731:, however, were probably rife. The form of such debts would have had little resemblance to those of cash-debtors, compelled to pay interest to money-lenders on an advance of capital. Rather, wealthy landowners would make an "advance loan" of seed, foodstuffs or other essentials to tenants, clients and smallholders, in return for a promise of labour services or a substantial share of the crop. The terms of such "loans" compelled defaulters to sell themselves, or their dependants, to their creditor; or, if smallholders, to surrender their farm. Wealthy aristocratic landholders thus acquired additional farms and service for very little outlay. Dionysius claims that Servius paid such debts "from his own purse", and forbade voluntary and compulsory debt bondage. In reality, these practices persisted well into the Republican era. Livy describes the distribution of land grants to poor and landless citizens by Servius and others as the political pursuit of popular support from citizens of little merit or worth.
304:, but some claimed succession through dynastic or divine right. Some were native Romans, others were foreign. Later Romans had a complex ideological relationship with this distant past. In Republican mores and institutions kingship was abhorrent; and remained so, in name at least, during the Empire. On the one hand, Romulus was held to have brought Rome into being more-or-less at a stroke, so complete and purely Roman in its essentials that any acceptable change or reform thereafter must be clothed as restoration. On the other, Romans of the Republic and Empire saw each king as contributing in some distinctive and novel way to the city's fabric and territories, or its social, military, religious, legal or political institutions. Servius Tullius has been described as Rome's "second founder", "the most complex and enigmatic" of all its kings, and a kind of "proto-Republican magistrate".
862:
443:, whose two sons were too young to inherit or offer themselves for election. When Servius' popularity and his marriage to Tarquinius' daughter made him a likely successor to the throne, these sons attempted to seize the throne for themselves. They hired two assassins, who attacked and severely wounded Tarquinius. Tanaquil immediately ordered the palace to be shut, and publicly announced from a palace window that Tarquinius had appointed Servius as regent; meanwhile, Tarquinius died of his wounds. When his death became public knowledge, the
830:
ruling house, never as slave. The disembodied phallus and its impregnation of a virgin slave of Royal birth are unique to
Servius. Livy and Dionysius ignore or reject the tales of Servius' supernatural virgin birth; though his parents came from a conquered people, both are of noble stock. His ancestry is an accident of fate, and his character and virtues are entirely Roman. He acts on behalf of the Roman people, not for personal gain; these Roman virtues are likely to find favour with the gods, and win the rewards of good fortune.
620:. A citizen's wealth and class would, therefore, have defined their position in the civil hierarchies, and up to a point, within the military; but despite its apparent military character, and its possible origins as the mustering of the citizenry–at–arms, the system would have primarily served to determine the voting qualifications and wealth of individual citizens for taxation purposes, and the weight of their vote – wars were occasional but taxation was a constant necessity – and the
3311:
2283:
420:, and a slave himself. Livy describes Servius as a youth already holding an honourable position, as son of a living, noble mother and noble father. He is singled out for special favour when members of the royal household witness a nimbus of fire about his head while he sleeps, a sign of divine favour, and a great portent. In Livy's version, Servius becomes a protégé of the royal family ("like a son") through this event, and later marries their daughter
2838:
36:
897:. They were commissioned some time in the second half of the 4th century BC. One panel shows heroic Etruscans putting foreign captives to the sword. The victims include an individual named Gneve Tarchunies Rumach, interpreted as a Roman named Gnaeus Tarquinius, although known Roman history records no Tarquinius of that praenomen. The victors include Aule and Caile Vipinas – known to the Romans as the
689:(regions, or quarters); the Suburana, Esquilana, Collina and Palatina. Servius himself is said to have taken a new residence, on the Esquiline. The situation beyond the walls is unclear, but thereafter, membership of a Roman voting-tribe would have depended on residence rather than kinship, ancestry and inheritance. This would have brought significant numbers of urban and rural
490:), minor landholders previously disqualified from voting by ancestry, status or ethnicity. The same reforms simultaneously defined the fiscal and military obligations of all Roman citizens. As a whole, the so-called Servian reforms probably represent a long-drawn, complex and piecemeal process of populist policy and reform, extending from Servius' predecessors,
957:, instituted to publicly and piously honour his divine parentage – assuming the Lar as his father – to extend his domestic rites into the broader community, to mark his maternal identification with the lower ranks of Roman society and to assert his regal sponsorship and guardianship of their rights. Some time before the Augustan Compitalia reforms of 7 BC,
918:" who placed himself and his own band of armed clients at Vibenna's service, and may later have seized, rather than settled Rome's Caelian Hill. If the Etruscan Macstarna was identical with the Roman Servius, the latter may have been less monarch than some kind of proto-Republican magistrate given permanent office, perhaps a
796:, as had been the tradition for the election of kings of Rome; for being gifted the throne by a woman; for favouring the lower classes of Rome over the wealthy; for taking the land of the upper classes for distribution to the poor; and for instituting the census, which exposed the wealthy upper classes to popular envy.
