Second Amendment to the United States Constitution

8897:

and civil common-law rights, which, of course, are placed beyond the reach of any subordinate government, and even of their own. Among these are the following: 1. The right to be, what they call themselves, 'the people of the United States', citizens, and component members of the body politic – the nation; and to participate in all the privileges, immunities, and benefits the Constitution was designed to obtain or secure for all the American people, especially the right to be protected and governed according to the provisions of the Constitution. 2. A right to the privileges and immunities of citizens in any of the several States. Among these is the fundamental and elementary right of suffrage. The Representatives to the national and State legislatures must be chosen by the people, the citizens (Section 2). Consequently, the citizens must choose them, and have a right to choose them. Am. 14, § 2. 3. A right to the common-law writ of habeas corpus, to protect the other common-law right, as well as natural and constitutional right, of personal liberty. 4. A right to trial by jury in any criminal case. 5. A right to keep and bear arms. 6. A right to life, liberty, and property, unless deprived by due process of law. 7. A right to just compensation for private property legally taken for public use. 8. A right to participate in all rights retained by, or reserved to, the people. Most of these rights, with many others, belong by the Constitution not only to the citizens – the people of the United States, strictly so called, by reason of the franchise of natural birth or otherwise – but also to all persons who may be allowed to be and remain under the jurisdiction and protection of our government. These are a part only of the rights held by every member of the nation, under and by virtue of the Constitution of the United States, independent of any other earthly power, and which, of course, 'cannot be destroyed or abridged by the laws of any particular State'. Who, then, in the United States is destitute of rights?

8809:

an offence to keep arms, and by substituting a regular army in the stead of a resort to the militia. The friends of a free government cannot be too watchful, to overcome the dangerous tendency of the public mind to sacrifice, for the sake of mere private convenience, this powerful check upon the designs of ambitious men. § 451. The importance of this article will scarcely be doubted by any persons, who have duly reflected upon the subject. The militia is the natural defence of a free country against sudden foreign invasions, domestic insurrections, and domestic usurpations of power by rulers. It is against sound policy for a free people to keep up large military establishments and standing armies in time of peace, both from the enormous expenses, with which they are attended, and the facile means, which they afford to ambitious and unprincipled rulers, to subvert the government, or trample upon the rights of the people. The right of the citizens to keep and bear arms has justly been considered, as the palladium of the liberties of a republic; since it offers a strong moral check against the usurpations and arbitrary power of rulers; and it will generally, even if these are successful in the first instance, enable the people to resist and triumph over them. And yet, though this truth would seem so clear, and the importance of a well-regulated militia would seem so undeniable, it cannot be disguised, that among the American people there is a growing indifference to any system of militia discipline, and a strong disposition, from a sense of its burdens, to be rid of all regulations. How it is practicable to keep the people duly armed without some organization, it is difficult to see. There is certainly no small danger, that indifference may lead to disgust, and disgust to contempt; and thus gradually undermine all the protection intended by this clause of our National Bill of Rights.

3028:

to "have weapons". At the time of the founding, as now, to "bear" meant to "carry". In numerous instances, "bear arms" was unambiguously used to refer to the carrying of weapons outside of an organized militia. Nine state constitutional provisions written in the 18th century or the first two decades of the 19th, which enshrined a right of citizens "bear arms in defense of themselves and the state" again, in the most analogous linguistic context – that "bear arms" was not limited to the carrying of arms in a militia. The phrase "bear Arms" also had at the time of the founding an idiomatic meaning that was significantly different from its natural meaning: "to serve as a soldier, do military service, fight" or "to wage war". But it unequivocally bore that idiomatic meaning only when followed by the preposition "against". Every example given by petitioners' amici for the idiomatic meaning of "bear arms" from the founding period either includes the preposition "against" or is not clearly idiomatic. In any event, the meaning of "bear arms" that petitioners and Justice Stevens propose is not even the (sometimes) idiomatic meaning. Rather, they manufacture a hybrid definition, whereby "bear arms" connotes the actual carrying of arms (and therefore is not really an idiom) but only in the service of an organized militia. No dictionary has ever adopted that definition, and we have been apprised of no source that indicates that it carried that meaning at the time of the founding. Worse still, the phrase "keep and bear Arms" would be incoherent. The word "Arms" would have two different meanings at once: "weapons" (as the object of "keep") and (as the object of "bear") one-half of an idiom. It would be rather like saying "He filled and kicked the bucket" to mean "He filled the bucket and died."

3293:, and also held that the Second Amendment prevented neither the States nor Congress from barring private militias that parade with arms; such a right "cannot be claimed as a right independent of law". This decision upheld the States' authority to regulate the militia and that citizens had no right to create their own militias or to own weapons for semi-military purposes. The Court however observed with respect to the reach of the Amendment on the national government and the federal states and the role of the people therin: "It is undoubtedly true that all citizens capable of bearing arms constitute the reserved military force or reserve militia of the United States as well as of the states, and, in view of this prerogative of the general government, as well as of its general powers, the states cannot, even laying the constitutional provision in question out of view, prohibit the people from keeping and bearing arms so as to deprive the United States of their rightful resource for maintaining the public security, and disable the people from performing their duty to the general government." In essence the court said: "A state cannot prohibit the people therein from keeping and bearing arms to an extent that would deprive the United States of the protection afforded by them as a reserve military force." 2531:... The right of self defence is the first law of nature: In most governments it has been the study of rulers to confine this right within the narrowest limits possible. Wherever standing armies are kept up, and the right of the people to keep and bear arms is, under any colour or pretext whatsoever, prohibited, liberty, if not already annihilated, is on the brink of destruction. In England, the people have been disarmed, generally, under the specious pretext of preserving the game : a never failing lure to bring over the landed aristocracy to support any measure, under that mask, though calculated for very different purposes. True it is, their bill of rights seems at first view to counteract this policy: but the right of bearing arms is confined to protestants, and the words suitable to their condition and degree, have been interpreted to authorise the prohibition of keeping a gun or other engine for the destruction of game, to any farmer, or inferior tradesman, or other person not qualified to kill game. So that not one man in five hundred can keep a gun in his house without being subject to a penalty. 2698:

to the performance of military duty, and are officered and enrolled for service when called upon. But the law may make provision for the enrolment of all who are fit to perform military duty, or of a small number only, or it may wholly omit to make any provision at all; and if the right were limited to those enrolled, the purpose of this guaranty might be defeated altogether by the action or neglect to act of the government it was meant to hold in check. The meaning of the provision undoubtedly is, that the people, from whom the militia must be taken, shall have the right to keep and bear arms; and they need no permission or regulation of law for the purpose. But this enables the government to have a well-regulated militia; for to bear arms implies something more than the mere keeping; it implies the learning to handle and use them in a way that makes those who keep them ready for their efficient use; in other words, it implies the right to meet for voluntary discipline in arms, observing in doing so the laws of public order.

2928:

continuity with the English right". ... Nor is the right involved in this discussion less comprehensive or valuable: "The right of the people to bear arms shall not be infringed." The right of the whole people, old and young, men, women and boys, and not militia only, to keep and bear arms of every description, not such merely as are used by the militia, shall not be infringed, curtailed, or broken in upon, in the smallest degree; and all this for the important end to be attained: the rearing up and qualifying a well-regulated militia, so vitally necessary to the security of a free State. Our opinion is, that any law, State or Federal, is repugnant to the Constitution, and void, which contravenes this right, originally belonging to our forefathers, trampled under foot by Charles I. and his two wicked sons and successors, reestablished by the revolution of 1688, conveyed to this land of liberty by the colonists, and finally incorporated conspicuously in our own Magna Charta [

3611:

Under any of the standards of scrutiny the Court has applied to enumerated constitutional rights, this prohibition – in the place where the importance of the lawful defense of self, family, and property is most acute – would fail constitutional muster. Similarly, the requirement that any lawful firearm in the home be disassembled or bound by a trigger lock makes it impossible for citizens to use arms for the core lawful purpose of self-defense and is hence unconstitutional. Because Heller conceded at oral argument that the D. C. licensing law is permissible if it is not enforced arbitrarily and capriciously, the Court assumes that a license will satisfy his prayer for relief and does not address the licensing requirement. Assuming he is not disqualified from exercising Second Amendment rights, the District must permit Heller to register his handgun and must issue him a license to carry it in the home. pp. 56–64.

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maintenance of rifles and muskets meeting specifications and readily available for militia duty proved problematic; estimates of compliance ranged from 10 to 65 percent. Compliance with the enrollment provisions was also poor. In addition to the exemptions granted by the law for custom-house officers and their clerks, post-officers and stage drivers employed in the care and conveyance of U.S. mail, ferrymen, export inspectors, pilots, merchant mariners and those deployed at sea in active service; state legislatures granted numerous exemptions under Section 2 of the Act, including exemptions for: clergy, conscientious objectors, teachers, students, and jurors. Though a number of able-bodied white men remained available for service, many simply did not show up for militia duty. Penalties for failure to appear were enforced sporadically and selectively. None is mentioned in the legislation.

2539:, Tucker stated that the right to bear arms under the Second Amendment was not subject to the restrictions that were part of English law: "The right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. Amendments to C. U. S. Art. 4, and this without any qualification as to their condition or degree, as is the case in the British government" and "whoever examines the forest, and game laws in the British code, will readily perceive that the right of keeping arms is effectually taken away from the people of England." Blackstone himself also commented on English game laws, Vol. II, p. 412, "that the prevention of popular insurrections and resistance to government by disarming the bulk of the people, is a reason oftener meant than avowed by the makers of the forest and game laws." Blackstone discussed the right of 1670:

good people of this State, doth ordain, determine, and declare that the militia of this State, at all times hereafter, as well in peace as in war, shall be armed and disciplined, and in readiness for service. That all such of the inhabitants of this State being of the people called Quakers as, from scruples of conscience, may be averse to the bearing of arms, be therefrom excused by the legislature; and do pay to the State such sums of money, in lieu of their personal service, as the same; may, in the judgment of the legislature, be worth. And that a proper magazine of warlike stores, proportionate to the number of inhabitants, be, forever hereafter, at the expense of this State, and by acts of the legislature, established, maintained, and continued in every county in this State.

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war before a regular force can be raised, the militia form the palladium of the country. They are ready to repel invasion, to suppress insurrection, and preserve the good order and peace of government. That they should be well regulated, is judiciously added. A disorderly militia is disgraceful to itself, and dangerous not to the enemy, but to its own country. The duty of the state government is, to adopt such regulations as will tend to make good soldiers with the least interruptions of the ordinary and useful occupations of civil life. In this all the Union has a strong and visible interest. The corollary, from the first position, is, that the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed.

2623:

the people to resist and triumph over them. And yet, though this truth would seem so clear, and the importance of a well-regulated militia would seem so undeniable, it cannot be disguised, that among the American people there is a growing indifference to any system of militia discipline, and a strong disposition, from a sense of its burdens, to be rid of all regulations. How it is practicable to keep the people duly armed without some organization, it is difficult to see. There is certainly no small danger, that indifference may lead to disgust, and disgust to contempt; and thus gradually undermine all the protection intended by this clause of our National Bill of Rights.

2727:" or "collective right" model, held that the Second Amendment does not apply to individuals; rather, it recognizes the right of each state to arm its militia. Under this approach, citizens "have no right to keep or bear arms, but the states have a collective right to have the National Guard". Advocates of collective rights models argued that the Second Amendment was written to prevent the federal government from disarming state militias, rather than to secure an individual right to possess firearms. Prior to 2001, every circuit court decision that interpreted the Second Amendment endorsed the "collective right" model. However, beginning with the 1362:

themselves with arms for their defense, was a measure as prudent as it was legal: such violences are always to be apprehended from military troops, when quartered in the body of a populous city; but more especially so, when they are led to believe that they are become necessary to awe a spirit of rebellion, injuriously said to be existing therein. It is a natural right which the people have reserved to themselves, confirmed by the Bill of Rights, to keep arms for their own defence; and as Mr. Blackstone observes, it is to be made use of when the sanctions of society and law are found insufficient to restrain the violence of oppression.

1780: 1256: 5964:

of the States,' as exhibited at the National Archives Building contains all three commas. However, to facilitate ratification of the proposed amendments, 13 copies were made by hand for forwarding to the states. At least one of these documents (viewed at the National Archives Building) omitted the final comma. In conveying notice of ratification, some states (e.g. Delaware) merely attached the official state action to the copy received. Other states (e.g. New York) recopied the text of the amendments in its notification. The New York ratification document of March 27, 1790, contains only one comma in the fourth article.

8901:... The States are recognized as governments, and, when their own constitutions permit, may do as they please; provided they do not interfere with the Constitution and laws of the United States, or with the civil or natural rights of the people recognized thereby, and held in conformity to them. The right of every person to 'life, liberty, and property', to 'keep and bear arms', to the 'writ of habeas corpus' to 'trial by jury', and divers others, are recognized by, and held under, the Constitution of the United States, and cannot be infringed by individuals or even by the government itself. 62: 509: 2281:, a sufficient bayonet and belt, two spare flints, and a knapsack, a pouch with a box therein to contain not less than twenty-four cartridges, suited to the bore of his musket or firelock, each cartridge to contain a proper quantity of powder and ball: or with a good rifle, knapsack, shot-pouch and powder-horn, twenty balls suited to the bore of his rifle, and a quarter of a pound of powder; and shall appear, so armed, accoutred and provided, when called out to exercise, or into service, except, that when called out on company days to exercise only, he may appear without a knapsack. 1896:, on the other hand, advocated amending the Constitution with clearly defined and enumerated rights providing more explicit constraints on the new government. Many Anti-federalists feared the new federal government would choose to disarm state militias. Federalists countered that in listing only certain rights, unlisted rights might lose protection. The Federalists realized there was insufficient support to ratify the Constitution without a bill of rights and so they promised to support amending the Constitution to add a bill of rights following the Constitution's adoption. This 3318: (1894), Franklin Miller was convicted and sentenced to be executed for shooting a police officer to death with an illegally carried handgun in violation of Texas law. Miller sought to have his conviction overturned, claiming his Second Amendment rights were violated and that the Bill of Rights should be applied to state law. The Supreme Court ruled that the Second Amendment did not apply to state laws such as the Texas law, writing: "As the proceedings were conducted under the ordinary forms of criminal prosecutions there certainly was no denial of due process of law." 1093:, accepted the conditions that were codified in the bill. One of the issues the bill resolved was the authority of the king to disarm his subjects, after James II had disarmed many Protestants that were "suspected or knowne" of disliking the government, and had argued with Parliament over his desire to maintain a standing (or permanent) army. The bill states that it is acting to restore "ancient rights" trampled upon by James II, though some have argued that the English Bill of Rights created a new right to have arms, which developed out of a duty to have arms. In 4602:, ruled 10–1 against Skoien and reinstated his conviction for a gun violation, citing the strong relation between the law in question and the government objective. Skoien was convicted and sentenced to two years in prison for the gun violation, and will thus likely be subject to a lifetime ban on gun ownership. Editorials favoring gun rights sharply criticized this ruling as going too far with the enactment of a lifetime gun ban, while editorials favoring gun regulations praised the ruling as "a bucket of cold water thrown on the 'gun rights' celebration". 3570:(b) The prefatory clause comports with the Court's interpretation of the operative clause. The "militia" comprised all males physically capable of acting in concert for the common defense. The Antifederalists feared that the Federal Government would disarm the people in order to disable this citizens' militia, enabling a politicized standing army or a select militia to rule. The response was to deny Congress power to abridge the ancient right of individuals to keep and bear arms, so that the ideal of a citizens' militia would be preserved. pp. 22–28. 2575:. Like Tucker, Rawle condemned England's "arbitrary code for the preservation of game", portraying that country as one that "boasts so much of its freedom", yet provides a right to "protestant subjects only" that it "cautiously describ to be that of bearing arms for their defence" and reserves for " very small proportion of the people" In contrast, Rawle characterizes the second clause of the Second Amendment, which he calls the corollary clause, as a general prohibition against such capricious abuse of government power. 4330:, No. 16-7025 – On July 25, 2017, the D.C. Circuit ruled that a District of Columbia regulation that limited conceal-carry licenses only to those individuals who could demonstrate, to the satisfaction of the chief of police, that they have a "good reason" to carry a handgun in public was essentially designed to prevent the exercise of the right to bear arms by most District residents and so violated the Second Amendment by amounting to a complete prohibition on firearms possession. 2477:

cannot say who will be the militia of the future day. If that paper on the table gets no alteration, the militia of the future day may not consist of all classes, high and low, and rich and poor; but may be confined to the lower and middle classes of the people, granting exclusion to the higher classes of the people. If we should ever see that day, the most ignominious punishments and heavy fines may be expected. Under the present government all ranks of people are subject to militia duty.

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unspecified subset. This contrasts markedly with the phrase "the militia" in the prefatory clause. As we will describe below, the "militia" in colonial America consisted of a subset of "the people" – those who were male, able bodied, and within a certain age range. Reading the Second Amendment as protecting only the right to "keep and bear Arms" in an organized militia therefore fits poorly with the operative clause's description of the holder of that right as "the people".

16635: 711: 427: 3982:, saying that "t is clear that the Framers and ratifiers of the Fourteenth Amendment counted the right to keep and bear arms among those fundamental rights necessary to our system of ordered liberty." This means that the Court ruled that the Second Amendment limits state and local governments to the same extent that it limits the federal government. It also remanded a case regarding a Chicago handgun prohibition. Four of the five justices in the majority voted to do so by way of the 2095:" which were organized groups of white men who enforced discipline upon enslaved blacks. Bogus writes with respect to Georgia laws passed in 1755 and 1757 in this context: "The Georgia statutes required patrols, under the direction of commissioned militia officers, to examine every plantation each month and authorized them to search 'all Negro Houses for offensive Weapons and Ammunition' and to apprehend and give twenty lashes to any slave found outside plantation grounds." 4695:, (Circuit docket 13-17132) – On May 16, 2016, the Ninth Circuit ruled that the right to keep and bear arms included being able to buy and sell firearms. The court ruled that a county law prohibiting a gun store being within 500 feet of a "esidentially zoned district; elementary, middle or high school; pre-school or day care center; other firearms sales business; or liquor stores or establishments in which liquor is served" violated the Second Amendment. 1466:. A widespread fear, during the debates on ratifying the Constitution, was the possibility of a military takeover of the states by the federal government, which could happen if the Congress passed laws prohibiting states from arming citizens, or prohibiting citizens from arming themselves. Though it has been argued that the states lost the power to arm their citizens when the power to arm the militia was transferred from the states to the federal government by Article 1744: 2943:

terms. Even if the meaning of the text were genuinely susceptible to more than one interpretation, the burden would remain on those advocating a departure from the purpose identified in the preamble and from settled law to come forward with persuasive new arguments or evidence. The textual analysis offered by respondent and embraced by the Court falls far short of sustaining that heavy burden. And the Court's emphatic reliance on the claim "that the Second Amendment

16623: 439: 451: 3534: 4832: (1876), 'his is not a right granted by the Constitution. Neither is it in any manner dependent upon that instrument for its existence. The Second amendment declares that it shall not be infringed ...' Between the Restoration and the Glorious Revolution, the Stuart Kings Charles II and James II succeeded in using select militias loyal to them to suppress political dissidents, in part by disarming their opponents. See J. Malcolm, 862:... would be opposed militia." He argued that State governments "would be able to repel the danger" of a federal army, "It may well be doubted, whether a militia thus circumstanced could ever be conquered by such a proportion of regular troops." He contrasted the federal government of the United States to the European kingdoms, which he described as "afraid to trust the people with arms", and assured that "the existence of subordinate governments 2708: 1942:

only, as in the judgement of the united States, in congress assembled, shall be deemed requisite to garrison the forts necessary for the defense of such State; but every State shall always keep up a well-regulated and disciplined militia, sufficiently armed and accoutered, and shall provide and constantly have ready for use, in public stores, a due number of field pieces and tents, and a proper quantity of arms, ammunition and camp equipage.

3844:... Because Heller conceded at oral argument that the District's licensing law is permissible if it is not enforced arbitrarily and capriciously, the Court assumed that a license will satisfy his prayer for relief and did not address the licensing requirement. Assuming he is not disqualified from exercising Second Amendment rights, the District must permit Heller to register his handgun and must issue him a license to carry it in the home." 3744:... Although we do not undertake an exhaustive historical analysis today of the full scope of the Second Amendment, nothing in our opinion should be taken to cast doubt on longstanding prohibitions on the possession of firearms by felons and the mentally ill, or laws forbidding the carrying of firearms in sensitive places such as schools and government buildings, or laws imposing conditions and qualifications on the commercial sale of arms. 4817:"This meaning is strongly confirmed by the historical background of the Second Amendment. We look to this because it has always been widely understood that the Second Amendment, like the First and Fourth Amendments, codified a pre-existing right. The very text of the Second Amendment implicitly recognizes the pre-existence of the right and declares only that it 'shall not be infringed'. As we (the United States Supreme Court) said in 2362: 3753:, "who requested that the opinion include language stating that Heller 'should not be taken to cast doubt' on many existing gun laws." The majority opinion also said that the amendment's prefatory clause (referencing the "militia") serves to clarify the operative clause (referencing "the people"), but does not limit the scope of the operative clause, because "the 'militia' in colonial America consisted of a subset of 'the people'. 3777:

standing army posed an intolerable threat to the sovereignty of the several States. Neither the text of the Amendment nor the arguments advanced by its proponents evidenced the slightest interest in limiting any legislature's authority to regulate private civilian uses of firearms. Specifically, there is no indication that the Framers of the Amendment intended to enshrine the common-law right of self-defense in the Constitution.

1189:). Some in the United States have preferred the "rights" argument arguing that the English Bill of Rights had granted a right. The need to have arms for self-defence was not really in question. Peoples all around the world since time immemorial had armed themselves for the protection of themselves and others, and as organized nations began to appear these arrangements had been extended to the protection of the state.{{efn|E.g., 1127:... thereupon the said Lords Spiritual and Temporal and Commons pursuant to their respective Letters and Elections being now assembled in a full and free Representative of this Nation taking into their most serious Consideration the best means for attaining the Ends aforesaid Doe in the first place (as their Ancestors in like Case have usually done) for the Vindicating and Asserting their ancient Rights and Liberties, Declare 1735: 1611:

revolution within a revolution, the pro-militia factions had gained ascendancy in the state's government. And by a manipulation through the use of oaths, disqualifying Quaker members, they made up a vast majority of the convention forming the new state constitution; it was only natural that they would assert their efforts to form a compulsory state militia in the context of a "right" to defend themselves and the state.

1771: 4951:

states from arming their citizens. Then having all the armed strength at its command, the national government could overwhelm the states. Such a circumstance has never happened, but this amendment would prevent it. The Second Amendment does not give anybody or everybody the right to possess and use firearms. The states may very properly prescribe regulations and permits governing the use of guns within their borders."

2995:... While this textual exegesis is by no means conclusive, it suggests that "the people" protected by the Fourth Amendment, and by the First and Second Amendments, and to whom rights and powers are reserved in the Ninth and Tenth Amendments, refers to a class of persons who are part of a national community or who have otherwise developed sufficient connection with this country to be considered part of that community. 2389: 2353: 4497:, which bans weapons on postal property, sustaining restrictions on guns outside the home, specifically in private vehicles parked in employee parking lots of government facilities, despite Second Amendment claims that were dismissed. The employee's Second Amendment rights were not infringed since the employee could have instead parked across the street in a public parking lot, instead of on government property. 2720:. The debate centered on whether the prefatory clause ("A well regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free State") declared the amendment's only purpose or merely announced a purpose to introduce the operative clause ("the right of the People to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed"). Scholars advanced three competing theoretical models for how the prefatory clause should be interpreted. 2294:

soldiers consisted primarily of draftees or paid substitutes as well as poor enlistees lured by enlistment bonuses. The officers, however, were of a higher quality, responding out of a sense of civic duty and patriotism, and generally critical of the rank and file. Most of the 13,000 soldiers lacked the required weaponry; the war department provided nearly two-thirds of them with guns. In October, President

2028: 1454:

magnitude, that army can never be formidable to the liberties of the People, while there is a large body of citizens, little, if at all, inferior to them in discipline and the use of arms, who stand ready to defend their own rights, and those of their fellow-citizens. This appears to me the only substitute that can be devised for a standing army, and the best possible security against it, if it should exist.

4840:, 1689, p. 76 (1981). Under the auspices of the 1671 Game Act, for example, the Catholic James II had ordered general disarmaments of regions home to his Protestant enemies. See Malcolm 103–06. These experiences caused Englishmen to be extremely wary of military forces run by the state (regulars) and to be jealous of their arms. They accordingly obtained an assurance from William and Mary, in the 2751:

right to firearms to the extent necessary for militia duty. However, under the standard model, the opening phrase was believed to be prefatory or amplifying to the operative clause. The opening phrase was meant as a non-exclusive example – one of many reasons for the amendment. This interpretation is consistent with the position that the Second Amendment protects a modified individual right.

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the amendment confers an individual right 'of the people' to keep and bear arms". Additionally, scholars who favored this model argued the "absence of founding-era militias mentioned in the Amendment's preamble does not render it a 'dead letter' because the preamble is a 'philosophical declaration' safeguarding militias and is but one of multiple 'civic purposes' for which the Amendment was enacted".

2398: 1349:. While British policy in the early phases of the Revolution clearly aimed to prevent coordinated action by the Patriot militia, some have argued that there is no evidence that the British sought to restrict the traditional common law right of self-defense. Patrick J. Charles disputes these claims citing similar disarming by the patriots and challenging those scholars' interpretation of Blackstone. 6099:... This right has long been understood to be the predecessor to our Second Amendment ... It was clearly an individual right, having nothing whatever to do with service in a militia. To be sure, it was an individual right not available to the whole population, given that it was restricted to Protestants, and like all written English rights it was held only against the Crown, not Parliament." 2858:, as well as the phrase "ordinary and ill-regulated militia". Fletcher meant "regular" in the sense of regular military, and advocated the universal conscription and regular training of men of fighting age. Jefferson thought well of Fletcher, commenting that "the political principles of that patriot were worthy the purest periods of the British constitution. They are those which were in vigour." 2050:, Professor of Law of the Roger Williams University Law School in Rhode Island, the Second Amendment was written to assure the Southern states that Congress would not undermine the slave system by using its newly acquired constitutional authority over the militia to disarm the state militia and thereby destroy the South's principal instrument of slave control. In his close analysis of 1326:, who favored independence from British rule. As a result, some Patriots created their own militias that excluded the Loyalists and then sought to stock independent armories for their militias. In response to this arms build-up, the British Parliament established an embargo of firearms, parts and ammunition against the American colonies which in some instance came to be referred to as 3286: (1886), Herman Presser headed a German-American paramilitary shooting organization and was arrested for leading a parade group of 400 men, training and drilling with military weapons with the declared intention to fight, through the streets of Chicago as a violation of Illinois law that prohibited public drilling and parading in military style without a permit from the governor. 993: 2239: 4367:. The court cited "the existence of a longstanding tradition of prohibiting juveniles from both receiving and possessing handguns" and observed "the federal ban on juvenile possession of handguns is part of a longstanding practice of prohibiting certain classes of individuals from possessing firearms – those whose possession poses a particular danger to the public." 3391:. The Supreme Court cited the Second Amendment indirectly by declaring that the United States Constitution obliges citizens "to defend our government against all enemies whenever necessity arises is a fundamental principle of the Constitution" and by declaring further that the "common defense was one of the purposes for which the people ordained and established the Constitution." 12483: 928:(2016), the Supreme Court reiterated its earlier rulings that "the Second Amendment extends, prima facie, to all instruments that constitute bearable arms, even those that were not in existence at the time of the founding" and that its protection is not limited to "only those weapons useful in warfare". In addition to affirming the right to carry firearms in public, 2834:"individualist" view of gun ownership rights. The opposite of this "individualist" view of gun ownership rights is the "collective-right" theory, according to which the amendment protects a collective right of states to maintain militias or an individual right to keep and bear arms in connection with service in a militia (for this view see for example the 4179:

in a 6–3 decision that the New York law, as a "may-issue" regulation, was unconstitutional, affirming that public possession of firearms was a protected right under the Second Amendment. The majority stated that states may still regulate firearms through "shall-issue" regulations that use objective measures such as background checks. In its June 2024

2901:, and of the other classes of the citizens, to be under arms for the purpose of going through military exercises and evolutions, as often as might be necessary to acquire the degree of perfection which would entitle them to the character of a well-regulated militia, would be a real grievance to the people, and a serious public inconvenience and loss 1995:... by totally disusing and neglecting the militia." He also clarified that under prevailing practice the militia included all people, rich and poor. "Who are the militia? They consist now of the whole people, except a few public officers." Because all were members of the militia, all enjoyed the right to individually bear arms to serve therein. 1097:(2008), the Supreme Court did not accept this view, remarking that the English right at the time of the passing of the English Bill of Rights was "clearly an individual right, having nothing whatsoever to do with service in the militia" and that it was a right not to be disarmed by the Crown and was not the granting of a new right to have arms. 3867:... If the Court had properly interpreted the Second Amendment, the Court would have said that amendment was very important when the nation was new; it gave a qualified right to keep and bear arms, but it was for one purpose only – and that was the purpose of having militiamen who were able to fight to preserve the nation. 4689:. The panel dismissed the case on June 1, 2012, but only after Alameda County officials changed their interpretation of the challenged ordinance. Under the new interpretation, gun shows may take place on county property under the ordinance's exception for "events", subject to restrictions regarding the display and handling of firearms. 3803:

purpose of self-defense" or "to make war against the King"). But if "bear arms" means, as the petitioners and the dissent think, the carrying of arms only for military purposes, one simply cannot add "for the purpose of killing game". The right "to carry arms in the militia for the purpose of killing game" is worthy of the mad hatter.

2603:, observed: "An assemblage of persons with arms, for unlawful purpose, is an indictable offence, and even the carrying of arms abroad by a single individual, attended with circumstances giving just reason to fear that he purposes to make an unlawful use of them, would be sufficient cause to require him to give surety of the peace." 4848:), that Protestants would never be disarmed: 'That the subjects which are Protestants may have arms for their defense suitable to their conditions and as allowed by law.' 1 W. & M., c. 2, §7, in 3 Eng. Stat. at Large 441 (1689). This right has long been understood to be the predecessor to our Second Amendment. See E. Dumbauld, 12491: 2816:... that a well regulated militia being necessary for the defense of the state, the peoples' rights to bear arms. This has been the subject of one of the greatest pieces of fraud – I repeat the word 'fraud' – on the American public by special interest groups that I have ever seen in my lifetime. 3179:

3062:

of the phrase. Subtracting about 350 duplicate matches, that leaves about 1,500 separate occurrences of "bear arms" in the 17th and 18th centuries, and only a handful don't refer to war, soldiering or organized, armed action. These databases confirm that the natural meaning of "bear arms" in the framers' day was military.

9007:, Simon and Schuster, 1999, p. 252. ("Until recently, the Second Amendment was a little-visited area of the Constitution. A two thousand-page commentary on the Constitution put out by the Library of Congress in 1973 has copious annotation for most clauses, but less than a page and a half for the Second Amendment.") 3085:, the intended meaning and application of the Second Amendment drew less interest than it does in modern times. The vast majority of regulation was done by states, and the first case law on weapons regulation dealt with state interpretations of the Second Amendment. A notable exception to this general rule was 3600:

should not be taken to cast doubt on longstanding prohibitions on the possession of firearms by felons and the mentally ill, or laws forbidding the carrying of firearms in sensitive places such as schools and government buildings, or laws imposing conditions and qualifications on the commercial sale of arms.

