-space.stsci.edu. Archived from 4766: 4725: 3663: 2709: 2707: 2651: 2649: 2405:in 1654. It consisted of a piston and an 2221:), which greatly improved the science of 1579:Before Vesalius, the anatomical notes by 737:was a pivotal figure in establishing the 399:Can well direct him where to look for it. 6062: 5758: 5460: 5168:Experiments on the Origin of Electricity 4923: 4826: 3558: 3366: 3115: 3103:The Origins of Modern Science, 1300–1800 3031:(Springer, Dordrecht, 2000) pp. 271-289. 2977: 2855: 2445: 2369: 2232: 2103: 2057:Experiments on the Origin of Electricity 1995: 1836: 1820: 1713: 1686:was a leader in surgical techniques and 1613: 1564:; observed the small size of the caecal 1463: 1363: 1229: 1147: 1068: 1012: 1008: 881: 861:method of university teaching. His book 729: 725: 510:at the center of a spherical hierarchic 429: 261: 246: 6904: 6573:The Structure of Scientific Revolutions 6147: 6031:. St. Martin's Press. pp. 135–52. 5466: 5398:Oxford Dictionary of National Biography 5225: 5178: 4544: 4489: 4222:The Structure of Scientific Revolutions 4121: 3639: 3588: 3443: 3376:McGuire, J. E.; Rattansi, P.M. (1966). 2904: 2887: 2765: 2763: 2671: 2669: 2632:The Structure of Scientific Revolutions 2425:Materials, construction, and aesthetics 1459: 1064: 713:An Essay Concerning Human Understanding 344:The Structure of Scientific Revolutions 312:, introduced in Europe in the 1440s by 112:was a series of events that marked the 10448: 7892: 6615:. The Feminist Press. pp. 89–90. 6278: 6253: 6143: 6141: 6058: 6056: 5998:"Dioptrice : Accession #: M-428a" 5491: 5088: 5086: 5026: 4740: 4425:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 4045:from the original on 27 September 2007 3858:(2nd ed.). CRC Press. p. 3. 3764: 3502:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 115–16. 3424: 3385:Notes and Records of the Royal Society 3292:. Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Pr. p. 142. 3091:. Cambridge: Harvard Univ. 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Newton communicated his results to 393:The Element of fire is quite put out; 305:and developed the science of motion. 7531:Newton's theorem of revolving orbits 7128: 6570: 6113: 6026: 5197: 5029:Physics for Scientists and Engineers 4906:History of Geology and Palaeontology 4685:Early Modern Experimental Philosophy 4343:from the original on 6 November 2018 4320: 3559:Principe, Lawrence (28 April 2011). 3056: 2908:Philosophy of the Inductive sciences 2760: 2666: 2401:. The first such device was made by 2393:and Robert Hooke into the nature of 631: 565:: based on the geometrical model of 7479:Leibniz–Newton calculus controversy 7220:standing on the shoulders of giants 6949:De revolutionibus orbium coelestium 6230:"Abbé Jean-Antoine Nollet Air Pump" 6138: 6107: 6053: 6029:Interpretation and Cultural History 6020: 5667:Isaac Newton: adventurer in thought 5594:from the original on 2 January 2024 5505:from the original on 2 January 2024 5448:from the original on 2 January 2024 5083: 4602:Mathematical Papers of Isaac Newton 4196:Discoveries and Opinions of Galileo 3941:Discoveries and Opinions of Galileo 3905:10.1111/j.1540-6563.2007.00189_68.x 3872:from the original on 2 January 2024 3833:from the original on 2 January 2024 3472:from the original on 2 January 2024 3359:reprinted in Eastwood, B.S. (1989) 3123:Australian Broadcasting Corporation 3087:, quoted in Kuhn, Thomas S. (1957) 1928:could decompose white light into a 1825:The first treatise about optics by 1516:consists of three portions and the 1434:Newton's postulate of an invisible 1114:The Philosophical Society of Oxford 675:, including the early-14th-century 563:Ptolemaic model of planetary motion 159:De revolutionibus orbium coelestium 13: 6811:The Construction of Modern Science 6633: 6279:Shapin, Steven (5 November 2018). 6254:Shapin, Steven (5 November 2018). 5794:Wilson, George (15 January 1849). 5427: 5027:Tipler, P.A. and G. Mosca (2004). 4793:, cited in Debus, Allen G. (1978) 4304:. The Royal Society. 7 July 2004. 4294: 4251:A Brief History of Gresham College 4017:Favaro, Antonio, ed. 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The introduction of his 2042:founder of the electrical science 1646:, going on to an analysis of the 824:Kepler's laws of planetary motion 9200: 9188: 8325: 8324: 8312: 8301: 7931: 7808:Isaac Newton Group of Telescopes 6861: 6849: 6832:(Penguin, 2015) . xiv + 769 pp. 6604: 6589: 6564: 6553:. 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University of Chicago Press. 5641:Isaac Newton: The Last Sorcerer 5471:. Ayer Publishing. p. 66. 5183:. Ayer Publishing. p. 66. 4986: 4911: 4895: 4876: 4855: 4820: 4800: 4783: 4734: 4719: 4697: 4666: 4645: 4626: 4607: 4594: 4582: 4570: 4538: 4483: 4471: 4459: 4447: 4433: 4393: 4379: 4355: 4329: 4264: 4243: 4232:. University of Chicago Press. 4213: 4201: 4171: 4115: 4090: 4078: 4057: 4010: 3998: 3986: 3976:Princeton: Princeton Univ. 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Newton's development of 834:Bacon first described the 830:Scientific experimentation 660: 607:Newton said its axiomatic 471:Science in the Middle Ages 464: 459:Theoricae novae planetarum 357:Newton's theory of gravity 18: 10200:Anglo-Portuguese Alliance 10180: 10098: 9935: 9770: 9641:Standard Average European 9509: 9338: 9258: 9179: 9011: 8913: 8843: 8786:Semantic view of theories 8705:Epistemological anarchism 8657: 8642:dependent and independent 8379: 8297: 8244: 8211: 8163: 8110: 8072: 7996: 7940: 7929: 7900: 7836: 7773: 7728: 7651: 7593: 7348: 7268: 7203: 7136: 7083:Copernicus (lunar crater) 7001: 6978: 6933: 6912: 6776:The Scientific Revolution 6739:. Cambridge Univ. Press. 6659:. Cambridge Univ. Press. 6281:The Scientific Revolution 6256:The Scientific Revolution 5092:Priestley, Joseph (1757) 4978:: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( 4759:10.1017/s0025727300034888 3290:The Copernican Revolution 2905:Whewell, William (1840). 2888:Whewell, William (1837). 