834:
heads of the senate may have been interpreted as signs of tyranny. Under these circumstances, an extraordinary personal charisma must have been central to his success. When
Servius expanded Rome's influence and boundaries, and reorganised its citizenship and armies, his "new Rome" was still centered on the
799:
When
Servius Tullius arrived at the senate-house to defend his position, Tarquinius threw him down the steps and Servius was murdered in the street by Tarquin's men. Soon after, Tullia drove her chariot over her father's body. For Livy, Tarquinius' impious refusal to permit his father-in-law's burial
1623:
Cornell, pp. 146–148. cf. images of a "goddess at the window" and forms of ruler-marriage to a tutelary deity. Plutarch credits
Servius with the appreciative foundation of a temple Fortuna Primigenia, and one to Fortuna Obsequens – and "the greater part" of her titles and honours: due gratitude from
833:
The details of
Servius' servile birth, miraculous conception and links with divine Fortuna were doubtless embellished after his own time, but the core may have been propagated during his reign. His unconstitutional and seemingly reluctant accession, and his direct appeal to the Roman masses over the
901:
brothers – and their ally
Macstrna , who seems instrumental in winning the day. Claudius was certain that Macstarna was simply another name for Servius Tullius, who started his career as an Etruscan ally of the Vibenna brothers and helped them settle Rome's Caelian Hill. Claudius' account evidently
1865:
Servius' reforms reflect a general trend in the Graeco-Roman world, whose rulers increasingly sought a popular base of support, appealing directly to the commoner-soldiery and if possible, bypassing the aristocracy; in the ancient world, this was effectively the definition of tyranny. See
Cornell,
1105:
Based on the reckoning of Roman historians, the Roman kingdom lasted about 250 years; either the list of kings is implausibly short, or their reigns are implausibly long. The earliest kings in particular could represent the attributes and achievements of several distinct personalities. See further
936:
Servius' political reforms and those of his successor
Tarquinius Superbus undermined the bases of aristocratic power and transferred them in part to commoners. Rome's ordinary citizens became a distinct force within Roman politics, entitled to participate in government and bear arms on its behalf,
844:
or "hut" of
Romulus. Servius became a second Romulus, a benefactor to his people, part human, part divine; but his slave origins remain without parallel, and make him all the more remarkable: for Cornell, this is "the most important single fact about him". The story of his servile birth evidently
829:
Claims of divine ancestry and divine favour were often attached to charismatic individuals who rose "as if from nowhere" to become dynasts, tyrants and hero-founders in the ancient
Mediterranean world. Yet all these legends offer the father as divine, the mother – virgin or not – as princess of a
763:
that watched over each local community), or allowed for the first time their attendance and service by non-citizens and slaves. His personal reputation and achievements may have led to his historical association with temples and shrines to Fortuna; some sources suggest that the two were connected
961:
reports Servius' fathering by a Lar and his founding of Compitalia as ancient Roman traditions. In Servius, Augustus found ready association with a popular benefactor and refounder of Rome, whose reluctance to adopt kingship distanced him from its taints. Augustus brought the Compitalia and its
358:
probably included at least some official state records, he excluded what seemed implausible or contradictory traditions, and arranged his material within an overarching chronology. Dionysius and Plutarch offer various alternatives not found in Livy, and Livy's own pupil, the
676:
were elected by the plebeians from their own number. Cornell suggests that this centuriate system made the equites, who "consisted mainly, if not exclusively, of patricians" but voted after infantry of the first class, subordinate to the relatively low-status infantry.