9280:

Merkel and Uviller, p. 150. "The linguistically correct reading of this unique construction is as though it said: 'Congress shall not limit the right of the people (that is, the potential members of the state militia) to acquire and keep the sort of arms appropriate to their military duty, so long as

8808:

The next amendment is, 'A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed.' One of the ordinary modes, by which tyrants accomplish their purposes without resistance, is, by disarming the people, and making it

4178:

and two individuals who had been denied permits on the grounds that they lacked proper cause, challenged the licensing regime as a violation of the Second Amendment, with the District Court and the Second Circuit Court of Appeals ruling in favor of the state. The Supreme Court ruled on June 23, 2022,

3788:, in his own dissent joined by Stevens, Souter, and Ginsburg, stated that the entire Court subscribes to the proposition that "the amendment protects an 'individual' right – i.e., one that is separately possessed, and may be separately enforced, by each person on whom it is conferred". 3748:

The Court's statement that the right secured by the Second Amendment is limited has been widely discussed by lower courts and the media. According to Justice John Paul Stevens he was able to persuade Justice Anthony M. Kennedy to ask for "some important changes" to Justice Scalia's opinion, so it was

2746:

The third, known as the "standard model", held that the Second Amendment recognized the personal right of individuals to keep and bear arms. Supporters of this model argued that "although the first clause may describe a general purpose for the amendment, the second clause is controlling and therefore

2651:

and other radical abolitionists who believed that arming slaves was not only morally justified, but entirely consistent with the Second Amendment. An express connection between this right and the Second Amendment was drawn by Lysander Spooner who commented that a "right of resistance" is protected by

2209:

The Senate returned to this amendment for a final time on September 9. A proposal to insert the words "for the common defence" next to the words "bear arms" was defeated. A motion passed to replace the words "the best", and insert in lieu thereof "necessary to the" . The Senate then slightly modified

2200:

By this time, the proposed right to keep and bear arms was in a separate amendment, instead of being in a single amendment together with other proposed rights such as the due process right. As a representative explained, this change allowed each amendment to "be passed upon distinctly by the States".

2079:

and other slaveholders that they would be able to keep their slave control militias independent of the federal government, James Madison (also slave owner) redrafted the Second Amendment into its current form "for the specific purpose of assuring the Southern states, and particularly his constituents

1564:

That a well-regulated militia, composed of the body of the people, trained to arms, is the proper, natural, and safe defence of a free State; that standing armies, in time of peace, should be avoided, as dangerous to liberty; and that in all cases the military should be under strict subordination to,

6994:

US Constitution Article 1 Section 8: "To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the Militia, and for governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the Appointment of the Officers, and the Authority of training the

5963:

The Bill of Rights, as passed by both houses of Congress, contained twelve articles. The first two articles failed of ratification, and thus it was article four which ultimately became the Second Amendment. The 'official copy of the Joint Resolution of Congress proposing articles to the Legislatures

4323:

ruling. The court refused to do so, stating that the firearms registration procedures, the prohibition on assault weapons, and the prohibition on large capacity ammunition feeding devices were found to not violate the Second Amendment. On September 18, 2015, the D.C. Circuit ruled that requiring gun

4137:

on December 2, 2019, to decide whether a New York City ordinance that prevents the transport of guns, even if properly unloaded and locked in containers, from within city limits to outside of the city limits is unconstitutional. The New York Rifle & Pistol Association challenged the ordinance on

3834:

pertained to three District of Columbia ordinances involving restrictions on firearms amounting to a total ban. These three ordinances were a ban on handgun registration, a requirement that all firearms in a home be either disassembled or have a trigger lock, and licensing requirement that prohibits

3610:

3. The handgun ban and the trigger-lock requirement (as applied to self-defense) violate the Second Amendment. The District's total ban on handgun possession in the home amounts to a prohibition on an entire class of "arms" that Americans overwhelmingly choose for the lawful purpose of self-defense.

3503:

ruled that the Second Amendment protected the right to keep arms that are part of "ordinary military equipment". They also claim that the Court did not consider the question of whether the sawed-off shotgun in the case would be an applicable weapon for personal defense, instead looking solely at the

2738:

The second, known as the "sophisticated collective right model", held that the Second Amendment recognizes some limited individual right. However, this individual right could be exercised only by actively participating members of a functioning, organized state militia. Some scholars have argued that

2697:

It might be supposed from the phraseology of this provision that the right to keep and bear arms was only guaranteed to the militia; but this would be an interpretation not warranted by the intent. The militia, as has been elsewhere explained, consists of those persons who, under the law, are liable

2627:

Story describes a militia as the "natural defence of a free country", both against foreign foes, domestic revolts and usurpation by rulers. The book regards the militia as a "moral check" against both usurpation and the arbitrary use of power, while expressing distress at the growing indifference of

2582:

The prohibition is general. No clause in the Constitution could by any rule of construction be conceived to give to congress a power to disarm the people. Such a flagitious attempt could only be made under some general pretence by a state legislature. But if in any blind pursuit of inordinate power,

2494:

As civil rulers, not having their duty to the people duly before them, may attempt to tyrannize, and as the military forces which must be occasionally raised to defend our country, might pervert their power to the injury of their fellow citizens, the people are confirmed by the next article in their

2229:

On December 15, 1791, the Bill of Rights (the first ten amendments to the Constitution) was adopted, having been ratified by three-fourths of the states, having been ratified as a group by all the fourteen states then in existence except Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Georgia – which

2070:

If the country be invaded, a state may go to war, but cannot suppress insurrections . If there should happen an insurrection of slaves, the country cannot be said to be invaded. They cannot, therefore, suppress it without the interposition of Congress ... Congress, and Congress only , can call forth

1985:

Before a standing army can rule the people must be disarmed; as they are in almost every kingdom in Europe. The supreme power in America cannot enforce unjust laws by the sword; because the whole body of the people are armed, and constitute a force superior to any band of regular troops that can be,

1901:

Carolina and Rhode Island, ratified only after Congress had passed the Bill of Rights and sent it to the states for ratification. James Madison drafted what ultimately became the Bill of Rights, which was proposed by the first Congress on June 8, 1789, and was adopted on December 15, 1791.

1709:

The people have a right to keep and to bear arms for the common defence. And as, in time of peace, armies are dangerous to liberty, they ought not to be maintained without the consent of the legislature; and the military power shall always be held in an exact subordination to the civil authority and

1669:

And whereas it is of the utmost importance to the safety of every State that it should always be in a condition of defence; and it is the duty of every man who enjoys the protection of society to be prepared and willing to defend it; this convention therefore, in the name and by the authority of the

1436:

alluded to this right to rebel as the natural right of resistance and self preservation, to be used only as a last resort, exercisable when "the sanctions of society and laws are found insufficient to restrain the violence of oppression". Some believe that the framers of the Bill of Rights sought to

1184:

Although there is little doubt that the writers of the Second Amendment were heavily influenced by the English Bill of Rights, it is a matter of interpretation as to whether they were intent on preserving the power to regulate arms to the states over the federal government (as the English Parliament

8718:

In the second article, it is declared, that a well regulated militia is necessary to the security of a free state; a proposition from which few will dissent. Although in actual war, the services of regular troops are confessedly more valuable; yet, while peace prevails, and in the commencement of a

3781:

This dissent called the majority opinion "strained and unpersuasive" and said that the right to possess a firearm exists only in relation to the militia and that the D.C. laws constitute permissible regulation. In the majority opinion, Justice Stevens' interpretation of the phrase "to keep and bear

3767:

The question presented by this case is not whether the Second Amendment protects a "collective right" or an "individual right". Surely it protects a right that can be enforced by individuals. But a conclusion that the Second Amendment protects an individual right does not tell us anything about the

3494:

In the absence of any evidence tending to show that possession or use of a 'shotgun having a barrel of less than eighteen inches in length' at this time has some reasonable relationship to any preservation or efficiency of a well regulated militia, we cannot say that the Second Amendment guarantees

3156:

supported the individual rights model, under which the Second Amendment protects the right to keep and bear arms much as the First Amendment protects the right to free speech. Under this model, the militia is composed of members who supply their own arms and ammunition. This is generally recognized

3061:

A search of Brigham Young University's new online Corpus of Founding Era American English, with more than 95,000 texts and 138 million words, yields 281 instances of the phrase "bear arms". BYU's Corpus of Early Modern English, with 40,000 texts and close to 1.3 billion words, shows 1,572 instances

3027:

Before addressing the verbs "keep" and "bear", we interpret their object: "Arms". The term was applied, then as now, to weapons that were not specifically designed for military use and were not employed in a military capacity. Thus, the most natural reading of "keep Arms" in the Second Amendment is

2750:

Under both of the collective right models, the opening phrase was considered essential as a pre-condition for the main clause. These interpretations held that this was a grammar structure that was common during that era and that this grammar dictated that the Second Amendment protected a collective

2310:

had lobbied Congress to establish federal armories to stock imported weapons and encourage domestic production. Congress did subsequently pass "n act for the erecting and repairing of Arsenals and Magazines" on April 2, 1794, two months prior to the insurrection. Nevertheless, the militia continued

2246:

During the first two decades following the ratification of the Second Amendment, public opposition to standing armies, among Anti-Federalists and Federalists alike, persisted and manifested itself locally as a general reluctance to create a professional armed police force, instead relying on county

2173:

In late August 1789, the House debated and modified the Second Amendment. These debates revolved primarily around the risk of "mal-administration of the government" using the "religiously scrupulous" clause to destroy the militia as British forces had attempted to destroy the Patriot militia at the

1600:

It is relevant that Pennsylvania was a Quaker colony traditionally opposed to bearing arms. "In settling Pennsylvania, William Penn had a great experiment in view, a 'holy experiment', as he term it. This was no less than to test, on a scale of considerable magnitude, the practicability of founding

8896:

The people of the United States, in making their Constitution, do not create or confer on themselves any new rights, but they expressly reserve all the rights they then held, except what were delegated for their own benefit; and they particularly and expressly recognize and perpetuate many natural

4701:

No. 10-56971 (9th Cir. 2016), (Circuit docket 13-17132) – On June 9, 2016, pertaining to the legality of San Diego County's restrictive policy regarding requiring documentation of "good cause" before issuing a concealed carry permit, the Ninth Circuit upheld the policy, finding that

3223:

and had been charged with conspiring to prevent blacks from exercising their right to bear arms. The Court dismissed the charges, holding that the Bill of Rights restricted Congress but not private individuals. The Court concluded, "or their protection in its enjoyment, the people must look to the

3165:

The signification attributed to the term Militia appears from the debates in the Convention, the history and legislation of Colonies and States, and the writings of approved commentators. These show plainly enough that the Militia comprised all males physically capable of acting in concert for the

2622:

The right of the citizens to keep and bear arms has justly been considered, as the palladium of the liberties of a republic; since it offers a strong moral check against the usurpations and arbitrary power of rulers; and it will generally, even if these are successful in the first instance, enable

2476:

A worthy member has asked, who are the militia, if they be not the people, of this country, and if we are not to be protected from the fate of the Germans, Prussians, &c. by our representation? I ask who are the militia? They consist now of the whole people, except a few public officers. But I

2293:

against federal tax collectors whom they viewed as illegitimate tools of tyrannical power. Attempts by the four adjoining states to raise a militia for nationalization to suppress the insurrection proved inadequate. When officials resorted to drafting men, they faced bitter resistance. Forthcoming

1964:

A foundation of American political thought during the Revolutionary period was concern about political corruption and governmental tyranny. Even the federalists, fending off their opponents who accused them of creating an oppressive regime, were careful to acknowledge the risks of tyranny. Against

1954:

To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the Militia, and for governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the Appointment of the Officers, and the Authority of training the Militia according to the discipline

1149:

There is some difference of opinion as to how revolutionary the events of 1688–89 actually were, and several commentators make the point that the provisions of the English Bill of Rights did not represent new laws, but rather stated existing rights. Mark Thompson wrote that, apart from determining

7022:

The national government has an exclusive right to provide for arming, organizing, and disciplining the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States. The state governments have the power of appointing the officers, and of training the militia,

4106:

decisions saying that "the Second Amendment extends, prima facie, to all instruments that constitute bearable arms, even those that were not in existence at the time of the founding", that "the Second Amendment right is fully applicable to the States", and that the protection is not restricted to

2942:

When each word in the text is given full effect, the Amendment is most naturally read to secure to the people a right to use and possess arms in conjunction with service in a well-regulated militia. So far as appears, no more than that was contemplated by its drafters or is encompassed within its

2285:

The act also gave specific instructions to domestic weapon manufacturers "that from and after five years from the passing of this act, muskets for arming the militia as herein required, shall be of bores sufficient for balls of the eighteenth part of a pound." In practice, private acquisition and

1941:

No vessel of war shall be kept up in time of peace by any State, except such number only, as shall be deemed necessary by the united States in congress assembled, for the defense of such State, or its trade; nor shall any body of forces be kept up by any State in time of peace, except such number

1932:

There was substantial opposition to the new Constitution because it moved the power to arm the state militias from the states to the federal government. This created a fear that the federal government, by neglecting the upkeep of the militia, could have overwhelming military force at its disposal

4950:

Cooke, p. 100. "This is another protection against a possible abuse by Congress. The right protected is really the right of a state to maintain an armed militia, or national guard, as we call it now. In the eighteenth century people feared that Congress might, by passing a law, prohibit the

4712:

ruling of the Ninth Circuit on March 26, 2021, upheld the validity of Hawaii's law that barred open carry of guns outside of one's home without a license. The Ninth Circuit ruled that there was no right to carry weapons in public spaces, and states have a compelling interest for public safety to

3814:

has varied, with many sources giving focus to the ruling referring to itself as being the first in Supreme Court history to read the Second Amendment as protecting an individual right. The majority opinion, authored by Justice Scalia, gives explanation of the majority legal reasoning behind this

3802:

A purposive qualifying phrase that contradicts the word or phrase it modifies is unknown this side of the looking glass (except, apparently, in some courses on Linguistics). If "bear arms" means, as we think, simply the carrying of arms, a modifier can limit the purpose of the carriage ("for the

3178:

3126:

State and federal courts historically have used two models to interpret the Second Amendment: the "individual rights" model, which holds that individuals hold the right to bear arms, and the "collective rights" model, which holds that the right is dependent on militia membership. The "collective

2680:

right of every person to "life, liberty, and property", to "keep and bear arms", to the "writ of habeas corpus" to "trial by jury", and divers others, are recognized by, and held under, the Constitution of the United States, and cannot be infringed by individuals or even by the government itself.

2679:

The States are recognized as governments, and, when their own constitutions permit, may do as they please; provided they do not interfere with the Constitution and laws of the United States, or with the civil or natural rights of the people recognized thereby, and held in conformity to them. The

2087:

argues that this scenario is implausible. Henry and Mason were political enemies of Madison's, and neither man was in Congress at the time Madison drafted Bill of Rights; moreover, Patrick Henry argued against the ratification of both the Constitution and the Second Amendment, and it was Henry's

1223:

created "An Act for better ordering of the militia forces in the several counties of that part of Great Britain called England". This act declared that "a well-ordered and well-disciplined militia is essentially necessary to the safety, peace and prosperity of this kingdom," and that the current

9349:

Volokh, "Commonplace", p. 793. "The Second Amendment is widely seen as quite unusual, because it has a justification clause as well as an operative clause. Professor Volokh points out that this structure was actually quite commonplace in American constitutions of the Framing era: State Bills of

7755: 5664:

The second amendment's capitalization and punctuation are not uniformly reported; another version has three commas, after "militia", "state", and "arms". Since documents were at that time copied by hand, variations in punctuation and capitalization are common, and the copy retained by the first

3599:

2. Like most rights, the Second Amendment right is not unlimited. It is not a right to keep and carry any weapon whatsoever in any manner whatsoever and for whatever purpose: For example, concealed weapons prohibitions have been upheld under the Amendment or state analogues. The Court's opinion

1610:

and where real religion might flourish without the incubus of a hierarchical system." The non-Quaker residents, many from the western Counties, complained often and loudly of being denied the right to a common defense. By the time of the American Revolution, through what could be described as a

1453:

it will be possible to have an excellent body of well-trained militia, ready to take the field whenever the defence of the State shall require it. This will not only lessen the call for military establishments, but if circumstances should at any time oblige the Government to form an army of any

1107:

The statement in the English Bill of Rights concerning the right to bear arms is often quoted only in the passage where it is written as above and not in its full context. In its full context it is clear that the bill was asserting the right of Protestant citizens not to be disarmed by the king

4936:

Malcolm, "That Every Man Be Armed", pp. 452, 466. "The Second Amendment reflects traditional English attitudes toward these three distinct, but intertwined, issues: the right of the individual to protect his life, the challenge to government of an armed citizenry, and the preference for a

3902:. After a lengthy historical and legal analysis Anthony Picadio concluded: "If the Second Amendment had been understood to have the meaning given to it by Justice Scalia, it would not have been ratified by Virginia and the other slave states." Picadio pointed out that the right acknowledged in 3776:

The Second Amendment was adopted to protect the right of the people of each of the several States to maintain a well-regulated militia. It was a response to concerns raised during the ratification of the Constitution that the power of Congress to disarm the state militias and create a national

2824:

For more than 200 years, the federal courts have unanimously determined that the Second Amendment concerns only the arming of the people in service to an organized state militia; it does not guarantee immediate access to guns for private purposes. The nation can no longer afford to let the gun

1900:

persuaded enough Anti-federalists to vote for the Constitution, allowing for ratification. The Constitution was declared ratified on June 21, 1788, when nine of the original thirteen states had ratified it. The remaining four states later followed suit, although the last two states, North

1875:

provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the states respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline

1629:

25. That a well-regulated militia is the proper and natural defence of a free government. 26. That standing armies are dangerous to liberty, and ought not to be raised or kept up, without consent of the Legislature. 27. That in all cases, and at all times, the military ought to be under strict

3641:

In some respects, these limitations are consistent with each other. However, they are not identical, and the United States Supreme Court neither fully harmonized them nor elevated one over another. First, the Court stated that "the Second Amendment does not protect those weapons not typically

2968:

Nowhere else in the Constitution does a "right" attributed to "the people" refer to anything other than an individual right. What is more, in all six other provisions of the Constitution that mention "the people", the term unambiguously refers to all members of the political community, not an

2927:

construed the Second Amendment as protecting the 'natural right of self-defence' and therefore struck down a ban on carrying pistols openly. Its opinion perfectly captured the way in which the operative clause of the Second Amendment furthers the purpose announced in the prefatory clause, in

869:

By January 1788, Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia and Connecticut ratified the Constitution without insisting upon amendments. Several amendments were proposed, but were not adopted at the time the Constitution was ratified. For example, the Pennsylvania convention debated fifteen

3066:

A paper from 2008 found that before 1820, the use of the phrase "bear arms" was commonly used in a civilian context, such as hunting and personal self-defense, in both American and British law. One scholar suggests that the right to "keep and bear arms" further includes a right to privately

3048:

The Amendment's text does justify a different limitation: the "right to keep and bear arms" protects only a right to possess and use firearms in connection with service in a state-organized militia. Had the Framers wished to expand the meaning of the phrase "bear arms" to encompass civilian

1361:

Instances of the licentious and outrageous behavior of the military conservators of the peace still multiply upon us, some of which are of such nature, and have been carried to such lengths, as must serve fully to evince that a late vote of this town, calling upon its inhabitants to provide

2833:

found that every law journal article discussing the Second Amendment through 1959 "reflected the Second Amendment affects citizens only in connection with citizen service in a government organized and regulated militia." Only beginning in 1960 did law journal articles begin to advocate an

1689:

That the people have a right to bear arms for the defence of the themselves and the State; and as standing armies, in the time of peace, are dangerous to liberty, they ought not to be kept up; and that the military should be kept under strict subordination to, and governed by, the civil

9281:

the following statement remains true: "an armed, trained, and controlled militia is the best – if not the only – way to protect the state government and the liberties of its people against uprisings from within and incursions or oppression from without."'"

3623:, 554 U.S. 570 (2008), at 632) its analysis should not be read to suggest "the invalidity of laws regulating the storage of firearms to prevent accidents." The Supreme Court also defined the term arms used in the Second Amendment. "Arms" covered by the Second Amendment were defined in 1104:, stating: "That the Subjects which are Protestants may have Arms for their Defence suitable to their Conditions and as allowed by Law." It also contained text that aspired to bind future Parliaments, though under English constitutional law no Parliament can bind any later Parliament. 1584:

That the people have a right to bear arms for the defence of themselves and the state; and as standing armies in the time of peace are dangerous to liberty, they ought not to be kept up; And that the military should be kept under strict subordination to, and governed by, the civil

2134:

had submitted a draft constitution for Virginia that said "no freeman shall ever be debarred the use of arms within his own lands or tenements". According to Picadio, this version was rejected because "it would have given to free blacks the constitutional right to have firearms".

2329:

Federal law continues to define the militia as all able-bodied males aged 17 to 44, who are citizens or intend to become one, and female citizens who are members of the National Guard. The militia is divided into the organized militia, which consists of the National Guard and

3839:

9072:

Advocates of the collective theories posit that the Second Amendment was written out of fear that the new central government would disarm state militias needed for local defense. Under any sort of collective theory, the government could completely ban all firearm ownership

4324:

owners to re-register a gun every three years, make a gun available for inspection or pass a test about firearms laws violated the Second Amendment, although the court upheld requirements that gun owners be fingerprinted, photographed, and complete a safety training course.

7680:

8 begins: 'The inhabitants of the several states shall have liberty to fowl and hunt in seasonable times ...' article 7: 'That the people have a right to bear arms for the defense of themselves and their own state, or the United States, or for the purposes of killing

2195:

A well regulated militia, composed of the body of the people, being the best security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed, but no one religiously scrupulous of bearing arms shall be compelled to render military service in

4586:, 587 F.3 d 803 (7th Cir. 2009 ) – Steven Skoien, a Wisconsin man convicted of two misdemeanor domestic violence convictions, appealed his conviction based on the argument that the prohibition violated the individual rights to bear arms, as described in 2182:

A well regulated militia, composed of the body of the people, being the best security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed; but no one religiously scrupulous of bearing arms shall be compelled to render military service in

2247:

sheriffs, constables and night watchmen to enforce local ordinances. Though sometimes compensated, often these positions were unpaid – held as a matter of civic duty. In these early decades, law enforcement officers were rarely armed with firearms, using

1211:</ref> Without a regular army and police force, it had been the duty of certain men to keep watch and ward at night and to confront and capture suspicious persons. Every subject had an obligation to protect the king's peace and assist in the suppression of riots. 7023:

according to the discipline prescribed by Congress, if they should think proper to prescribe any. Should the national government wish to render the militia useless, they may neglect them, and let them perish, in order to have a pretence of establishing a standing army.

8163: 8268: 8217: 1649:

That the people have a right to bear arms, for the defence of the State; and, as standing armies, in time of peace, are dangerous to liberty, they ought not to be kept up; and that the military should be kept under strict subordination to, and governed by, the civil

2268:

ach and every free able-bodied white male citizen of the respective States, resident therein, who is or shall be of age of eighteen years, and under the age of forty-five years (except as is herein after excepted) shall severally and respectively be enrolled in the

8286: 3567:(a) The Amendment's prefatory clause announces a purpose, but does not limit or expand the scope of the second part, the operative clause. The operative clause's text and history demonstrate that it connotes an individual right to keep and bear arms. pp. 2–22. 6172:... was declaratory of the common law. It contained in it its own words of limitation, namely that the right to have arms for self-defence is limited by the words 'and as allowed by Law'. The law is a changing thing. Parliament by statute can repeal the common law 4926:

Hardy, p. 1237. "Early Americans wrote of the right in light of three considerations: (1) as auxiliary to a natural right of self-defense; (2) as enabling an armed people to deter undemocratic government; and (3) as enabling the people to organize a militia

2842:, Justice John Paul Stevens for example submits the following revised Second Amendment: "A well regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms when serving in the militia shall not be infringed." 2159:

be created to report on it. The House voted in favor of Madison's motion, and the Bill of Rights entered committee for review. The committee returned to the House a reworded version of the Second Amendment on July 28. On August 17, that version was read into the

6230:

Heyman, pp. 253–59. "Finally, we should note that (contrary to Kates's assertion), Blackstone nowhere suggests that the right to arms derives from 'the common law'. Instead, this is a right that is secured by 'the constitution', and in particular by the Bill of

932:(2022) created a new test that laws seeking to limit Second Amendment rights must be based on the history and tradition of gun rights, although the test was refined to focus on similar analogues and general principles rather than strict matches from the past in 6667:

1494:, however, has argued that there is no basis in constitutional law or scholarship for this view. He notes that, not only does this represent a misreading of the text of the Amendment as drafted, it stands in violation of other elements of the Constitution. 1141:

The English Bill of Rights includes the proviso that arms must be as "allowed by law". This has been the case before and after the passage of the Bill. While it did not override earlier restrictions on the ownership of guns for hunting, it is subject to the

6763: 2150:

The right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed; a well armed and well regulated militia being the best security of a free country: but no person religiously scrupulous of bearing arms shall be compelled to render military service in

4550:

should be applied to firearms regulations when regulations burden "conduct that falls within the scope of the Second Amendment right, as historically understood". At issue in this case was whether the Second Amendment is violated by a provision of the

2905:... Little more can reasonably be aimed at, with respect to the People at large, than to have them properly armed and equipped; and in order to see that this be not neglected, it will be necessary to assemble them once or twice in the course of a year. 2795:

The Constitution of the United States, in its Second Amendment, guarantees a "right of the people to keep and bear arms". However, the meaning of this clause cannot be understood except by looking to the purpose, the setting and the objectives of the

5665:

Congress, the copies transmitted by it to the state legislatures, and the ratifications returned by them show wide variations in such details. Letter from Marlene McGuirl, Chief, British-American Law Division, Library of Congress (October 29, 1976).

10918: 2934:]! And Lexington, Concord, Camden, River Raisin, Sandusky, and the laurel-crowned field of New Orleans, plead eloquently for this interpretation! And the acquisition of Texas may be considered the full fruits of this great constitutional right. 2780:

by ruling that the Second Amendment protects an individual right. Although the Second Amendment is the only Constitutional amendment with a prefatory clause, such linguistic constructions were widely used elsewhere in the late eighteenth century.

2646:

government oppression, as the only security against the tyranny of government lies in forcible resistance to injustice, for injustice will certainly be executed, unless forcibly resisted. Spooner's theory provided the intellectual foundation for

3827:

though these earlier rulings did not limit the right to keep and bear arms solely to militia purposes, but rather limits the type of weapon to which the right applies to those used by the militia (i.e., those in common use for lawful purposes).

1417:

objected to the shift of power from the states to the federal government, but as adoption of the Constitution became more and more likely, they shifted their strategy to establishing a bill of rights that would put some limits on federal power.

4431:, 628 F.3d 673 (4th Cir. 2010) – On December 30, 2010, the Fourth Circuit vacated William Chester's conviction for possession of a firearm after having been convicted of a misdemeanor crime of domestic violence, in violation of 4610:(Circuit docket 12-1269) – On December 11, 2012, the Seventh Circuit ruled that the Second Amendment protected a right to keep and bear arms in public for self-defense. This was an expansion of the Supreme Court's decisions in 2098:

Finkelman recognises that James Madison "drafted an amendment to protect the right of the states to maintain their militias," but insists that "The amendment had nothing to do with state police powers, which were the basis of slave patrols."

1170:

The fifth and last auxiliary right of the subject, that I shall at present mention, is that of having arms for their defence, suitable to their condition and degree, and such as are allowed by law. Which is also declared by the same statute

3594:, 307 U.S. 174, does not limit the right to keep and bear arms to militia purposes, but rather limits the type of weapon to which the right applies to those used by the militia, i.e., those in common use for lawful purposes. pp. 47–54. 2168:

A well regulated militia, composed of the body of the people, being the best security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed; but no person religiously scrupulous shall be compelled to bear

962:

and put on display and the versions ratified by the states. These differences have been a focus of debate regarding the meaning of the amendment, particularly regarding the importance of what the courts have called the prefatory clause.

3166:

common defense. 'A body of citizens enrolled for military discipline.' And further, that ordinarily when called for service these men were expected to appear bearing arms supplied by themselves and of the kind in common use at the time.

9896: 6164:"Where a later enactment does not expressly repeal an earlier enactment which it has power to override, but the provisions of the later enactment are contrary to those of the earlier, the latter by implication repeals the earlier." 12340: 2558:

for limiting gun ownership to the very wealthy, leaving the populace effectively disarmed, and expressed the hope that Americans "never cease to regard the right of keeping and bearing arms as the surest pledge of their liberty."

7759: 1306:

Which of these considerations were thought of as most important and ultimately found expression in the Second Amendment is disputed. Some of these purposes were explicitly mentioned in early state constitutions; for example, the

4511:, which prohibits "straw purchases". A "straw purchase" occurs when someone eligible to purchase a firearm buys one for an ineligible person. Additionally, the court rejected the request for a strict scrutiny standard of review. 1112:

Whereas the late King James the Second by the Assistance of diverse evil Councillors Judges and Ministers employed by him did endeavour to subvert and extirpate the Protestant Religion and the Laws and Liberties of this Kingdom

4052:

is applicable to the states through the due process clause of the fourteenth amendment. In so holding, the Court reiterated that "the Second Amendment protects the right to keep and bear arms for the purpose of self-defense"

1917:

legal theories. In the context of such legal theories and elsewhere, it is important to understand the language of the Constitution in terms of what that language meant to the people who wrote and ratified the Constitution.

4529:, identified the Second Amendment as providing an individual right to bear arms, and had already, likewise, determined that restrictions on felon ownership of firearms did not violate this right. Moreover, it observed that 14174:

Charles, Patrick J. (2009). "'Arms for their defence?': An historical, legal, and textual analysis of the English right to have arms and whether the Second Amendment should be incorporated in McDonald v. City of Chicago".

8272: 8221: 5939: 3563:

1. The Second Amendment protects an individual right to possess a firearm unconnected with service in a militia, and to use that arm for traditionally lawful purposes, such as self-defense within the home. pp. 2–53.

3003:, there were several different reasons for this amendment, and protecting militias was only one of them; if protecting militias had been the only reason then the amendment could have instead referred to "the right of the 2642:, commenting on bills of rights, stated that the object of all bills of rights is to assert the rights of individuals against the government and that the Second Amendment right to keep and bear arms was in support of the 1990:

George Mason also argued the importance of the militia and right to bear arms by reminding his compatriots of the British government's efforts "to disarm the people; that it was the best and most effectual way to enslave

1924:, a delegate from Pennsylvania, sought to clarify the draft Constitution with a bill of rights explicitly granting individuals the right to hunt on their own land in season, though Whitehill's language was never debated. 4013:, noted that the Privileges or Immunities Clause refers to "citizens" whereas the Due Process Clause refers more broadly to any "person", and therefore Thomas reserved the issue of non-citizens for later decision. After 870:

amendments, one of which concerned the right of the people to be armed, another with the militia. The Massachusetts convention also ratified the Constitution with an attached list of proposed amendments. In the end, the

10386:

describes Miller as 'deliciously and usefully ambiguous' in an article about using the Second Amendment as a teaching tool in constitutional law. That is probably the most accurate statement that can be made about the

1977:... that an army could be raised for the purpose of enslaving themselves or their brethren? Or, if raised whether they could subdue a nation of freemen, who know how to prize liberty and who have arms in their hands?" 5287: 4973:

and Supreme Court Justice Joseph Story, retained the confusing practice of referring to each of the ten amendments in the Bill of Rights by the enumeration found in the first draft; the fifth article is the Second

3791:

Regarding the term "well regulated", the majority opinion said, "The adjective 'well-regulated' implies nothing more than the imposition of proper discipline and training." The majority opinion quoted Spooner from

3731:

because it was the first time the Court affirmed an individual's right to own a gun. To clarify that its ruling does not invalidate a broad range of existing firearm laws, the majority opinion, written by Justice

6176:... Where the Bill of Rights says that 'the Subjects may have arms for their defence suitable for their condition and as allowed by law', 'and as allowed by law' means 'and as allowed by law for the time being'" 4893:, wrote that "the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed" was just a controlling one and referred to it as a pre-existing right of individuals to possess and carry personal weapons for 2522:

A well regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep, and bear arms, shall not be infringed. Amendments to C. U. S. Art. 4. This may be considered as the true

12385: 1352:

The right of the colonists to arms and rebellion against oppression was asserted, for example, in a pre-revolutionary newspaper editorial in 1769 objecting to the Crown suppression of colonial opposition to the

11439: 8119: 7570: 11182: 3576:(d) The Second Amendment's drafting history, while of dubious interpretive worth, reveals three state Second Amendment proposals that unequivocally referred to an individual right to bear arms. pp. 30–32. 3495:

the right to keep and bear such an instrument. Certainly it is not within judicial notice that this weapon is any part of the ordinary military equipment or that its use could contribute to the common defense.