2713:Clagett, Marshall (1961) 2570:History of science portal 2243:was the first successful 1939:Newton's theory of colour 1816: 1739:, the chemical physician 1400:De motu corporum in gyrum 743:Frans Pourbus the Younger 335:Origins of Modern Science 92: 84: 76: 55: 10340:Lancaster House Treaties 9830:Christian existentialism 9790:Ancient Roman philosophy 9780:Ancient Greek philosophy 8528:Intertheoretic reduction 8517:Ignoramus et ignorabimus 8494:Functional contextualism 7378:post-Newtonian expansion 7258:Corruptions of Scripture 7250:Ancient Kingdoms Amended 6920:Copernican heliocentrism 6613:The Madame Curie Complex 6204:www.kingscollections.org 5771:FM Radio. 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(2003). 2655:Galilei, Galileo (1974) 2258:, the forerunner of the 2209:was the inventor of the 2066:, who invented an early 1348:, the precession of the 1299:influenced among others 1279:laws of planetary motion 1156:was established in 1666. 485:medieval Islamic science 10118:Equality before the law 9325:Romano-Germanic culture 9013:Philosophers of science 8791:Scientific essentialism 8740:Model-dependent realism 8675:Constructive empiricism 8568:Evidence-based practice 7988:20th century in science 7983:19th century in science 7568:Absolute space and time 7432:truncated Newton method 7405:Newton's laws of motion 7368:Newton's law of cooling 6773:Shapin, Steven (1996). 6733:Pedersen, Olaf (1993). 6716:Books: A Living History 6422:15 January 2008 at the 6415:Saliba, George (1999). 5759:Lienhard, John (2005). 5687:King, Henry C. (2003). 5638:White, Michael (1999). 5230:. Hermann. p. 48. 5140:8 December 2022 at the 5009:. Courier Corporation. 4902:von Zittel, Karl Alfred 4712:11 October 2014 at the 4228:20 October 2014 at the 3946:Doubleday & Company 3751:8 December 2022 at the 3742:Thomson, Thomas (1812) 3640:Zagorin, Perez (1998), 3627:Temporis Partus Maximus 3625:Bacon, Francis (1605), 3085:An Anatomy of the World 3045:Books: A Living History 2980:"Scientific Revolution" 2924:Encyclopædia Britannica 2543:worldview as evidence. 2213:, the precursor to the 2068:electrostatic generator 1986:Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 1932:of colours, and that a 1875:Astronomiae Pars Optica 1855:Astronomiae Pars Optica 1595:in 1536, described the 1524:in the interior of the 917:observational astronomy 481:Roman/Byzantine science 124:, when developments in 31: 10280:Eastern European Group 9869:Continental philosophy 9800:Judeo-Christian ethics 9785:Hellenistic philosophy 9266:Cradle of civilization 9096:Alfred North Whitehead 9086:Charles Sanders Peirce 7908:Theories and sociology 7803:Isaac Newton Telescope 7793:Isaac Newton Institute 7563:Newton–Puiseux theorem 7558:Parallelogram of force 7546:kissing number problem 7536:Newton–Euler equations 7439:Gauss–Newton algorithm 7388:gravitational constant 6963:Monetae cudendae ratio 6866:Quotations related to 6714:Lyons, Martyn (2011). 6676:The Genesis of Science 6674:Hannam, James (2011). 6442:. Palgrave Macmillan. 6382:The Making of Humanity 5765:Rain Steam & Speed 5467:Jenkins, Rhys (1936). 5407:10.1093/ref:odnb/21249 5226:Marguin, Jean (1994). 5179:Jenkins, Rhys (1936). 5153:Boyle, Robert (1676). 5094:History of Electricity 4810:New York: Free Press. 4326:Henderson (1941) p. 29 4272:"London Royal Society" 3794:Cite journal requires 3397:10.1098/rsnr.1966.0014 2869:Cite journal requires 2616:Information revolution 2466: 2463:La Chine ... Illustrée 2414:Evangelista Torricelli 2382: 2248: 2136:lattice multiplication 2116: 2008: 1945:would suffer from the 1850: 1834: 1725: 1631: 1480: 1378: 1254: 1157: 1104: 1086: 1050: 1041:teleological principle 1024: 1020:in a 1702 portrait by 1003:infinitesimal calculus 987: 897: 855: 746: 489:Aristotelian tradition 462: 423: 410: 401: 379: 276: 259: 245: 171:Scientific Renaissance 152:period, with the 1543 44:considered for merging 10456:Scientific Revolution 10400:Three Seas Initiative 10375:Pacific Islands Forum 10240:British–Irish Council 9988:Greek Orthodox Church 9447:Industrial Revolution 9417:Scientific Revolution 9195:Philosophy portal 8946:Hard and soft science 8941:Faith and rationality 8810:Scientific skepticism 8590:Scientific Revolution 8373:Philosophy of science 7968:Scientific Revolution 7757:Isaac Newton Gargoyle 7667: (nephew-in-law) 7643:Copernican Revolution 7638:Scientific Revolution 7499:Newton–Cotes formulas 7363:Newton's inequalities 7340:Structural coloration 7009:Scientific Revolution 6970:Theophylact Simocatta 6925:Copernican Revolution 6868:Scientific Revolution 6856:Scientific revolution 6800:Westfall, Richard S. 6797:(2015) xiv + 417 pp. 6571:Kuhn, Thomas (1962). 6394:Huff, Toby E. (2003) 6114:Anderson, Katharine. 5664:Hall, Alfred Rupert. 5574:Loker, Aleck (2008). 5354:Philosophy of Science 5166:Boyle, Robert (1675) 5133:Benjamin, P. (1895). 4930:Acott, Chris (1999). 4806:Zimmer, Carl. (2004) 4619:10 March 2015 at the 4496:Philosophy of Science 4339:. The Royal Society. 4219:Kuhn, Thomas (1970), 4087:, pp. 101–03, 148–50. 3725:. New York, Penguin. 3590:"Novum Organum" 3100:Herbert Butterfield, 2988:Abingdon, Oxfordshire 2922:"Physical Sciences". 2449: 2416:invented the mercury 2385:The invention of the 2373: 2349:chromatic aberrations 2305:Refracting telescopes 2276:Newcomen steam engine 2236: 2177:mechanical calculator 2107: 2081:Pseudodoxia Epidemica 1999: 1840: 1824: 1792:The Sceptical Chymist 1731:, and its antecedent 1721:The Sceptical Chymist 1717: 1704:Institutiones medicae 1617: 1532:on the valves of the 1467: 1420:Industrial Revolution 1367: 1329:mountains on the Moon 1305:universal gravitation 1281:, and Kepler´s books 1233: 1191:Jean-Baptiste Colbert 1151: 1100: 1072: 1045: 1033:mechanical philosophy 1016: 1009:Mechanical philosophy 978: 885: 840: 733: 726:Bacon's contributions 465:Further information: 433: 418: 405: 387: 374: 325:In the 20th century, 281:Copernican Revolution 265: 250: 240: 226:In the 19th century, 189:universal gravitation 183:which formulated the 110:Scientific Revolution 97:Copernican Revolution 51:Scientific Revolution 10395:Special Relationship 9805:Christian philosophy 9750:Western Christianity 9412:Age of Enlightenment 9286:Hellenistic Kingdoms 8921:Criticism of science 8796:Scientific formalism 8680:Constructive realism 8585:Scientific pluralism 8558:Problem of induction 8221:Agricultural science 7973:Age of Enlightenment 7764:Astronomers Monument 7454:Newton–Pepys problem 7427:Apollonius's problem 7395:Newton–Cartan theory 7308:Newton–Okounkov body 7241:hypotheses non fingo 7230: (c. 1680) 7026:Copernican principle 6858:at Wikimedia Commons 6321:7 March 2014 at the 5813:Timbs, John (1868). 