498:, and into the Middle and Late Republic. Rome's military and territorial expansion and consequent changes in its population would have made franchise regulation and reform an ongoing necessity, and their wholesale attribution to Servius "cannot be taken at face value".
962:
essentially plebeian festivals, customs and political factions under his patronage and if need be, his censorial powers. He did not, however, trace his lineage and his re-founding to Servius – who even with part-divine ancestry still had servile connections – but with
624:
met whenever required to do so, in peace or war. Though each century had voting rights, the wealthiest had the most centuries, and voted first. Those beneath them were convened only in the event of deadlock or indecision; the lowest class was unlikely to vote at all.
424:. For Livy, this marriage undermines the traditional narrative in which Ocrisia, and thus her son Servius, are household slaves; Livy asserts that no slave, nor any of slave descent, could have been granted the great honour of marriage into Rome's ruling family.
727:, replacing an earlier and less convenient currency of raw bullion. This is unlikely, though he may have introduced the official stamping of raw currency. Money played a minimal role in the Roman economy, which was almost entirely agrarian at this time. Debt and
400:, and on one such occasion, having damped the hearth flames with a sacrificial offering, she was penetrated and impregnated by a disembodied phallus that rose from the hearth. According to Tanaquil, this was a divine manifestation, either of the household
784:. The younger Tullia and Lucius procured the murders of their respective siblings, married, and conspired to remove Servius Tullius. Tullia Minor encouraged Lucius Tarquinius to secretly persuade or bribe senators, and Tarquinius went to the
808:), a dark episode in Rome's history and just cause for the abolition of the monarchy. Servius thus becomes the last of Rome's benevolent kings; the place of this outrage – which Livy seems to suggest as a crossroads – is known thereafter as
816:, the worst of all crimes. This morally justifies Tarquin's eventual expulsion and the abolition of Rome's aberrant, "un-Roman" monarchy. Livy's Republic is partly founded on the achievements and death of Rome's last benevolent king.
970:, descendant of Venus and Mars. Plutarch admires the Servian reforms for their imposition of good order in government, the military and public morality, and Servius himself as the wisest, most fortunate and best of all Rome's kings.
695:
into active political life; and a significant number of these would have been allocated to centuries of the first class, and therefore likely to vote. The city of Rome's division into "quarters" remained in use until 7 BC, when
572:
to register their social rank, household, property and income. This established an individual's tax obligations, his ability to muster arms for military service when required to do so, and his assignment to a particular voting bloc.
941:
could not be unmade, or its powers reduced: as Republican Rome's highest court of appeal, it had the capacity to overturn court decisions, and the Republican senate was constitutionally obliged to seek its approval. In time, the
585:
continued to function through the Regal and Republican eras, but the Servian reform had reduced its powers to those of a largely symbolic "upper house"; its noble members were expected to do no more than ratify decisions of the
451:. Livy describes this as the first occasion that the people of Rome were not involved in the election of the king. In Plutarch, Servius reluctantly consented to the kingship at the death-bed insistence of Tanaquil.
614:(men aged 17 – 45, to serve as front–line troops when required). Adult male citizens were obliged, when called upon, to fulfill military service according to their means, which was supposedly assessed in archaic
580:
are speculated as Servius' attempt to erode the civil and military power of the Roman aristocracy, and seek the direct support of his newly enfranchised citizenry in civil matters; if necessary, under arms. The
768:("window gate") of the Royal palace as the window from which Tanaquil announced Servius' regency to the people; the goddess Fortuna was said to have passed through the same window, to become Servius' consort.