2715:

Until the late 20th century, there was little scholarly commentary of the Second Amendment. In the latter half of the 20th century, there was considerable debate over whether the Second Amendment protected an

12661: 2693:, perhaps the most widely read constitutional scholar of the nineteenth century, wrote extensively about this amendment, and he explained in 1880 how the Second Amendment protected the "right of the people": 2058:

The militia remained the principal means of protecting the social order and preserving white control over an enormous black population. Anything that might weaken this system presented the gravest of threats.

884:(1876), the Supreme Court ruled that, "The right to bear arms is not granted by the Constitution; neither is it in any manner dependent upon that instrument for its existence. The Second Amendments [ 915:

that held the amendment protects an individual's right to keep a gun for self-defense. This was the first time the Court had ruled that the Second Amendment guarantees an individual's right to own a gun. In

12237: 10910: 9444: 2118:

Secondly, they also greatly feared "a ruinous slave rebellion in which their families would be slaughtered and their property destroyed." When Virginia ratified the Bill of Rights on December 15, 1791, the

2012:

Guard with jealous attention the public liberty. Suspect everyone who approaches that jewel. Unfortunately, nothing will preserve it but downright force. Whenever you give up that force, you are inevitably

1175:

and is indeed a public allowance, under due restrictions, of the natural right of resistance and self-preservation, when the sanctions of society and laws are found insufficient to restrain the violence of

8167: 2897:... A tolerable expertness in military movements is a business that requires time and practice. It is not a day, or even a week, that will suffice for the attainment of it. To oblige the great body of the 2804:... We see that the need for a state militia was the predicate of the "right" guaranteed; in short, it was declared "necessary" in order to have a state military force to protect the security of the state. 12611: 2880:

If a well regulated militia be the most natural defence of a free country, it ought certainly to be under the regulation and at the disposal of that body which is constituted the guardian of the national

2146:'s initial proposal for a bill of rights was brought to the floor of the House of Representatives on June 8, 1789, during the first session of Congress. The initial proposed passage relating to arms was: 4173:

law prohibits the concealed carry of firearms without a permit. The issuance of such permits was previously at the discretion of state authorities, and permits were not issued absent 'proper cause'. The

3607:

s holding that the sorts of weapons protected are those "in common use at the time" finds support in the historical tradition of prohibiting the carrying of dangerous and unusual weapons. pp. 54–56.

3579:(e) Interpretation of the Second Amendment by scholars, courts and legislators, from immediately after its ratification through the late 19th century also supports the Court's conclusion. pp. 32–47. 1485:

of the Second Amendment whereby it is the right of any citizen to take up arms against their government should they consider it illegitimate. Such a reading has been voiced by organizations such as the

912: 8290: 1244: 5582: 1855:

It quickly became apparent that the solution to all three of these problems required shifting control of the states' militias to the federal Congress and giving it the power to raise a standing army.

11725: 7136: 12638: 7827:

An Examination into the Leading Principles of the Federal Constitution 1787, Reprinted in Pamphlets on the Constitution of the United States, Published During Its Discussion by the People, 1787–1788

4517:, 551 F.3 d 257 (5th Cir. 2010 ) – On March 4, 2010, the Fifth Circuit affirmed the conviction of Ernie Scroggins for possession of a firearm as a convicted felon, in violation of 3243:

The fourteenth amendment prohibits a State from depriving any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; but this adds nothing to the rights of one citizen as against another.

2991:

The Second Amendment protects "the right of the people to keep and bear Arms", and the Ninth and Tenth Amendments provide that certain rights and powers are retained by and reserved to "the people"

1073:

emerged from a tempestuous period in English politics during which two issues were major sources of conflict: the authority of the king to govern without the consent of Parliament, and the role of

15953: 6443:

Merkel and Uviller, pp. 62, 179 ff, 183, 188 ff, 306. "he right to bear arms was articulated as a civic right inextricably linked to the civic obligation to bear arms for the public defense."

1150:

the succession, the English Bill of Rights did "little more than set forth certain points of existing laws and simply secured to Englishmen the rights of which they were already posessed [

3629:

to include "any thing that a man wears for his defence, or takes into his hands, or useth in wrath to cast at or strike another". 554 U. S., at 581." The Michigan Court of Appeals 2012 relied on

1138:

The historical link between the English Bill of Rights and the Second Amendment, which both codify an existing right and do not create a new one, has been acknowledged by the U.S. Supreme Court.

7605:

Foner and Garraty, p. 914. "The Massachusetts compromise determined the fate of the Constitution, as it permitted delegates with doubts to vote for it in the hope that it would be amended."

4901:. As with the English law "like most rights, the Second Amendment is not unlimited. It is not a right to keep and carry any weapon whatsoever in any manner whatsoever and for whatever purpose." 4808:, militias occasionally disarmed Catholics, and the king, without parliament's consent, and likewise occasionally disarmed Protestants. See: Malcolm, "The Role of the Militia", pp. 139–151. 1425:"did not invent the right to keep and bear arms when he drafted the Second Amendment; the right was pre-existing at both common law and in the early state constitutions." In contrast, historian 15643: 1888:, initially argued that a bill of rights was unnecessary, sufficiently confident that the federal government could never raise a standing army powerful enough to overcome a militia. Federalist 1236:. On May 1, 1776, the Massachusetts Bay Councell resolved that Pickering's discipline, a modification of the 1757 act, be the discipline of their Militia. On March 29, 1779, for members of the 839:

described this right as an auxiliary right, supporting the natural rights of self-defense and resistance to oppression, and the civic duty to act in concert in defense of the state. While both

413: 337: 3695:

at 635. After a lengthy historical discussion, the Court ultimately concluded that the second amendment "guarantee the individual right to possess and carry weapons in case of confrontation" (

1198: 14916: 12725: 4128: 280: 14680: 13149: 15461: 11841: 9886: 896:(1939), the Supreme Court ruled that the Second Amendment did not protect weapon types not having a "reasonable relationship to the preservation or efficiency of a well regulated militia". 126: 12336: 11050: 1288:

The Military Company of Massachusetts had already ordered munition before the authorization was signed. Early Americans had other uses for arms, besides the uses King Charles had in mind:

15968: 15398: 4674: 1156:]." Before and after the English Bill of Rights, the government could always disarm any individual or class of individuals it considered dangerous to the peace of the realm. In 1765, 15918: 8516: 4316: 4261: 1933:

through its power to maintain a standing army and navy, leading to a confrontation with the states, encroaching on the states' reserved powers and even engaging in a military takeover.

1185:

had reserved for itself against the monarch) or whether it was intent on creating a new right akin to the right of others written into the Constitution (as the Supreme Court decided in

10424: 6973: 2123:, a successful slave rebellion, was under way. The right to bear arms was therefore deliberately tied to membership in a militia by the slaveholder and chief drafter of the Amendment, 15499: 570: 2595:, contended that citizens could appeal to the Second Amendment should either the state or federal government attempt to disarm them. He did warn, however, that "this right ought not 15766: 13271:

Blackstone's Commentaries: With Notes of Reference to the Constitution and Laws, of the Federal Government of the United States, and of the Commonwealth of Virginia: In Five Volumes

2947:... codified a pre-existing right," ante, at 19 , is of course beside the point because the right to keep and bear arms for service in a state militia was also a pre-existing right. 2543:

in a separate section of his treatise on the common law of crimes. Tucker's annotations for that latter section did not mention the Second Amendment but cited the standard works of

9833: 2302:

marched on the 7,000 rebels who conceded without fighting. The episode provoked criticism of the citizen militia and inspired calls for a universal militia. Secretary of War

1409:. Anti-federalists, on the other hand, took the side of limited government and sympathized with the rebels, many of whom were former Revolutionary War soldiers. Subsequently, the 12447: 4065:. at ___, 130 S. Ct. at 3036 (quoting Heller, 554 U.S. at 599)); and that "elf-defense is a basic right, recognized by many legal systems from ancient times to the present day" ( 15868: 12037: 9993:

Neither of the two modern theories that have defined public debate over the right to bear arms is faithful to the original understanding of this provision of the Bill of Rights.

9965: 9569: 7642:

Article quotes Robert Bork: "If the Constitution is law, then presumably its meaning, like that of all other law, is the meaning the lawmakers were understood to have intended."

1008:

The ratification acts from New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, and South Carolina contained only one comma, but with differences in capitalization. Pennsylvania's act states:

3573:(c) The Court's interpretation is confirmed by analogous arms-bearing rights in state constitutions that preceded and immediately followed the Second Amendment. pp. 28–30. 1299:, though professor Paul Finkelman has pointed out that the claim of a specific intent to protect the ability to put down slave revolts is not supported by the historical record 15638: 12155: 5057: 2800:... People of that day were apprehensive about the new "monster" national government presented to them, and this helps explain the language and purpose of the Second Amendment 11024: 16585: 7992: 1166:

describing the right to have arms in England during the 18th century as a subordinate auxiliary right of the subject that was "also declared" in the English Bill of Rights.

12553: 5291: 1247:. With ratification of the Second Amendment, after May 8, 1792, the entire United States Militia, barring two declarations, would be regulated by Von Steuben's Discipline. 16600: 8419: 8367: 8199: 8181: 8145: 5980: 4941:

attempt to address all three in a single declarative sentence has contributed mightily to the subsequent confusion over the proper interpretation of the Second Amendment."

15938: 14334:

Konig, David Thomas (Spring 2004). "The Second Amendment: A Missing Transatlantic Context for the Historical Meaning of 'the Right of the People to Keep and Bear Arms'".

9482: 8922: 3707:

at 628); and that, "above all other interests", the second amendment elevates "the right of law-abiding, responsible citizens to use arms in defense of hearth and home" (

1108:

without the consent of Parliament and was merely restoring rights to Protestants that the previous King briefly and unlawfully had removed. In its full context it reads:

15471: 15355: 15155: 15087: 14924: 4186: 4165: 2264:

On May 8, 1792, Congress passed "n act more effectually to provide for the National Defence, by establishing an Uniform Militia throughout the United States" requiring:

820: 15923: 13252:

Documentary History of the First Federal Congress of the United States of America, March 4, 1789 – March 3, 1791: Correspondence: First Session, September–November 1789

12377: 7897: 6584: 15341: 11447: 8786:

A Familiar Exposition of the Constitution of the United States: Containing a Brief Commentary on Every Clause, Explaining the True Nature, Reasons, and Objects Thereof

8770:

A Familiar Exposition of the Constitution of the United States: Containing a brief commentary on every clause, explaining the true nature, reasons, and objects thereof

8127: 7574: 2201:

On September 4, the Senate voted to change the language of the Second Amendment by removing the definition of militia, and striking the conscientious objector clause:

1859:

of the Constitution codified these changes by allowing the Congress to provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States by doing the following:

406: 272: 11192: 9508: 8096: 5510: 4191:

test, stating that in comparing modern gun control laws to historic tradition, courts should use similar analogues and general principles rather than strict matches.

1514:

Note: On May 10, 1776, Congress passed a resolution recommending that any colony with a government that was not inclined toward independence should form one that was.

922:(2010), the Supreme Court clarified that the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment incorporated the Second Amendment against state and local governments. In 16119: 15326: 15316: 11089: 10156: 9377: 8982: 958:

There are several versions of the text of the Second Amendment, each with capitalization or punctuation differences. Differences exist between the version passed by

257: 245: 15958: 12469: 11357: 8659:

Blackstone's Commentaries: With notes of reference, to the Constitution and Laws, of the Federal Government of the United States and of the Commonwealth of Virginia

3945:, it protects only "the right to possess a handgun in the house for the purposes of self-defense." This narrow right has never been extended by the Supreme Court." 2739:

the "sophisticated collective rights model" is, in fact, the functional equivalent of the "collective rights model". Other commentators have observed that prior to

2322:. The act defined the militia as every able-bodied male aged 18 to 44 who was a citizen or intended to become one. The militia was then divided by the act into the 1042:

is regarded in English common law as a subordinate auxiliary right of the primary rights to personal security, personal liberty, and private property. According to

15336: 15331: 15321: 15311: 12229: 11632: 11384: 9434: 8943: 8456: 6413: 5119: 1529:

Virginia's Constitution lists the reasons for dissolving its ties with the King in the formation of its own independent state government. Including the following:

1206: 481: 267: 262: 252: 240: 10619: 5549: 1429:

suggests that Madison's intention in framing the Second Amendment was to provide assurances to moderate Anti-Federalists that the militias would not be disarmed.

15291: 12603: 1379: 218: 10501: 10013: 4319:

denied the follow-up appeal of Dick Heller who requested the court to overturn the new District of Columbia gun control ordinances newly enacted after the 2008

2987:(1990), dealt with nonresident aliens and the Fourth Amendment, but led to a discussion of who are "the People" when referred to elsewhere in the Constitution: 15301: 15296: 15265: 15260: 13186:

The Second Amendment Primer: A Citizen's Guidebook to the History, Sources, and Authorities for the Constitutional Guarantee of the Right to Keep and Bear Arms

11058: 6611: 5204: 4595: 4246:

changed this by addressing the question in depth, with the Fifth Circuit determining that the Second Amendment protects an individual right. Subsequently, the

2592: 230: 225: 203: 198: 10357: 1596:

The inhabitants of this state shall have the liberty to fowl and hunt in seasonable times on the lands they hold, and on all other lands therein not inclosed;

15306: 15286: 15270: 5572: 4422: 4381: 3968: 3549: 3412: 3369: 3333: 3308: 3276: 235: 213: 208: 12970: 11715: 11527: 7130: 5827: 5141: 15863: 15237: 12634: 6759: 6644: 6348: 5003: 4822: 4754: 4485: 4405: 4344: 4247: 4227: 3209: 3090: 2872:("On the Militia"), Alexander Hamilton wrote the following about "organizing", "disciplining", "arming", and "training" of the militia as specified in the 2755: 2728: 2156: 188: 11214: 11151: 10589: 8058: 7931: 6066: 3711:

at 635). Based on this understanding, the Court held that a District of Columbia law banning handgun possession in the home violated the second amendment

2111:

offered freedom to slaves who escaped and joined his forces with "Liberty to Slaves" stitched onto their jacket pocket flaps. Freed slaves also served in

1401:

was reduced to as few as 80 men. They considered it to be bad that there was no effective federal military crackdown on an armed tax rebellion in western

16670: 16114: 15242: 15206: 12791: 12197: 11758: 4391:

permit law, ruling that "the proper cause requirement is substantially related to New York's compelling interests in public safety and crime prevention."

3898:

would never have ratified the Second Amendment if it had been understood as creating an individual right to own firearms because of their fear of arming

890:] means no more than that it shall not be infringed by Congress, and has no other effect than to restrict the powers of the National Government." In 548: 193: 166: 12079: 11781: 11413: 2210:

the language to read as the fourth article and voted to return the Bill of Rights to the House. The final version by the Senate was amended to read as:

792:, that the right is not unlimited and does not preclude the existence of certain long-standing prohibitions such as those forbidding "the possession of 16518: 15948: 15843: 15211: 15191: 12855: 12522: 5705: 5413: 5171: 171: 151: 12702: 6010: 4453:

decision upholding a Maryland law banning high-capacity magazines and semi-automatic rifles, ruling that the District Court was wrong to have applied

2107:

Firstly, slave owners feared that enslaved blacks might be emancipated through military service. A few years earlier, there had been a precedent when

1397:. Federalists argued that this government had an unworkable division of power between Congress and the states, which caused military weakness, as the 1375: 15653: 15221: 15216: 15201: 15196: 15186: 15176: 13099: 7009: 5764: 3927: 2754:

The question of a collective right versus an individual right was progressively resolved in favor of the individual rights model, beginning with the

650: 181: 176: 161: 156: 146: 136: 13504: 13124: 12729: 4503:, 334 Fed. Appx. 771 (5th Cir. 2009) – The Fifth Circuit affirmed the decision of a U.S. District Court decision in Texas, upholding 4000:(2024) the Supreme Court stated "that the right to keep and bear arms is among the “fundamental rights necessary to our system of ordered liberty.” 1724: 15054: 12877: 8337: 6624:

the 'well-regulated militias' cited in the Constitution almost certainly referred to state militias that were used to suppress slave insurrections.

3076: 1432:

One aspect of the gun control debate is the conflict between gun control laws and the right to rebel against unjust governments. Blackstone in his

765: 672: 533: 14197: 12941: 11851: 10861: 5344: 3782:

arms" was referred to as a "hybrid" definition that Stevens purportedly chose in order to avoid an "incoherent" and "rotesque" idiomatic meeting.

1458:

There was an ongoing debate beginning in 1789 about "the people" fighting governmental tyranny (as described by Anti-Federalists); or the risk of

1120:... by causing several good Subjects being Protestants to be disarmed at the same time when Papists were both Armed and employed contrary to Law, 16044: 15145: 15125: 15080: 7099: 6861: 3798:

as saying that the right to bear arms was necessary for those who wanted to take a stand against slavery. The majority opinion also stated that:

3490:, the Supreme Court stated "the objection that the Act usurps police power reserved to the States is plainly untenable." As the Court explained: 2865:, the U.S. Supreme Court stated that "he adjective 'well-regulated' implies nothing more than the imposition of proper discipline and training." 2225:

A well regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the People to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed.

1880:

Some representatives mistrusted proposals to enlarge federal powers, because they were concerned about the inherent risks of centralizing power.

985:

A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.

392: 383: 116: 96: 12429: 12337:"Federal Circuit Court Holds That Involuntary Mental Commitment Cannot Prevent A Person From Asserting His 'Fundamental Right' Of Gun Ownership" 10784: 5317: 3654:

at 582, 128 S.Ct. 2783. Third, the Court referred to "the historical tradition of prohibiting the carrying of 'dangerous and unusual weapons.'"

2214:

A well regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed.

2191:

added a comma before "shall not be infringed" and changed the semicolon separating that phrase from the religious exemption portion to a comma:

1004:

A well regulated Militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.

16529: 15135: 15130: 13153: 13004: 8508: 6130: 1969:

of Massachusetts expressed this sentiment by declaring that it is "a chimerical idea to suppose that a country like this could ever be enslaved

1856: 1012:

A well regulated Militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms shall not be infringed.

106: 101: 14214: 12296: 10563: 8308: 7625: 7529: 6308: 3650:

at 627, 128 S.Ct. 2783 (citation omitted). As noted, however, this included weapons that did not exist when the Second Amendment was enacted.

1020:

A well regulated Militia being necessary to the security of a free State the right of the people to keep and bear Arms shall not be infringed.

15898: 15140: 15120: 15115: 13035: 12259: 8104: 6969: 4146:. However, as the city had changed its rule to allow transport while the case was under consideration by the Court, the Court ruled the case 2628:

the American people to maintaining such an organized militia, which could lead to the undermining of the protection of the Second Amendment.

697: 111: 91: 86: 11037:

The U.S. Court of Appeals in Denver today ruled the constitutional provision doesn't guarantee a right to carry a concealed firearm ...

9126:

Mocsary, George A. (2008). "Explaining away the Obvious: The infusibility of characterizing the Second Amendment as a nonindividual right".

9085:

Mocsary, George A. (2008). "Explaining away the Obvious: The infusibility of characterizing the Second Amendment as a nonindividual right".

5687: 4113:, 554 U.S. 570 (2008) and includes any "eapo of offence" or "thing that a man wears for his defence, or takes into his hands", that is "carr 1066:

of resistance and self-preservation, when the sanctions of society and laws are found insufficient to restrain the violence of oppression."

16336: 15388: 14157:

Breen, T. H. (1972). "English Origins and New World Development: The Case of the Covenanted Militia in Seventeenth-Century Massachusetts".

13066: 12426:"Laws, Life, and Legal Matters – Court Cases and Legal Information at Leagle.com – All Federal and State Appeals Court Cases in One Search" 11693: 11665: 10542: 5314:"Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England – Book the First – Chapter the First: Of the Absolute Rights of Individuals, p. 139" 4661:

on September 24, 2009. The April 20 decision had held that the Second Amendment applies to state and local governments, while upholding an

4175: 974: 474: 317: 12910: 12580: 9745: 7234: 5879: 1837:) met and drew up a list of problems with the current government model. At its conclusion, the delegates scheduled a follow-up meeting in 16049: 15848: 14604: 12011: 11549: 11128: 10505: 5484: 5387: 5088: 4490: 2205:

A well regulated militia, being the best security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed.

12443: 12122: 11601: 10416: 6409:

History of the Military Company of the Massachusetts, now called the Ancient and Honorable Artillery Company of Massachusetts: 1637–1888

2825:

lobby's distortion of the Constitution cripple every reasonable attempt to implement an effective national policy toward guns and crime.

1314:

During the 1760s pre-revolutionary period, the established colonial militia was composed of colonists, including many who were loyal to

15584: 15110: 15073: 12047: 9845: 9267:

George A. Mocsary, "Explaining Away the Obvious: The Infusibility of Characterizing the Second Amendment as a Nonindividual Right", 76

5793: 5616: 3349:

that "the right of the people to keep and bear arms (Art. II) is not infringed by laws prohibiting the carrying of concealed weapons."

2548: 1921: 78: 43: 9954: 9559: 2187:

The next day, August 25, the Senate received the amendment from the House and entered it into the Senate Journal. However, the Senate

15823: 15793: 15579: 15544: 15524: 9959: 9041: 2178:. These concerns were addressed by modifying the final clause, and on August 24, the House sent the following version to the Senate: 1552: 1410: 349: 344: 327: 14789: 12145: 12015: 9107:

Klukowski, Kenneth A. (2009). "Citizen Gun Rights: Incorporating the Second Amendment through the privileges or immunities clause".

4408:

ruled that the Second Amendment prohibited a lifetime ban on firearms possession as a result of a conviction for a nonviolent crime.

69: 15828: 14835: 14425: 11301: 11032: 10263: 6242:"English Bill of Rights, 1689, "An Act Declaring the Rights and Liberties of the Subject and Settling the Succession of the Crown"" 4903: 4858: 2977:

surely elevates above all other interests the right of law-abiding, responsible citizens to use arms in defense of hearth and home.

1346: 12545: 11989: 11335: 11252: 10710: 10479: 10174: 10081: 9707: 9674: 9537: 9300: 7166: 6829: 6101: 5053: 4960:

For two radically different views of Blackstone on the Second Amendment, see Heyman, Chicago-Kent, and Volokh, "Senate Testimony".

2080:

in Virginia, that the federal government would not undermine their security against slave insurrection by disarming the militia."

16039: 11885: 10814: 5905: 5443: 5265: 3907: 2002:

included "the right to keep and bear arms" in a list of basic "human rights", which he proposed to be added to the Constitution.

815: 739: 467: 14404: 12411: 2221:

The enrolled original Joint Resolution passed by Congress on September 25, 1789, on permanent display in the Rotunda, reads as:

16129: 15798: 15676: 10200:

For the defense of themselves and the state: the original intent and judicial interpretation of the right to keep and bear arms

9467: 8914: 6930:

Millis, p. 49. "The founders sought to balance military, as they did political, power, between people, states, and nation"

6370: 5731: 5230: 3646:

at 625, 128 S.Ct. 2783. The Court further stated that "the sorts of weapons protected were those 'in common use at the time.'"

3289:

At his trial, Presser argued that the State of Illinois had violated his Second Amendment rights. The Supreme Court reaffirmed

1134:... That the Subjects which are Protestants may have Arms for their Defense suitable to their Conditions and as allowed by Law. 803: 640: 625: 15813: 14246:

Hardy, David (2007). "Book Review: A Well-Regulated Militia: The Founding Fathers and the Origins of Gun Control in America".

12824: 10732: 8427: 8375: 8203: 8185: 8149: 7407: 7377: 7347: 7317: 7196: 7069:

Gunning for Office: Right-Wing Populism and Gender in the Congressional Campaigns of Lauren Boebert and Marjorie Taylor Greene

6682: 6512: 6245: 5976: 3815:

decision. The majority opinion made clear that the recent ruling did not foreclose the Court's prior interpretations given in

1054:... is that of having arms for their defence, suitable to their condition and degree, and such as are allowed by law. Which is 16665: 16660: 16351: 15441: 15436: 15363: 11883:

April 11, 2008, Congressional Research Service T.J. Halsted, Legislative Attorney, American Law Division. Order Code RL34446

11496: 10956: 9863: 8739: 8642: 7901: 7073: 7050: 6576: 5441:

April 11, 2008, Congressional Research Service T.J. Halsted, Legislative Attorney, American Law Division. Order Code RL34446

4938: 3884: 2924: 2456:

A militia, when properly formed, are in fact the people themselves, and render regular troops in a great measure unnecessary.

1799:

that "little more can be reasonably aimed at, with respect to the people at large, than to have them properly armed ..."

1487: 904: 807: 600: 555: 288: 14547: 10680: 10382:

is that it failed to give either side a clear-cut victory. Most modern scholars recognize this fact. For example, Professor

10047: 9777: 9598: 9169: 4744: 1100:

The text of the English Bill of Rights of 1689 includes language protecting the right of Protestants against disarmament by

16564: 16084: 15878: 10645: 10148: 4091: 3691:, 554 U.S. 570 (2008), the Supreme Court undertook its first-ever "in-depth examination" of the second amendment's meaning 2830: 565: 8560: 8024:"The Hidden History of the Second Amendment, at page 336. In: University of California at Davis Law Review 31 (1998): 309" 4626:

this ruling for 180 days, so Illinois could enact replacement legislation. On February 22, 2013, a petition for rehearing

4618:, each of which referred only to such a right in the home. Based on this ruling, the court declared Illinois's ban on the 4236:(2001), federal courts recognized only the collective right, with "courts increasingly referring to one another's holdings 2008:

argued in the Virginia ratification convention on June 5, 1788, for the dual rights to arms and resistance to oppression:

16460: 16079: 15671: 14759: 11376: 11361: 7733: 7437: 3979: 3248: 2588: 2514: 1162: 811: 11814: 11624: 9095:

Up until 2001, every federal circuit court of appeals that ruled on the issue had adopted the collective right approach.

8441: 5541: 4046:, 561 U.S. 742, ___, 130 S. Ct. 3020, 3050 (2010), the Supreme Court held that the second amendment right recognized in 15716: 14731: 13995: 13881: 13862: 13843: 13697: 13636: 13545: 13514: 13471: 13450: 13431: 13399: 13356: 13278: 13259: 13221: 13202: 11595: 11122: 11083: 10623: 10322: 10209: 9816: 9371: 8976: 8794: 8704: 8600: 8426:. U.S. Congressional Documents and Debates, 1774–1875. 3rd Congress, 1st Session, 1 Stat. 351. Archived from 8374:. U.S. Congressional Documents and Debates, 1774–1875. 2nd Congress, 1st Session, 1 Stat. 272. Archived from 8023: 7961: 7710: 7669: 6736: 6067:

https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?collection=journals&handle=hein.journals/davlr31&id=319&men_tab=srchresults

5949: 5915: 5741: 5649: 5240: 5111: 5036: 4518: 4504: 4432: 4356: 4348: 3794: 3119:, "It would give to persons of the negro race, who were recognised as citizens in any one State of the Union, the right 2788: 1934: 966:

The final, handwritten original of the Bill of Rights as passed by Congress, with the rest of the original prepared by

947: 779: 580: 361: 14285: 12760: 12461: 8939:

A treatise on the constitutional limitations which rest upon the legislative power of the states of the American union

7785: 3170:

Of the collective rights model that holds that the right to arms is based on militia membership, the Supreme Court in

16059: 15421: 15096: 13933: 13925: 10509: 10005: 4749: 4665:

ordinance that makes it a crime to bring a gun or ammunition on to, or possess either while on, county property. The

4017:, many questions about the Second Amendment remain unsettled, such as whether non-citizens are protected through the 3876: 3728: 2983: 2261:

assumed law enforcement duties; these individuals were more likely than the local sheriff to be armed with firearms.

1308: 939: 645: 615: 560: 51: 31: 14302: 12806: 6276: 5193: 1413:

proposed in 1787 to grant Congress exclusive power to raise and support a standing army and navy of unlimited size.

16559: 15903: 9919: 4739: 4117:... for the purpose of offensive or defensive action". 554 U. S., at 581, 584 (internal quotation marks omitted)." 3983: 3116: 2108: 1872:

provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions;

1143: 538: 17: 3127:

rights" model has been rejected by the Supreme Court, in favor of the individual rights model, beginning with its

1892:

argued that an armed populace would have no trouble resisting the potential threat to liberty of a standing army.

15908: 15893: 14592:"Testimony of Eugene Volokh on the Second Amendment, Senate Subcommittee on the Constitution, September 23, 1998" 12963: 11519: 8148:. House of Representatives. Amendments to the Constitution 1st Congress, 1st Session. p. 451. Archived from 7550: 5149: 4999: 4300: 3991: 2636: 667: 399: 356: 14138: 10349: 6654: 6344: 3219: (1875), the defendants were white men who had killed more than sixty black people in what was known as the 1909:

The debate surrounding the Constitution's ratification is of practical importance, particularly to adherents of

16315: 14884: 14099: 14071: 14052: 14033: 14014: 13906: 13821: 13802: 13783: 13737: 13716: 13678: 13657: 13617: 13585: 13566: 13490: 13375: 13320: 13301: 13240: 11218: 11159: 10597: 9025: 8006: 7923: 6486: 4280: 4270: 4109: 4048: 3625: 3523: 3049:

possession and use, they could have done so by the addition of phrases such as "for the defense of themselves".

1319: 1224:

militia laws for the regulation of the militia were defective and ineffectual. Influenced by this act, in 1775

774: 14268: 12783: 12189: 12070:"In Major Win for 2nd Amendment Advocates, Federal Court Blocks D.C. from Enforcing Conceal-Carry Restriction" 11748: 8050: 2675:, which was written when the Fourteenth Amendment was "in the process of adoption by the State legislatures": 2273:... every citizen so enrolled and notified, shall, within six months thereafter, provide himself with a good 1863:

raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years;

16655: 16089: 16029: 15618: 15031: 12669: 12069: 11791: 9192:

Explaining Away the Obvious: The Infusibility of Characterizing the Second Amendment as a Nonindividual Right

7962:"The Hidden History of the Second Amendment. In: University of California at Davis Law Review 31 (1998): 309" 6607: 5701: 5409: 4702:"there is no Second Amendment right for members of the general public to carry concealed firearms in public." 2735:

in 2001, some circuit courts recognized that the Second Amendment protects an individual right to bear arms.

1437:

balance not just political power, but also military power, between the people, the states and the nation, as

1323: 1241: 871: 605: 12847: 12514: 11409: 6002: 5823: 5163: 16579: 16377: 15808: 15681: 15486: 15368: 15168: 14828: 14390: 13608:

That Every Man Be Armed: The Evolution of a Constitutional Right (Independent Studies in Political Economy)

12693: 11492: 9773:

The Supreme Court's Thirty-five Other Gun Cases: What the Supreme Court Has Said about the Second Amendment

4564: 4450: 3895: 3082: 2524: 2323: 2253: 2039: 769: 620: 590: 368: 295: 14405:"The Role of the Militia in the Development of the Englishman's Right to be Armed – Clarifying the Legacy" 13727: 13131: 13088: 9504: 7005: 5774: 5518: 4673:

was the correct standard by which to judge the ordinance's constitutionality and remanded the case to the

1589:

This is the first instance in relationship to U.S. Constitutional Law of the phrase "right to bear arms".