5775:on 20 September 2015 5734:"Hadley's Reflector" 5428:DK (16 April 2012). 5244:Taton, René (1963). 5206:"Napier, John" 4690:21 July 2011 at the 4679:14 July 2014 at the 4362:Lewis, C.S. (2012), 4075:. pp. 65–67, 134–38. 3755:. R. Baldwin. p. 461 3721:Gimpel, Jean (1976) 3444:Sorabji, R. (2005). 3288:Kuhn, Thomas (1957) 3255:, pp. 63–68, 104–16. 2994:. pp. 217–242. 2492:mathematical realist 2399:atmospheric pressure 2353:reflecting telescope 2337:spherical aberration 2335:, would correct the 2321:reflecting telescope 2011:William Gilbert, in 1918:Traité de la lumière 1688:battlefield medicine 1581:Alessandro Achillini 1460:Biology and medicine 1453:hypotheses non fingo 1065:Institutionalization 1037:action at a distance 937:and in terms of the 609:three laws of motion 493:natural philosophers 467:Aristotelian physics 353:theory of relativity 197:Age of Enlightenment 177:'s 1687 publication 101:Age of Enlightenment 10420:West Nordic Council 10285:Eastern Partnership 9874:Analytic philosophy 9575:Classical tradition 9397:Early modern period 9353:Classical antiquity 9348:European Bronze Age 8988:Rhetoric of science 8926:Descriptive science 8670:Confirmation holism 8563:Scientific evidence 8523:Inductive reasoning 8452:Demarcation problem 8259:Veterinary medicine 7953:Classical Antiquity 7573:Luminiferous aether 7521:Newton's identities 7494:Newton's cannonball 7469:Classical mechanics 7459:Newtonian potential 7320:Newtonian telescope 6906:Nicolaus Copernicus 6427:Columbia University 6077:2011Isis..102..706S 5265:Michigan Law Review 5246:Le calcul mécanique 5005:Caspar, Max (1993) 4364:The Discarded Image 4253:. Gresham College. 4154:12 May 2011 at the 4063:Dear, Peter (2009) 3526:1964AmJPh..32..601D 3316:2005PhyEd..40..139E 3231:, pp. 55–63, 87–104 3018:17 (1975): 201-218. 3016:Vistas in Astronomy 2965:Syfret (1948) p. 75 2772:, pp. 29–30, 42–47. 2606:Chemical revolution 2552:developments made. 2341:Gregorian telescope 2229:Industrial machines 2189:pinwheel calculator 2100:Calculating devices 1970:Hypothesis of Light 1885:Willebrord Snellius 1597:cerebrospinal fluid 1548:. He described the 1187:Academy of Sciences 1176:scientific priority 1154:Academy of Sciences 1077:had its origins in 933:, both in terms of 836:experimental method 601:heliocentric system 497:classical antiquity 455:Georg von Peuerbach 437:of the spheres for 331:Herbert Butterfield 201:Jean Sylvain Bailly 154:Nicolaus Copernicus 122:early modern period 52: 9879:Post-structuralism 9842:Christian humanism 9472:Universal suffrage 9207:Science portal 9136:Carl Gustav Hempel 9091:Wilhelm Windelband 8978:Questionable cause 8801:Scientific realism 8622:Underdetermination 8457:Empirical evidence 8447:Creative synthesis 7894:History of science 7798:Isaac Newton Medal 7603: (birthplace) 7417:Newtonian dynamics 7315:Newton's reflector 7031:Frombork Cathedral 6793:Weinberg, Steven. 6655:Grant, E. (1996). 6647:Cohen, H. Floris. 6640:Burns, William E. 6438:Bala, Arun (2006) 6126:on 6 November 2018 5626:Treatise on Optics 5544:"galileo.rice.edu 4694:, 18 October 2010. 4651:Edelglass et al., 4164:Italian Wikisource 4149:Archimedes Project 3570:978-0-19-956-741-6 3191:Numbers, Ronald L. 3187:Lindberg, David C. 2467: 2459:Athanasius Kircher 2383: 2249: 2159:sines and tangents 2117: 2092:Mechanical devices 2009: 2003:'s experiments on 1905:Christiaan Huygens 1851: 1835: 1726: 1632: 1481: 1379: 1255: 1158: 1087: 1025: 898: 747: 613:Christiaan Huygens 523:classical elements 463: 314:Johannes Gutenberg 277: 260: 50: 10443: 10442: 10270:Council of Europe 10172:International law 10125:Constitutionalism 9983:Eastern Orthodoxy 9489:Post–Cold War era 9422:Age of Revolution 9276:Greco-Roman world 9214: 9213: 9056: 9055: 8968:Normative science 8825:Uniformitarianism 8580:Scientific method 8474:Explanatory power 8339: 8338: 8231:Materials science 8193:Political science 7958:Medieval European 7860: 7859: 7752: (sculpture) 7719:Abraham de Moivre 7673: (professor) 7601:Woolsthorpe Manor 7553:Newton's quotient 7526:Newton polynomial 7484:Newton's notation 7215: (1661–1665) 7096: 7095: 6913:Scientific career 6854:Media related to 6821:978-0-521-29295-5 6786:978-0-226-75020-0 6765:978-0-521-56671-1 6746:978-0-521-40899-8 6725:978-1-60606-083-4 6685:978-1-59698-155-3 6666:978-0-521-56762-6 6622:978-1-55861-613-4 6582:978-0-226-45811-3 6290:978-0-226-39834-1 6265:978-0-226-39834-1 6046:978-1-349-21274-3 6002:www.dioptrice.com 5972:www.dioptrice.com 5942:Adler Planetarium 5826:978-1-172-82780-0 5761:"Gases and Force" 5700:978-0-486-43265-6 5651:978-0-7382-0143-6 5587:978-1-928874-16-4 5478:978-0-8369-2167-0 5441:978-1-4654-0682-8 5413:(Subscription or 5237:978-2-7056-6166-3 5190:978-0-8369-2167-0 5038:978-0-7167-4389-7 4546:Voelkel, James R. 4373:978-1-107-60470-4 4038:978-88-09-20881-0 3959:978-0-385-09239-5 3865:978-1-4398-2888-5 3826:978-1-4027-6977-1 3699:978-0-671-69500-2 3651:978-0-691-00966-7 3606:Missing or empty 3534:10.1119/1.1970872 3457:978-0-8014-8988-4 3347:De revolutionibus 3304:Physics Education 3204:978-0-520-05538-4 3070:978-0-7656-0932-8 3029:1543 and All That 2549:Annie Jump Cannon 2528:Greek mathematics 2472:continuity thesis 2465:, Amsterdam, 1670 2403:Otto von Guericke 2323:was described by 2185:Gottfried Leibniz 2147:Oxford University 2078:in his 1646 work 2064:Otto von Guericke 2001:Otto von Guericke 1901:law of reflection 1806:chemical reaction 1761:Georgius Agricola 1702:and his textbook 1388:centripetal force 1268:Pope Gregory XIII 1244:scientific method 765:Instauratio Magna 739:scientific method 681:William of Ockham 638:scientific method 632:Scientific method 567:Eudoxus of Cnidus 236:scientific method 221:Antoine Lavoisier 195:. 