458:
against Veii and the Etruscans. He is said to have shown valour in the campaign, and to have routed a great army of the enemy. His success helped him to cement his position at Rome. According to the
1440:, and Dionysius of Halicarnassus IV, 16–18. Descriptions of the armour and arms to be supplied by members of each class are almost certainly learned, speculative introjections by Livy and Dionysius.
672:
was composed of a single class. Military specialists, such as trumpeters, were chosen from the 5th class. The highest officers were of aristocratic origin until the early Republic, when the first
1856:
Cornell, 133–141, 143–145, 235; Cornell describes these speculated connections as attractive but flimsy, being based entirely on the slight orthographic similarities of "macstrna" and "magister".
1834:
No evidence remains to attest the quality of Claudius' Etruscan scholarship or his grasp of the Etruscan language, despite his production of a multi-volume work, now lost, on Etruscan history.
1831:
Eleanor Huzar, in Temporini/Haase (eds), Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt, (ANRW), Sprache und Literatur (Literatur der julisch-claudischen und der flavischen Zeit), 1984, p. 623.
167:, having gained the throne by popular and royal support; and as the first to be elected by the Senate alone, with support of the reigning queen but without recourse to a popular vote.
902:
drew on sources unavailable to his fellow-historians, or rejected by them. There may have been two different, Servius-like figures, or two different traditions about the same figure.
685:
The Servian reforms increased the number of tribes and expanded the city, which was protected by a new rampart, moat and wall. The enclosed area was divided into four administrative
408:
himself. Thus Servius was divinely fathered and already destined for greatness, despite his mother's servile status; for the time being, Tanaquil and Ocrisia kept this a secret.
159:, Rome's first Etruscan king, who was assassinated in 579 BC. The constitutional basis for his accession is unclear; he is variously described as the first Roman king to
431:"and his school", names Servius' wife as Gegania: the nimbus of fire appears around the sleeping Servius much later, when Gegania is dying; "a token of his birth from fire".
632:
system and its order of battle are thought to be based on the civilian classifications established by the census. The military selection process picked men from civilian
530:(clans), each of which contributed one senator ("elder") to the Senate. The senate advised the king, devised laws in his name, and was held to represent the entire
937:
despite the opposition and resentment of Rome's patricians and senate. Tarquinius was ousted by a conspiracy of patricians, not plebeians. Once in existence, the
3711:
1173:
Livy gives her husband's name as Servius Tullius, chief man of Corniculum (" qui princeps in illa urbe fuerat "); the son is named after the father. See Livy,
776:
In Livy's history, Servius Tullius had two daughters, Tullia the Elder and Tullia the Younger. He arranged their marriage to the two sons of his predecessor,
1461:, p. 182: The Greek-style phalanx was known to the Romans of the Regal era, and their front-line fighting men were armed identically to early Greek hoplites.
548:
Rome's far more populous citizen-commoners could participate in this assembly in limited fashion, and perhaps offer their opinions on decisions but only the
486:
Most of the reforms credited to Servius extended voting rights to certain groups – in particular to Rome's citizen-commoners (known in the Republican era as
1888:, Cambridge University Press, 1998. p 184, for Augustan reforms and their connection to older, traditionally Servian social and religious institutions.
636:
and slipped them into military ones. Their function depended on their age, experience, and the equipment they could afford. The wealthiest class of
781:
3799:
598:
The census grouped Rome's male citizen population in classes, according to status, wealth and age. Each class was subdivided into groups called
455:
3716:
1534:
credits Servius with the first issues of minted silver coinage. See discussion in Crawford, Michael H., "The Early Roman Economy, 753–280 BC",
2257:
792:
and gave a speech criticising Servius: for being a slave born of a slave; for failing to be elected by the Senate and the people during an
427:
Servius proves a loyal, responsible son-in-law. When given governmental and military responsibilities, he excels in both. Plutarch, citing
1504:), and some of their inhabitants would have qualified for citizenship under the Servian class reforms. Discussion in Cornell, pp. 176–179.