16593: 16497: 16455: 16450: 15853: 15539: 15504: 14892: 14860: 13520: 13292:

The Second Amendment in Law and History: Historians and Constitutional Scholars on the Right to Bear Arms

12042: 7717:

The items on the list were never discussed in the convention, which went on to approve the Constitution.

6474:

The Second Amendment in Law and History: Historians and Constitutional Scholars on the Right to Bear Arms

6054:... when the sanctions of society and laws are found insufficient to restrain the violence of oppression. 4759: 4734: 4443:

exception for "presumptively lawful" gun regulations made in accordance with "longstanding prohibitions".

4002: 3963: 3956: 3939: 3879:

Anthony Picadio, who said he's not anti-gun but rather "anti-bad-judging", Justice Scalia's reasoning in

3195: 2717: 2311:

to deteriorate and twenty years later, the militia's poor condition contributed to several losses in the

1810: 1220: 880: 798: 732: 585: 14007:

The Constitutional Convention of 1787: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of America's Founding (2 Volume Set)

12884: 10851: 8330: 6330: 6290: 4546:, 775 F.3 d 308 (6th Cir. 2014 ) – On December 18, 2014, the Sixth Circuit ruled that 3703:. at 628); that "the home" is "where the need for defense of self, family, and property is most acute" ( 1337:

British and Loyalist efforts to disarm the colonial Patriot militia armories in the early phases of the

16613: 16547: 15994: 15963: 15686: 15451: 15446: 15023: 12933: 8251: 5514: 5348: 4729: 4662: 3360: 2046:

was available for military operations, but its biggest function was to police the slaves. According to

1342: 1074: 796:

by felons and the mentally ill" or restrictions on "the carrying of dangerous and unusual weapons". In

761: 677: 635: 14205: 7107: 6869: 3863:

When we no longer need people to keep muskets in their home, then the Second Amendment has no function

3512:

is that it failed to give either side a clear-cut victory. Most modern scholars recognize this fact."

16295: 16175: 15974: 15706: 15529: 15406: 15252: 12425: 10884: 10779: 10771: 4856:

122 (1825) (hereinafter Rawle)." From the Opinion of the Court in District of Columbia versus Heller

4631: 4363:, rejecting the defendant's argument that the federal law violated his Second Amendment rights under 4284:, in which the U.S. Supreme Court determined that the Second Amendment protects an individual right. 4031: 3667: 2851: 2648: 1965:

that backdrop, the framers saw the personal right to bear arms as a potential check against tyranny.

1394: 373: 14426:"Bringing Forward the Right to Keep and Bear Arms: Do Text, History, or Precedent Stand in the Way?" 12996: 9062:

Klukowski, Kenneth A. (2008). "Armed by Right: The emerging jurisprudence of the Second Amendment".

6126: 4120: 2504:

The earliest published commentary on the Second Amendment by a major constitutional theorist was by

1779: 1255: 16264: 16134: 15998: 15858: 15777: 15623: 15613: 15481: 14967: 14908: 14900: 14026:

The Mythic Meanings of the Second Amendment: Taming Political Violence in a Constitutional Republic

12307: 12150: 11682: 11654: 10567: 10531: 8304: 7998: 7629: 7521: 6304: 4462: 4347:

affirmed the conviction of a juvenile for the illegal possession of a handgun as a juvenile, under

4232: 4151: 4081: 3470:... not having registered said firearm as required by Section 1132d of Title 26, United States Code 3023:

the majority rejected the view that the term "to bear arms" implies only the military use of arms:

2760: 1998:

Writing after the ratification of the Constitution, but before the election of the first Congress,

1897: 1809:

to fashion a remedy to the inefficiencies of the Articles of Confederation. The following year, at

1311:

asserted that, "the people have a right to bear arms for the defence of themselves and the state."

1063: 970: 924: 630: 595: 14116:

Barnett, Gary E. (June 24, 2008). "The Reasonable Regulation of the Right to Keep and Bear Arms".

13027: 12270: 9645:

Merkel, p. 361. "Well-regulated meant well trained, rather than subject to rules and regulations."

9624: 9209:

Citizen Gun Rights: Incorporating the Second Amendment Through the Privileges or Immunities Clause

5679: 4222:

did not directly mention either a collective or individual right, but for the 62-year period from

4218:(1939) had been the only Supreme Court decision that "tested a congressional enactment against ". 2812:

If I were writing the Bill of Rights now, there wouldn't be any such thing as the Second Amendment

2054:'s writings, Bogus describes the South's obsession with militias during the ratification process: 16054: 16002: 15928: 15756: 15633: 15628: 15564: 15534: 15476: 14932: 14876: 14821: 14767: 14441:

McClurg, Andrew (1999). "Lotts' More Guns and Other Fallacies Infecting the Gun Control Debate".

9412: 6009:. The Constitution of the United States of America: Analysis and Interpretation (1992 ed.). 4765: 4563:. The court did not rule on the provision's constitutionality, instead remanding the case to the 4552: 4449:, No. 14-1945 (4th Cir. 2016) – On February 4, 2016, the Fourth Circuit vacated a 4181: 4139: 4018: 3996: 3402: 2248: 1806: 934: 892: 610: 13058: 11815:"Supreme Court allows the carrying of firearms in public in major victory for gun-rights groups" 11690: 11662: 10539: 7274:

Ford, Paul Leicester (September 1895). "The Adoption of the Pennsylvania Constitution of 1776".

6371:"A Century of Lawmaking for a New Nation: U.S. Congressional Documents and Debates, 1774 - 1875" 5313: 4567:

that has earlier heard this case. On April 21, 2015, the Sixth Circuit voted to rehear the case

1508:

Related Articles & Sections within the first State Constitutions Adopted after May 10, 1776.

1228:

created "An Easy Plan of Discipline for a Militia". Greatly inhibited by the events surrounding

16217: 15736: 15661: 15608: 15559: 15383: 12902: 12604:"Rehearing En Banc Denied in Case Invalidating Illinois' Ban on Carrying Loaded Guns in Public" 12576: 12146:"US appeals court says people convicted of nonviolent offenses shouldn't face lifetime gun ban" 9808: 9730: 7219: 6478: 6472: 5864: 4635: 4556: 3487: 3387:

who in the interview declared not to be willing to "take up arms personally" in defense of the

3101: 2660: 2509: 2075:

Therefore, Bogus argues, in a compromise with the slave states, and to reassure Patrick Henry,

1914: 1482: 1334:

also began disarming individuals who were in the most rebellious areas in the 1760s and 1770s.

1296: 1193: 1086: 1070: 959: 725: 312: 14664: 14619: 14538: 14467: 14380: 14188: 14129: 11556: 11112: 11073: 9935: 9361: 8966: 7702: 7661: 6561: 5977:"A Century of Lawmaking for a New Nation: U.S. Congressional Documents and Debates, 1774–1875" 5476: 5383: 5080: 5026: 4425:

upheld as constitutional the prohibition of possession of a concealed weapon without a permit.

1791:(left) believed that a citizenry trained in arms was the only sure guarantor of liberty while 992: 16424: 15803: 15771: 15602: 15431: 15378: 15007: 14504: 14259: 12756: 12607: 12114: 11585: 9301:"Amicus Brief, ACRU, Case No. 03-CV-0213-EGS, Shelly Parker, et al. vs. District of Columbia" 5801: 5608: 4969:

Justice Story "misidentified" it as the "5th Amendment". Several public officials, including

4826: 4670: 4591: 4454: 3972: 3553: 3423: 3416: 3373: 3337: 3312: 3280: 3213: 3100: (1820), where the U.S. Supreme Court mentioned the Second Amendment in an aside. In the 3094: 2618:

the orthodox view of the Second Amendment, which he viewed as the amendment's clear meaning:

1755:(left) is known as the "Father of the Constitution" and "Father of the Bill of Rights" while 657: 305: 14512:

Schmidt, Christopher (February 2007). "An International Human Right to Keep and Bear Arms".

8937: 6407: 1841:, Pennsylvania for May 1787 to present solutions to these problems, such as the absence of: 508: 61: 16639: 16569: 16124: 15838: 15833: 15788: 15761: 15711: 15456: 14697: 14083:

The Culture of Classicism: Ancient Greece and Rome in American Intellectual Life, 1780–1910

13500: 13349:

The Second Amendment: The Intent and Its Interpretation by the States and the Supreme Court

4775: 4769: 4560: 2836:

quote of Justice John Paul Stevens in the Meaning of "well regulated militia" section below

2518:, a critical legal reference for early American attorneys published in 1803. Tucker wrote: 2418: 1475: 1371: 1268: 1229: 1199:"The history of policing in the West, Collective responsibility in early Anglo-Saxon times" 715: 575: 431: 14813: 9045: 4352: 4154:

the case so the lower courts could review the new rules under the petitioners new claims.

858:, Madison wrote how a federal army could be kept in check by the militia, "a standing army 8: 16552: 16341: 16069: 15933: 15721: 15666: 15569: 15426: 14991: 14975: 14868: 14092:

The Origin of the Second Amendment: A Documentary History of the Bill of Rights 1787–1792

13391:

A Well-Regulated Militia – The Founding Fathers and the Origins of Gun Control in America

12230:"Fourth Circuit requires application of strict scrutiny in challenge to Maryland gun law" 11368: 9891: 9439: 6649: 4910: 4865: 4805: 4256: 4143: 4095: 4087: 3919: 3848: 3266: 3037: 2555: 2319: 2315:, including the sacking of Washington, D.C., and the burning of the White House in 1814. 2175: 1814: 1406: 1338: 1190: 1172: 1082: 1078: 918: 832: 14797: 14433: 13967: 13953: 11979: 11289: 10986: 10702: 10471: 9670: 9533: 8825: 7842:

The Debates in the Several State Conventions on the Adoption of the Federal Constitution

7809:

The Debates in the Several State Conventions on the Adoption of the Federal Constitution

7132:

Journals of Congress Containing the Proceedings from January 1, 1776, to January 1, 1776

6825: 6109: 4669:

panel remanded the case to the three-judge panel. On May 2, 2011, that panel ruled that

2743:, five circuit courts specifically endorsed the "sophisticated collective right model". 2289:

The first test of the militia system occurred in July 1794, when a group of disaffected

1474:

8 of the Constitution, the individual right to arm was retained and strengthened by the

1271:

authorized the use of arms for special defense and safety, on land and at sea, against:

16254: 16238: 16099: 15913: 15888: 15873: 15783: 15751: 15741: 15701: 15691: 14793: 14775: 14768:"National Archives Scanned Image of the Bill of Rights, including the Second Amendment" 14591: 14359: 14351: 14322: 13918: 13892: 13606: 13461: 13420: 13389: 13290: 12819: 11984: 11753: 11323: 11240: 10259: 10170: 10069: 9801: 9699: 8490: 7291: 7158: 6945: 6037: 4651:, 2012 WL 1959239 (9th Cir. 2012) – On July 29, 2009, the Ninth Circuit 4522: 4508: 4436: 4147: 4010: 3975: 3556: 3544:

According to the syllabus prepared by the U.S. Supreme Court Reporter of Decisions, in

3419: 3376: 3340: 3315: 3283: 3201: 2659:

The congressional debate on the proposed Fourteenth Amendment concentrated on what the

2120: 2112: 1792: 1438: 1387: 1157: 1090: 1043: 1039: 836: 827:

The Second Amendment was based partially on the right to keep and bear arms in English

824:(2022) assured the right to carry weapons in public spaces with reasonable exceptions. 11892: 11183:"The Supreme Court will hear a major Second Amendment case that could gut US gun laws" 10810: 9307: 5450: 5257: 4493: 4315:, Civil Action No. 08-1289 (RMU), No. 23., 25 – On March 26, 2010, the 3216: 3157:

as the method by which militias have historically been armed, as the Supreme Court in

2885:... confiding the regulation of the militia to the direction of the national authority 2091:

Most Southern white men between the ages of 18 and 45 were required to serve on "

1462:

of "the people" (as described by the Federalists) related to the increasingly violent

16574: 16320: 16305: 16285: 16159: 16034: 16013: 15985: 15589: 15416: 15015: 14737: 14727: 14660: 14605:"Selected Criminal Law Cases in the Supreme Court's 2007–2008 Term, and a Look Ahead" 14534: 14500: 14463: 14416: 14376: 14363: 14255: 14184: 14125: 14095: 14067: 14048: 14029: 14010: 13991: 13985: 13929: 13902: 13877: 13858: 13839: 13817: 13798: 13779: 13773: 13733: 13712: 13693: 13674: 13668: 13653: 13647: 13632: 13613: 13597:

A Right to Bear Arms: State and Federal Bills of Rights and Constitutional Guarantees

13581: 13562: 13556: 13541: 13510: 13486: 13467: 13446: 13427: 13395: 13371: 13352: 13326: 13316: 13297: 13274: 13255: 13236: 13217: 13198: 12407: 12074: 11716:"Supreme Court Takes 1st Gun Case In Nearly A Decade, Possibly With Big Consequences" 11591: 11118: 11079: 10205: 10198: 9931: 9812: 9367: 9021: 8972: 8790: 8700: 8596: 8002: 7706: 7695: 7665: 7654: 7528:. The University of Chicago Press. 2:§§ 904–25, 927–30, 946–52, 954–70, 972–76, 988. 7046: 6732: 6725: 6557: 6482: 5945: 5911: 5737: 5645: 5236: 5032: 4801: 4724: 4623: 4026: 3872: 3760: 3672: 2873: 2869: 2724: 2505: 2437: 2414: 2295: 2290: 1966: 1881: 1796: 1463: 1442: 1315: 1233: 1225: 1000:

Some state-ratified versions, such as Maryland's, omitted the first or final commas:

852: 687: 15065: 12814: 5641:

Guns in American society: an encyclopedia of history, politics, culture, and the law

4303:

have ruled on many Second Amendment challenges to convictions and gun control laws.

4194: 3097: 16196: 15943: 15818: 15746: 15731: 15466: 15411: 15373: 14999: 14951: 14781: 14719: 14343: 14314: 14162: 13963: 12462:"Dennis A. Henigan: New Court Ruling Throws Cold Water on "Gun Rights" Celebration" 10948: 10743: 9859: 9620: 9165:

Was the Right to Keep and Bear Arms Conditioned on Service in an Organized Militia?

8732: 7399: 7369: 7339: 7309: 7283: 7188: 7038: 6678: 6241: 5769: 4652: 4606: 4170: 3891: 3427: 3252: 3112: 3108: 2784: 2690: 2639: 2583:

either should attempt it, this amendment may be appealed to as a restraint on both.

2374: 2131: 1848:

sufficiently trained and armed intrastate security forces to suppress insurrection;

1822: 1367: 1237: 875: 692: 300: 13411:

Gun Control and the Constitution: Sources and Explorations on the Second Amendment

11488: 8638: 8590: 7067: 4360: 4240:... without engaging in any appreciably substantive legal analysis of the issue". 3582:(f) None of the Court's precedents forecloses the Court's interpretation. Neither 2663:

were doing to harm the newly freed slaves, including disarming the former slaves.

1539:

Effecting to render the military independent of, and superior to, the civil power.

16481: 16429: 16310: 16269: 16180: 16104: 16008: 15990: 15726: 15696: 15554: 15039: 14983: 14959: 14711: 14705: 14559: 13831: 13795:

A Companion to the American Revolution (Blackwell Companions to American History)

11697: 11669: 10676: 10546: 10035: 9771: 9592: 9163: 8784: 8694: 8657: 5727: 5639: 4829: 4619: 4547: 4458: 4388: 4122:

New York State Rifle & Pistol Association, Inc. v. City of New York, New York

3987: 3220: 2919: 2643: 2441: 2218:

The House voted on September 21, 1789, to accept the changes made by the Senate.

2138: 1893: 1414: 1259:

Ideals that helped to inspire the Second Amendment in part are symbolized by the

455: 11410:"Justice Ginsburg Part II: Gender, the Second Amendment, Immigration & More" 10653: 5142:"Split Decisions: Cases That Have Divided the Supreme Court in the 2007-08 Term" 4135:

New York State Rifle & Pistol Association Inc. v. City of New York, New York

4107:"only those weapons useful in warfare". The term "bearable arms" was defined in 2469: 16419: 16398: 16382: 16346: 16290: 16259: 16074: 14723: 14715: 14488: 14475:

Rakove, Jack (2000). "The Second Amendment: The Highest Stage of Originalism".

13463:

Gun Control on Trial: Inside the Supreme Court Battle Over the Second Amendment

11028: 8881: 8239: 8202:. House of Representatives. 1st Congress, 1st Session, page 778. Archived from 8184:. House of Representatives. 1st Congress, 1st Session, page 669. Archived from 6821: 6523: 4890: 4157: 3930:. He finished with the following observation: "The pre-existing right that the 3785: 3733: 3699:

at 592); that "central to" this right is "the inherent right of self-defense" (

3505: 3384: 3041: 2957: 2544: 2433: 2278: 2088:

opposition that led Patrick's home state of Virginia to be the last to ratify.

2084: 1947: 1490:(NRA) and by various individuals including some elected officials. Congressman 1426: 1354: 1345:, Blackstone's summary of the Declaration of Right, their own militia laws and 528: 11842:"Supreme Court upholds bar on guns under domestic-violence restraining orders" 11550:"United States v. Rahimi, 602 U. S. ____ (2024), Opinion of the Court, page 5" 9400: 7729: 7429: 3934:

Court incorporated into the Second Amendment is very narrow. As recognized by

3835:

carrying an unlicensed firearm in the home, such as from one room to another:

3231:... has no other effect than to restrict the powers of the national government 1062:... statute, and is indeed a public allowance, under due restrictions, of the 874:

was so evenly divided between those for and against the Constitution that the

768:. It was ratified on December 15, 1791, along with nine other articles of the 16649: 16524: 16445: 16403: 16372: 16300: 16222: 16094: 16064: 15980: 15883: 15594: 15549: 14741: 14701: 14587: 14567: 11818: 11187: 10847: 10383: 8247: 8235: 8141: 8054: 7873: 4970: 3388: 2777: 2568: 2370: 2331: 2299: 2143: 2124: 2063: 2051: 2047: 2005: 1885: 1788: 1752: 1422: 1402: 1398: 1035: 848: 14571: 12635:"Illinois Firearm Concealed Carry Act Will Require Employers to Take Action" 11433: 11431: 11152:"'It's a Long Story': Justice John Paul Stevens, 98, Is Publishing a Memoir" 10969:

The Heller case is a landmark decision that has not changed very much at all

10326: 9350:

Rights contained justification clauses for many of the rights they secured."

8968:

The General Principles of Constitutional Law in the United States of America

8027: 7969: 7556:(James Madison) (concerning the influence of state and federal governments). 6548:

Bogus, Carl T. (Winter 1998). "The Hidden History of the Second Amendment".

5444:"District of Columbia v. Heller: The Supreme Court and the Second Amendment" 5345:"United States of America v. Timothy Joe Emerson – The Ratification Debates" 4533:

did not affect the longstanding prohibition of firearm possession by felons.

4484:, 350 Fed. Appx. 874 (5th Cir. 2009) – On June 30, 2008, the 4439:. The court found that the district court erred in perfunctorily relying on 4421:, 551 F.3 d 257 (4th Cir. 2009 ) – On August 4, 2008, the 3763:' dissenting opinion, which was joined by the three other dissenters, said: 3740:

Like most rights, the right secured by the Second Amendment is not unlimited

3422: (1939), the Supreme Court rejected a Second Amendment challenge to the 1366:

The armed forces that won the American Revolution consisted of the standing

1318:. As defiance and opposition to British rule developed, a distrust of these 1077:

in a country with a staunchly Protestant majority. Ultimately, the Catholic

977:. This is the version ratified by Delaware and used by the Supreme Court in 14166: 13729:

The Militia and the Right to Arms; Or, How the Second Amendment Fell Silent

13385: 13330: 12752: 12633:

Steenson, Todd D.; Schreiber, Phillip M.; Young, Adam R. (August 5, 2013).

11701: 10550: 9852: 8765: 8552: 8537:"Remarks on the First Part of the Amendments to the Federal Constitution", 7855: 7822: 7781: 7588: 7566: 4894: 4343:, 583 F.3 d 8 (1st Cir. 2009 ) – On August 31, 2009, the 3935: 3054: 3033: 2611: 2540: 2466: 2406: 2155:

On July 21, Madison again raised the issue of his bill and proposed that a

2092: 2076: 2043: 2032: 1999: 1978: 1889: 1838: 1826: 1756: 1491: 1383: 1327: 1245:

Regulations for the Order and Discipline of the Troops of the United States

847:

supported the Constitution being ratified, its most influential framer was

840: 783: 682: 12997:"9th Circuit agrees to rehear long-running Alameda County gun rights case" 10378:

McClurg, p. 139. "But when all is said and done, the only certainty about

6950: 5439:

District of Columbia v. Heller: The Supreme Court and the Second Amendment

1869:

make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces;

1497: 1421:

Modern scholars Thomas B. McAffee and Michael J. Quinlan have stated that

16476: 16356: 14371:

Lund, Nelson (August 18, 2008). "Heller and Second Amendment Precedent".

12726:"General Assembly Overrides Veto, Legalizing Concealed Carry in Illinois" 11881:

District of Columbia v.Heller: The Supreme Court and the Second Amendment

11428: 9249:: Understanding the Broader Implications for the Future of Gun Control". 3239:

in this case, and therefore the Fourteenth Amendment was not applicable:

3236: 2600: 2312: 1910: 1759:(right) with Madison is also known as the "Father of the Bill of Rights". 943: 662: 8494: 7042: 5232:

Constitutional Law for a Changing America: Rights, Liberties and Justice

4590:. After initial favorable rulings in lower court based on a standard of 3533: 2599:... be abused to the disturbance of the public peace" and, paraphrasing 1743: 1601:

and governing a State on the sure principles of the Christian religion;

450: 16627: 16201: 14917:

New York State Rifle & Pistol Association, Inc. v. City of New York

14355: 14326: 13150:"Federal appeals court says states can restrict open carry of firearms" 13062: 13031: 12937: 12906: 12851: 12518: 11846: 11786: 11628: 11523: 8656:

Blackstone, Sir William; Tucker, St. George; Christian, Edward (1803).

7295: 4129:

New York State Rifle & Pistol Association, Inc. v. City of New York

3899: 3180: 2653: 2487: 2410: 2307: 2303: 1818: 1459: 1331: 1177: 844: 828: 782:

affirmed for the first time that the right belongs to individuals, for

543: 443: 14303:"Handgun Prohibition and the Original Meaning of the Second Amendment" 13814:

The Secret Six: The True Tale of the Men Who Conspired With John Brown

7593:

An Examination into the Leading Principles of the Federal Constitution

7571:"An Examination of the Leading Principles of the Federal Constitution" 3466:... at the time of so transporting said firearm in interstate commerce 2820:

In a 1992 opinion piece, six former American attorneys general wrote:

1534:

Keeping among us, in times of peace, standing armies and ships of war.

16109: 14525:

Smith, Douglas (2008). "The Second Amendment and the Supreme Court".

12326:, 775 F.3d 308, 317–19 (6th Cir. 2014) (internal quotations omitted). 10856: 9887:"Opinion – Antonin Scalia was wrong about the meaning of 'bear arms'" 7479:

An Armed Community: The origins and meaning of the right to bear arms

6091:"They accordingly obtained an assurance from William and Mary, in the 4686: 4385: 4057:. at ___, 130 S. Ct. at 3026); that "individual self-defense is 'the 3662:

There are similar legal summaries of the Supreme Court's findings in

2707: 2258: 1805:

In March 1785, delegates from Virginia and Maryland assembled at the

1390: 1260: 1101: 16622: 14638:

Winkler, Adam (February 2007). "Scrutinizing the Second Amendment".

14347: 14318: 14233:

Gunn, Steven H. (1998). "A Lawyer's Guide to the Second Amendment".

12815:"Appeals Court Sets Rehearing on Ruling That Eased Gun Restrictions" 10411: 10409: 10407: 10405: 10403: 10401: 10399: 10397: 10395: 10393: 9939: 7287: 6305:"Founders Online: To George Washington from Timothy Pickering, 1775" 4675:

United States District Court for the Northern District of California

4638:'s veto, passed a law permitting the concealed carrying of firearms. 3474:... and not having in their possession a stamp-affixed written order 2850:

An early use of the phrase "well-regulated militia" may be found in

2791:

by President Richard Nixon, wrote in 1990 following his retirement:

438: 14388:

Malcolm, Joyce Lee (1986). "Book Review: That Every Man Be Armed".

13898: 12787: 11075:

Lethal Logic: Exploding the myths that paralyze American gun policy

8832:

natural defence of a free country against sudden foreign invasions.

8592:

Freedmen, the 14th Amendment, and the Right to Bear Arms, 1866–1876

7676:

Whitehill deals with guns in three of his fifteen headings. Article

7008:. Virginia Convention. Teachingamericanhistory.org. June 14, 1788. 5644:(2nd ed.). Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. Introduction. 5028:

American Government: Political Development and Institutional Change

3380: 2898: 2242:

Ketland brass barrel smooth bore pistol, common in Colonial America

2062:

This preoccupation is clearly expressed in 1788 by the slaveholder

1845:

interstate arbitration processes to handle quarrels between states;

1834: 1830: 14454:

Merkel, William (Summer 2009). "Heller and Scalia's Originalism".

12378:"Skoien and the many challenges of Second Amendment jurisprudence" 11749:"Supreme Court Dismisses Challenge to New York City Gun Ordinance" 2835: 2490:

made the following point in a commentary on the Second Amendment:

2361: 1393:. Following the Revolution, the United States was governed by the 1029: 16144: 15574: 13987:

Out of Range: Why the Constitution Can't End the Battle Over Guns

10390: 9694: 9692: 9534:"Stevens' dissent in District of Columbia v. Heller (No. 07-290)" 5577: 4898: 4677:. On November 28, 2011, the Ninth Circuit vacated the panel's May 4657: 4569: 4467: 4404:, Civil Action No. 21-2835 – On June 6, 2023, the 3637:

to state certain limitations on the right to keep and bear arms:

2951: 1378:

and various state and regional militia units. In opposition, the

1232:, where the plan was printed, Pickering submitted the writing to 899:

In the 21st century, the amendment has been subjected to renewed

793: 13816:. Columbia, South Carolina: University of South Carolina Press. 8442:"Public Acts of the Fifty-Seventh Congress of the United States" 7037:. Ann Arbor, Michigan: Univ. of Michigan Press. pp. 21–25. 4778:– a set of statutes in Pennsylvania that define and amplify the 4555:

that prohibits possession of a firearm by a person who has been

2845: 1770: 1734: 13195:

Freedom of Religion, the First Amendment, and the Supreme Court

12233: 11971: 11397:

dramatic upheaval in the law, Justice Stevens said in a dissent

7966:

Regents of the University of California and & Carl T. Bogus

7628:. University of Missouri-Kansas City Law School. Archived from 6345:"Journals of the Continental Congress --MONDAY, MARCH 29, 1779" 6095:... (Bill of Rights), that Protestants would never be disarmed: 3345: 2591:

was formally recognized by the courts, or Congress drafted the

2388: 2352: 2274: 2188: 2027: 1214: 967: 788: 14064:

A Necessary Evil: A History of American Distrust of Government

10766: 10764: 10564:"People v. Yanna, 824 NW 2d 241 - Mich: Court of Appeals 2012" 10254: 10252: 9689: 9005:

A Necessary Evil: A History of American Distrust of Government

8164:"Journal of the House of Representatives of the United States" 7697:

A Necessary Evil: A history of American distrust of government

7656:

A Necessary Evil: A history of American distrust of government

6599: 3590:, 116 U.S. 252, refutes the individual-rights interpretation. 2139:

Conflict and compromise in Congress produce the Bill of Rights

1322:

in the militia became widespread among the colonists known as

14790:"State Constitutional Right to Keep and Bear Arms Provisions" 13709:

To Keep and Bear Arms: The Origins of an Anglo-American Right

10566:. Court of Appeals of Michigan. June 26, 2012. Archived from 9560:"Justice Stevens: Six Little Ways to Change the Constitution" 7994:

Slave Patrols: Law and Violence in Virginia and the Carolinas

6412:. Vol. 1. Boston: Alfred Mudge & Son. pp. 1–2. 6065:

Bogus, Carl T. "The Hidden History of the Second Amendment".

5849: 5847: 5845: 3807:

The dissenting justices were not persuaded by this argument.

3504:

weapon's suitability for the "common defense". Law professor

2840:

Six Amendments: How and Why We Should Change the Constitution

2409:

of Massachusetts (left) became a U.S. Supreme Court justice;

2397: 1146:

right to implicitly or explicitly repeal earlier enactments.

14925:

New York State Rifle & Pistol Association, Inc. v. Bruen

12115:"N.Y.'s Concealed Gun Licensing Scheme Is Upheld by Circuit" 11555:. United States Supreme Court. June 21, 2024. Archived from 8733:"A View to the Constitution of the United States of America" 6995:

Militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress."

6970:"Letter from John Adams to Abigail Adams, December 22, 1793" 4166:

New York State Rifle & Pistol Association, Inc. v. Bruen

4159:

New York State Rifle & Pistol Association, Inc. v. Bruen

3014: 2868:

In the year before the drafting of the Second Amendment, in

1718: 821:

New York State Rifle & Pistol Association, Inc. v. Bruen

14843: 12400: 10761: 10249: 9980: 9625:"From Thomas Jefferson to the Earl of Buchan, 10 July 1803" 8396: 8394: 7955: 7953: 7951: 7949: 7100:"The Second Amendment gives no comfort to insurrectionists" 4195:

United States Courts of Appeals decisions before and after

4094:

decision upholding the conviction of a woman who carried a

3856: 3134:

The Supreme Court's primary Second Amendment cases include

2567:

Tucker's commentary was soon followed, in 1825, by that of

2373:

of Pennsylvania (left) was a lawyer and district attorney;

2251:

as their sole defensive weapons. In serious emergencies, a

2238: 1481:

More recently some have advanced what has been called the

1341:

resulted in the Patriot colonists protesting by citing the

14045:

Whose Right to Bear Arms did the Second Amendment Protect?

13955:

A View of the Constitution of the United States of America

13894:

The Right to Bear Arms: Rights and Liberties under the Law

13772:

Pepper, John; Petrie, Carol; Wellford, Charles F. (2005).

12784:"High-Profile Gun Rights Case Inches Toward Supreme Court" 12546:"Supreme Court Gun Ruling Doesn't Block Proposed Controls" 12339:. Gielow, Groom, Terpstra & McEvoy. January 21, 2015. 11025:"Illinois' bid for rehearing of gun-carry appeal rejected" 9150:

cf. for a ruling that endorses the collective rights model

9148:. 9th Circuit Court of Appeal. 2002. 312 F.3d 1052, 1087. 8883:

Manual of the Constitution of the United States of America

8696:

A View of the Constitution of the United States of America

7928:

Raw Story – Celebrating 17 Years of Independent Journalism

7898:"Was the Second Amendment adopted for slaveholders ?" 5842: 4854:

A View of the Constitution of the United States of America

3910:. Instead, he argues, there would be more respect for the 3749:

Justice Kennedy, who was needed to secure a fifth vote in

3426:

prohibiting the interstate transportation of unregistered

2861:

The term "regulated" means "disciplined" or "trained". In

2673:

Manual of the Constitution of the United States of America

2573:

A View of the Constitution of the United States of America

866:... forms a barrier against the enterprises of ambition". 13370:. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. 13089:"Teixeira v. County of Alameda (Circuit docket 13-17132)" 12662:"Illinois Is Last State to Allow Concealed Carry of Guns" 11720: 11714:

Montenaro, Domenico; Totenberg, Nina (January 22, 2019).