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4646: 4640:Wayback Machine 4631: 4627: 4623:, BBC – History 4621:Wayback Machine 4612: 4608: 4599: 4595: 4587: 4583: 4575: 4571: 4564: 4543: 4539: 4488: 4484: 4476: 4472: 4464: 4460: 4452: 4448: 4439: 4438: 4434: 4418: 4417: 4410: 4408: 4407:on 24 June 2021 4401:"Archived copy" 4399: 4398: 4394: 4385: 4384: 4380: 4374: 4360: 4356: 4346: 4344: 4335: 4334: 4330: 4325: 4321: 4311: 4309: 4300: 4299: 4295: 4285: 4283: 4270: 4269: 4265: 4248: 4244: 4230:Wayback Machine 4218: 4214: 4206: 4202: 4178:Galileo Galilei 4176: 4172: 4156:Wayback Machine 4120: 4116: 4107: 4103: 4095: 4091: 4083: 4079: 4062: 4058: 4048: 4046: 4039: 4015: 4011: 4003: 3999: 3991: 3987: 3971: 3967: 3960: 3936: 3932: 3924: 3920: 3889: 3885: 3875: 3873: 3866: 3850: 3846: 3836: 3834: 3827: 3811: 3807: 3795: 3793: 3784: 3783: 3776: 3774: 3763: 3759: 3753:Wayback Machine 3741: 3737: 3720: 3716: 3710:Merriam-Webster 3708: 3704: 3692: 3688: 3681: 3662: 3658: 3652: 3638: 3634: 3623: 3619: 3607: 3605: 3596: 3595: 3585: 3578: 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1766:De re metallica 1712: 1676:Pierre Fauchard 1462: 1362: 1290:Harmonice Mundi 1284:Astronomia nova 1236:Johannes Kepler 1220: 1215: 1207: 1162:Henry Oldenburg 1128:announced that 1096:Gresham College 1079:Gresham College 1067: 1022:Godfrey Kneller 1011: 956: 954:Mathematization 888:William Gilbert 854: 848:Francis Bacon. 847: 832: 816:William Gilbert 753:Baconian method 728: 697:George Berkeley 665: 659: 634: 597:Johannes Kepler 473: 435:Ptolemaic model 428: 396: 394: 390: 365: 327:Alexandre Koyré 301:who championed 273:Johannes Kepler 268:Astronomia Nova 253:Galileo Galilei 228:William Whewell 213:Alexis Clairaut 209: 169:The era of the 99: 72: 48: 32: 28: 17: 12: 11: 5: 10469: 10459: 10458: 10441: 10440: 10438: 10437: 10435:Westernization 10432: 10427: 10422: 10417: 10415:Visegrád Group 10412: 10407: 10402: 10397: 10392: 10387: 10382: 10377: 10372: 10367: 10362: 10357: 10355:Nordic Council 10352: 10347: 10342: 10337: 10332: 10327: 10322: 10317: 10312: 10307: 10302: 10297: 10292: 10287: 10282: 10277: 10272: 10267: 10262: 10257: 10252: 10250:Bucharest Nine 10247: 10242: 10237: 10232: 10227: 10222: 10217: 10215:Arctic Council 10212: 10207: 10202: 10197: 10192: 10186: 10184: 10178: 10177: 10175: 10174: 10169: 10164: 10163: 10162: 10157: 10152: 10147: 10142: 10137: 10127: 10122: 10121: 10120: 10110: 10104: 10102: 10096: 10095: 10093: 10092: 10087: 10082: 10081: 10080: 10075: 10070: 10065: 10060: 10059: 10058: 10053: 10048: 10043: 10033: 10028: 10023: 10013: 10012: 10011: 10010: 10009: 9999: 9998: 9997: 9992: 9991: 9990: 9980: 9979: 9978: 9968: 9967: 9966: 9941: 9939: 9933: 9932: 9930: 9929: 9928: 9927: 9917: 9912: 9907: 9906: 9905: 9893: 9892: 9891: 9881: 9876: 9871: 9866: 9861: 9856: 9851: 9850: 9849: 9844: 9834: 9833: 9832: 9825:Existentialism 9822: 9817: 9812: 9807: 9802: 9797: 9792: 9787: 9782: 9776: 9774: 9768: 9767: 9765: 9764: 9763: 9762: 9757: 9752: 9747: 9737: 9736: 9735: 9725: 9724: 9723: 9718: 9708: 9707: 9706: 9696: 9691: 9690: 9689: 9684: 9679: 9669: 9668: 9667: 9657: 9656: 9655: 9645: 9644: 9643: 9638: 9628: 9623: 9618: 9613: 9612: 9611: 9601: 9596: 9595: 9594: 9584: 9583: 9582: 9572: 9571: 9570: 9560: 9555: 9554: 9553: 9543: 9538: 9537: 9536: 9531: 9526: 9515: 9513: 9507: 9506: 9504: 9503: 9502: 9501: 9496: 9486: 9485: 9484: 9479: 9474: 9469: 9464: 9459: 9454: 9449: 9444: 9439: 9434: 9429: 9424: 9419: 9414: 9409: 9404: 9399: 9389: 9384: 9383: 9382: 9377: 9372: 9362: 9361: 9360: 9358:Late antiquity 9350: 9344: 9342: 9336: 9335: 9333: 9332: 9327: 9322: 9317: 9312: 9311: 9310: 9309: 9308: 9303: 9293: 9288: 9283: 9273: 9268: 9262: 9260: 9256: 9255: 9244: 9243: 9236: 9229: 9221: 9212: 9211: 9209: 9197: 9185: 9180: 9177: 9176: 9174: 9173: 9168: 9163: 9158: 9153: 9148: 9143: 9141:W. V. O. Quine 9138: 9133: 9128: 9123: 9118: 9113: 9108: 9103: 9098: 9093: 9088: 9083: 9078: 9076:Rudolf Steiner 9073: 9068: 9066:Henri Poincaré 9063: 9057: 9054: 9053: 9051: 9050: 9045: 9040: 9035: 9030: 9024: 9022: 9015: 9009: 9008: 9006: 9005: 9000: 8995: 8990: 8985: 8980: 8975: 8970: 8965: 8964: 8963: 8953: 8948: 8943: 8938: 8936:Exact sciences 8933: 8928: 8923: 8917: 8915: 8914:Related topics 8911: 8910: 8908: 8907: 8906: 8905: 8900: 8895: 8890: 8885: 8880: 8873:Social science 8870: 8869: 8868: 8866:Space and time 8858: 8853: 8847: 8845: 8841: 8840: 8838: 8837: 8832: 8827: 8822: 8817: 8812: 8807: 8798: 8793: 8788: 8779: 8770: 8765: 8752: 8747: 8742: 8737: 8732: 8727: 8722: 8717: 8712: 8707: 8702: 8697: 8692: 8687: 8682: 8677: 8672: 8667: 8661: 8659: 8655: 8654: 8652: 8651: 8646: 8645: 8644: 8639: 8629: 8624: 8619: 8618: 8617: 8612: 8607: 8597: 8592: 8587: 8582: 8577: 8575:Scientific law 8572: 8571: 8570: 8560: 8555: 8550: 8545: 8540: 8535: 8530: 8525: 8520: 8513: 8512: 8511: 8506: 8496: 8491: 8486: 8484:Falsifiability 8481: 8476: 8471: 8470: 8469: 8459: 8454: 8449: 8444: 8443: 8442: 8432: 8427: 8422: 8417: 8416: 8415: 8413:Mill's Methods 8405: 8394: 8389: 8383: 8381: 8377: 8376: 8369: 8368: 8361: 8354: 8346: 8337: 8336: 8334: 8333: 8321: 8309: 8298: 8295: 8294: 8292: 8291: 8286: 8281: 8276: 8271: 8266: 8261: 8256: 8254:Human medicine 8250: 8248: 8242: 8241: 8239: 8238: 8233: 8228: 8223: 8217: 8215: 8209: 8208: 8206: 8205: 8200: 8195: 8190: 8185: 8180: 8175: 8169: 8167: 8161: 8160: 8158: 8157: 8152: 8147: 8142: 8137: 8132: 8127: 8122: 8116: 8114: 8108: 8107: 8105: 8104: 8099: 8094: 8089: 8084: 8078: 8076: 8070: 8069: 8067: 8066: 8061: 8056: 8051: 8046: 8041: 8036: 8031: 8026: 8021: 8016: 8011: 8006: 8000: 7998: 7994: 7993: 7991: 7990: 7985: 7980: 7975: 7970: 7965: 7960: 7955: 7950: 7944: 7942: 7938: 7937: 7930: 7928: 7926: 7925: 7920: 7915: 7913:Historiography 7910: 7904: 7902: 7898: 7897: 7890: 7889: 7882: 7875: 7867: 7858: 7857: 7844: 7843: 7841: 7840: 7838: 7834: 7833: 7831: 7830: 7825: 7820: 7815: 7810: 7805: 7800: 7795: 7790: 7785: 7779: 7777: 7771: 7770: 7768: 7767: 7760: 7753: 7744: 7734: 7732: 7726: 7725: 7723: 7722: 7721: (friend) 7716: 