1094:
300:(Tarquin the Proud) was the last. The nature of Roman kingship is unclear; most Roman kings were elected by the senate, as to a lifetime
1044:
1020:
3804:
1902:
1629:
3794:
3460:
178:
princess enslaved by the Romans; her child is chosen as Rome's future king after a ring of fire is seen around his head. The Emperor
2004:
1682:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1480:
1437:
1327:
1294:
1282:
1265:
1210:
1178:
2872:
2584:
3809:
2338:
2072:
1988:
1832:
301:
1719:
1311:
1249:
1195:
355:
320:("On the State"), written in 44 BC. The main literary sources for Servius' life and achievements are the Roman historian
2383:
1976:
1960:
1943:
1458:
1314:
468:
over the Etruscans, including on 25 November 571 BC and 25 May 567 BC (the date of the third triumph is not legible on the
241:
112:
2162:
421:
3728:
1400:
of this era represented a particular weight of bronze – one pound, according to Cornell – much heavier than the later
552:
could vote. A minority thus exercised power and control over the majority. Roman tradition held that Servius formed a
1929:
3774:
1770:
Servius' extraordinary paternity and maternity as native Roman founder-traditions are discussed in Wiseman, T. P.
1624:
one who "through good fortune, had been promoted from the family of a captive enemy to the kingship"–see Plutarch,
392:, and though slave, was treated with the respect due her former status. In one variant, she became wife to a noble
384:
and brought to Rome, either pregnant by her husband, who was killed at the siege: or as a virgin. She was given to
3522:
2537:
1963:
906:
may have been the name of a once celebrated Etruscan hero, or more speculatively, an Etruscan rendering of Roman
381:
171:
42:
3769:
2498:
189:
Servius was a popular king, and one of Rome's most significant benefactors. He had military successes against
182:
discounted such origins and described him as an originally Etruscan mercenary, named Mastarna, who fought for
2333:
416:
Servius' birth to a slave of the royal household would have made him a member of Tarquin's extended domestic
2865:
2420:
2328:
330:
was generally accepted by the Romans as the standard, most authoritative account; Livy's near contemporary
326:
545:
were a minority of the population, ruling a multitude who had no effective voice in their own government.
524:
status by virtue of their descent from Rome's founding families. These tribes comprised approximately 200
2488:
2065:
701:
240:
of citizens and non-citizens. According to Livy, he reigned for 44 years, until murdered by his daughter
312:
The oldest surviving source for the overall political developments of the Roman kingdom and Republic is
3393:
3367:
2483:
2409:
2252:
2128:
2042:
1921:
1558:
958:
331:
245:
86:
3527:
3362:
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2430:
2291:
2272:
2237:
2116:
2025:
393:
389:
156:
76:
3759:
3642:
3621:
3611:
3018:
2881:
2627:
953:
Servius' connections to the Lar and his reform of the vici connect him directly to the founding of
846:
521:
380:
Most Roman sources name Servius' mother as Ocrisia, a young noblewoman taken at the Roman siege of
229:
3784:
3626:
2858:
2647:
2155:
1705:) or political wards were sited at crossroads; cf their popular association with Servius Tullius.
764:
during Servius' lifetime, via some form of "sacred marriage". Plutarch explicitly identifies the
152:
1404:; its value cannot therefore be represented as a fraction or equivalent of later Roman coinage (
861:
3779:
3764:
3454:
2468:
2463:
2058:
1936:
The beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000 – 264 BC)
1754:
740:
439:
In Livy's account, Tarquinius Priscus had been elected king on the death of the previous king,
160:
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3570:
3226:
3145:
2893:
2473:
2378:
2308:
2171:
1089:
343:
339:
175:
148:
2282:
1578:'s assertion that Rome should be governed not by the general populace but by the"best men" (
1539:
723:
Some Roman historians believed Servius Tullius responsible for Rome's earliest true, minted
3668:
3552:
3506:
3296:
3140:
2913:
2710:
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481:
537:; but it could only debate and discuss. Its decisions had no force unless approved by the
47:
8:
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3512:
3398:
3372:
3231:
3080:
3070:
3033:
2579:
2508:
2503:
1948:
1792:
1338:
Cornell, pp. 144–147, 173–175, 183 (military character of reforms, especially in census).