11470: 11468: 11174: 11054: 10911:"Justices, Ruling 5–4, Endorse Personal Right to Own Gun" 10677:"OLR Research Institute's Summary of the Heller Decision" 10466: 10464: 10462: 10260:"United States v. Schwimmer, 279 U.S. 644 (1929), at 650" 9564: 9408: 8655: 7891: 7889: 7887: 7135:. Vol. II (Second Continental Congress). R. Aitken. 5477:"Justices, Ruling 5–4, Endorse Personal Right to Own Gun" 5081:"Justices, Ruling 5–4, Endorse Personal Right to Own Gun" 3888: 3462:... shotgun having a barrel less than 18 inches in length 2930: 2578:

Speaking of the Second Amendment generally, Rawle wrote:

2472:

the Virginia Ratifying Convention regarding a "militia:"

1152: 886: 27:

1791 amendment protecting the right to keep and bear arms

13920:

Shays' Rebellion: the Making of an Agrarian Insurrection

10460: 10458: 10456: 10454: 10452: 10450: 10448: 10446: 10444: 10442: 8481:

Parker, James (August 1903). "The Militia Act of 1903".

8391: 8382: 7946: 6844: 5511:"Expert Brief: How the NRA Rewrote the Second Amendment" 5288:"Law Review: The Fourteenth Amendment and Incorporation" 4465:. On March 4, 2016, the court agreed to rehear the case 3642:

possessed by law-abiding citizens for lawful purposes."

2127:, because only whites could join militias in the South. 878:

agreed to the Bill of Rights to assure ratification. In

9834:"The past and future of the individual's right to arms" 9360:

Rottenberg, Annette T.; Winchell, Donna Haisty (2011).

8287:"Journal of the Senate of the United States of America" 8269:"Journal of the Senate of the United States of America" 8218:"Journal of the Senate of the United States of America" 8051:"The Second Amendment was ratified to preserve slavery" 7924:"The Second Amendment was ratified to preserve slavery" 6577:"The Second Amendment was ratified to preserve slavery" 6377: 4061:

of the Second Amendment right" (emphasis in original) (

1904: 1498:

State Constitutional Precursors to the Second Amendment

1250: 900: 30:"Second Amendment" redirects here. For other uses, see 14424:

McAffee, Thomas B.; Quinlan, Michael J. (March 1997).

13836:

American Government and Politics Today: The Essentials

13711:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. 13269:

Blackstone, William (1996). Tucker, St. George (ed.).

12694:"Illinois Abolishes Ban on Carrying Concealed Weapons" 12632: 12488:

United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit

12436: 11465: 9044:. 270 F.3d 203, 218–19 (5th Cir. 2001). Archived from 7884: 6949: 6876: 6495: 6446: 3859:, she called the Second Amendment "outdated", saying: 1551:

These same reasons would later be outlined within the

16611: 15095: 13216:. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. 11625:"The Second Amendment expands, but maybe not by much" 10439: 9955:"The Unconstitutionality of Unfinished Receiver Bans" 8649: 8331:"Amendments to the Constitution of the United States" 8146:"Gales & Seaton's History of Debates in Congress" 6940: 6938: 6936: 6894: 6471:

Bellesiles, Michael A. (2001). Bogus, Carl T. (ed.).

4380:, 11-3942 – On November 28, 2012, the 2702: 1604:

where the executive should be sustained without arms;

14491:(1995). "A Critical Guide to the Second Amendment". 14066:. New York: Simon & Schuster. pp. 256–257. 13830: 13771: 13254:. Vol. 17. The Johns Hopkins University Press. 13096:

United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit

11489:"Summary of the Recent McDonald v. Chicago Gun Case" 10885:"Americans have right to guns under landmark ruling" 10622:. Mooredefenselaw.com. June 30, 2008. Archived from 9920:"What Did 'Bear Arms' Mean in the Second Amendment?" 7093: 7091: 5673: 5671: 5573:"Americans have right to guns under landmark ruling" 5504: 5502: 4755:

List of amendments to the United States Constitution

3007:

to keep and bear arms" instead of "the right of the

1638: 1016:

The ratification act from New Jersey has no commas:

13506:

Loaded: A Disarming History of the Second Amendment

12753:"Ninth Circuit Will Rehear Nordyke v. King En Banc" 10733:""Legal Community Against Violence" Summary of the 10668: 10173:. Justia US Supreme Court Center. January 4, 1886. 9594:

A Discourse of Government with Relation to Militias

8082:

The Hidden History of Guns and the Second Amendment

7544: 6501:

Merkel and Uviller, pp. 62, 179ff, 183, 188ff, 306.

4034:summed up the central Second Amendment findings in 3855:. Speaking in an interview on public radio station 2856:

A Discourse of Government with Relation to Militias

1608:

where justice should be administered without oaths;