7715: (friend) 7710: 7709: (friend) 7704: 7698: 7692: 7686: 7680: 7679: (mentor) 7677:William Clarke 7674: 7668: 7662: 7655: 7653: 7649: 7648: 7646: 7645: 7640: 7635: 7633:Occult studies 7630: 7625: 7620: 7615: 7610: 7604: 7597: 7595: 7591: 7590: 7588: 7587: 7586: 7585: 7575: 7570: 7565: 7560: 7555: 7550: 7549: 7548: 7538: 7533: 7528: 7523: 7518: 7516:Newton fractal 7513: 7512: 7511: 7501: 7496: 7491: 7486: 7481: 7476: 7471: 7466: 7461: 7456: 7451: 7446: 7444:Newton's rings 7441: 7436: 7435: 7434: 7429: 7419: 7414: 7413: 7412: 7402: 7397: 7392: 7391: 7390: 7385: 7380: 7370: 7365: 7360: 7354: 7352: 7346: 7345: 7343: 7342: 7337: 7332: 7330:Newton's metal 7327: 7322: 7317: 7312: 7311: 7310: 7303:Newton polygon 7300: 7295: 7290: 7285: 7284: 7283: 7272: 7270: 7266: 7265: 7263: 7262: 7254: 7246: 7237:" (1713; 7231: 7223: 7216: 7207: 7205: 7204:Other writings 7201: 7200: 7198: 7197: 7189: 7181: 7173: 7165: 7157: 7149: 7140: 7138: 7134: 7133: 7126: 7125: 7118: 7111: 7103: 7094: 7093: 7091: 7090: 7085: 7080: 7075: 7074: 7073: 7068: 7063: 7058: 7053: 7048: 7040: 7033: 7028: 7023: 7021:Copernicus law 7018: 7011: 7005: 7003: 6999: 6998: 6996: 6995: 6989: 6982: 6980: 6976: 6975: 6973: 6972: 6966: 6959: 6952: 6945: 6942:Commentariolus 6937: 6935: 6931: 6930: 6928: 6927: 6922: 6916: 6914: 6910: 6909: 6902: 6901: 6894: 6887: 6879: 6872: 6871: 6859: 6845: 6844:External links 6842: 6841: 6840: 6826: 6820: 6805: 6798: 6791: 6785: 6770: 6764: 6751: 6745: 6730: 6724: 6711: 6704: 6697: 6696:(2008), 176 pp 6690: 6684: 6671: 6665: 6652: 6645: 6637: 6635: 6632: 6629: 6628: 6621: 6603: 6588: 6581: 6563: 6542: 6521:10.1086/349478 6499: 6494:10.1086/529293 6468: 6465:. p. 176. 6451: 6431: 6408: 6387: 6372: 6344: 6327: 6325:. biologos.org 6307: 6296: 6289: 6271: 6264: 6246: 6221: 6191: 6162:10.1086/663607 6156:(4): 697–705. 6137: 6106: 6085:10.1086/663608 6052: 6045: 6019: 5989: 5959: 5929: 5918:on 26 May 2017 5899: 5869: 5839: 5825: 5805: 5786: 5751: 5740:on 26 May 2012 5725: 5706: 5699: 5679: 5657: 5650: 5630: 5618: 5605: 5586: 5566: 5535: 5516: 5493:Savery, Thomas 5484: 5477: 5459: 5440: 5420: 5387: 5366:10.1086/288620 5344: 5321: 5302: 5251: 5236: 5218: 5196: 5189: 5171: 5159: 5146: 5126: 5114: 5098: 5082: 5066:10.1086/353114 5044: 5037: 5019: 4998: 4985: 4922: 4910: 4894: 4875: 4854: 4841:10.1086/354267 4835:(4): 585–610. 4819: 4799: 4791:De motu cordis 4782: 4753:(4): 385–410. 4733: 4718: 4696: 4665: 4644: 4625: 4606: 4593: 4581: 4569: 4562: 4537: 4508:10.1086/392885 4502:(3): 319–326. 4482: 4470: 4458: 4446: 4432: 4392: 4378: 4372: 4354: 4328: 4319: 4293: 4263: 4242: 4212: 4200: 4192:Stillman Drake 4170: 4168: 4167: 4159: 4133:Stillman Drake 4114: 4101: 4089: 4077: 4056: 4037: 4009: 3997: 3985: 3965: 3958: 3930: 3918: 3883: 3864: 3844: 3825: 3805: 3796:|journal= 3757: 3735: 3714: 3702: 3686: 3679: 3656: 3650: 3632: 3617: 3576: 3569: 3551: 3539: 3520:(8): 601–608. 3504: 3491: 3456: 3436: 3417: 3365: 3337: 3294: 3281: 3269: 3257: 3245: 3233: 3221: 3203: 3178: 3141: 3108: 3093: 3076: 3069: 3049: 3043:Martyn Lyons, 3033: 3020: 3007: 3000: 2967: 2958: 2947:on 8 July 2013 2929: 2914: 2897: 2880: 2871:|journal= 2848: 2813: 2783: 2774: 2759: 2742: 2719: 2703: 2665: 2661:Stillman Drake 2644: 2643: 2641: 2638: 2637: 2636: 2628: 2623: 2618: 2613: 2608: 2602: 2601: 2587: 2584:Science portal 2573: 2557: 2554: 2479:or a medieval 2443: 2440: 2426: 2423: 2421:vacuum above. 2367: 2364: 2329:Optica Promota 2309:Hans Lipperhey 2301: 2298: 2256:steam digester 2230: 2227: 2195:, used in the 2132:Napier's bones 2110:Napier's Bones 2101: 2098: 2093: 2090: 2005:electrostatics 1993: 1990: 1818: 1815: 1813: 1810: 1711: 1708: 1640:De Motu Cordis 1636:William Harvey 1624:William Harvey 1546:ductus venosus 1542:umbilical vein 1461: 1458: 1384:John Flamsteed 1361: 1358: 1252:modern science 1219: 1216: 1214: 1211: 1206: 1203: 1138:Lord Brouncker 1083:City of London 1066: 1063: 1010: 1007: 991:François Viète 955: 952: 935:conic sections 906:Thomas Thomson 850:Novum Organum. 845: 831: 828: 804:printing press 727: 724: 689:René Descartes 673:Prior thinkers 661:Main article: 658: 655: 633: 630: 585: 584: 559: 558: 557: 550: 427: 424: 414:Peter Harrison 364: 361: 310:printing press 208: 205: 185:laws of motion 118:modern science 104: 103: 94: 90: 89: 86: 82: 81: 78: 74: 73: 61: 25:Paradigm shift 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10468: 10457: 10454: 10453: 10451: 10436: 10433: 10431: 10428: 10426: 10423: 10421: 10418: 10416: 10413: 10411: 10408: 10406: 10403: 10401: 10398: 10396: 10393: 10391: 10388: 10386: 10383: 10381: 10380:PROSUR/PROSUL 10378: 10376: 10373: 10371: 10368: 10366: 10363: 10361: 10358: 10356: 10353: 10351: 10348: 10346: 10343: 10341: 10338: 10336: 10333: 10331: 10328: 10326: 10323: 10321: 10318: 10316: 10313: 10311: 10308: 10306: 10303: 10301: 10298: 10296: 10293: 10291: 10288: 10286: 10283: 10281: 10278: 10276: 10275:Craiova Group 10273: 10271: 10268: 10266: 10263: 10261: 10258: 10256: 10253: 10251: 10248: 10246: 10243: 10241: 10238: 10236: 10233: 10231: 10228: 10226: 10223: 10221: 10218: 10216: 10213: 10211: 10208: 10206: 10203: 10201: 10198: 10196: 10193: 10191: 10190:ABCANZ Armies 10188: 10187: 10185: 10179: 10173: 10170: 10168: 10165: 10161: 10158: 10156: 10153: 10151: 10148: 10146: 10143: 10141: 10138: 10136: 10133: 10132: 10131: 10128: 10126: 10123: 10119: 10116: 10115: 10114: 10111: 10109: 10106: 10105: 10103: 10101: 10097: 10091: 10088: 10086: 10083: 10079: 10076: 10074: 10071: 10069: 10066: 10064: 10061: 10057: 10054: 10052: 10049: 10047: 10044: 10042: 10039: 10038: 10037: 10034: 10032: 10029: 10027: 10024: 10022: 10019: 10018: 10017: 10014: 10008: 10005: 10004: 10003: 10000: 9996: 9995:Protestantism 9993: 9989: 9986: 9985: 9984: 9981: 9977: 9974: 9973: 9972: 9969: 9965: 9961: 9958: 9957: 9956: 9953: 9952: 9951: 9948: 9947: 9946: 9943: 9942: 9940: 9938: 9934: 9926: 9923: 9922: 9921: 9918: 9916: 9915:Sovereigntism 9913: 9911: 9908: 9904: 9903: 9899: 9898: 9897: 9894: 9890: 9887: 9886: 9885: 9882: 9880: 9877: 9875: 9872: 9870: 9867: 9865: 9862: 9860: 9857: 9855: 9852: 9848: 9845: 9843: 9840: 