777:
712:
495:
297:
20:
3585:
3211:
3175:
3135:
3110:
3013:
2993:
2933:
2850:
2622:
2573:
2192:
2148:
910:(magistrate). Claudius' "Etruscan Servius" seems less a monarch than a freelance Roman
889:. There is some support for this Etruscan version of Servius, in wall paintings at the
621:
553:
506:
Until the Servian reforms, the passing of laws and judgment was the prerogative of the
405:
253:
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Lott, 31: citing Dionysius of Halicarnassus, 4.14.3–4. See also Beard, North, Price,
1454:
669:
560:
as Rome's central legislative body. This required his development of the first Roman
460:
233:
218:
107:
1310:, On the fortune of the Romans, 10, 64: available online (Loeb) at Thayer's website
1248:, On the fortune of the Romans, 10, 64: available online (Loeb) at Thayer's website
1194:, On the fortune of the Romans, 10, 64: available online (Loeb) at Thayer's website
869:
at Vulci, depicting the liberation of Caelius Vibenna. Macstarna is second from left
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On the fortune of the Romans, 10.58–63. English version (Loeb) at Thayer's website
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On the fortune of the Romans, 10.58–63. English version (Loeb) at Thayer's website
673:
610:(men aged 46 – 60, of a suitable age to serve as "home guards" or city police) and
252:
arrogance as king, Tarquinius was eventually removed. This cleared the way for the
890:
866:
151:
dynasty. He reigned from 578 to 535 BC. Roman and Greek sources describe his
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2885:
2662:
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2348:
2343:
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2009:
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1251:. Plutarch cites Valerius Antias, Fragment 12; in Peter, Frag. Hist. Rom. p. 154.
898:
886:
616:
508:
428:
396:
of Tarquinius. In others, she served the domestic rites of the royal hearth as a
289:
183:
140:
751:; His servile birth-mythos, his populist leanings and his reorganisation of the
3590:
3479:
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2685:
2566:
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or clans, each supposedly based on one of Rome's central hills, and claiming
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277:
257:
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2262:
2081:
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947:
881:" in Etruscan) was published as an incidental scholarly comment within the
789:
748:
711:
is attributed to Servius, the remainder supposedly being rebuilt after the
708:
565:
444:
237:
210:
164:
144:
55:
2988:
3332:
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360:
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2140:
3542:
3449:
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3191:
3120:
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756:
206:
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3276:
3170:
2805:
2790:
2765:
2735:
2705:
2373:
2207:
1734:
1580:
813:
568:. For the purposes of the census, citizens assembled by tribe in the
202:
35:
2680:
3595:
3532:
3473:
3377:
3196:
3150:
3125:
3055:
2963:
2948:
2943:
2918:
2820:
2815:
2810:
2795:
2775:
2607:
2602:
2393:
2353:
2242:
1750:
1730:
1415:
1410:
946:
legitimized the rise to power of a plebeian nobility, and plebeian
878:
755:
appear to justify the Roman belief that he founded or reformed the
697:
516:; Roman sources describe ten curiae for each of three aristocratic
385:
364:
335:
194:
179:
3251:
3241:
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3130:
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1969:
Soldiers & Ghosts: A History of Battle in Classical Antiquity
1451:
Soldiers & Ghosts: A History of Battle in Classical Antiquity
1181:. Dionysius offers a near identical version as "the most likely".