1573: 16519:Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787 14780:is available for free viewing and download at the 13917: 13797:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers. 13612:. Oakland, California: The Independent Institute. 13605: 13580:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing. 13419: 13289: 12692: 11713: 11143: 10725: 10695: 10197: 10171:"Presser v. Illinois, 116 U.S. 252 (1886), at 265" 10132: 9800: 9528: 9526: 9468:"Lost and Found: Researching the Second Amendment" 9359: 9334: 9325: 9274: 9057: 9055: 8403: 8242:(August 22, 1789) qtd. in Bickford, et al., p. 16 7694: 7653: 7504: 7434:General Court of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts 6933: 6724: 6121: 6119: 6032: 6030: 6028: 5907:Separation of Powers in Practice – Thomas Campbell 5765:"How a comma gave Americans the right to own guns" 4836:31–53 (1994) (hereinafter Malcolm); L. Schwoerer, 4630:was denied by a vote of 5–4. On July 9, 2013, the 2764:(2001), along with the Supreme Court's rulings in 14028:. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. 13732:. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press. 13673:. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. 12490:. suntimes.com. December 11, 2012. Archived from 12454: 10646:"Global Legal Information Network Summary of the 9918:Cramer, Clayton E.; Olson, Joseph Edward (2008). 8042: 7088: 6885: 6727:Gun Violence in America: The struggle for control 6455: 6437: 6428: 6224: 6199: 6046:the fifth and last auxiliary right of the subject 5668: 5609:"Justices Extend Firearm Rights in 5-to-4 Ruling" 5499: 5258:"Justices Extend Firearm Rights in 5-to-4 Ruling" 5054:"After Heller: What Now for the Second Amendment" 4708:No. 12-17808 (9th Cir. 2021) – An 3928:Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution 3515: 3081:In the century following the ratification of the 2427: 2233: 1706:A Declaration of Rights. Chapter 1. Article XVII. 16647: 15055:List of firearm court cases in the United States 14651:Winkler, Adam (June 2009). "Heller's Catch 22". 14552:George Mason University Civil Rights Law Journal 13726:Merkel, William G.; Uviller, H. Richard (2002). 12418: 12190:"United States Court of Appeals, Fourth Circuit" 10323:"The misconstruction of United States v. Miller" 10262:. Justia US Supreme Court Center. May 27, 1929. 9481:(10). IIT Chicago-Kent College of Law: 349–401. 9064:George Mason University Civil Rights Law Journal 8639:"The Second Amendment in the Nineteenth Century" 8584: 8582: 8580: 8578: 7806: 7756:"US Library of Congress, repro of original text" 7261:The History of the Society of Friends in America 7032: 6787: 6785: 6783: 6781: 6522:. George E. von Rosen. p. 4. Archived from 5384:"United States v. Cruikshank 92 U.S. 542 (1875)" 4655:an April 20 panel decision and reheard the case 4098:for self-defense. The Court reiterated that the 3978: (2010), held that the Second Amendment was 3235:..." Likewise, the Court held that there was no 3123:... to keep and carry arms wherever they went." 3077:List of firearm court cases in the United States 1630:subordination to and control of the civil power. 13834:; Bardes, Barbara A.; Shelley, Mack C. (2008). 13211: 11980:"Few Ripples From Supreme Court Ruling on Guns" 11051:"Scalia: Right to bear arms is "not unlimited"" 10949:"Few Ripples From Supreme Court Ruling on Guns" 10846: 9523: 9052: 7862:. James Monroe Papers. New York Public Library. 6661: 6116: 6025: 5542:"Justices reject D.C. ban on handgun Ownership" 5112:"Justices Reject D.C. Ban On Handgun Ownership" 4920: 4685:. On April 4, 2012, the panel sent the case to 2973:Scalia further specifies who holds this right: 2446:Additional Letters From The Federal Farmer #169 1698: 1030:Influence of the English Bill of Rights of 1689 16530:Bibliography of the United States Constitution 14423: 13250:Bickford, Charlene; et al., eds. (2004). 13130:. No. 10-56971 (9th Cir. 2016). Archived from 12964:"Text of November 28 order granting rehearing" 11520:"Analysis: state gun regulations and McDonald" 10852:"Landmark ruling fires challenges to gun laws" 10582: 9653: 9651: 8921:. University of Michigan Law School: 213–214. 8336:. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. 7876:(1788). "Speech on the Federal Constitution". 6811:Charles, "Arms for Their Defence?", p. 4. 6718: 6716: 6714: 6712: 6710: 6708: 6706: 6704: 6702: 6700: 6645:"2nd Amendment passed to protect slavery? No!" 6217: 6215: 5602: 5600: 5410:"United States v. Miller, 307 U.S. 174 (1939)" 4772:dedicated to supporting the right to bear arms 4622:of firearms to be unconstitutional. The court 4402:Range v. Attorney General of the United States 3984:Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment 3948: 3187: 2436:" (his real identity is presumed to be either 2377:of Michigan (right) was an educator and judge. 2102: 1618: 1295:suppressing insurrection, allegedly including 1024: 15081: 14829: 14527:Georgetown Journal of Law & Public Policy 14118:Georgetown Journal of Law & Public Policy 13838:. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing. 13725: 13535: 13443:The Costs of War: America's Pyrrhic Victories 13214:Guns, Democracy, and the Insurrectionist Idea 13148:Berman, Dan; LeBlanc, Paul (March 26, 2021). 13147: 12724:DeFiglio, Pam; McRoy, Darren (July 9, 2013). 12723: 12372: 12370: 12175: 12173: 11004: 10620:"Nathan Moore Summary of the Heller Decision" 10612: 10417:"District of Columbia v. Heller (No. 07-290)" 9924:Georgetown Journal of Law & Public Policy 9251:Georgetown Journal of Law & Public Policy 8575: 8026:. Second Amendment Foundation. Archived from 7968:. 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"A Citizen of America". 6638: 6636: 6634: 6632: 6568: 6050:... is that of having arms for their defence 3434:Jack Miller and Frank Layton "did unlawfully 2671:In 1867, Judge Timothy Farrar published his 1302:facilitating a natural right of self-defense 1215:Influence of the English Militia Act of 1757 1196:and the Statute of Winchester of 1285. See: 14602: 13575: 12744: 12484:"Moore v. Madigan (Circuit docket 12-1269)" 11616: 11437: 10596:. Witkin.com. June 30, 2009. Archived from 10189: 9917: 9648: 9343: 9219:, 117 F.3d 1265, 1273–74 (11th Cir. 1997); 8958: 8929: 8724: 8117: 8097:"The Right to Bear Arms a Disfavored Right" 7626:"Theories of Constitutional Interpretation" 7263:. London: W. & F. G. Cash. p. 123. 6697: 6212: 5597: 5228: 4573:, thereby vacating the December 18 opinion. 4457:. The Fourth Circuit ruled that the higher 4073: 3918:would have been forthrightly classified as 2776:, the Supreme Court resolved any remaining 2022: 1935:Article VI of the Articles of Confederation 1927: 1658: 1292:safeguarding against tyrannical governments 16671:United States federal firearms legislation 15088: 15074: 14836: 14822: 14545: 14043:Wills, Garry (2000). Cornell, Saul (ed.). 13792: 13558:The Reader's Companion to American History 13555:Foner, Eric; Garraty, John Arthur (1991). 13268: 12848:"Second Amendment: Less chance of review?" 12367: 12170: 11962: 11875: 11873: 11871: 11869: 11590:. Rosen Publishing Group. pp. 31–32. 11374: 10908: 9960:Harvard Journal of Law & Public Policy 9763: 9639: 9505:"How the NRA rewrote the Second Amendment" 8942:. Little, Brown and company. p. 381. 8776: 8686: 8623: 8621: 8619: 8553:"A Critical Guide to the Second Amendment" 8515:. United States House of Representatives. 7844:. Vol. 3 (3rd ed.). p. 425. 7495: 7065: 7033:Horowitz, Joshua; Anderson, Casey (2009). 6470: 6401: 6399: 6397: 6395: 6331:"An easy plan of discipline for a militia" 6291:"An easy plan of discipline for a militia" 6036: 5944:. Stanford University Press. p. 184. 5474: 5369:Madison, James; Hamilton, John. C. (ed.); 5339: 5337: 5335: 5290:. American Bar Association. Archived from 5235:(8 ed.). CQ Press. pp. 395–396. 5194:"Quick Reference to Federal Firearms Laws" 5078: 4850:The Bill of Rights and What It Means Today 3883:is the product of an erroneous reading of 3666:as the one quoted above. For example, the 3658:at 627, 128 S.Ct. 2783 (citation omitted). 3394: 3227:The Court stated that "he Second Amendment 2495:right to keep and bear their private arms. 1522: 740: 726: 482: 468: 14514:William & Mary Bill of Rights Journal 14286:"Natural Rights and the Second Amendment" 14269:"Arms, Anarchy, and the Second Amendment" 14248:William & Mary Bill of Rights Journal 13874:The Bill of Rights: Defining Our Freedoms 13540:. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. 13485:. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. 13212:Anderson, Casey; Horwitz, Joshua (2009). 13056: 13025: 12931: 12900: 12845: 12781: 12512: 12362:Tyler v. Hillsdale County Sheriff's Dep't 11622: 11579: 11577: 11377:"Justices Rule for Individual Gun Rights" 11180: 10811:"Supreme Court Strikes Down D.C. Gun Ban" 9952: 9619: 9106: 9061: 9010: 8819: 8817: 8674: 8355: 8134: 8084:. Berrett-Koehler Publishers. p. 48. 7854: 7811:. Vol. 2 (2nd ed.). p. 97. 6926: 6924: 6642: 6629: 6541: 6464: 4735:Gun ownership#United States gun ownership 4681:2 decision and agreed to rehear the case 3990:, voted to do so through the amendment's 3438:... transport in interstate commerce from 3343: (1897), the Supreme Court stated in 2909:Justice Scalia, writing for the Court in 2893:... the authority of training the militia 2452:regarding the definition of a "militia": 2318:In the 20th century, Congress passed the 1719:Drafting and adoption of the Constitution 1122:(Recital regarding the change of monarch) 16586:Scene at the Signing of the Constitution 14487: 14080: 14023: 13915: 13775:Firearms and Violence: A Critical Review 13690:The Writings of James Madison: 1787–1790 13645: 13626: 13603: 13594: 13249: 12870: 12812: 12227: 12112: 11812: 11782:"Court to take up major gun-rights case" 11272: 11270: 11048: 9590: 8662:. William Young Birch, and Abraham Small 8588: 8544: 8509:"§246. Militia: composition and classes" 8079: 8048: 6944: 6605: 6574: 6510: 6260: 6189: 5937: 5903: 5694: 5677: 5433: 5431: 5164:"Court: A constitutional right to a gun" 4525:. The court noted that it had, prior to 3532: 2706: 2508:. He annotated a five-volume edition of 2237: 2026: 1678: 1254: 942:between various organizations regarding 911:(2008), the Supreme Court handed down a 14678: 14650: 14637: 14511: 14440: 14402: 14387: 14266: 14173: 14115: 14009:. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. 13990:. Oxford University Press. p. xv. 13983: 13962: 13890: 13852: 13811: 13706: 13687: 13652:. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. 13480: 13459: 13417: 13408: 13384: 13368:A Detailed Analysis of the Constitution 13346: 13310: 13233:Constitutional & Administrative Law 13230: 13192: 12976:from the original on September 13, 2012 12343:from the original on September 23, 2015 11866: 11583: 11517: 11499:from the original on September 25, 2015 11474: 11460: 11360:. 128 S.Ct. 2783 (2008). 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Heller" 5726: 5690:from the original on February 26, 2017. 5508: 5416:from the original on September 28, 2013 5332: 4138:the basis of the Second Amendment, the 3914:decision, if the right acknowledged in 3321: 2337: 1382:consisted of a mixture of the standing 1050:... last auxiliary right of the subject 673:Right to keep and bear arms in the U.S. 646:International treaties for arms control 14: 16648: 14586: 14566: 14474: 14453: 14283: 14212: 14195: 13942: 13762: 13753: 13445:(2 ed.). Transaction Publishers. 13440: 13337: 13188:. Birmingham, Alabama: Paladium Press. 12750: 12659: 12614:from the original on February 25, 2013 12601: 12583:from the original on December 18, 2012 12556:from the original on December 21, 2012 12543: 12525:from the original on December 12, 2012 12324:Tyler v. Hillsdale Co. Sheriff's Dept. 12228:Santiago, Matthew (February 5, 2016). 11977: 11746: 11574: 11440:"Slavery root of the Second Amendment" 11279:, Opinion of the Court, Part II-A-1-b. 11149: 11022: 10987:"Ruling upholds most gun control laws" 10984: 10946: 10882: 10683:from the original on November 13, 2012 10472:"Cornell School of Law Summary of the 10360:from the original on November 13, 2012 10350:"One Court's Second Amendment Fantasy" 10347: 10195: 9807:. 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Heller (2008) 2326:and the unorganized Reserve Militia. 1959: 1488:National Rifle Association of America 556:Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act 16565:Constitution Day and Citizenship Day 14695: 14370: 14232: 14004: 13666: 13538:The Bill of Rights in Modern America 13509:. San Francisco: City Lights Books. 12794:from the original on August 28, 2009 12602:Volokh, Eugene (February 22, 2013). 12450:from the original on August 1, 2010. 12414:from the original on March 19, 2012. 12388:from the original on August 12, 2010 12179:Winkler, "Heller's Catch 22", p. 15. 12143: 12113:Hamblett, Mark (November 28, 2012). 12046:. September 18, 2015. Archived from 11968:Winkler, "Heller's Catch 22", p. 14. 11839: 11779: 11486: 11438:O'Neill, Brian (February 10, 2019). 11328:, Opinion of the Court, Part II-D-1" 11023:Harris, Andrew (February 22, 2013). 10783:. 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Archived from 818:from infringing upon this right. 616:Gun-Free School Zones Act (GFSZA) 571:Connecticut Children's Safety Act 32:Second Amendment (disambiguation) 16633: 16621: 15500:Convention to propose amendments 14760:"District of Columbia v. Heller" 14603:Weisselberg, Charles D. (2009). 14273:Valparaiso University Law Review 14047:. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's. 13631:. 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Heller" 11207: 11104: 11065: 11042: 11016: 10978: 10940: 10902: 10876: 10840: 10802: 10674: 10556: 10524: 10502:"Post-Heller Litigation Summary" 10494: 10372: 10341: 10314: 10302: 10290: 10278: 10237: 10225: 10163: 10141: 10120: 10108: 10096: 10062: 10028: 10006:"FindLaw | Cases and Codes" 9998: 9946: 9911: 9878: 9825: 9792: 9722: 9663: 9613: 9584: 9552: 9497: 9459: 9427: 9392: 9353: 9293: 9284: 9261: 9238: 9201: 9184: 9138: 9119: 9100: 9078: 9034: 8997: 8965:Cooley, Thomas McIntyre (1880). 8936:Cooley, Thomas McIntyre (1871). 8906: 8873: 8864: 8855: 8846: 8837: 8830:. Harper & Brothers. §1890. 8758: 8749: 8630: 8531: 8501: 8474: 8434: 8412: 8323: 8297: 8279: 8261: 8228: 8220:. pp. 63–64. Archived from 8210: 8192: 8174: 8156: 8111: 8088: 8073: 8015: 7984: 7916: 7896:Black, Eric (January 17, 2013). 7866: 7848: 7833: 7815: 7800: 7774: 7758:. Memory.loc.gov. Archived from 7748: 7722: 7686: 7645: 7617: 7608: 7599: 7581: 7559: 7513: 7486: 7470: 7461: 7452: 7422: 7392: 7362: 7340:"Constitution of North Carolina" 7332: 7302: 7267: 7252: 7211: 7159:"Virginia Declaration of Rights" 6859: 6826:"District Of Columbia V. Heller" 5941:Separation of Powers in Practice 5540:Barnes, Robert (June 27, 2008). 5110:Barnes, Robert (June 27, 2008). 4963: 4954: 4904:"District of Columbia v. Heller" 4859:"District of Columbia v. Heller" 4740:Gun culture in the United States 4642: 4537: 4475: 4395: 4334: 4202: 4185:decision, the Court refined the 3478:... as provided by Section 1132C 2616:Commentaries on the Constitution 2562: 2396: 2387: 2360: 2351: 1778: 1769: 1742: 1733: 1575:Pennsylvania, September 28, 1776 991: 709: 539:Bipartisan Safer Communities Act 507: 449: 437: 425: 60: 14443:J. Of Firearms & Pub. Pol'y 13171: 12932:Denniston, Lyle (May 4, 2011). 12883:. 9th Cir. 2009. Archived from 11978:Liptak, Adam (March 17, 2009). 11931:, 47 F.3d 120 (4th Cir. 1995); 11747:Liptak, Adam (April 27, 2020). 10947:Liptak, Adam (March 16, 2009). 10883:Vicini, James (June 26, 2008). 10348:Helmke, Paul (March 28, 2008). 9964:(9). Cambridge, Massachusetts. 9860:"District of Columbia v Heller" 9700:"District of Columbia v Heller" 8449:United States Statutes at Large 8400:Merkel and Uviller, p. 12. 7660:. Simon and Schuster. pp. 7181: 7151: 7122: 7072:(Thesis). Radboud Universitet. 7059: 7026: 6998: 6988: 6962: 6946:Hamilton, Alexander ("Publius") 6903: 6900:Merkel and Uviller, p. 79. 6853: 6814: 6805: 6752: 6671: 6504: 6363: 6337: 6323: 6297: 6283: 6269: 6234: 6183: 6158: 6145: 6085: 6072: 6059: 6044:. Book 1, Chapter 1. 5995: 5931: 5897: 5856: 5816: 5786: 5757: 5720: 5658: 5638:Carter, Gregg Lee, ed. (2012). 5631: 5564: 5533: 5468: 5402: 5376: 5363: 5306: 5280: 5249: 4944: 4930: 4883: 4811: 4794: 4306: 4301:United States courts of appeals 4287: 3992:Privileges or Immunities Clause 3961:On June 28, 2010, the Court in 3892:history of the Second Amendment 3727:has been widely described as a 3247:Thus, the Court held a federal 3015:Meaning of "keep and bear arms" 2614:articulated in his influential 2606: 2554:Further, Tucker criticized the 2460: 2334:, and the unorganized militia. 2257:, militia company, or group of 2031:An illustration of Mississippi 1948:Article I, Section 8, Clause 16 16115:Separation of church and state 14885:District of Columbia v. Heller 14845:United States Second Amendment 14576:New York University Law Review 14137:Bogus, Carl T. (Winter 1998). 14109: 13426:. Greenwood Publishing Group. 13366:Cooke, Edward Francis (2002). 13028:"Major gun case shunted aside" 12577:"Moore v. Madigan, key points" 11951:, 81 F.3d 98 (9th Cir. 1996); 11704:, concurring in the judgment). 11078:. Potomac Books. p. 204. 10553:, concurring in the judgment). 10072:District of Columbia v. Heller 9885:Baron, Dennis (May 21, 2018). 9627:. Letter to The Earl of Buchan 9507:. Brennan Center for Justice. 9247:Parker v. District of Columbia 8595:. Greenwood Publishing Group. 7825:(1971) . Ford, Paul L. (ed.). 7701:. Simon and Schuster. p. 7483:cited in Cottrol, p. 283. 7370:"The Constitution of New York" 7189:"Constitution of Pennsylvania" 6951:"Concerning the Militia" 5607:Liptak, Adam (June 28, 2010). 5347:. Law.umkc.edu. Archived from 5256:Liptak, Adam (June 28, 2010). 5186: 5156: 5134: 5103: 5072: 5045: 5018: 4992: 4313:Heller v. District of Columbia 4281:District of Columbia v. Heller 4271:Parker v. District of Columbia 4212:District of Columbia v. Heller 4110:District of Columbia v. Heller 4069:. at ___, 130 S. Ct. at 3036). 4006:, 561 U. S. 742, 778 (2010)." 3894:. He argued that the Southern 3689:District of Columbia v. Heller 3626:District of Columbia v. Heller 3546:District of Columbia v. Heller 3524:District of Columbia v. Heller 3517:District of Columbia v. Heller 3454:... Arkansas a certain firearm 3140:District of Columbia v. Heller 2960:, writing for the majority in 2766:District of Columbia v. Heller 2535:In footnotes 40 and 41 of the 2413:of Pennsylvania (right) was a 2234:Militia following ratification 1115:(list of grievances including) 1095:District of Columbia v. Heller 979:District of Columbia v. Heller 909:District of Columbia v. Heller 833:English Bill of Rights of 1689 775:District of Columbia v. Heller 653:Background Check System (NICS) 127:Amendments to the Constitution 13: 1: 15619:Virginia Ratifying Convention 15032:Wrenn v. District of Columbia 14710:. Thousand Oaks, California: 13969:An Essay on the Trial by Jury 13947:. Cambridge University Press. 13897:. Santa Barbara, California: 13670:Origins of the Bill of Rights 13604:Halbrook, Stephen P. (1994). 13599:. Greenwood Publishing Group. 13595:Halbrook, Stephen P. (1989). 13578:A Companion to Applied Ethics 13561:. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. 12728:. Patch Media. Archived from 12691:Jones, Ashby (July 9, 2013). 12660:McCune, Greg (July 9, 2013). 11491:. Office of Legal Research – 11245:, Justice Stevens dissenting" 10809:Mauro, Tony (June 27, 2008). 9245:Hernaez, Dorothy J. (2008). " 8971:. F.B. Rothman. p. 271. 8789:. The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd. 8589:Halbrook, Stephen P. (1998). 8541:, June 18, 1792, at 2, col. 1 7878:Virginia Ratifying Convention 6882:Pole and Greene, p. 386. 6406:Roberts, Oliver Ayer (1895). 5910:. Stanford University Press. 5733:U.S. Constitution For Dummies 4981: 4693:Teixeira v. County of Alameda 4461:standard is to be applied on 4328:Wrenn v. District of Columbia 2999:According to the majority in 2923:, 1 Ga. 243, 251 (1846), the 2481: 2291:Pennsylvania farmers rebelled 2230:added ratifications in 1939. 1478:and the similar act of 1795. 626:Gun laws in the U.S. by state 606:Firearm Owners Protection Act 551:Firearms and Explosives (ATF) 16666:United States Bill of Rights 16661:Militia of the United States 16580:National Constitution Center 16378:Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer 15677:Assemble and Petition Clause 14456:Lewis & Clark Law Review 14391:George Washington Law Review 14373:Lewis & Clark Law Review 14213:Davies, Ross (Winter 2008). 13347:Charles, Patrick J. (2009). 13059:"Nordyke gun case nears end" 12515:"Broader gun right declared" 12408:"U.S. v. Skoien No. 08-3770" 12043:U.S. News & World Report 11780:Howe, Amy (April 26, 2021). 11493:Connecticut General Assembly 11294:, Justice Breyer dissenting" 10155:. July 20, 1886. p. 5. 9306:. p. 14. Archived from 8699:. H. C. Carey & I. Lea. 8641:. Second Amendment Project. 8289:. p. 77. Archived from 8271:. p. 71. Archived from 8166:. p. 64. Archived from 6909:McAffee and Quinlan, p. 781. 6606:Mencimer, Stephanie (2008). 5783:. Retrieved on July 1, 2016. 5702:"Errors in the Constitution" 4986: 4782:in that state's Constitution 4565:United States district court 2938:Justice Stevens in dissent: 2889:... reserving to the states 2808:And in 1991, Burger stated: 2324:United States National Guard 1866:provide and maintain a navy; 1700:Massachusetts, June 15, 1780 591:Federal Firearms Act of 1938 7: 16451:Charles Cotesworth Pinckney 15505:State ratifying conventions 15442:Equal Opportunity to Govern 15437:Electoral College abolition 15364:Congressional Apportionment 14893:McDonald v. City of Chicago 14861:United States v. Cruikshank 14596:California Political Review 14558:(1): 67–100. Archived from 14403:Malcolm, Joyce Lee (1993). 14215:"Which is the Constitution" 14081:Winterer, Caroline (2002). 14024:Williams, David H. (2003). 13958:(2 ed.). P.H. Nicklin. 13916:Szatmary, David P. (1980). 13891:Spitzer, Robert J. (2001). 13812:Renehan, Edward J. (1997). 13758:. Rutgers University Press. 13707:Malcolm, Joyce Lee (1996). 13629:Private Guns, Public Health 13481:Dulaney, W. Marvin (1996). 13296:. New York: The New Press. 12903:"Second Amendment extended" 11840:Howe, Amy (June 21, 2024). 10578:– via Google Scholar. 10421:Legal Information Institute 10196:Cramer, Clayton E. (1994). 9799:Crooker, Constance (2003). 9597:. Edinburgh: J. Bettenham. 9018:Right to Keep and Bear Arms 7730:"Articles of Confederation" 7501:Schmidt et al., p. 39. 7276:Political Science Quarterly 6796:: 1, Col.3. April 13, 1769. 6723:DeConde, Alexander (2001). 6196:qtd. in Maer and Gay, p. 4. 4844:(which was codified as the 4819:United States v. Cruikshank 4760:Right to keep and bear arms 4717: 4044:McDonald v. City of Chicago 3986:, while the fifth justice, 3964:McDonald v. City of Chicago 3957:McDonald v. City of Chicago 3950:McDonald v. City of Chicago 3817:United States v. Cruikshank 3584:United States v. Cruikshank 3528: 3206:United States v. Cruikshank 3196:United States v. Cruikshank 3189:United States v. Cruikshank 2103:To avoid arming free blacks 1620:Maryland, November 11, 1776 1553:Declaration of Independence 1445:" essay published in 1788: 1025:Pre-Constitution background 881:United States v. Cruikshank 799:McDonald v. City of Chicago 766:right to keep and bear arms 658:National Firearms Act (NFA) 586:Federal Assault Weapons Ban 566:Concealed carry in the U.S. 549:Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, 534:Assault weapons legislation 497:Firearm legal topics of the 393:Preamble and Articles I–VII 289:Congressional Apportionment 10: 16687: 15024:Peruta v. San Diego County 14724:10.4135/9781412965811.n269 14590:(November–December 1998). 14546:Tahmassebi, S. B. (1991). 14177:Cleveland State Law Review 13646:Kruschke, Earl R. (1995). 13422:Gun Control and Gun Rights 13338:Carter, Gregg Lee (2002). 12260:"Order granting rehearing 12014:. Leagle. March 26, 2010. 11817:. NBC News. Archived from 11696:February 19, 2020, at the 11668:February 19, 2020, at the 10827:In a historic 5–4 decision 10742:. Lcav.org. Archived from 10652:. Glin.gov. Archived from 10545:February 19, 2020, at the 10149:"The Lehr und Wehr Verein" 9803:Gun Control and Gun Rights 9776:. Independence Institute. 9162:Barnett, Randy E. (2004). 9042:"United States v. Emerson" 8886:. Little, Brown. § 34 7900:. Minnpost. Archived from 7310:"Constitution of Maryland" 5515:Brennan Center for Justice 5201:U.S. Department of Justice 5056:. Santa Clara Law Review. 4730:Second Amendment sanctuary 4663:Alameda County, California 4515:United States v. Scroggins 4163: 4126: 4079: 3954: 3683:s findings and reasoning: 3521: 3400: 3366:United States v. Schwimmer 3361:United States v. Schwimmer 3358: 3354:United States v. Schwimmer 3264: 3193: 3074: 2656:and the Second Amendment. 1722: 1221:Great Britain's Parliament 1129:(list of rights including) 831:and was influenced by the 812:limited to the same extent 762:United States Constitution 678:Second Amendment sanctuary 636:High-capacity magazine ban 29: 16538: 16510: 16490: 16469: 16438: 16412: 16391: 16365: 16329: 16278: 16247: 16231: 16210: 16189: 16168: 16152: 16143: 16022: 15904:Privileges and Immunities 15717:Congressional enforcement 15652: 15639:Rhode Island ratification 15530:Articles of Confederation 15517: 15495: 15472:Parental Rights amendment 15397: 15354: 15279: 15251: 15230: 15167: 15163: 15154: 15103: 15050: 14943: 14852: 14681:"The Bill of Rights 1689" 14430:North Carolina Law Review 13984:Tushnet, Mark V. (2007). 13667:Levy, Leonard W. (1999). 13231:Barnett, Hilaire (2004). 12579:. The Volokh Conspiracy. 12382:Sentencing Law and Policy 12218:Part III of the decision. 11684:Caetano v. Massachusetts' 11656:Caetano v. Massachusetts' 11117:. ABC-CLIO. p. 147. 10533:Caetano v. Massachusetts' 9591:Fletcher, Andrew (1698). 9388:– via Google Books. 9331:Frey and Wellman, p. 194. 8852:Renehan, pp. 172–74. 8483:The North American Review 7991:Hadden, Sally E. (2001). 7840:Elliot, Jonathan (1937). 7807:Elliot, Jonathan (1863). 7526:The Founders Constitution 7510:Williams, pp. 41–44. 7467:Smith, pp. 591, 600. 7400:"Constitution of Vermont" 6452:Spitzer, pp. 155–59. 6102:"Opinion of the Court in 5938:Campbell, Thomas (2004). 5927:– via Google Books. 5904:Campbell, Thomas (2004). 4838:The Declaration of Rights 4632:Illinois General Assembly 4150:in April 2020, though it 3906:was not originally to be 3537:The justices who decided 3379: (1929), concerned a 3249:anti-Ku-Klux-Klan statute 2723:The first, known as the " 1725:Constitutional Convention 1686:Chapter 1. Section XVIII. 1411:Constitutional Convention 1395:Articles of Confederation 651:National Instant Criminal 374:Reconstruction Amendments 16135:Unitary executive theory 15909:Privileges or Immunities 15624:New York Circular Letter 15614:Massachusetts Compromise 14968:United States v. Emerson 14909:Voisine v. United States 14901:Caetano v. Massachusetts 14548:"Gun Control and Racism" 14284:Heyman, Stephen (2000). 14090:Young, David E. (2001). 13627:Hemenway, David (2007). 13441:Denson, John V. (1999). 13409:Cottrol, Robert (1994). 13340:Guns in American Society 13177: 12286:Weisselberg, pp. 99–100. 11933:United States v. Johnson 11879:CRS Report for Congress 11072:Henigan, Dennis (2009). 9770:Kopel, David B. (1999). 9729:Scalia, Antonin (2008). 9215:195, 200 (2009) (citing 8880:Farrar, Timothy (1872). 8843:Spooner, pp. 17–18. 8738:. Portage Publications. 8551:Reynolds, Glenn Harlan. 7999:Harvard University Press 5863:Scalia, Antonin (2008). 5437:CRS Report for Congress 4830:/542 /#553 542 , 553 4787: 4706:Young v. State of Hawaii 4594:, on July 13, 2010, the 4501:United States v. Bledsoe 4482:United States v. Dorosan 4429:United States v. Chester 4341:United States v. Rene E. 4233:United States v. Emerson 4086:On March 21, 2016, in a 4082:Caetano v. Massachusetts 4075:Caetano v. Massachusetts 3044:, Justice Stevens said: 3011:to keep and bear arms". 2761:United States v. Emerson 2733:United States v. Emerson 2023:Preserving slave patrols 1928:Argument for state power 1660:New York, April 20, 1777 1173:1 W. & M. st.2. c.2. 925:Caetano v. Massachusetts 716:United States portal 631:Gun politics in the U.S. 596:Federal Firearms License 561:Campus carry in the U.S. 432:United States portal 42:This article is part of 16055:Dormant Commerce Clause 15899:Presidential succession 15634:Fayetteville Convention 15629:Hillsborough Convention 15565:Three-fifths Compromise 15545:Philadelphia Convention 15535:Mount Vernon Conference 15422:Campaign finance reform 14933:United States v. Rahimi 14877:United States v. Miller 14477:Chicago-Kent Law Review 14290:Chicago-Kent Law Review 14267:Henigan, Denis (1991). 13952:Rawle, William (1829). 13754:Millis, Walter (1981). 13688:Madison, James (2010). 13483:Black Police in America 13460:Doherty, Brian (2008). 13413:. Taylor & Francis. 13315:. David & Charles. 13288:Bogus, Carl T. (2001). 13235:. Routledge Cavendish. 13193:Adamson, Barry (2008). 11957:United States v. Wright 11584:Duignan, Brian (2013). 11444:Pittsburgh Post-Gazette 11111:Huebert, Jacob (2010). 10831:... the landmark ruling 10038:United States v. Miller 9475:Chicago-Kent Law Review 9217:United States v. Wright 8755:Rawle, pp. 125–26. 8731:Rawle, William (2011). 8693:Rawle, William (1825). 8124:Pittsburgh Post-Gazette 8103:: 16–23. Archived from 8080:Hartmann, Thom (2019). 6190:Thompson, Mark (1938). 5373:, No. 46, p. 371; 1864. 5146:The Wall Street Journal 4766:Second Amendment Caucus 4584:United States v. Skoien 4557:involuntarily committed 4553:Gun Control Act of 1968 4216:United States v. Miller 4182:United States v. Rahimi 4140:Dormant Commerce Clause 4019:Equal Protection Clause 4009:Justice Thomas, in his 3997:United States v. Rahimi 3825:United States v. Miller 3592:United States v. Miller 3409:United States v. Miller 3403:United States v. Miller 3396:United States v. Miller 3251:to be unconstitutional 3136:United States v. Miller 3053:A May 2018 analysis by 1955:prescribed by Congress. 1876:prescribed by Congress. 1807:Mount Vernon Conference 1524:Virginia, June 12, 1776 1386:, Loyalist militia and 1203:Encyclopædia Britannica 953: 935:United States v. Rahimi 893:United States v. Miller 872:ratification convention 700:and Law Enforcement Act 683:Sullivan Act (New York) 611:Gun Control Act of 1968 16218:William Samuel Johnson 16090:Nondelegation doctrine 15662:Admission to the Union 15609:Anti-Federalist Papers 15560:Connecticut Compromise 14788:Volokh, Eugene (ed.). 14336:Law and History Review 14208:on September 30, 2017. 14005:Vile, John R. (2005). 13943:Rabban, David (1999). 13853:Shapiro, Ilya (2008). 13197:. Pelican Publishing. 12637:. Holland & Koch. 11953:United States v. Oakes 11937:United States v. Warin 11925:United States v. Rybar 11921:United States v. Toner 11917:Cases v. United States 11035:on November 13, 2013. 10780:Illinois Supreme Court 10010:Caselaw.lp.findlaw.com 9233:Cases v. United States 9229:United States v. Oakes 9221:United States v. Rybar 9207:Kenneth A. Klukowski, 8824:Story, Joseph (1833). 8783:Story, Joseph (1865). 8409:Szatmary, p. 107. 7259:Bowden, James (1854). 7218:Stevens, John (2008). 7195:. September 28, 1776. 6477:. New Press. pp. 6266:Levy, pp. 136–37. 