9839: 9838: 9835: 9831: 9828: 9827: 9826: 9823: 9821: 9818: 9816: 9813: 9811: 9810:Scholasticism 9808: 9806: 9803: 9801: 9798: 9796: 9793: 9791: 9788: 9786: 9783: 9781: 9778: 9777: 9775: 9773: 9769: 9761: 9758: 9756: 9753: 9751: 9748: 9746: 9743: 9742: 9741: 9738: 9734: 9731: 9730: 9729: 9726: 9722: 9719: 9717: 9714: 9713: 9712: 9709: 9705: 9702: 9701: 9700: 9697: 9695: 9692: 9688: 9685: 9683: 9680: 9678: 9675: 9674: 9673: 9670: 9666: 9663: 9662: 9661: 9658: 9654: 9651: 9650: 9649: 9646: 9642: 9639: 9637: 9634: 9633: 9632: 9629: 9627: 9624: 9622: 9619: 9617: 9614: 9610: 9607: 9606: 9605: 9602: 9600: 9597: 9593: 9590: 9589: 9588: 9585: 9581: 9578: 9577: 9576: 9573: 9569: 9566: 9565: 9564: 9561: 9559: 9556: 9552: 9549: 9548: 9547: 9544: 9542: 9539: 9535: 9532: 9530: 9527: 9525: 9522: 9521: 9520: 9517: 9516: 9514: 9512: 9508: 9500: 9499:War on terror 9497: 9495: 9492: 9491: 9490: 9487: 9483: 9480: 9478: 9475: 9473: 9470: 9468: 9465: 9463: 9460: 9458: 9455: 9453: 9450: 9448: 9445: 9443: 9440: 9438: 9435: 9433: 9430: 9428: 9425: 9423: 9420: 9418: 9415: 9413: 9410: 9408: 9405: 9403: 9400: 9398: 9395: 9394: 9393: 9392:Modern period 9390: 9388: 9385: 9381: 9378: 9376: 9373: 9371: 9368: 9367: 9366: 9363: 9359: 9356: 9355: 9354: 9351: 9349: 9346: 9345: 9343: 9341: 9337: 9331: 9328: 9326: 9323: 9321: 9318: 9316: 9313: 9307: 9304: 9302: 9299: 9298: 9297: 9294: 9292: 9289: 9287: 9284: 9282: 9279: 9278: 9277: 9274: 9272: 9269: 9267: 9264: 9263: 9261: 9257: 9253: 9249: 9248:Western world 9242: 9237: 9235: 9230: 9228: 9223: 9222: 9219: 9208: 9203: 9198: 9196: 9186: 9184: 9181: 9178: 9172: 9169: 9167: 9164: 9162: 9159: 9157: 9154: 9152: 9149: 9147: 9144: 9142: 9139: 9137: 9134: 9132: 9129: 9127: 9126:Rudolf Carnap 9124: 9122: 9119: 9117: 9114: 9112: 9109: 9107: 9104: 9102: 9099: 9097: 9094: 9092: 9089: 9087: 9084: 9082: 9079: 9077: 9074: 9072: 9069: 9067: 9064: 9062: 9061:Auguste Comte 9059: 9058: 9049: 9046: 9044: 9041: 9039: 9036: 9034: 9033:Francis Bacon 9031: 9029: 9026: 9025: 9023: 9019: 9016: 9014: 9010: 9004: 9001: 8999: 8996: 8994: 8991: 8989: 8986: 8984: 8981: 8979: 8976: 8974: 8971: 8969: 8966: 8962: 8961:Pseudoscience 8959: 8958: 8957: 8954: 8952: 8949: 8947: 8944: 8942: 8939: 8937: 8934: 8932: 8929: 8927: 8924: 8922: 8919: 8918: 8916: 8912: 8904: 8901: 8899: 8896: 8894: 8891: 8889: 8886: 8884: 8881: 8879: 8876: 8875: 8874: 8871: 8867: 8864: 8863: 8862: 8859: 8857: 8854: 8852: 8849: 8848: 8846: 8842: 8836: 8833: 8831: 8828: 8826: 8823: 8821: 8820:Structuralism 8818: 8816: 8813: 8811: 8808: 8806: 8802: 8799: 8797: 8794: 8792: 8789: 8787: 8783: 8782:Received view 8780: 8778: 8774: 8771: 8769: 8766: 8764: 8760: 8756: 8753: 8751: 8748: 8746: 8743: 8741: 8738: 8736: 8733: 8731: 8728: 8726: 8723: 8721: 8718: 8716: 8713: 8711: 8708: 8706: 8703: 8701: 8698: 8696: 8693: 8691: 8690:Contextualism 8688: 8686: 8683: 8681: 8678: 8676: 8673: 8671: 8668: 8666: 8663: 8662: 8660: 8656: 8650: 8647: 8643: 8640: 8638: 8635: 8634: 8633: 8630: 8628: 8625: 8623: 8620: 8616: 8613: 8611: 8608: 8606: 8603: 8602: 8601: 8598: 8596: 8593: 8591: 8588: 8586: 8583: 8581: 8578: 8576: 8573: 8569: 8566: 8565: 8564: 8561: 8559: 8556: 8554: 8551: 8549: 8546: 8544: 8541: 8539: 8536: 8534: 8531: 8529: 8526: 8524: 8521: 8519: 8518: 8514: 8510: 8507: 8505: 8502: 8501: 8500: 8497: 8495: 8492: 8490: 8487: 8485: 8482: 8480: 8477: 8475: 8472: 8468: 8465: 8464: 8463: 8460: 8458: 8455: 8453: 8450: 8448: 8445: 8441: 8438: 8437: 8436: 8433: 8431: 8428: 8426: 8423: 8421: 8418: 8414: 8411: 8410: 8409: 8406: 8404: 8403: 8399: 8395: 8393: 8390: 8388: 8385: 8384: 8382: 8378: 8374: 8367: 8362: 8360: 8355: 8353: 8348: 8347: 8344: 8331: 8322: 8319: 8315: 8310: 8308: 8300: 8299: 8296: 8290: 8287: 8285: 8282: 8280: 8277: 8275: 8272: 8270: 8267: 8265: 8262: 8260: 8257: 8255: 8252: 8251: 8249: 8247: 8243: 8237: 8234: 8232: 8229: 8227: 8224: 8222: 8219: 8218: 8216: 8214: 8210: 8204: 8201: 8199: 8196: 8194: 8191: 8189: 8186: 8184: 8181: 8179: 8176: 8174: 8171: 8170: 8168: 8166: 8162: 8156: 8153: 8151: 8148: 8146: 8143: 8141: 8138: 8136: 8133: 8131: 8130:Combinatorics 8128: 8126: 8123: 8121: 8118: 8117: 8115: 8113: 8109: 8103: 8100: 8098: 8097:Earth science 8095: 8093: 8090: 8088: 8085: 8083: 8080: 8079: 8077: 8075: 8071: 8065: 8062: 8060: 8057: 8055: 8052: 8050: 8047: 8045: 8042: 8040: 8037: 8035: 8032: 8030: 8027: 8025: 8022: 8020: 8017: 8015: 8012: 8010: 8007: 8005: 8002: 8001: 7999: 7995: 7989: 7986: 7984: 7981: 7979: 7976: 7974: 7971: 7969: 7966: 7964: 7961: 7959: 7956: 7954: 7951: 7949: 7948:Ancient world 7946: 7945: 7943: 7939: 7934: 7924: 7921: 7919: 7918:Pseudoscience 7916: 7914: 7911: 7909: 7906: 7905: 7903: 7899: 7895: 7888: 7883: 7881: 7876: 7874: 7869: 7868: 7865: 7851: 7847: 7839: 7835: 7829: 7826: 7824: 7821: 7819: 7816: 7814: 7811: 7809: 7806: 7804: 7801: 7799: 7796: 7794: 7791: 7789: 7786: 7784: 7783:Newton (unit) 7781: 7780: 7778: 7776: 7772: 7766: 7765: 7761: 7759: 7758: 7754: 7751: 7749: 7745: 7742: 7740: 7736: 7735: 7733: 7731: 7727: 7720: 7717: 7714: 7713:William Jones 7711: 7708: 7705: 7702: 7699: 7696: 7693: 7690: 7687: 7685: (tutor) 7684: 7681: 7678: 7675: 7672: 7669: 7666: 7665:John Conduitt 7663: 7661: (niece) 7660: 7657: 7656: 7654: 7650: 7644: 7641: 7639: 7636: 7634: 7631: 7629: 7626: 7624: 7621: 7619: 7616: 7614: 7611: 7608: 7607:Cranbury Park 7605: 7602: 7599: 7598: 7596: 7594:Personal life 7592: 7584: 7581: 7580: 7579: 7576: 7574: 7571: 7569: 7566: 7564: 7561: 7559: 7556: 7554: 7551: 7547: 7544: 7543: 7542: 7541:Newton number 7539: 7537: 7534: 7532: 7529: 7527: 7524: 7522: 7519: 7517: 7514: 7510: 7507: 7506: 7505: 7502: 7500: 7497: 7495: 7492: 7490: 7487: 7485: 7482: 7480: 7477: 7475: 7472: 7470: 7467: 7465: 7462: 7460: 7457: 7455: 7452: 7450: 7447: 7445: 7442: 7440: 7437: 7433: 7430: 7428: 7425: 7424: 7423: 7420: 7418: 7415: 7411: 7410:Kepler's laws 7408: 7407: 7406: 7403: 7401: 7398: 7396: 7393: 7389: 7386: 7384: 7383:parameterized 7381: 7379: 7376: 7375: 7374: 7371: 7369: 7366: 7364: 7361: 7359: 7356: 7355: 7353: 7351: 7347: 7341: 7338: 7336: 7333: 7331: 7328: 7326: 7323: 7321: 7318: 7316: 7313: 7309: 7306: 7305: 