963:
804:(“arrogant” or “proud”), and Servius' death is a "tragic crime" (
658:
641:
293:
214:
198:
2050:
541:. By the time of Servius, if not long before, the tribes of the
447:
elected Servius as king, and the sons of Ancus fled to exile in
296:
was the first. Servius Tullius was the sixth, and his successor
205:
hills. He is traditionally credited with the institution of the
3678:
3420:
3414:
3327:
3261:
3246:
3221:
3003:
2928:
2435:
2363:
1575:
649:
645:
561:
313:
249:
1160:
For Claudius' theory on Servius' origins, see the text of the
606:= 100) but in practice of variable number, further divided as
264:, whose groundwork had already been laid by Servius' reforms.
3547:
3271:
3095:
3050:
3038:
3023:
2968:
2825:
2785:
2770:
2720:
2695:
2675:
2440:
2415:
2398:
2232:
1531:
894:
760:
728:
691:
513:
487:
401:
1718:. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1998 (online)
1522:
Servius is credited as inventor of minted bronze coinage by
1500:, may have extended into the surrounding Roman territories (
1483:. The named regions, in this sequence (I–IV), are in Varro,
1387:
The Servian "centuries" are therefore held to mean "groups".
3428:
3281:
2800:
2700:
1084:
1002:
724:
531:
526:
321:
190:
3090:
2880:
1009:; the dates are accepted by most ancient Romans writers.
193:
and the Etruscans, and expanded the city to include the
1614:
Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2004. p. 31 ff.
338:(c. 46 – 120 AD); their own sources included works by
1774:. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995, 58–60.
1843:
In Claudius' speech, Macstarna is Caelius Vibenna's
367:, offered yet another, based on Etruscan tradition.
1222:Cornell, 131, 132: see Dionysus of Halicarnassus,
966:, patrician founding hero, ancestor of the divine
812:(street of shame, infamy or crime). His murder is
236:and improved the lot and fortune of Rome's lowest
1235:Cornell, 131: see Dionysus of Halicarnassus, 4.3.
680:
3751:
873:Claudius' story of Servius as an Etruscan named
788:with a group of armed men. Then he summoned the
248:. In consequence of this "tragic crime" and his
170:Several traditions describe Servius' father as
2866:
2156:
2066:
1317:; Pliny, Natural History, 36 & 70.27.204.
922:, a war-leader, or in Republican parlance, a
739:Servius is credited with the construction of
174:. Livy depicts Servius' mother as a captured
2258:Arruns Tarquinius (son of Tarquin the Proud)
501:
155:origins and later marriage to a daughter of
2873:
2859:
2163:
2149:
2073:
2059:
1538:, 1976, Volume 27 Numéro 1 pp. 197–207:
747:, to mark the foundation of the so-called
34:
2170:
1991:Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities
1536:Publications de l'École française de Rome
1436:See Cornell, p. 179, who is citing Livy,
1065:
1063:
853:(Etruscan slaves and domestic servants).
602:(centuries), nominally of 100 men (Latin
494:and Tarquinius Priscus, to his successor
1953:The foundation of Rome: myth and history
1313:: see also Ovid, Fasti, 6.627 ff; Livy,
860:
819:
512:(curiate assembly), made up from thirty
1716:Spectacle and Society in Livy's History
1496:Similar tribal areas, perhaps known as
1069:
3800:Assassinated ancient Roman politicians
3752:
1918:Religions of Rome: Volume 1, a History
1549:See discussion in Cornell, pp. 281–283
1074:. London: Routledge. pp. 135–139.
1060:
1042:
1018:
984:, a 1686 libretto by Agostino Steffani
576:The institution of the census and the
375:
221:and, less plausibly, the invention of
2854:
2144:
2054:
2043:Lucius Tarquinius Superbus
1886:Religions of Rome, Vol. 1, A History
1645:Papers of the British School at Rome
1599:Religions of Rome: Vol. 1, a History
1106:discussion in Cornell, 120–121, 226.