4846:English Bill of Rights 4071: 4032:Illinois Supreme Court 3869: 3851:was a vocal critic of 3846: 3805: 3779: 3770: 3746: 3717: 3668:Illinois Supreme Court 3660: 3541: 3497: 3484: 3245: 3185: 3168: 3067:manufacture firearms. 3064: 3051: 3030: 2997: 2979: 2971: 2949: 2936: 2907: 2827: 2818: 2806: 2712: 2700: 2682: 2625: 2585: 2556:English Bill of Rights 2533: 2510:Sir William Blackstone 2497: 2479: 2458: 2283: 2243: 2227: 2216: 2207: 2198: 2185: 2171: 2153: 2073: 2060: 2035: 2015: 1988: 1957: 1944: 1915:strict constructionist 1483:insurrectionist theory 1456: 1443:Concerning the Militia 1364: 1264: 1182: 1158:Sir William Blackstone 1136: 1081:was overthrown in the 1071:Bill of Rights of 1689 1044:Sir William Blackstone 1022: 1014: 1006: 987: 973:, is preserved in the 837:Sir William Blackstone 668:Open carry in the U.S. 16425:Richard Dobbs Spaight 15894:Presidential Electors 15869:Original Jurisdiction 15809:Full Faith and Credit 15682:Assistance of Counsel 15603:The Federalist Papers 15432:Crittenden Compromise 15008:Woollard v. Gallagher 14696:Lund, Nelson (2008). 14146:U.C. Davis Law Review 14062:Wills, Garry (2002). 13501:Dunbar-Ortiz, Roxanne 13152:. CNN. Archived from 13125:"Peruta v. San Diego" 12757:The Volokh Conspiracy 12672:on September 27, 2019 12608:The Volokh Conspiracy 12297:"Text of decision in 11945:United States v. Hale 11686:, 577 U.S. ___ (2016) 11658:, 577 U.S. ___ (2016) 11061:on November 13, 2013. 10749:on September 13, 2012 10703:"Oyez Summary of the 10535:, 577 U.S. ___ (2016) 9832:Lund, Nelson (1996). 9738:United States Reports 9225:United States v. Hale 9213:New Mexico Law Review 9109:New Mexico Law Review 8430:on September 4, 2015. 8293:on September 4, 2015. 8275:on December 19, 2016. 8188:on September 4, 2015. 8170:on September 4, 2015. 7930:. February 23, 2018. 7693:Wills, Garry (1999). 7652:Wills, Garry (1999). 7552:The Federalist Papers 7346:. December 18, 1776. 7316:. November 11, 1776. 7227:United States Reports 7129:Dunlap, John (1778). 6872:on December 25, 2008. 6657:on February 24, 2018. 6550:U.C. Davis Law Review 6207:To Keep and Bear Arms 6129:. Statutelaw.gov.uk. 6080:To Keep and Bear Arms 5872:United States Reports 5521:on September 24, 2023 5351:on September 12, 2010 4852:51 (1957); W. Rawle, 4834:To Keep and Bear Arms 4671:intermediate scrutiny 4592:intermediate scrutiny 4455:intermediate scrutiny 4419:United States v. Hall 4040: 3920:an unenumerated right 3861: 3837: 3800: 3774: 3765: 3738: 3685: 3639: 3536: 3492: 3432: 3424:National Firearms Act 3241: 3176: 3163: 3059: 3046: 3025: 2989: 2975: 2966: 2940: 2925:Georgia Supreme Court 2915: 2878: 2822: 2810: 2793: 2710: 2695: 2677: 2620: 2580: 2571:in his landmark text 2520: 2492: 2474: 2454: 2266: 2241: 2223: 2212: 2203: 2193: 2180: 2166: 2148: 2068: 2056: 2030: 2010: 1983: 1952: 1939: 1723:Further information: 1680:Vermont, July 8, 1777 1447: 1359: 1258: 1240:this was replaced by 1168: 1110: 1018: 1010: 1002: 983: 698:Violent Crime Control 414:Unratified Amendments 281:Unratified Amendments 70:Preamble and Articles 16656:1791 in American law 16594:A More Perfect Union 16570:Constitution Gardens 16491:Convention Secretary 16153:Convention President 16125:Symmetric federalism 16120:Separation of powers 15854:Necessary and Proper 15849:Natural-born citizen 15794:Freedom of the Press 15732:Copyright and Patent 15722:Contingent Elections 15540:Annapolis Convention 14718:. pp. 438–440. 14698:"Right to Bear Arms" 14493:Tennessee Law Review 14167:10.1093/past/57.1.74 13872:Smith, Rich (2007). 13273:. Lawbook Exchange. 12119:New York Law Journal 11450:on January 11, 2021. 11114:Libertarianism Today 10656:on February 29, 2012 10570:on November 15, 2020 10329:on December 22, 2008 9844:: 26. Archived from 9423:– via YouTube. 8861:Spooner, p. 17. 8378:on January 12, 2011. 8307:. November 4, 2015. 8224:on January 26, 2017. 8206:on January 10, 2011. 8200:"Annals of Congress" 8182:"Annals of Congress" 8152:on January 11, 2011. 8130:on January 11, 2021. 8107:on January 11, 2021. 7904:on February 16, 2021 7632:on December 16, 2011 7624:Linder, Doug (ed.). 7569:(October 10, 1787). 6800:A Right to Bear Arms 6792:"Boston, March 17". 6529:on December 17, 2014 6513:"Know your lawmaker" 5025:Jilson, Cal (2013). 4842:Declaration of Right 4776:Uniform Firearms Act 4770:Congressional caucus 4561:psychiatric hospital 4090:the Court vacated a 4042:Two years later, in 3922:and if the issue in 3768:scope of that right. 3330:Robertson v. Baldwin 3323:Robertson v. Baldwin 3109:opinion of the court 2593:Fourteenth Amendment 2428:The "Federal Farmer" 2419:Continental Congress 2417:and delegate to the 2338:Scholarly commentary 2174:commencement of the 1857:Article 1, Section 8 1476:Militia Acts of 1792 1372:Continental Congress 1343:Declaration of Right 1230:Salem, Massachusetts 576:Constitutional carry 54:of the United States 16601:Worldwide influence 16342:Gunning Bedford Jr. 16070:Executive privilege 16050:Criminal sentencing 15973:Title of Nobility ( 15964:Taxing and Spending 15864:Oath or Affirmation 15824:House Apportionment 15687:Case or Controversy 15570:Committee of Detail 15462:"Liberty" amendment 15427:Christian amendment 14992:Kachalsky v. Cacace 14976:Silveira v. Lockyer 14869:Presser v. Illinois 14853:Supreme Court cases 14770:. October 30, 2015. 14640:Michigan Law Review 14625:on February 6, 2009 14562:on August 16, 2000. 14436:on August 16, 2000. 14419:on August 23, 2010. 14307:Michigan Law Review 13763:Mulloy, D. (2004). 13184:Adams, Les (1996). 12699:Wall Street Journal 12196:. Thomson Reuters. 12050:on October 16, 2015 11821:on October 29, 2023 11221:on January 15, 2013 10931:The landmark ruling 10626:on January 15, 2013 10600:on January 15, 2013 10512:on October 27, 2020 10506:Giffords Law Center 10478:. Law.cornell.edu. 9892:The Washington Post 9443:. October 3, 1992. 9440:The Washington Post 9190:George A. Mocsary, 9146:Silveira v. Lockyer 9048:on August 17, 2012. 8683:Rawle, p. 126. 8627:Tucker, p. 490 8420:"Statutes at Large" 8368:"Statutes at Large" 7784:. US Constitution. 7043:10.3998/mpub.180934 6948:(January 9, 1788). 6828:. Law.cornell.edu. 6798:cited in Halbrook, 6461:Dulaney, p. 2. 6277:"Statutes at large" 6078:Joyce Lee Malcolm, 6038:Blackstone, William 5853:Davies, pp. 209–16. 5804:on January 26, 2017 5794:"Clause and effect" 5680:"Clause and Effect" 5546:The Washington Post 5116:The Washington Post 4806:Glorious Revolution 4699:Peruta v. San Diego 4451:U.S. District Court 4353:§ 922(x)(2)(A) 4257:Silveira v. Lockyer 4088:per curiam decision 4003:McDonald v. Chicago 3908:an enumerated right 3821:Presser v. Illinois 3619:court also stated ( 3588:Presser v. Illinois 3586:, 92 U.S. 542, nor 3458:... a double barrel 3273:Presser v. Illinois 3267:Presser v. Illinois 3260:Presser v. Illinois 3144:McDonald v. Chicago 3071:Supreme Court cases 2770:McDonald v. Chicago 2685:Judge Thomas Cooley 2415:political economist 2320:Militia Act of 1903 2306:and Vice President 2176:American Revolution 2018:To maintain slavery 1815:Annapolis, Maryland 1626:Articles XXV–XXVII. 1339:American Revolution 1083:Glorious Revolution 919:McDonald v. Chicago 621:Gun law in the U.S. 456:Politics portal 407:Amendments XI–XXVII 16255:William Livingston 16239:Alexander Hamilton 16045:Criminal procedure 16040:Constitutional law 15975:Foreign Emoluments 15939:State of the Union 15924:Self-Incrimination 15914:Recess appointment 15707:Compulsory Process 15369:Titles of Nobility 14794:UCLA School of Law 14673:Other publications 14159:Past & Present 13765:American Extremism 12820:The New York Times 12550:The New York Times 12313:on August 3, 2012. 11985:The New York Times 11929:Love v. Peppersack 11754:The New York Times 11700:at 4, footnote 3 ( 11672:at 2 (per curiam). 11381:The New York Times 11332:Supreme.Justia.com 11298:Supreme.Justia.com 11249:Supreme.Justia.com 11195:on August 25, 2021 11156:The New York Times 10953:The New York Times 10915:The New York Times 10321:Fezell, Howard J. 10153:The New York Times 10078:Supreme.Justia.com 10044:Supreme.Justia.com 9942:on August 6, 2020. 9848:on March 25, 2018. 9838:Georgia Law Review 9704:Supreme.Justia.com 9671:"Scalia in Heller" 9568:. April 26, 2014. 9290:Winterer, pp. 1–21 9271:2113, 2134 (2008). 9269:Fordham Law Review 9198:2113, 2133 (2008). 9196:Fordham Law Review 9134:: 2113, 2133–2134. 9128:Fordham Law Review 9087:Fordham Law Review 8030:on August 16, 2000 7972:on August 16, 2000 7577:on August 5, 2010. 7404:The Avalon Project 7376:. April 20, 1777. 7374:The Avalon Project 7344:The Avalon Project 7314:The Avalon Project 7193:The Avalon Project 7163:The Avalon Project 7110:on August 15, 2023 7104:The New York Times 6862:"Shay's rebellion" 6434:Levy, p. 136. 6112:on March 18, 2013. 5979:. memory.loc.gov. 5798:The New York Times 5684:The New York Times 5613:The New York Times 5481:The New York Times 5262:The New York Times 5152:on August 5, 2019. 5085:The New York Times 4780:right to bear arms 4620:concealed carrying 4384:upheld New York's 4059:central component' 4011:concurring opinion 3720:Notes and analysis 3676:(2013), summed up 3542: 3488:Justice McReynolds 3450:... Siloam Springs 3202:Reconstruction Era 2713: 2652:both the right to 2244: 2121:Haitian Revolution 2113:General Washington 2036: 1981:similarly argued: 1973:... Is it possible 1960:Government tyranny 1793:Alexander Hamilton 1710:be governed by it. 1441:explained in his " 1439:Alexander Hamilton 1281:detrimental forces 1275:destructive forces 1265: 816:federal government 318:D.C. Voting Rights 296:Titles of Nobility 16609: 16608: 16575:Constitution Week 16560:Independence Mall 16548:National Archives 16506: 16505: 16321:Gouverneur Morris 16306:Thomas Fitzsimons 16286:Benjamin Franklin 16160:George Washington 16060:Enumerated powers 16035:Concurrent powers 16030:Balance of powers 15859:No Religious Test 15799:Freedom of Speech 15590:Independence Hall 15513: 15512: 15417:Bricker amendment 15350: 15349: 15063: 15062: 15016:People v. Aguilar 14944:Lower court cases 13964:Spooner, Lysander 13156:on March 31, 2021 13137:on June 15, 2016. 12878:"Nordyke v. King" 12732:on March 11, 2017 12468:. July 16, 2010. 12276:on March 7, 2016. 12078:. July 25, 2017. 11794:on April 30, 2021 9623:(July 10, 1803). 9621:Jefferson, Thomas 8870:Cramer, p. ? 8455:: 775–780. 1903. 7782:"US Constitution" 7762:on March 19, 2011 7595:. pp. 38–41. 7492:Vile, p. 19. 7477:Cress, Lawrence. 7052:978-0-472-90088-6 7006:"Elliots debates" 6918:Rakove, p. ? 6891:Vile, p. 30. 5777:on June 19, 2016. 5170:. June 26, 2008. 5052:Shaman, Jeffrey. 4916:on March 2, 2013. 4802:English Civil War 4725:2nd Amendment Day 4027:People v. Aguilar 3873:adjunct professor 3729:landmark decision 3673:People v. Aguilar 3113:African Americans 2981:An earlier case, 2874:enumerated powers 2870:Federalist No. 29 2506:St. George Tucker 2500:Tucker/Blackstone 2438:Richard Henry Lee 2296:George Washington 1967:Theodore Sedgwick 1797:Federalist No. 29 1795:(right) wrote in 1716: 1715: 1701: 1681: 1661: 1641: 1621: 1576: 1556: 1525: 1515: 1464:French Revolution 1234:George Washington 1226:Timothy Pickering 975:National Archives 913:landmark decision 905:judicial interest 750: 749: 492: 491: 16:(Redirected from 16678: 16638: 16637: 16636: 16626: 16625: 16617: 16456:Charles Pinckney 16265:William Paterson 16197:Nathaniel Gorham 16150: 16149: 15929:Speech or Debate 15757:Equal Protection 15467:Ludlow amendment 15452:Flag Desecration 15447:Federal Marriage 15412:Blaine amendment 15374:Corwin Amendment 15165: 15164: 15161: 15160: 15090: 15083: 15076: 15067: 15066: 15035:(D.C. Cir. 2017) 15000:Moore v. Madigan 14952:State v. Buzzard 14838: 14831: 14824: 14815: 14814: 14809: 14807: 14805: 14800:on March 5, 2020 14796:. Archived from 14782:Internet Archive 14771: 14763: 14745: 14684: 14668: 14647: 14634: 14632: 14630: 14624: 14618:. Archived from 14609: 14599: 14583: 14563: 14542: 14521: 14508: 14484: 14471: 14450: 14437: 14432:. Archived from 14420: 14415:. Archived from 14399: 14384: 14367: 14330: 14297: 14280: 14263: 14242: 14229: 14219: 14209: 14204:. Archived from 14192: 14170: 14153: 14143: 14133: 14105: 14086: 14077: 14058: 14039: 14020: 14001: 13980: 13978: 13976: 13959: 13948: 13939: 13923: 13912: 13887: 13868: 13849: 13832:Schmidt, Steffen 13827: 13808: 13789: 13768: 13759: 13750: 13748: 13746: 13722: 13703: 13684: 13663: 13642: 13623: 13611: 13600: 13591: 13572: 13551: 13532: 13530: 13528: 13523:on July 31, 2020 13519:. Archived from 13496: 13477: 13456: 13437: 13425: 13414: 13405: 13381: 13362: 13343: 13334: 13307: 13295: 13284: 13265: 13246: 13227: 13208: 13189: 13166: 13165: 13163: 13161: 13145: 13139: 13138: 13136: 13129: 13121: 13115: 13114: 13112: 13110: 13104: 13098:. May 16, 2016. 13093: 13085: 13079: 13078: 13076: 13074: 13054: 13048: 13047: 13045: 13043: 13023: 13017: 13016: 13014: 13012: 12992: 12986: 12985: 12983: 12981: 12975: 12968: 12960: 12954: 12953: 12951: 12949: 12929: 12923: 12922: 12920: 12918: 12898: 12892: 12891: 12890:on May 13, 2009. 12889: 12882: 12874: 12868: 12867: 12865: 12863: 12843: 12837: 12836: 12834: 12832: 12810: 12804: 12803: 12801: 12799: 12779: 12773: 12772: 12770: 12768: 12748: 12742: 12741: 12739: 12737: 12721: 12715: 12714: 12712: 12710: 12696: 12688: 12682: 12681: 12679: 12677: 12668:. Archived from 12657: 12651: 12650: 12648: 12646: 12630: 12624: 12623: 12621: 12619: 12599: 12593: 12592: 12590: 12588: 12572: 12566: 12565: 12563: 12561: 12541: 12535: 12534: 12532: 12530: 12510: 12504: 12503: 12501: 12499: 12494:on July 24, 2013 12480: 12474: 12473: 12458: 12452: 12451: 12440: 12434: 12433: 12422: 12416: 12415: 12404: 12398: 12397: 12395: 12393: 12374: 12365: 12359: 12353: 12352: 12350: 12348: 12333: 12327: 12321: 12315: 12314: 12312: 12306:. Archived from 12305: 12293: 12287: 12284: 12278: 12277: 12275: 12269:. Archived from 12268: 12256: 12250: 12249: 12247: 12245: 12225: 12219: 12216: 12210: 12209: 12207: 12205: 12186: 12180: 12177: 12168: 12167: 12165: 12163: 12141: 12135: 12134: 12132: 12130: 12110: 12104: 12098: 12092: 12091: 12089: 12087: 12066: 12060: 12059: 12057: 12055: 12034: 12028: 12027: 12025: 12023: 12008: 12002: 12001: 11999: 11997: 11975: 11969: 11966: 11960: 11949:Hickman v. Block 11914: 11908: 11907: 11905: 11903: 11897: 11891:. Archived from 11890: 11877: 11864: 11863: 11861: 11859: 11854:on June 25, 2024 11850:. Archived from 11837: 11831: 11830: 11828: 11826: 11810: 11804: 11803: 11801: 11799: 11790:. Archived from 11777: 11771: 11770: 11768: 11766: 11744: 11738: 11737: 11735: 11733: 11711: 11705: 11679: 11673: 11651: 11645: 11644: 11642: 11640: 11620: 11614: 11613: 11611: 11609: 11581: 11572: 11571: 11569: 11567: 11562:on June 25, 2024 11561: 11554: 11546: 11540: 11539: 11537: 11535: 11515: 11509: 11508: 11506: 11504: 11484: 11478: 11472: 11463: 11458: 11452: 11451: 11446:. Archived from 11435: 11426: 11425: 11423: 11421: 11406: 11400: 11399: 11394: 11392: 11372: 11366: 11365: 11364:on July 2, 2008. 11354: 11348: 11347: 11345: 11343: 11320: 11314: 11313: 11311: 11309: 11286: 11280: 11274: 11265: 11264: 11262: 11260: 11237: 11231: 11230: 11228: 11226: 11217:. Archived from 11211: 11205: 11204: 11202: 11200: 11191:. Archived from 11178: 11172: 11171: 11169: 11167: 11162:on July 12, 2021 11158:. Archived from 11147: 11141: 11140: 11138: 11136: 11108: 11102: 11101: 11099: 11097: 11069: 11063: 11062: 11057:. Archived from 11046: 11040: 11039: 11031:. Archived from 11020: 11014: 11008: 11002: 11001: 10999: 10997: 10991:The Detroit News 10982: 10976: 10975: 10972: 10966: 10964: 10944: 10938: 10937: 10934: 10928: 10926: 10906: 10900: 10899: 10897: 10895: 10880: 10874: 10873: 10871: 10869: 10844: 10838: 10837: 10834: 10830: 10824: 10822: 10806: 10800: 10799: 10797: 10795: 10789: 10776: 10768: 10759: 10758: 10756: 10754: 10748: 10741: 10729: 10723: 10722: 10720: 10718: 10699: 10693: 10692: 10690: 10688: 10675:Rose, Veronica. 10672: 10666: 10665: 10663: 10661: 10642: 10636: 10635: 10633: 10631: 10616: 10610: 10609: 10607: 10605: 10586: 10580: 10579: 10577: 10575: 10560: 10554: 10528: 10522: 10521: 10519: 10517: 10498: 10492: 10491: 10489: 10487: 10468: 10437: 10436: 10434: 10432: 10413: 10388: 10376: 10370: 10369: 10367: 10365: 10345: 10339: 10338: 10336: 10334: 10325:. 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July 8, 1777. 7396: 7390: 7389: 7387: 7385: 7366: 7360: 7359: 7357: 7355: 7336: 7330: 7329: 7327: 7325: 7306: 7300: 7299: 7271: 7265: 7264: 7256: 7250: 7249: 7247: 7245: 7239: 7224: 7215: 7209: 7208: 7206: 7204: 7185: 7179: 7178: 7176: 7174: 7155: 7149: 7148: 7146: 7144: 7126: 7120: 7119: 7117: 7115: 7106:. Archived from 7095: 7086: 7085: 7083: 7081: 7063: 7057: 7056: 7030: 7024: 7021: 7019: 7017: 7002: 6996: 6992: 6986: 6985: 6983: 6981: 6972:. Masshist.org. 6966: 6960: 6959: 6953: 6942: 6931: 6928: 6919: 6916: 6910: 6907: 6901: 6898: 6892: 6889: 6883: 6880: 6874: 6873: 6868:. Archived from 6857: 6851: 6848: 6842: 6841: 6839: 6837: 6818: 6812: 6809: 6803: 6797: 6789: 6776: 6775: 6773: 6771: 6756: 6750: 6749: 6747: 6745: 6730: 6720: 6695: 6694: 6692: 6690: 6675: 6669: 6665: 6659: 6658: 6653:. 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Archived from 5770:Business Insider 5761: 5755: 5754: 5752: 5750: 5728:Arnheim, Michael 5724: 5718: 5717: 5715: 5713: 5704:. archives.gov. 5698: 5692: 5691: 5675: 5666: 5662: 5656: 5655: 5635: 5629: 5628: 5626: 5624: 5604: 5595: 5594: 5592: 5590: 5568: 5562: 5561: 5559: 5557: 5537: 5531: 5530: 5528: 5526: 5517:. Archived from 5506: 5497: 5496: 5494: 5492: 5472: 5466: 5465: 5463: 5461: 5455: 5449:. Archived from 5448: 5435: 5426: 5425: 5423: 5421: 5406: 5400: 5399: 5397: 5395: 5380: 5374: 5367: 5361: 5360: 5358: 5356: 5341: 5330: 5329: 5327: 5325: 5310: 5304: 5303: 5301: 5299: 5284: 5278: 5277: 5275: 5273: 5253: 5247: 5246: 5226: 5220: 5219: 5217: 5215: 5209: 5198: 5190: 5184: 5183: 5181: 5179: 5160: 5154: 5153: 5148:. Archived from 5138: 5132: 5131: 5129: 5127: 5107: 5101: 5100: 5098: 5096: 5076: 5070: 5069: 5067: 5065: 5049: 5043: 5042: 5022: 5016: 5015: 5013: 5011: 4996: 4975: 4967: 4961: 4958: 4952: 4948: 4942: 4934: 4928: 4924: 4918: 4917: 4915: 4909:. Archived from 4908: 4887: 4881: 4880: 4878: 4876: 4871:on March 2, 2013 4870: 4864:. Archived from 4863: 4815: 4809: 4798: 4680: 4607:Moore v. Madigan 4523:§ 922(g)(1) 4509:§ 922(a)(6) 4496: 4471:on May 11, 2016. 4437:§ 922(g)(9) 4250:conflicted with 4239: 4133:The Court heard 4116: 3885:colonial history 3866: 3849:Justice Ginsburg 3843: 3756: 3743: 3682: 3606: 3481: 3477: 3473: 3469: 3465: 3461: 3457: 3453: 3449: 3445: 3441: 3437: 3428:Title II weapons 3234: 3230: 3122: 3115:were considered 3087:Houston v. Moore 2994: 2946: 2904: 2896: 2892: 2888: 2884: 2838:). In his book, 2815: 2803: 2799: 2785:Warren E. Burger 2691:Thomas M. Cooley 2640:Lysander Spooner 2632:Lysander Spooner 2598: 2547:jurists such as 2530: 2400: 2391: 2375:Thomas M. Cooley 2364: 2355: 2343:Early commentary 2272: 2157:select committee 2132:Thomas Jefferson 2083:Legal historian 2048:Dr Carl T. Bogus 1994: 1976: 1972: 1922:Robert Whitehill 1894:Anti-federalists 1782: 1773: 1746: 1737: 1699: 1679: 1659: 1639: 1619: 1574: 1550: 1523: 1513: 1502: 1501: 1473: 1469: 1452: 1415:Anti-federalists 1407:Shays' Rebellion 1374:, together with 1368:Continental Army 1238:Continental Army 1210: 1209:on June 7, 2009. 1133: 1126: 1119: 1087:William III 1061: 1057: 1053: 1049: 1038:to bear arms in 995: 901:academic inquiry 865: 861: 810:governments are 754:Second Amendment 742: 735: 728: 714: 713: 712: 693:Tiahrt Amendment 601:Firearm case law 511: 494: 493: 484: 477: 470: 454: 453: 442: 441: 430: 429: 428: 64: 39: 38: 21: 18:Second Amendment 16686: 16685: 16681: 16680: 16679: 16677: 16676: 16675: 16646: 16645: 16644: 16634: 16632: 16620: 16612: 16610: 16605: 16540: 16534: 16502: 16498:William Jackson 16486: 16482:Abraham Baldwin 16465: 16434: 16430:Hugh Williamson 16408: 16387: 16361: 16352:Richard Bassett 16325: 16311:Jared Ingersoll 16274: 16270:Jonathan Dayton 16243: 16227: 16206: 16185: 16181:Nicholas Gilman 16164: 16139: 16105:Reserved powers 16085:Judicial review 16018: 15814:General Welfare 15737:Double Jeopardy 15648: 15575:List of Framers 15555:New Jersey Plan 15509: 15491: 15487:Victims' Rights 15407:Balanced budget 15393: 15346: 15275: 15247: 15226: 15150: 15099: 15094: 15064: 15059: 15046: 15040:Miller v. Bonta 15027:(9th Cir. 2016) 15011:(4th Cir. 2013) 15003:(7th Cir. 2012) 14987:(9th Cir. 2012) 14984:Nordyke v. King 14979:(9th Cir. 2002) 14971:(5th Cir. 2001) 14960:Nunn v. Georgia 14939: 14848: 14842: 14803: 14801: 14774:The short film 14766: 14758: 14755: 14749: 14734: 14712:Sage Publishing 14692: 14690:Further reading 14687: 14675: 14653:UCLA Law Review 14628: 14626: 14622: 14607: 14489:Reynolds, Glenn 14348:10.2307/4141667 14319:10.2307/1288537 14217: 14141: 14112: 14102: 14074: 14055: 14036: 14017: 13998: 13974: 13972: 13936: 13909: 13884: 13865: 13846: 13824: 13805: 13786: 13744: 13742: 13740: 13719: 13700: 13681: 13660: 13639: 13620: 13588: 13569: 13548: 13526: 13524: 13517: 13493: 13474: 13453: 13434: 13402: 13378: 13359: 13323: 13304: 13281: 13262: 13243: 13224: 13205: 13180: 13174: 13169: 13159: 13157: 13146: 13142: 13134: 13127: 13123: 13122: 13118: 13108: 13106: 13102: 13091: 13087: 13086: 13082: 13072: 13070: 13055: 13051: 13041: 13039: 13024: 13020: 13010: 13008: 13001:Oakland Tribune 12993: 12989: 12979: 12977: 12973: 12966: 12962: 12961: 12957: 12947: 12945: 12930: 12926: 12916: 12914: 12899: 12895: 12887: 12880: 12876: 12875: 12871: 12861: 12859: 12844: 12840: 12830: 12828: 12811: 12807: 12797: 12795: 12780: 12776: 12766: 12764: 12749: 12745: 12735: 12733: 12722: 12718: 12708: 12706: 12689: 12685: 12675: 12673: 12658: 12654: 12644: 12642: 12631: 12627: 12617: 12615: 12600: 12596: 12586: 12584: 12573: 12569: 12559: 12557: 12542: 12538: 12528: 12526: 12511: 12507: 12497: 12495: 12482: 12481: 12477: 12466:Huffington Post 12460: 12459: 12455: 12442: 12441: 12437: 12424: 12423: 12419: 12406: 12405: 12401: 12391: 12389: 12376: 12375: 12368: 12360: 12356: 12346: 12344: 12335: 12334: 12330: 12322: 12318: 12310: 12303: 12295: 12294: 12290: 12285: 12281: 12273: 12266: 12258: 12257: 12253: 12243: 12241: 12226: 12222: 12217: 12213: 12203: 12201: 12188: 12187: 12183: 12178: 12171: 12161: 12159: 12142: 12138: 12128: 12126: 12111: 12107: 12099: 12095: 12085: 12083: 12068: 12067: 12063: 12053: 12051: 12036: 12035: 12031: 12021: 12019: 12010: 12009: 12005: 11995: 11993: 11976: 11972: 11967: 11963: 11915: 11911: 11901: 11899: 11898:on July 3, 2013 11895: 11888: 11884: 11878: 11867: 11857: 11855: 11838: 11834: 11824: 11822: 11811: 11807: 11797: 11795: 11778: 11774: 11764: 11762: 11745: 11741: 11731: 11729: 11712: 11708: 11698:Wayback Machine 11680: 11676: 11670:Wayback Machine 11652: 11648: 11638: 11636: 11621: 11617: 11607: 11605: 11598: 11582: 11575: 11565: 11563: 11559: 11552: 11548: 11547: 11543: 11533: 11531: 11516: 11512: 11502: 11500: 11485: 11481: 11473: 11466: 11459: 11455: 11436: 11429: 11419: 11417: 11408: 11407: 11403: 11390: 11388: 11373: 11369: 11356: 11355: 11351: 11341: 11339: 11322: 11321: 11317: 11307: 11305: 11288: 11287: 11283: 11275: 11268: 11258: 11256: 11239: 11238: 11234: 11224: 11222: 11213: 11212: 11208: 11198: 11196: 11179: 11175: 11165: 11163: 11148: 11144: 11134: 11132: 11125: 11109: 11105: 11095: 11093: 11086: 11070: 11066: 11047: 11043: 11021: 11017: 11009: 11005: 10995: 10993: 10983: 10979: 10970: 10962: 10960: 10945: 10941: 10932: 10924: 10922: 10907: 10903: 10893: 10891: 10881: 10877: 10867: 10865: 10845: 10841: 10832: 10828: 10820: 10818: 10807: 10803: 10793: 10791: 10787: 10774: 10770: 10769: 10762: 10752: 10750: 10746: 10739: 10731: 10730: 10726: 10716: 10714: 10701: 10700: 10696: 10686: 10684: 10673: 10669: 10659: 10657: 10644: 10643: 10639: 10629: 10627: 10618: 10617: 10613: 10603: 10601: 10588: 10587: 10583: 10573: 10571: 10562: 10561: 10557: 10547:Wayback Machine 10529: 10525: 10515: 10513: 10500: 10499: 10495: 10485: 10483: 10470: 10469: 10440: 10430: 10428: 10415: 10414: 10391: 10377: 10373: 10363: 10361: 10354:Huffington Post 10346: 10342: 10332: 10330: 10319: 10315: 10307: 10303: 10295: 10291: 10283: 10279: 10269: 10267: 10258: 10257: 10250: 10242: 10238: 10230: 10226: 10216: 10214: 10212: 10194: 10190: 10180: 10178: 10169: 10168: 10164: 10147: 10146: 10142: 10138:Doherty, p. 14. 10137: 10133: 10125: 10121: 10113: 10109: 10101: 10097: 10087: 10085: 10068: 10067: 10063: 10053: 10051: 10034: 10033: 10029: 10019: 10017: 10004: 10003: 9999: 9987:Cornell, Saul. 9985: 9981: 9971: 9969: 9951: 9947: 9916: 9912: 9902: 9900: 9883: 9879: 9869: 9867: 9858: 9857: 9853: 9830: 9826: 9819: 9797: 9793: 9783: 9781: 9768: 9764: 9754: 9752: 9748: 9733: 9727: 9723: 9713: 9711: 9698: 9697: 9690: 9680: 9678: 9669: 9668: 9664: 9656: 9649: 9644: 9640: 9630: 9628: 9618: 9614: 9604: 9602: 9589: 9585: 9575: 9573: 9558: 9557: 9553: 9543: 9541: 9532: 9531: 9524: 9514: 9512: 9503: 9502: 9498: 9488: 9486: 9470: 9464: 9460: 9450: 9448: 9433: 9432: 9428: 9418: 9416: 9397: 9393: 9383: 9381: 9374: 9358: 9354: 9348: 9344: 9339: 9335: 9330: 9326: 9316: 9314: 9313:on July 4, 2010 9310: 9303: 9299: 9298: 9294: 9289: 9285: 9279: 9275: 9266: 9262: 9243: 9239: 9206: 9202: 9189: 9185: 9175: 9173: 9160: 9156: 9144: 9143: 9139: 9124: 9120: 9115:: 195, 199–200. 9105: 9101: 9083: 9079: 9060: 9053: 9040: 9039: 9035: 9028: 9016: 9015: 9011: 9002: 8998: 8988: 8986: 8979: 8963: 8959: 8949: 8947: 8934: 8930: 8911: 8907: 8898: 8889: 8887: 8878: 8874: 8869: 8865: 8860: 8856: 8851: 8847: 8842: 8838: 8822: 8815: 8801: 8799: 8797: 8781: 8777: 8763: 8759: 8754: 8750: 8742: 8735: 8729: 8725: 8711: 8709: 8707: 8691: 8687: 8682: 8675: 8665: 8663: 8654: 8650: 8635: 8631: 8626: 8617: 8607: 8605: 8603: 8587: 8576: 8566: 8564: 8549: 8545: 8539:Federal Gazette 8536: 8532: 8522: 8520: 8507: 8506: 8502: 8479: 8475: 8465: 8463: 8459: 8444: 8440: 8439: 8435: 8418: 8417: 8413: 8408: 8404: 8399: 8392: 8387: 8383: 8366: 8365: 8356: 8346: 8344: 8340: 8333: 8329: 8328: 8324: 8314: 8312: 8303: 8302: 8298: 8285: 8284: 8280: 8267: 8266: 8262: 8252:Alexander White 8233: 8229: 8216: 8215: 8211: 8198: 8197: 8193: 8180: 8179: 8175: 8162: 8161: 8157: 8139: 8135: 8116: 8112: 8093: 8089: 8078: 8074: 8064: 8062: 8047: 8043: 8033: 8031: 8022:Bogus, Carl T. 8020: 8016: 8009: 7989: 7985: 7975: 7973: 7958: 7947: 7937: 7935: 7922: 7921: 7917: 7907: 7905: 7894: 7885: 7871: 7867: 7853: 7849: 7838: 7834: 7820: 7816: 7805: 7801: 7791: 7789: 7780: 7779: 7775: 7765: 7763: 7754: 7753: 7749: 7739: 7737: 7728: 7727: 7723: 7713: 7691: 7687: 7677: 7672: 7650: 7646: 7635: 7633: 7622: 7618: 7614:Adamson, p. 63. 7613: 7609: 7604: 7600: 7586: 7582: 7564: 7560: 7549: 7545: 7535: 7533: 7520:Story, Joseph. 7518: 7514: 7509: 7505: 7500: 7496: 7491: 7487: 7475: 7471: 7466: 7462: 7457: 7453: 7443: 7441: 7428: 7427: 7423: 7413: 7411: 7398: 7397: 7393: 7383: 7381: 7368: 7367: 7363: 7353: 7351: 7338: 7337: 7333: 7323: 7321: 7308: 7307: 7303: 7288:10.2307/2139954 7272: 7268: 7257: 7253: 7243: 7241: 7237: 7222: 7216: 7212: 7202: 7200: 7187: 7186: 7182: 7172: 7170: 7157: 7156: 7152: 7142: 7140: 7127: 7123: 7113: 7111: 7096: 7089: 7079: 7077: 7064: 7060: 7053: 7031: 7027: 7015: 7013: 7004: 7003: 6999: 6993: 6989: 6979: 6977: 6968: 6967: 6963: 6943: 6934: 6929: 6922: 6917: 6913: 6908: 6904: 6899: 6895: 6890: 6886: 6881: 6877: 6858: 6854: 6849: 6845: 6835: 6833: 6822:Scalia, Antonin 6819: 6815: 6810: 6806: 6794:N. Y. J. Suppl. 6791: 6790: 6779: 6769: 6767: 6758: 6757: 6753: 6743: 6741: 6739: 6721: 6698: 6688: 6686: 6677: 6676: 6672: 6666: 6662: 6641: 6630: 6617: 6615: 6604: 6600: 6590: 6588: 6573: 6569: 6546: 6542: 6532: 6530: 6526: 6515: 6509: 6505: 6500: 6496: 6489: 6469: 6465: 6460: 6456: 6451: 6447: 6442: 6438: 6433: 6429: 6419: 6417: 6404: 6393: 6384:Cornell, Saul. 6382: 6378: 6369: 6368: 6364: 6354: 6352: 6343: 6342: 6338: 6329: 6328: 6324: 6314: 6312: 6303: 6302: 6298: 6289: 6288: 6284: 6275: 6274: 6270: 6265: 6261: 6251: 6249: 6240: 6239: 6235: 6229: 6225: 6220: 6213: 6204: 6200: 6188: 6184: 6173: 6169: 6163: 6159: 6150: 6146: 6136: 6134: 6125: 6124: 6117: 6100: 6096: 6092: 6090: 6086: 6077: 6073: 6064: 6060: 6051: 6047: 6035: 6026: 6016: 6014: 6001: 6000: 5996: 5986: 5984: 5975: 5974: 5970: 5956: 5954: 5952: 5936: 5932: 5922: 5920: 5918: 5902: 5898: 5888: 5886: 5882: 5867: 5861: 5857: 5852: 5843: 5833: 5831: 5822: 5821: 5817: 5807: 5805: 5792: 5791: 5787: 5763: 5762: 5758: 5748: 5746: 5744: 5725: 5721: 5711: 5709: 5700: 5699: 5695: 5676: 5669: 5663: 5659: 5652: 5636: 5632: 5622: 5620: 5605: 5598: 5588: 5586: 5571:Vicini, James. 