7304: 7301: 7299: 7296: 7294: 7291: 7289: 7286: 7282: 7279: 7278: 7277: 7274: 7273: 7271: 7269:Contributions 7267: 7260: 7259: 7255: 7252: 7251: 7247: 7244: 7242: 7236: 7232: 7229: 7228: 7224: 7222:" (1675) 7221: 7217: 7214: 7213: 7209: 7208: 7206: 7202: 7195: 7194: 7190: 7187: 7186: 7182: 7179: 7178: 7174: 7171: 7170: 7166: 7163: 7162: 7158: 7155: 7154: 7150: 7147: 7146: 7142: 7141: 7139: 7135: 7131: 7124: 7119: 7117: 7112: 7110: 7105: 7104: 7101: 7089: 7086: 7084: 7081: 7079: 7076: 7072: 7069: 7067: 7064: 7062: 7059: 7057: 7054: 7052: 7049: 7047: 7044: 7043: 7041: 7039: 7038: 7034: 7032: 7029: 7027: 7024: 7022: 7019: 7017: 7016: 7012: 7010: 7007: 7006: 7004: 7000: 6993: 6990: 6988:(grandfather) 6987: 6984: 6983: 6981: 6977: 6971: 6967: 6964: 6960: 6958: 6957: 6953: 6951: 6950: 6946: 6944: 6943: 6939: 6938: 6936: 6932: 6926: 6923: 6921: 6918: 6917: 6915: 6911: 6907: 6900: 6895: 6893: 6888: 6886: 6881: 6880: 6877: 6869: 6864: 6860: 6857: 6852: 6848: 6847: 6839: 6838:0-06-175952-X 6835: 6831: 6827: 6823: 6817: 6813: 6812: 6806: 6803: 6799: 6796: 6792: 6788: 6782: 6778: 6777: 6771: 6767: 6761: 6757: 6752: 6748: 6742: 6738: 6737: 6731: 6727: 6721: 6717: 6712: 6709: 6705: 6702: 6698: 6695: 6692:Henry, John. 6691: 6687: 6681: 6677: 6672: 6668: 6662: 6658: 6653: 6650: 6646: 6643: 6639: 6638: 6624: 6618: 6614: 6607: 6599: 6592: 6584: 6578: 6574: 6567: 6561:. pp. 355–68. 6560: 6559:0-226-48231-6 6556: 6552: 6546: 6538: 6534: 6530: 6526: 6522: 6518: 6515:(3): 403–09. 6514: 6510: 6503: 6495: 6491: 6488:(4): 829–30. 6487: 6483: 6479: 6472: 6464: 6463: 6455: 6449: 6448:0-230-60979-1 6445: 6441: 6435: 6428: 6425: 6421: 6418: 6412: 6405: 6404:0-521-52994-8 6401: 6397: 6391: 6384: 6383: 6376: 6369: 6368:9971-5-0713-7 6365: 6361: 6357: 6353: 6348: 6341: 6337: 6331: 6324: 6320: 6317: 6311: 6305: 6300: 6292: 6286: 6282: 6275: 6267: 6261: 6257: 6250: 6235: 6231: 6225: 6209: 6205: 6201: 6195: 6187: 6183: 6179: 6175: 6171: 6167: 6163: 6159: 6155: 6151: 6144: 6142: 6125: 6121: 6117: 6110: 6102: 6098: 6094: 6090: 6086: 6082: 6078: 6074: 6071:(4): 706–17. 6070: 6066: 6059: 6057: 6048: 6042: 6038: 6034: 6030: 6023: 6007: 6003: 5999: 5993: 5977: 5973: 5969: 5963: 5947: 5943: 5939: 5933: 5917: 5913: 5909: 5903: 5887: 5883: 5879: 5878:"Search Home" 5873: 5857: 5853: 5849: 5843: 5828: 5822: 5818: 5817: 5809: 5801: 5797: 5790: 5774: 5770: 5766: 5762: 5755: 5739: 5735: 5729: 5722: 5718: 5715: 5710: 5702: 5696: 5692: 5691: 5683: 5676: 5675:archive.today 5672: 5669: 5668: 5661: 5653: 5647: 5643: 5642: 5634: 5627: 5622: 5615: 5609: 5593: 5589: 5583: 5579: 5578: 5570: 5554: 5550: 5547: 5539: 5532: 5528: 5525: 5520: 5504: 5501:. S. Crouch. 5500: 5499: 5494: 5488: 5480: 5474: 5470: 5463: 5447: 5443: 5437: 5433: 5432: 5424: 5416: 5408: 5404: 5400: 5399: 5391: 5383: 5379: 5375: 5371: 5367: 5363: 5359: 5355: 5348: 5340: 5335: 5334: 5325: 5318: 5314: 5311: 5306: 5290: 5286: 5282: 5278: 5274: 5271:(3): 446–83. 5270: 5266: 5262: 5255: 5247: 5239: 5233: 5229: 5222: 5214: 5213: 5207: 5200: 5192: 5186: 5182: 5175: 5169: 5163: 5156: 5150: 5143: 5139: 5136: 5130: 5121: 5119: 5111: 5105: 5103: 5095: 5089: 5087: 5080: 5075: 5071: 5067: 5063: 5059: 5055: 5048: 5040: 5034: 5030: 5023: 5016: 5015:0-486-67605-6 5012: 5008: 5002: 4995: 4989: 4981: 4975: 4959: 4955: 4951: 4947: 4943: 4939: 4938: 4933: 4926: 4919: 4914: 4907: 4903: 4898: 4891: 4887: 4884: 4879: 4872: 4871:0-521-27435-4 4868: 4864: 4863:Never at Rest 4858: 4850: 4846: 4842: 4838: 4834: 4830: 4823: 4817: 4816:0-7432-7205-6 4813: 4809: 4803: 4796: 4792: 4786: 4778: 4774: 4769: 4764: 4760: 4756: 4752: 4748: 4744: 4737: 4729: 4722: 4715: 4711: 4708: 4707: 4700: 4693: 4689: 4686: 4682: 4678: 4675: 4669: 4662: 4661:0-940262-45-2 4658: 4654: 4648: 4641: 4637: 4634: 4629: 4622: 4618: 4615: 4610: 4603: 4597: 4590: 4585: 4578: 4573: 4565: 4563:0-691-00738-1 4559: 4556:. p. 1. 4555: 4552:. Princeton: 4551: 4547: 4541: 4533: 4529: 4525: 4521: 4517: 4513: 4509: 4505: 4501: 4497: 4493: 4486: 4479: 4474: 4467: 4462: 4455: 4450: 4442: 4436: 4428: 4422: 4406: 4402: 4396: 4388: 4382: 4375: 4369: 4365: 4358: 4342: 4338: 4332: 4323: 4307: 4303: 4297: 4281: 4277: 4273: 4267: 4260: 4259:0-947822-16-X 4256: 4252: 4246: 4240:. pp. 105–06. 4239: 4238:0-226-45807-5 4235: 4231: 4227: 4224: 4223: 4216: 4209: 4204: 4197: 4193: 4189: 4188: 4183: 4182:Il Saggiatore 4179: 4174: 4165: 4160: 4157: 4153: 4150: 4146: 4142: 4141: 4138: 4134: 4130: 4129: 4124: 4118: 4111: 4105: 4098: 4093: 4086: 4081: 4074: 4073:0-691-14206-8 4070: 4066: 4060: 4044: 4040: 4034: 4030: 4026: 4022: 4021: 4013: 4006: 4001: 3994: 3989: 3983: 3982:0-691-08355-X 3979: 3975: 3969: 3961: 3955: 3951: 3947: 3943: 3942: 3934: 3927: 3922: 3914: 3910: 3906: 3902: 3898: 3894: 3893:The Historian 3887: 3871: 3867: 3861: 3857: 3856: 3848: 3832: 3828: 3822: 3818: 3817: 3809: 3801: 3788: 3772: 3768: 3761: 3754: 3750: 3747: 3746: 3739: 3732: 3731:0-7607-3582-4 3728: 3724: 3718: 3711: 3706: 3700: 3696: 3690: 3682: 3680:0-691-02350-6 3676: 3672: 3671: 3666: 3660: 3653: 3647: 3643: 3642:Francis Bacon 3636: 3628: 3621: 3613: 3600: 3591: 3583: 3581: 3572: 3566: 3562: 3555: 3548: 3543: 3535: 3531: 3527: 3523: 3519: 3515: 3508: 3501: 3495: 3488: 3486: 3471: 3467: 3463: 3459: 3453: 3449: 3448: 3440: 3433: 3428: 3421: 3410: 3406: 3402: 3398: 3394: 3390: 3386: 3379: 3372: 3370: 3362: 3356: 3352: 3348: 3341: 3333: 3329: 3325: 3321: 3317: 3313: 3309: 3305: 3298: 3291: 3285: 3278: 3273: 3266: 3261: 3254: 3249: 3243:, pp. 106–10. 3242: 3237: 3230: 3225: 3218: 3216: 3212: 3206: 3200: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3182: 3164: 3157: 3156: 3151: 3145: 3129: 3125: 3124: 3119: 3112: 3105: 3104: 3097: 3090: 3086: 3080: 3072: 3066: 3062: 3061: 3053: 3046: 3040: 3038: 3030: 3024: 3017: 3011: 3003: 3001:9780415145787 2997: 2993: 2989: 2985: 2981: 2974: 2972: 2962: 2946: 2942: 2936: 2934: 2925: 2918: 2910: 2909: 2901: 2893: 2892: 2884: 2876: 2863: 2852: 2844: 2840: 2836: 2832: 2829:(2): 257–88. 2828: 2824: 2817: 2801: 2797: 2793: 2787: 2778: 2771: 2766: 2764: 2756: 2751: 2749: 2747: 2740: 2739:0-8122-7831-3 2736: 2732: 2728: 2723: 2716: 2710: 2708: 2699: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2684:(2): 163–93. 2683: 2679: 2672: 2670: 2662: 2658: 2652: 2650: 2645: 2634: 2633: 2629: 2627: 2624: 2622: 2619: 2617: 2614: 2612: 2609: 2607: 2604: 2603: 2599: 2593: 2588: 2585: 2579: 2574: 2571: 2560: 2553: 2550: 2544: 2542: 2538: 2534: 2529: 2525: 2520: 2517: 2513: 2509: 2505: 2501: 2497: 2493: 2489: 2484: 2482: 2478: 2473: 2464: 2460: 2456: 2452: 2448: 2439: 2435: 2431: 2422: 2419: 2415: 2411: 2408: 2404: 2400: 2396: 2392: 2388: 2380: 2376: 2372: 2366:Other devices 2363: 2361: 2358: 2354: 2350: 2344: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2333:conic section 2330: 2326: 2325:James Gregory 2322: 2318: 2314: 2310: 2306: 2297: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2286:blast furnace 2283: 2279: 2277: 2273: 2269: 2265: 2264:Thomas Savery 2261: 2257: 2253: 2246: 2242: 2241: 2240:Savery Engine 2235: 2226: 2224: 2220: 2217:(invented by 2216: 2212: 2208: 2204: 2202: 2201:binary number 2198: 2194: 2193:Leibniz wheel 2190: 2186: 2182: 2178: 2175:invented the 2174: 2173:Blaise Pascal 2170: 2168: 2164: 2160: 2156: 2155:analog device 2152: 2151:Edmund Gunter 2148: 2143: 2141: 2137: 2133: 2129: 2125: 2121: 2115: 2111: 2106: 2097: 2089: 2087: 2083: 2082: 2077: 2076:Thomas Browne 2073: 2069: 2065: 2060: 2058: 2053: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2038: 2034: 2030: 2022: 2018: 2014: 2006: 2002: 1998: 1989: 1987: 1983: 1981: 1980: 1975: 1971: 1966: 1964: 1960: 1956: 1952: 1948: 1944: 1940: 1935: 1931: 1927: 1922: 1920: 1919: 1914: 1910: 1909:Opera reliqua 1906: 1902: 1898: 1894: 1890: 1886: 1882: 1880: 1876: 1872: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1849: 1848: 1843: 1839: 1832: 1828: 1823: 1809: 1807: 1803: 1799: 1794: 1793: 1787: 1785: 1784:closed system 1781: 1776: 1771: 1768: 1767: 1762: 1758: 1753: 1750: 1749:Thomas Browne 1746: 1742: 1738: 1734: 1730: 1723: 1722: 1716: 1707: 1705: 1701: 1697: 1693: 1689: 1685: 1684:Ambroise Paré 1681: 1677: 1672: 1669: 1665: 1659: 1657: 1653: 1649: 1645: 1641: 1637: 1629: 1625: 1621: 1616: 1612: 1610: 1606: 1602: 1598: 1594: 1590: 1589:Niccolò Massa 1586: 1582: 1577: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1563: 1559: 1555: 1551: 1547: 1543: 1539: 1535: 1534:hepatic veins 1531: 1527: 1526:temporal bone 1523: 1519: 1515: 1511: 1510:sphenoid bone 1506: 1504: 1500: 1499:human anatomy 1496: 1495: 1490: 1486: 1478: 1474: 1470: 1466: 1457: 1455: 1454: 1449: 1445: 1441: 1437: 1432: 1430: 1426: 1421: 1417: 1413: 1408: 1406: 1402: 1401: 1396: 1395:Edmond Halley 1392: 1389: 1385: 1376: 1375: 1370: 1366: 1357: 1355: 1351: 1347: 1343: 1338: 1333: 1330: 1326: 1322: 1318: 1312: 1310: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1297: 1292: 1291: 1286: 1285: 1280: 1275: 1273: 1269: 1265: 1260: 1253: 1249: 1245: 1241: 1237: 1232: 1228: 1225: 1218:Heliocentrism 1210: 1202: 1200: 1196: 1192: 1188: 1183: 1181: 1177: 1173: 1172: 1167: 1163: 1155: 1150: 1146: 1144: 1139: 1135: 1134:royal charter 1131: 1127: 1121: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1110: 1103: 1099: 1097: 1093: 1092:Royal Society 1084: 1080: 1076: 1075:Royal Society 1071: 1062: 1060: 1056: 1049: 1044: 1042: 1038: 1034: 1029: 1023: 1019: 1015: 1006: 1004: 1000: 996: 992: 986: 984: 977: 975: 974: 973:Il Saggiatore 968: 964: 962: 951: 948: 944: 940: 936: 932: 927: 924: 923: 918: 913: 911: 910:Novum Organum 907: 902: 895: 894: 889: 886:Diagram from 884: 880: 879:point north. 878: 874: 870: 866: 865: 860: 851: 844: 839: 837: 827: 825: 821: 817: 813: 809: 805: 799: 797: 793: 789: 785: 780: 777: 772: 771: 770:Novum Organum 766: 761: 759: 755: 754: 744: 740: 736: 735:Francis Bacon 732: 723: 721: 720: 715: 714: 709: 704: 702: 698: 694: 693:Thomas Hobbes 690: 686: 685:Francis Bacon 682: 678: 674: 669: 664: 654: 650: 648: 644: 639: 629: 626: 620: 618: 614: 610: 606: 602: 598: 594: 589: 582: 578: 577: 572: 568: 564: 560: 555: 551: 548: 544: 543:natural place 540: 536: 532: 528: 524: 520: 519: 517: 513: 509: 505: 502: 501: 500: 498: 494: 490: 486: 482: 478: 477:ancient Greek 472: 468: 460: 456: 452: 448: 444: 440: 436: 432: 422: 417: 415: 409: 404: 400: 397: 391: 386: 384: 378: 373: 371: 360: 358: 354: 350: 346: 345: 341:'s 1962 work 340: 336: 332: 328: 323: 321: 320: 315: 311: 306: 304: 300: 296: 295:Royal Society 292: 291:Francis Bacon 288: 287: 282: 274: 270: 269: 264: 258: 254: 249: 244: 239: 237: 234:itself – the 233: 229: 224: 222: 218: 214: 204: 202: 198: 194: 190: 186: 182: 181: 176: 172: 167: 165: 161: 160: 155: 151: 147: 143: 142:human anatomy 139: 135: 131: 127: 123: 119: 115: 111: 102: 98: 95: 91: 87: 83: 79: 75: 70: 66: 65: 59: 54: 45: 41: 40: 39:Infobox event 36: 30: 26: 22: 10425:Western Bloc 10225:AUSCANNZUKUS 10181:Contemporary 10130:Human rights 9976:Latin Church 9950:Christianity 9900: 9859:Conservatism 9704:contemporary 9541:Architecture 9477:World War II 9437:Emancipation 9432:Abolitionism 9416: 9320:Romanization 9315:Roman legacy 9296:Roman Empire 9171:Larry Laudan 9151:Imre Lakatos 9106:Otto Neurath 9081:Karl Pearson 9071:Pierre Duhem 9043:Isaac Newton 8973:Protoscience 8931:Epistemology 8805:Anti-realism 8803: / 8784: / 8775: / 8761: / 8759:Reductionism 8757: / 8730:Inductionism 8710:Evolutionism 8589: 8515: 8402:a posteriori 8401: 8397: 8269:Neuroscience 8173:Anthropology 8155:Trigonometry 7967: 7850:Isaac Newton 7762: 7755: 7747: 7738: 7671:Isaac Barrow 7637: 7609: (home) 7350:Newtonianism 7325:Newton scale 7288:Impact depth 7261: (1754) 7256: 7253: (1728) 7248: 7238: 7225: 7210: 7196: (1711) 7191: 7188: (1707) 7183: 7180: (1704) 7175: 7172: (1704) 7167: 7164: (1687) 7159: 7156: (1684) 7151: 7148: (1671) 7143: 7137:Publications 7035: 7013: 7008: 6954: 6947: 6940: 6870:at Wikiquote 6829: 6810: 6801: 6794: 6775: 6755: 6735: 6715: 6707: 6700: 6693: 6675: 6656: 6648: 6641: 6612: 6606: 6597: 6591: 6572: 6566: 6550: 6545: 6512: 6508: 6502: 6485: 6481: 6477: 6471: 6461: 6459:Bala, Arun. 6454: 6439: 6434: 6411: 6406:. pp. 54–55. 6395: 6390: 6381: 6375: 6355: 6352:Salam, Abdus 6347: 6335: 6330: 6310: 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