5569: 5565: 5555: 5553: 5538: 5534: 5524: 5522: 5507: 5500: 5490: 5488: 5473: 5469: 5459: 5457: 5456:on July 3, 2013 5453: 5446: 5442: 5436: 5429: 5419: 5417: 5408: 5407: 5403: 5393: 5391: 5382: 5381: 5377: 5368: 5364: 5354: 5352: 5343: 5342: 5333: 5323: 5321: 5312: 5311: 5307: 5297: 5295: 5294:on May 23, 2018 5286: 5285: 5281: 5271: 5269: 5254: 5250: 5243: 5227: 5223: 5213: 5211: 5207: 5196: 5192: 5191: 5187: 5177: 5175: 5162: 5161: 5157: 5140: 5139: 5135: 5125: 5123: 5108: 5104: 5094: 5092: 5077: 5073: 5063: 5061: 5050: 5046: 5039: 5023: 5019: 5009: 5007: 4998: 4997: 4993: 4989: 4984: 4979: 4978: 4968: 4964: 4959: 4955: 4949: 4945: 4935: 4931: 4925: 4921: 4913: 4906: 4902: 4888: 4884: 4874: 4872: 4868: 4861: 4857: 4816: 4812: 4799: 4795: 4790: 4785: 4720: 4678: 4649:Nordyke v. King 4645: 4596:Seventh Circuit 4580: 4578:Seventh Circuit 4548:strict scrutiny 4540: 4519:18 U.S.C. 4505:18 U.S.C. 4489: 4478: 4459:strict scrutiny 4433:18 U.S.C. 4415: 4398: 4389:concealed carry 4374: 4337: 4309: 4293: 4237: 4228:Fifth Circuit's 4208: 4200: 4168: 4162: 4144:right to travel 4131: 4125: 4114: 4084: 4078: 3988:Clarence Thomas 3959: 3953: 3864: 3841: 3761:Justice Stevens 3754: 3741: 3722: 3680: 3635:People v. Yanna 3604: 3531: 3526: 3520: 3479: 3475: 3471: 3467: 3463: 3459: 3455: 3451: 3447: 3446:... Oklahoma to 3443: 3439: 3435: 3405: 3399: 3363: 3357: 3326: 3305:Miller v. Texas 3301: 3298:Miller v. Texas 3269: 3263: 3232: 3228: 3221:Colfax massacre 3198: 3192: 3120: 3111:stated that if 3079: 3073: 3017: 2992: 2954: 2944: 2902: 2894: 2890: 2886: 2882: 2852:Andrew Fletcher 2848: 2813: 2801: 2797: 2705: 2687: 2669: 2661:Southern States 2644:right to resist 2634: 2609: 2596: 2565: 2528: 2502: 2484: 2463: 2442:Melancton Smith 2430: 2425: 2424: 2423: 2422: 2403: 2402: 2401: 2393: 2392: 2381: 2380: 2379: 2378: 2367: 2366: 2365: 2357: 2356: 2345: 2340: 2270: 2254:posse comitatus 2236: 2141: 2105: 2025: 2020: 1992: 1974: 1970: 1962: 1930: 1907: 1803: 1802: 1801: 1800: 1785: 1784: 1783: 1775: 1774: 1763: 1762: 1761: 1760: 1749: 1748: 1747: 1739: 1738: 1727: 1721: 1703: 1683: 1663: 1643: 1623: 1578: 1548: 1527: 1509: 1500: 1471: 1467: 1450: 1370:created by the 1284:annoying forces 1278:invasive forces 1253: 1217: 1197: 1191:King Henry II's 1131: 1124: 1117: 1059: 1058:... declared by 1055: 1051: 1047: 1040:English history 1032: 1027: 998: 997: 996: 971:William Lambert 956: 930:NYSRPA v. Bruen 863: 859: 746: 710: 708: 699: 652: 550: 525: 488: 448: 436: 426: 424: 378: 322: 278: 277: 121: 53: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 16684: 16674: 16673: 16668: 16663: 16658: 16643: 16642: 16630: 16607: 16606: 16604: 16603: 16598: 16590: 16582: 16577: 16572: 16567: 16562: 16557: 16556: 16555: 16544: 16542: 16536: 16535: 16533: 16532: 16527: 16522: 16514: 16512: 16508: 16507: 16504: 16503: 16501: 16500: 16494: 16492: 16488: 16487: 16485: 16484: 16479: 16473: 16471: 16467: 16466: 16464: 16463: 16458: 16453: 16448: 16442: 16440: 16439:South Carolina 16436: 16435: 16433: 16432: 16427: 16422: 16420:William Blount 16416: 16414: 16413:North Carolina 16410: 16409: 16407: 16406: 16401: 16395: 16393: 16389: 16388: 16386: 16385: 16383:Daniel Carroll 16380: 16375: 16369: 16367: 16363: 16362: 16360: 16359: 16354: 16349: 16347:John Dickinson 16344: 16339: 16333: 16331: 16327: 16326: 16324: 16323: 16318: 16313: 16308: 16303: 16298: 16293: 16291:Thomas Mifflin 16288: 16282: 16280: 16276: 16275: 16273: 16272: 16267: 16262: 16260:David Brearley 16257: 16251: 16249: 16245: 16244: 16242: 16241: 16235: 16233: 16229: 16228: 16226: 16225: 16220: 16214: 16212: 16208: 16207: 16205: 16204: 16199: 16193: 16191: 16187: 16186: 16184: 16183: 16178: 16172: 16170: 16166: 16165: 16163: 16162: 16156: 16154: 16147: 16141: 16140: 16138: 16137: 16132: 16130:Taxation power 16127: 16122: 16117: 16112: 16107: 16102: 16097: 16092: 16087: 16082: 16077: 16075:Implied powers 16072: 16067: 16062: 16057: 16052: 16047: 16042: 16037: 16032: 16026: 16024: 16023:Interpretation 16020: 16019: 16017: 16016: 16011: 16006: 15988: 15983: 15978: 15971: 15966: 15961: 15956: 15951: 15946: 15941: 15936: 15931: 15926: 15921: 15919:Recommendation 15916: 15911: 15906: 15901: 15896: 15891: 15886: 15881: 15876: 15871: 15866: 15861: 15856: 15851: 15846: 15841: 15836: 15831: 15826: 15821: 15816: 15811: 15806: 15804:Fugitive Slave 15801: 15796: 15791: 15786: 15781: 15774: 15772:Excessive Bail 15769: 15764: 15759: 15754: 15749: 15744: 15739: 15734: 15729: 15724: 15719: 15714: 15709: 15704: 15699: 15694: 15689: 15684: 15679: 15674: 15672:Appropriations 15669: 15664: 15658: 15656: 15650: 15649: 15647: 15646: 15641: 15636: 15631: 15626: 15621: 15616: 15611: 15606: 15599: 15598: 15597: 15592: 15587: 15582: 15577: 15572: 15567: 15562: 15557: 15552: 15542: 15537: 15532: 15527: 15521: 15519: 15515: 15514: 15511: 15510: 15508: 15507: 15502: 15496: 15493: 15492: 15490: 15489: 15484: 15482:Single subject 15479: 15474: 15469: 15464: 15459: 15454: 15449: 15444: 15439: 15434: 15429: 15424: 15419: 15414: 15409: 15403: 15401: 15395: 15394: 15392: 15391: 15386: 15381: 15376: 15371: 15366: 15360: 15358: 15352: 15351: 15348: 15347: 15345: 15344: 15339: 15334: 15329: 15324: 15319: 15314: 15309: 15304: 15299: 15294: 15289: 15283: 15281: 15277: 15276: 15274: 15273: 15268: 15263: 15257: 15255: 15253:Reconstruction 15249: 15248: 15246: 15245: 15240: 15234: 15232: 15228: 15227: 15225: 15224: 15219: 15214: 15209: 15204: 15199: 15194: 15189: 15184: 15179: 15173: 15171: 15169:Bill of Rights 15158: 15152: 15151: 15149: 15148: 15143: 15138: 15133: 15128: 15123: 15118: 15113: 15107: 15105: 15101: 15100: 15093: 15092: 15085: 15078: 15070: 15061: 15060: 15058: 15057: 15051: 15048: 15047: 15045: 15044: 15043:(9th Cir. TBD) 15036: 15028: 15020: 15012: 15004: 14996: 14995:(2d Cir. 2012) 14988: 14980: 14972: 14964: 14956: 14947: 14945: 14941: 14940: 14938: 14937: 14929: 14921: 14913: 14905: 14897: 14889: 14881: 14873: 14865: 14856: 14854: 14850: 14849: 14841: 14840: 14833: 14826: 14818: 14812: 14811: 14785: 14772: 14764: 14754: 14753:External links 14751: 14747: 14746: 14733:978-1412965804 14732: 14716:Cato Institute 14702:Hamowy, Ronald 14691: 14688: 14686: 14685: 14674: 14671: 14670: 14669: 14648: 14635: 14600: 14588:Volokh, Eugene 14584: 14568:Volokh, Eugene 14564: 14543: 14522: 14509: 14485: 14472: 14451: 14438: 14421: 14400: 14385: 14368: 14342:(1): 120–159. 14331: 14313:(2): 204–273. 14298: 14281: 14264: 14243: 14230: 14224:. 2nd Series. 14210: 14193: 14171: 14154: 14134: 14111: 14108: 14107: 14106: 14100: 14087: 14078: 14072: 14059: 14053: 14040: 14034: 14021: 14015: 14002: 13997:978-0195304244 13996: 13981: 13960: 13949: 13940: 13934: 13913: 13907: 13888: 13883:978-1599289137 13882: 13876:. ABDO Group. 13869: 13864:978-1933995175 13863: 13850: 13845:978-0495571704 13844: 13828: 13822: 13809: 13803: 13790: 13784: 13769: 13760: 13751: 13738: 13723: 13717: 13704: 13699:978-1144582737 13698: 13692:. Nabu Press. 13685: 13679: 13664: 13658: 13643: 13638:978-0472031627 13637: 13624: 13618: 13601: 13592: 13586: 13573: 13567: 13552: 13547:978-0253219916 13546: 13533: 13516:978-0872867239 13515: 13497: 13491: 13478: 13473:978-1933995250 13472: 13457: 13452:978-0765804877 13451: 13438: 13433:978-0313321740 13432: 13415: 13406: 13401:978-0195147865 13400: 13382: 13376: 13363: 13358:978-0786442706 13357: 13344: 13335: 13321: 13308: 13302: 13285: 13280:978-1886363151 13279: 13266: 13261:978-0801871627 13260: 13247: 13241: 13228: 13223:978-0472033706 13222: 13209: 13204:978-1589805200 13203: 13190: 13179: 13176: 13175: 13173: 13170: 13168: 13167: 13140: 13116: 13080: 13049: 13018: 12987: 12955: 12924: 12893: 12869: 12838: 12805: 12774: 12743: 12716: 12683: 12652: 12625: 12594: 12567: 12536: 12505: 12475: 12453: 12435: 12417: 12399: 12366: 12354: 12328: 12316: 12288: 12279: 12251: 12220: 12211: 12181: 12169: 12136: 12105: 12093: 12061: 12029: 12003: 11970: 11961: 11909: 11865: 11832: 11805: 11772: 11739: 11706: 11674: 11646: 11615: 11597:978-1615307555 11596: 11573: 11541: 11510: 11479: 11475:Picadio (2019) 11464: 11453: 11427: 11401: 11367: 11349: 11315: 11281: 11266: 11232: 11206: 11173: 11142: 11124:978-0313377549 11123: 11103: 11085:978-1597973564 11084: 11064: 11041: 11029:Bloomberg News 11015: 11003: 10977: 10939: 10901: 10875: 10848:Biskupic, Joan 10839: 10801: 10760: 10724: 10694: 10679:. Cga.ct.gov. 10667: 10637: 10611: 10581: 10555: 10523: 10493: 10438: 10389: 10371: 10340: 10313: 10301: 10289: 10277: 10248: 10236: 10224: 10211:978-0275949136 10210: 10188: 10162: 10140: 10131: 10119: 10107: 10095: 10061: 10027: 9997: 9979: 9945: 9910: 9877: 9851: 9824: 9818:978-0313321740 9817: 9791: 9762: 9721: 9688: 9662: 9647: 9638: 9612: 9583: 9551: 9522: 9496: 9458: 9426: 9391: 9373:978-0312646998 9372: 9352: 9342: 9333: 9324: 9292: 9283: 9273: 9260: 9237: 9200: 9183: 9154: 9137: 9118: 9099: 9093:: 2113, 2133. 9077: 9051: 9033: 9026: 9009: 8996: 8978:978-0837704340 8977: 8957: 8928: 8905: 8872: 8863: 8854: 8845: 8836: 8813: 8796:978-1886363717 8795: 8775: 8757: 8748: 8723: 8706:978-0608404936 8705: 8685: 8673: 8648: 8629: 8615: 8602:978-0275963316 8601: 8574: 8543: 8530: 8500: 8473: 8433: 8411: 8402: 8390: 8381: 8354: 8322: 8296: 8278: 8260: 8240:Simeon Baldwin 8227: 8209: 8191: 8173: 8155: 8142:Madison, James 8133: 8110: 8087: 8072: 8041: 8014: 8007: 7983: 7945: 7915: 7883: 7874:Henry, Patrick 7865: 7847: 7832: 7814: 7799: 7773: 7747: 7721: 7712:978-0684844893 7711: 7685: 7681:game ...' 7671:978-0684844893 7670: 7644: 7616: 7607: 7598: 7580: 7558: 7543: 7512: 7503: 7494: 7485: 7469: 7460: 7458:Mulloy, p. 43. 7451: 7421: 7391: 7361: 7331: 7301: 7282:(3): 426–459. 7266: 7251: 7210: 7180: 7150: 7121: 7087: 7058: 7051: 7025: 6997: 6987: 6961: 6956:The Federalist 6932: 6920: 6911: 6902: 6893: 6884: 6875: 6866:Home of Heroes 6852: 6843: 6813: 6804: 6777: 6751: 6738:978-1555534868 6737: 6696: 6670: 6660: 6628: 6598: 6567: 6540: 6503: 6494: 6487: 6479:67–69, 239–240 6463: 6454: 6445: 6436: 6427: 6391: 6376: 6362: 6336: 6322: 6296: 6282: 6268: 6259: 6233: 6223: 6211: 6198: 6182: 6157: 6155:, p. 172. 6144: 6115: 6084: 6071: 6058: 6024: 5994: 5968: 5951:978-0804750271 5950: 5930: 5917:978-0804750271 5916: 5896: 5855: 5841: 5815: 5785: 5756: 5743:978-0470531105 5742: 5719: 5693: 5667: 5657: 5651:978-0313386701 5650: 5630: 5596: 5563: 5532: 5498: 5467: 5427: 5401: 5375: 5371:The Federalist 5362: 5331: 5305: 5279: 5248: 5242:978-1452226743 5241: 5221: 5185: 5155: 5133: 5102: 5071: 5044: 5038:978-1136269691 5037: 5017: 4990: 4988: 4985: 4983: 4980: 4977: 4976: 4962: 4953: 4943: 4929: 4919: 4891:Antonin Scalia 4882: 4810: 4792: 4791: 4789: 4786: 4784: 4783: 4773: 4763: 4757: 4752: 4747: 4742: 4737: 4732: 4727: 4721: 4719: 4716: 4715: 4714: 4703: 4696: 4690: 4644: 4641: 4640: 4639: 4636:Governor Quinn 4603: 4579: 4576: 4575: 4574: 4539: 4536: 4535: 4534: 4512: 4498: 4477: 4474: 4473: 4472: 4447:Kolbe v. Hogan 4444: 4426: 4423:Fourth Circuit 4414: 4413:Fourth Circuit 4411: 4410: 4409: 4397: 4394: 4393: 4392: 4382:Second Circuit 4373: 4372:Second Circuit 4370: 4369: 4368: 4357:18 U.S.C. 4349:18 U.S.C. 4336: 4333: 4332: 4331: 4325: 4308: 4305: 4292: 4286: 4207: 4201: 4199: 4193: 4164:Main article: 4161: 4156: 4127:Main article: 4124: 4119: 4080:Main article: 4077: 4072: 3955:Main article: 3952: 3947: 3786:Justice Breyer 3734:Antonin Scalia 3721: 3718: 3613: 3612: 3608: 3597: 3596: 3595: 3580: 3577: 3574: 3571: 3568: 3530: 3527: 3522:Main article: 3519: 3514: 3506:Andrew McClurg 3401:Main article: 3398: 3393: 3385:naturalization 3383:applicant for 3359:Main article: 3356: 3351: 3325: 3320: 3300: 3295: 3265:Main article: 3262: 3257: 3255:in that case. 3194:Main article: 3191: 3186: 3083:Bill of Rights 3072: 3069: 3016: 3013: 2958:Antonin Scalia 2953: 2950: 2847: 2844: 2831:Robert Spitzer 2778:circuit splits 2725:states' rights 2704: 2701: 2686: 2683: 2668: 2667:Timothy Farrar 2665: 2633: 2630: 2608: 2605: 2564: 2561: 2501: 2498: 2483: 2480: 2465:In June 1788, 2462: 2459: 2434:Federal Farmer 2429: 2426: 2405: 2404: 2395: 2394: 2386: 2385: 2384: 2383: 2382: 2369: 2368: 2359: 2358: 2350: 2349: 2348: 2347: 2346: 2344: 2341: 2339: 2336: 2235: 2232: 2140: 2137: 2104: 2101: 2085:Paul Finkelman 2024: 2021: 2019: 2016: 1961: 1958: 1929: 1926: 1906: 1903: 1878: 1877: 1873: 1870: 1867: 1864: 1853: 1852: 1849: 1846: 1787: 1786: 1777: 1776: 1768: 1767: 1766: 1765: 1764: 1751: 1750: 1741: 1740: 1732: 1731: 1730: 1729: 1728: 1720: 1717: 1714: 1713: 1702: 1697: 1694: 1693: 1682: 1677: 1674: 1673: 1662: 1657: 1654: 1653: 1642: 1637: 1634: 1633: 1622: 1617: 1614: 1613: 1577: 1572: 1569: 1568: 1546: 1542: 1541: 1536: 1526: 1521: 1518: 1517: 1507: 1499: 1496: 1380:British forces 1355:Townshend Acts 1304: 1303: 1300: 1293: 1286: 1285: 1282: 1279: 1276: 1269:Charles I 1252: 1249: 1216: 1213: 1194:Assize of Arms 1031: 1028: 1026: 1023: 990: 989: 988: 955: 952: 770:Bill of Rights 748: 747: 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16624: 16619: 16618: 16615: 16602: 16599: 16596: 16595: 16591: 16588: 16587: 16583: 16581: 16578: 16576: 16573: 16571: 16568: 16566: 16563: 16561: 16558: 16554: 16551: 16550: 16549: 16546: 16545: 16543: 16537: 16531: 16528: 16526: 16525:Jacob Shallus 16523: 16521: 16520: 16516: 16515: 16513: 16509: 16499: 16496: 16495: 16493: 16489: 16483: 16480: 16478: 16475: 16474: 16472: 16468: 16462: 16461:Pierce Butler 16459: 16457: 16454: 16452: 16449: 16447: 16446:John Rutledge 16444: 16443: 16441: 16437: 16431: 16428: 16426: 16423: 16421: 16418: 16417: 16415: 16411: 16405: 16404:James Madison 16402: 16400: 16397: 16396: 16394: 16390: 16384: 16381: 16379: 16376: 16374: 16373:James McHenry 16371: 16370: 16368: 16364: 16358: 16355: 16353: 16350: 16348: 16345: 16343: 16340: 16338: 16335: 16334: 16332: 16328: 16322: 16319: 16317: 16314: 16312: 16309: 16307: 16304: 16302: 16301:George Clymer 16299: 16297: 16296:Robert Morris 16294: 16292: 16289: 16287: 16284: 16283: 16281: 16277: 16271: 16268: 16266: 16263: 16261: 16258: 16256: 16253: 16252: 16250: 16246: 16240: 16237: 16236: 16234: 16230: 16224: 16223:Roger Sherman 16221: 16219: 16216: 16215: 16213: 16209: 16203: 16200: 16198: 16195: 16194: 16192: 16190:Massachusetts 16188: 16182: 16179: 16177: 16174: 16173: 16171: 16169:New Hampshire 16167: 16161: 16158: 16157: 16155: 16151: 16148: 16146: 16142: 16136: 16133: 16131: 16128: 16126: 16123: 16121: 16118: 16116: 16113: 16111: 16108: 16106: 16103: 16101: 16098: 16096: 16095:Plenary power 16093: 16091: 16088: 16086: 16083: 16081: 16078: 16076: 16073: 16071: 16068: 16066: 16065:Equal footing 16063: 16061: 16058: 16056: 16053: 16051: 16048: 16046: 16043: 16041: 16038: 16036: 16033: 16031: 16028: 16027: 16025: 16021: 16015: 16012: 16010: 16007: 16004: 16000: 15996: 15992: 15989: 15987: 15986:Trial by Jury 15984: 15982: 15979: 15976: 15972: 15970: 15967: 15965: 15962: 15960: 15957: 15955: 15952: 15950: 15947: 15945: 15942: 15940: 15937: 15935: 15932: 15930: 15927: 15925: 15922: 15920: 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15604: 15600: 15596: 15595:Syng inkstand 15593: 15591: 15588: 15586: 15583: 15581: 15578: 15576: 15573: 15571: 15568: 15566: 15563: 15561: 15558: 15556: 15553: 15551: 15550:Virginia Plan 15548: 15547: 15546: 15543: 15541: 15538: 15536: 15533: 15531: 15528: 15526: 15523: 15522: 15520: 15516: 15506: 15503: 15501: 15498: 15497: 15494: 15488: 15485: 15483: 15480: 15478: 15477:School Prayer 15475: 15473: 15470: 15468: 15465: 15463: 15460: 15458: 15455: 15453: 15450: 15448: 15445: 15443: 15440: 15438: 15435: 15433: 15430: 15428: 15425: 15423: 15420: 15418: 15415: 15413: 15410: 15408: 15405: 15404: 15402: 15400: 15396: 15390: 15387: 15385: 15382: 15380: 15377: 15375: 15372: 15370: 15367: 15365: 15362: 15361: 15359: 15357: 15353: 15343: 15340: 15338: 15335: 15333: 15330: 15328: 15325: 15323: 15320: 15318: 15315: 15313: 15310: 15308: 15305: 15303: 15300: 15298: 15295: 15293: 15290: 15288: 15285: 15284: 15282: 15278: 15272: 15269: 15267: 15264: 15262: 15259: 15258: 15256: 15254: 15250: 15244: 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14825: 14820: 14819: 14816: 14799: 14795: 14791: 14786: 14783: 14779: 14778: 14773: 14769: 14765: 14761: 14757: 14756: 14750: 14743: 14739: 14735: 14729: 14725: 14721: 14717: 14713: 14709: 14708: 14703: 14699: 14694: 14693: 14682: 14677: 14676: 14666: 14662: 14658: 14654: 14649: 14645: 14641: 14636: 14621: 14617: 14613: 14606: 14601: 14597: 14593: 14589: 14585: 14581: 14577: 14573: 14569: 14565: 14561: 14557: 14553: 14549: 14544: 14540: 14536: 14532: 14528: 14523: 14519: 14515: 14510: 14506: 14502: 14498: 14494: 14490: 14486: 14482: 14478: 14473: 14469: 14465: 14461: 14457: 14452: 14448: 14444: 14439: 14435: 14431: 14427: 14422: 14418: 14414: 14410: 14406: 14401: 14397: 14393: 14392: 14386: 14382: 14378: 14374: 14369: 14365: 14361: 14357: 14353: 14349: 14345: 14341: 14337: 14332: 14328: 14324: 14320: 14316: 14312: 14308: 14304: 14299: 14295: 14291: 14287: 14282: 14278: 14274: 14270: 14265: 14261: 14257: 14253: 14249: 14244: 14240: 14236: 14231: 14228:(2): 209–216. 14227: 14223: 14216: 14211: 14207: 14203: 14199: 14194: 14190: 14186: 14182: 14178: 14172: 14168: 14164: 14160: 14155: 14152:(2): 309–408. 14151: 14147: 14140: 14135: 14131: 14127: 14123: 14119: 14114: 14113: 14103: 14097: 14093: 14088: 14084: 14079: 14075: 14069: 14065: 14060: 14056: 14050: 14046: 14041: 14037: 14031: 14027: 14022: 14018: 14012: 14008: 14003: 13999: 13993: 13989: 13988: 13982: 13971: 13970: 13965: 13961: 13957: 13956: 13950: 13946: 13941: 13937: 13935:9780511008740 13931: 13927: 13922: 13921: 13914: 13910: 13904: 13900: 13896: 13895: 13889: 13885: 13879: 13875: 13870: 13866: 13860: 13856: 13851: 13847: 13841: 13837: 13833: 13829: 13825: 13819: 13815: 13810: 13806: 13800: 13796: 13791: 13787: 13781: 13777: 13776: 13770: 13766: 13761: 13757: 13752: 13741: 13735: 13731: 13730: 13724: 13720: 13714: 13710: 13705: 13701: 13695: 13691: 13686: 13682: 13676: 13672: 13671: 13665: 13661: 13655: 13651: 13650: 13644: 13640: 13634: 13630: 13625: 13621: 13615: 13610: 13609: 13602: 13598: 13593: 13589: 13583: 13579: 13574: 13570: 13564: 13560: 13559: 13553: 13549: 13543: 13539: 13534: 13522: 13518: 13512: 13508: 13507: 13502: 13498: 13494: 13488: 13484: 13479: 13475: 13469: 13465: 13464: 13458: 13454: 13448: 13444: 13439: 13435: 13429: 13424: 13423: 13416: 13412: 13407: 13403: 13397: 13393: 13392: 13387: 13386:Cornell, Saul 13383: 13379: 13373: 13369: 13364: 13360: 13354: 13351:. McFarland. 13350: 13345: 13341: 13336: 13332: 13328: 13324: 13318: 13314: 13309: 13305: 13299: 13294: 13293: 13286: 13282: 13276: 13272: 13267: 13263: 13257: 13253: 13248: 13244: 13238: 13234: 13229: 13225: 13219: 13215: 13210: 13206: 13200: 13196: 13191: 13187: 13182: 13181: 13155: 13151: 13144: 13133: 13126: 13120: 13101: 13097: 13090: 13084: 13068: 13064: 13060: 13053: 13037: 13033: 13029: 13022: 13006: 13002: 12998: 12991: 12972: 12965: 12959: 12943: 12939: 12935: 12928: 12912: 12908: 12904: 12897: 12886: 12879: 12873: 12857: 12853: 12849: 12842: 12826: 12822: 12821: 12816: 12809: 12793: 12789: 12785: 12778: 12762: 12758: 12754: 12747: 12731: 12727: 12720: 12704: 12700: 12695: 12687: 12671: 12667: 12663: 12656: 12640: 12636: 12629: 12613: 12609: 12605: 12598: 12582: 12578: 12571: 12555: 12551: 12547: 12540: 12524: 12520: 12516: 12509: 12493: 12489: 12485: 12479: 12471: 12467: 12463: 12457: 12449: 12445: 12439: 12431: 12427: 12421: 12413: 12409: 12403: 12387: 12383: 12379: 12373: 12371: 12363: 12358: 12347:September 22, 12342: 12338: 12332: 12325: 12320: 12309: 12302: 12300: 12292: 12283: 12272: 12265: 12263: 12255: 12239: 12235: 12231: 12224: 12215: 12199: 12195: 12191: 12185: 12176: 12174: 12157: 12153: 12152: 12147: 12140: 12124: 12120: 12116: 12109: 12102: 12097: 12081: 12077: 12076: 12071: 12065: 12054:September 19, 12049: 12045: 12044: 12039: 12033: 12017: 12013: 12007: 11991: 11987: 11986: 11981: 11974: 11965: 11958: 11954: 11950: 11946: 11942: 11938: 11934: 11930: 11926: 11922: 11918: 11913: 11894: 11887: 11882: 11876: 11874: 11872: 11870: 11853: 11849: 11848: 11843: 11836: 11820: 11816: 11809: 11793: 11789: 11788: 11783: 11776: 11760: 11756: 11755: 11750: 11743: 11727: 11723: 11722: 11717: 11710: 11703: 11699: 11695: 11692: 11688: 11687: 11685: 11678: 11671: 11667: 11664: 11660: 11659: 11657: 11650: 11634: 11630: 11626: 11619: 11603: 11599: 11593: 11589: 11588: 11580: 11578: 11558: 11551: 11545: 11529: 11525: 11521: 11514: 11503:September 23, 11498: 11494: 11490: 11483: 11477:, p. 23. 11476: 11471: 11469: 11462: 11457: 11449: 11445: 11441: 11434: 11432: 11415: 11411: 11405: 11398: 11386: 11382: 11378: 11371: 11363: 11359: 11353: 11337: 11333: 11329: 11327: 11319: 11303: 11299: 11295: 11293: 11285: 11278: 11273: 11271: 11254: 11250: 11246: 11244: 11236: 11220: 11216: 11210: 11194: 11190: 11189: 11184: 11177: 11161: 11157: 11153: 11146: 11130: 11126: 11120: 11116: 11115: 11107: 11091: 11087: 11081: 11077: 11076: 11068: 11060: 11056: 11052: 11045: 11038: 11034: 11030: 11026: 11019: 11012: 11007: 10992: 10988: 10981: 10974: 10958: 10954: 10950: 10943: 10936: 10920: 10916: 10912: 10905: 10890: 10886: 10879: 10863: 10859: 10858: 10853: 10849: 10843: 10836: 10816: 10812: 10805: 10794:September 14, 10786: 10782: 10781: 10773: 10767: 10765: 10745: 10738: 10736: 10728: 10712: 10708: 10706: 10698: 10682: 10678: 10671: 10655: 10651: 10649: 10641: 10625: 10621: 10615: 10599: 10595: 10593: 10585: 10569: 10565: 10559: 10552: 10548: 10544: 10541: 10537: 10536: 10534: 10527: 10511: 10507: 10503: 10497: 10481: 10477: 10475: 10467: 10465: 10463: 10461: 10459: 10457: 10455: 10453: 10451: 10449: 10447: 10445: 10443: 10426: 10422: 10418: 10412: 10410: 10408: 10406: 10404: 10402: 10400: 10398: 10396: 10394: 10385: 10384:Eugene Volokh 10381: 10375: 10359: 10355: 10351: 10344: 10328: 10324: 10317: 10310: 10305: 10298: 10293: 10286: 10281: 10265: 10261: 10255: 10253: 10245: 10240: 10233: 10228: 10213: 10207: 10202: 10201: 10192: 10176: 10172: 10166: 10158: 10154: 10150: 10144: 10135: 10128: 10123: 10116: 10111: 10104: 10099: 10083: 10079: 10075: 10073: 10065: 10049: 10045: 10041: 10039: 10031: 10015: 10011: 10007: 10001: 9994: 9991:. p. 6. 9990: 9983: 9967: 9963: 9961: 9956: 9949: 9941: 9937: 9933: 9929: 9925: 9921: 9914: 9898: 9894: 9893: 9888: 9881: 9865: 9861: 9855: 9847: 9843: 9839: 9835: 9828: 9820: 9814: 9810: 9805: 9804: 9795: 9779: 9775: 9774: 9766: 9747: 9743: 9739: 9732: 9725: 9709: 9705: 9701: 9695: 9693: 9676: 9672: 9666: 9659: 9654: 9652: 9642: 9626: 9622: 9616: 9600: 9596: 9595: 9587: 9571: 9567: 9566: 9561: 9555: 9539: 9535: 9529: 9527: 9510: 9506: 9500: 9484: 9480: 9476: 9469: 9462: 9446: 9442: 9441: 9436: 9430: 9414: 9410: 9406: 9405:PBS News Hour 9402: 9395: 9379: 9375: 9369: 9366:. Macmillan. 9365: 9364: 9356: 9346: 9337: 9328: 9309: 9302: 9296: 9287: 9277: 9270: 9264: 9256: 9252: 9248: 9241: 9234: 9230: 9226: 9222: 9218: 9214: 9210: 9204: 9197: 9193: 9187: 9171: 9167: 9166: 9158: 9151: 9147: 9141: 9133: 9129: 9122: 9114: 9110: 9103: 9096: 9092: 9088: 9081: 9074: 9069: 9065: 9058: 9056: 9047: 9043: 9037: 9029: 9023: 9019: 9013: 9006: 9003:Garry Wills, 9000: 8984: 8980: 8974: 8970: 8969: 8961: 8945: 8941: 8940: 8932: 8924: 8920: 8916: 8909: 8902: 8885: 8884: 8876: 8867: 8858: 8849: 8840: 8833: 8829: 8828: 8820: 8818: 8810: 8798: 8792: 8788: 8787: 8779: 8771: 8767: 8766:Story, Joseph 8761: 8752: 8741: 8734: 8727: 8720: 8708: 8702: 8698: 8697: 8689: 8680: 8678: 8661: 8660: 8652: 8644: 8640: 8633: 8624: 8622: 8620: 8604: 8598: 8594: 8593: 8585: 8583: 8581: 8579: 8567:September 23, 8562: 8558: 8554: 8547: 8540: 8534: 8518: 8514: 8510: 8504: 8496: 8492: 8488: 8484: 8477: 8458: 8454: 8450: 8443: 8437: 8429: 8425: 8421: 8415: 8406: 8397: 8395: 8385: 8377: 8373: 8369: 8363: 8361: 8359: 8339: 8332: 8326: 8310: 8306: 8300: 8292: 8288: 8282: 8274: 8270: 8264: 8258:, pp. 418–19. 8257: 8253: 8249: 8248:James Madison 8245: 8241: 8237: 8236:Roger Sherman 8231: 8223: 8219: 8213: 8205: 8201: 8195: 8187: 8183: 8177: 8169: 8165: 8159: 8151: 8147: 8143: 8137: 8129: 8125: 8121: 8114: 8106: 8102: 8098: 8091: 8083: 8076: 8060: 8056: 8052: 8045: 8029: 8025: 8018: 8010: 8004: 8000: 7996: 7995: 7987: 7971: 7967: 7963: 7956: 7954: 7952: 7950: 7933: 7929: 7925: 7919: 7903: 7899: 7892: 7890: 7888: 7879: 7875: 7869: 7861: 7857: 7856:Monroe, James 7851: 7843: 7836: 7828: 7824: 7823:Webster, Noah 7818: 7810: 7803: 7787: 7783: 7777: 7761: 7757: 7751: 7735: 7731: 7725: 7718: 7714: 7708: 7704: 7699: 7698: 7689: 7682: 7673: 7667: 7663: 7658: 7657: 7648: 7631: 7627: 7620: 7611: 7602: 7594: 7590: 7589:Webster, Noah 7584: 7576: 7572: 7568: 7567:Webster, Noah 7562: 7555: 7553: 7547: 7531: 7527: 7523: 7516: 7507: 7498: 7489: 7481:. p. 31. 7480: 7473: 7464: 7455: 7439: 7435: 7431: 7425: 7409: 7405: 7401: 7395: 7379: 7375: 7371: 7365: 7349: 7345: 7341: 7335: 7319: 7315: 7311: 7305: 7297: 7293: 7289: 7285: 7281: 7277: 7270: 7262: 7255: 7236: 7232: 7228: 7221: 7214: 7198: 7194: 7190: 7184: 7168: 7164: 7160: 7154: 7138: 7134: 7133: 7125: 7109: 7105: 7101: 7094: 7092: 7075: 7071: 7070: 7062: 7054: 7048: 7044: 7040: 7036: 7029: 7011: 7007: 7001: 6991: 6975: 6971: 6965: 6957: 6952: 6947: 6941: 6939: 6937: 6927: 6925: 6915: 6906: 6897: 6888: 6879: 6871: 6867: 6863: 6856: 6847: 6831: 6827: 6823: 6817: 6808: 6801: 6795: 6788: 6786: 6784: 6782: 6765: 6761: 6760:"Redirecting" 6755: 6740: 6734: 6729: 6728: 6719: 6717: 6715: 6713: 6711: 6709: 6707: 6705: 6703: 6701: 6684: 6680: 6674: 6664: 6656: 6652: 6651: 6646: 6639: 6637: 6635: 6633: 6625: 6613: 6609: 6602: 6586: 6582: 6578: 6571: 6563: 6559: 6555: 6551: 6544: 6525: 6521: 6514: 6507: 6498: 6490: 6484: 6480: 6476: 6475: 6467: 6458: 6449: 6440: 6431: 6415: 6411: 6410: 6402: 6400: 6398: 6396: 6387: 6380: 6372: 6366: 6350: 6346: 6340: 6332: 6326: 6310: 6306: 6300: 6292: 6286: 6278: 6272: 6263: 6247: 6243: 6237: 6227: 6218: 6216: 6209:, p. 51. 6208: 6202: 6193: 6186: 6179: 6167: 6161: 6154: 6148: 6132: 6128: 6122: 6120: 6111: 6107: 6105: 6088: 6081: 6075: 6068: 6062: 6055: 6043: 6039: 6033: 6031: 6029: 6012: 6008: 6004: 5998: 5987:September 23, 5982: 5978: 5972: 5965: 5953: 5947: 5943: 5942: 5934: 5919: 5913: 5909: 5908: 5900: 5881: 5877: 5873: 5866: 5859: 5850: 5848: 5846: 5829: 5825: 5819: 5803: 5799: 5795: 5789: 5782: 5776: 5772: 5771: 5766: 5760: 5745: 5739: 5735: 5734: 5729: 5723: 5712:September 23, 5707: 5703: 5697: 5689: 5685: 5681: 5674: 5672: 5661: 5653: 5647: 5643: 5642: 5634: 5618: 5614: 5610: 5603: 5601: 5584: 5580: 5579: 5574: 5567: 5551: 5547: 5543: 5536: 5520: 5516: 5512: 5505: 5503: 5486: 5482: 5478: 5471: 5452: 5445: 5440: 5434: 5432: 5415: 5411: 5405: 5389: 5385: 5379: 5372: 5366: 5350: 5346: 5340: 5338: 5336: 5319: 5315: 5309: 5293: 5289: 5283: 5267: 5263: 5259: 5252: 5244: 5238: 5234: 5233: 5225: 5206: 5202: 5195: 5189: 5173: 5169: 5165: 5159: 5151: 5147: 5143: 5137: 5121: 5117: 5113: 5106: 5090: 5086: 5082: 5075: 5059: 5055: 5048: 5040: 5034: 5031:. Routledge. 5030: 5029: 5021: 5005: 5001: 4995: 4991: 4972: 4971:James Madison 4966: 4957: 4947: 4940: 4933: 4923: 4912: 4905: 4900: 4896: 4892: 4886: 4867: 4860: 4855: 4851: 4847: 4843: 4839: 4835: 4831: 4828: 4824: 4820: 4814: 4807: 4803: 4797: 4793: 4781: 4777: 4774: 4771: 4767: 4764: 4761: 4758: 4756: 4753: 4751: 4748: 4746: 4743: 4741: 4738: 4736: 4733: 4731: 4728: 4726: 4723: 4722: 4711: 4707: 4704: 4700: 4697: 4694: 4691: 4688: 4684: 4676: 4672: 4668: 4664: 4660: 4659: 4654: 4650: 4647: 4646: 4643:Ninth Circuit 4637: 4634:, overriding 4633: 4629: 4625: 4621: 4617: 4613: 4609: 4608: 4604: 4601: 4597: 4593: 4589: 4585: 4582: 4581: 4572: 4571: 4566: 4562: 4558: 4554: 4549: 4545: 4542: 4541: 4538:Sixth Circuit 4532: 4528: 4524: 4520: 4516: 4513: 4510: 4506: 4502: 4499: 4495: 4492: 4487: 4486:Fifth Circuit 4483: 4480: 4479: 4476:Fifth Circuit 4470: 4469: 4464: 4460: 4456: 4452: 4448: 4445: 4442: 4438: 4434: 4430: 4427: 4424: 4420: 4417: 4416: 4407: 4406:Third Circuit 4403: 4400: 4399: 4396:Third Circuit 4390: 4387: 4383: 4379: 4376: 4375: 4366: 4362: 4358: 4354: 4350: 4346: 4345:First Circuit 4342: 4339: 4338: 4335:First Circuit 4329: 4326: 4322: 4318: 4314: 4311: 4310: 4304: 4302: 4298: 4291: 4285: 4283: 4282: 4278:evolved into 4277: 4273: 4272: 4267: 4263: 4259: 4258: 4253: 4249: 4248:Ninth Circuit 4245: 4241: 4235: 4234: 4229: 4225: 4221: 4217: 4213: 4206: 4198: 4192: 4190: 4189: 4184: 4183: 4177: 4172: 4167: 4160: 4155: 4153: 4149: 4145: 4141: 4136: 4130: 4123: 4118: 4112: 4111: 4105: 4101: 4097: 4093: 4089: 4083: 4076: 4070: 4068: 4064: 4060: 4056: 4051: 4050: 4045: 4039: 4037: 4033: 4029: 4028: 4022: 4020: 4016: 4012: 4007: 4005: 4004: 3999: 3998: 3993: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3977: 3974: 3970: 3966: 3965: 3958: 3951: 3946: 3944: 3942: 3937: 3936:Justice Alito 3933: 3929: 3925: 3921: 3917: 3913: 3909: 3905: 3901: 3897: 3893: 3890: 3886: 3882: 3878: 3874: 3871:According to 3868: 3860: 3858: 3854: 3850: 3845: 3836: 3833: 3829: 3826: 3822: 3818: 3813: 3808: 3804: 3799: 3797: 3796: 3789: 3787: 3783: 3778: 3773: 3769: 3764: 3762: 3758: 3752: 3745: 3737: 3735: 3730: 3726: 3716: 3714: 3710: 3706: 3702: 3698: 3694: 3690: 3684: 3679: 3675: 3674: 3669: 3665: 3659: 3657: 3653: 3649: 3645: 3638: 3636: 3632: 3628: 3627: 3622: 3618: 3609: 3603: 3598: 3593: 3589: 3585: 3581: 3578: 3575: 3572: 3569: 3566: 3565: 3562: 3561: 3560: 3558: 3555: 3551: 3547: 3540: 3535: 3525: 3518: 3513: 3511: 3507: 3502: 3496: 3491: 3489: 3483: 3442:... Claremore 3431: 3429: 3425: 3421: 3418: 3414: 3410: 3404: 3397: 3392: 3390: 3389:United States 3386: 3382: 3378: 3375: 3371: 3367: 3362: 3355: 3350: 3348: 3347: 3342: 3339: 3335: 3331: 3324: 3319: 3317: 3314: 3310: 3306: 3299: 3294: 3292: 3287: 3285: 3282: 3278: 3274: 3268: 3261: 3256: 3254: 3250: 3244: 3240: 3238: 3225: 3222: 3218: 3215: 3211: 3207: 3203: 3197: 3190: 3184: 3182: 3175: 3173: 3167: 3162: 3160: 3155: 3151: 3147: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3132: 3130: 3124: 3118: 3117:U.S. citizens 3114: 3110: 3106: 3104: 3099: 3096: 3092: 3088: 3084: 3078: 3068: 3063: 3058: 3056: 3050: 3045: 3043: 3039: 3035: 3029: 3024: 3022: 3012: 3010: 3006: 3002: 2996: 2988: 2986: 2985: 2978: 2974: 2970: 2965: 2963: 2959: 2948: 2939: 2935: 2933: 2932: 2926: 2922: 2921: 2920:Nunn v. State 2914: 2912: 2906: 2900: 2877: 2875: 2871: 2866: 2864: 2859: 2857: 2853: 2843: 2841: 2837: 2832: 2826: 2821: 2817: 2809: 2805: 2792: 2790: 2786: 2782: 2779: 2775: 2771: 2767: 2763: 2762: 2757: 2756:Fifth Circuit 2752: 2748: 2744: 2742: 2736: 2734: 2730: 2729:Fifth Circuit 2726: 2721: 2719: 2709: 2699: 2694: 2692: 2681: 2676: 2674: 2664: 2662: 2657: 2655: 2654:trial by jury 2650: 2645: 2641: 2638: 2629: 2624: 2619: 2617: 2613: 2604: 2602: 2594: 2590: 2589:incorporation 2584: 2579: 2576: 2574: 2570: 2569:William Rawle 2563:William Rawle 2560: 2557: 2552: 2550: 2546: 2542: 2538: 2532: 2526: 2519: 2517: 2516: 2511: 2507: 2496: 2491: 2489: 2478: 2473: 2471: 2468: 2457: 2453: 2451: 2447: 2443: 2439: 2435: 2420: 2416: 2412: 2408: 2399: 2390: 2376: 2372: 2371:William Rawle 2363: 2354: 2335: 2333: 2332:Naval Militia 2327: 2325: 2321: 2316: 2314: 2309: 2305: 2301: 2297: 2292: 2287: 2282: 2280: 2276: 2265: 2262: 2260: 2256: 2255: 2250: 2240: 2231: 2226: 2222: 2219: 2215: 2211: 2206: 2202: 2197: 2192: 2190: 2184: 2179: 2177: 2170: 2165: 2163: 2158: 2152: 2147: 2145: 2144:James Madison 2136: 2133: 2128: 2126: 2125:James Madison 2122: 2116: 2114: 2110: 2100: 2096: 2094: 2093:slave patrols 2089: 2086: 2081: 2078: 2072: 2067: 2065: 2064:Patrick Henry 2059: 2055: 2053: 2052:James Madison 2049: 2045: 2041: 2034: 2029: 2014: 2009: 2007: 2006:Patrick Henry 2003: 2001: 1996: 1987: 1982: 1980: 1968: 1956: 1951: 1949: 1946:In contrast, 1943: 1938: 1936: 1925: 1923: 1919: 1916: 1912: 1902: 1899: 1895: 1891: 1887: 1886:James Madison 1883: 1874: 1871: 1868: 1865: 1862: 1861: 1860: 1858: 1850: 1847: 1844: 1843: 1842: 1840: 1836: 1832: 1828: 1824: 1820: 1816: 1812: 1808: 1798: 1794: 1790: 1789:Patrick Henry 1781: 1772: 1758: 1754: 1753:James Madison 1745: 1736: 1726: 1712: 1711: 1707: 1696: 1695: 1692: 1691: 1687: 1676: 1675: 1672: 1671: 1667: 1656: 1655: 1652: 1651: 1647: 1636: 1635: 1632: 1631: 1627: 1616: 1615: 1612: 1609: 1606: 1605: 1598: 1597: 1594: 1590: 1587: 1586: 1582: 1571: 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Amherst: 13342:. ABC-CLIO. 13109:February 8, 12645:November 4, 12244:February 6, 12103:, at 12–15. 11732:January 22, 11608:October 31, 11135:October 31, 11096:October 31, 10516:January 13, 10204:. Praeger. 9989:Gun Control 9257:: 693, 696. 9073:whatsoever. 8557:GunCite.com 6618:January 16, 6591:February 4, 6556:: 309–408. 6386:Gun Control 5272:October 31, 5064:January 30, 5010:January 30, 4762:(worldwide) 4491:39 CFR 4361:§ 5032 3900:free blacks 2772:(2010). In 2731:'s opinion 2444:) wrote in 2313:War of 1812 2249:billy clubs 1911:originalist 1882:Federalists 1666:Article XL. 1593:Article 43. 1581:Article 13. 1427:Jack Rakove 1391:mercenaries 1036:Protestants 950:continues. 944:gun control 876:federalists 663:NY SAFE Act 544:Bump stocks 306:Child Labor 16650:Categories 16589:(painting) 16541:and legacy 16399:John Blair 16248:New Jersey 16202:Rufus King 16100:Preemption 16014:War Powers 15949:Suspension 15767:Exceptions 15457:Human Life 15356:Unratified 15156:Amendments 14963:(Ga. 1846) 14202:Libcom.org 14161:(57): 74. 14101:0962366439 14073:0684870266 14054:0312240600 14035:0300095627 14016:1851096698 13908:1576073475 13823:1570031819 13804:1405116749 13785:0309091241 13739:0822330172 13718:0674893077 13680:0300078021 13659:087436695X 13619:0945999380 13587:1557865949 13568:0395513723 13492:0253210402 13377:0742522385 13322:071535244X 13303:1565846990 13242:1859419275 13063:SCOTUSblog 13032:SCOTUSblog 12938:SCOTUSblog 12907:SCOTUSblog 12852:SCOTUSblog 12831:August 17, 12798:August 25, 12519:SCOTUSblog 12392:August 13, 11847:SCOTUSBlog 11787:SCOTUSblog 11629:SCOTUSblog 11524:SCOTUSblog 11342:August 30, 11308:August 30, 11259:August 30, 11166:August 29, 10996:August 20, 10963:August 13, 10925:January 5, 10894:January 5, 10868:January 5, 10821:January 5, 10333:January 5, 10127:Cruikshank 10115:Cruikshank 10103:Cruikshank 10088:August 30, 10054:August 30, 9870:August 30, 9714:August 30, 9317:August 30, 9027:1581602545 8523:August 12, 8466:August 12, 8008:0674004701 7792:August 30, 7766:August 30, 7740:August 30, 7114:August 13, 7080:August 15, 7016:August 30, 6980:August 30, 6488:1565846990 6355:August 27, 6315:August 27, 6178:R v. 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