1036:
1012:
849:sneered that Rome had made kings of
1749:: and tyrants and usurpers such as
1612:The Neighborhoods of Augustan Rome,
856:
13:
3309:
1955:, Cornell University Press, 1997,
1078:
475:
307:
16:King of Rome from c. 578 to 535 BC
14:
3821:
3805:Ancient Roman slaves and freedmen
2080:
1982:
1916:Beard, M., Price, S., North, J.,
1043:Livy; Foster, Benjamin O. (tr.).
1019:Livy; Foster, Benjamin O. (tr.).
759:festivals (held to celebrate the
715:in 390/387 BC by the Gauls.
324:(59 BC – AD 17), whose
228:Despite the opposition of Rome's
3795:6th-century BC murdered monarchs
2836:
2585:English words of Etruscan origin
2459:Battle of Alalia (540 BC–535 BC)
2281:
1971:, Yale University Press (2005),
1729:Cornell, 132–133: these include
1631:. For possible locations of the
1453:, Yale University Press (2005),
771:
2538:Corpus Inscriptionum Etruscarum
2339:Etruscan names for Greek heroes
1910:
1891:
1878:
1869:
1859:
1850:
1837:
1825:
1816:
1807:
1798:
1786:
1777:
1764:
1723:
1708:
1687:
1671:
1650:
1617:
1604:
1591:
1568:
1552:
1543:
1526:, on the authority of Timaeus (
1516:
1507:
1490:
1473:
1464:
1443:
1430:
1421:
1390:
1381:
1372:
1363:
1350:
1341:
1332:
1320:
1300:
1287:
1271:
1254:
1238:
1229:
1216:
1199:
1184:
1167:
1154:
1145:
1136:
43:Promptuarium Iconum Insigniorum
3810:Children of Vulcan (mythology)
2499:Battle of Lake Vadimo (310 BC)
2474:Battle of the Cremera (477 BC)
1875:Cornell, pp. 195–197, 334–335.
1427:Cornell, pp. 186–190, 194–196.
1360:, "to judge" or "to estimate".
1127:
1118:
1109:
1099:
995:
681:Tribal and boundary expansions
272:Before its establishment as a
1:
1643:, "Where Was the Nova Via?",
1574:Livy, 2.46, 3.39.9. See also
988:
707:. In modern Rome, an ancient
556:of commoners to displace the
411:
267:
65:
2504:Battle of Populonia (282 BC)
2329:Corpus Speculorum Etruscorum
1737:: dynastic founders such as
1693:The Compital shrines of the
1418:). See Cornell, pp. 180–181.
845:circulated far beyond Rome;
454:Early in his reign, Servius
7:
2489:Capture of Fidenae (435 BC)
973:
734:
668:). Each battle line in the
640:(aged 17–45) were armed as
564:, making Servius the first
464:, Servius celebrated three
209:festivals, the building of
19:For the personal name, see
10:
3826:
3368:Lucius Tarquinius Superbus
3307:
2494:Battle of Veii (c. 396 BC)
2484:Battle of Fidenae (437 BC)
2410:Sarcophagus of the Spouses
2253:Lucius Tarquinius Superbus
2129:Lucius Tarquinius Superbus
1922:Cambridge University Press
1559:Dionysius of Halicarnassus
1356:Census derives from Latin
1124:Cornell, pp. 120–121, 226.
959:Dionysius of Halicarnassus
718:
593:
479:
370:
332:Dionysius of Halicarnassus
246:Lucius Tarquinius Superbus
87:Lucius Tarquinius Superbus
18:
3699:
3661:
3635:
3604:
3563:
3491:
3407:
3386:
3363:Lucius Tarquinius Priscus
3320:
3184:
2909:
2892:
2834:
2661:
2593:
2517:
2449:
2431:Tomb of the Roaring Lions
2290:
2279:
2273:Titus Vestricius Spurinna
2238:Lucius Tarquinius Priscus
2178:
2117:Lucius Tarquinius Priscus
2088:
2039:
2030:
2026:Lucius Tarquinius Priscus
2022:
2017:
1847:(most faithful companion)
931:
851:servos vernasque Tuscorum
800:earned him the sobriquet
709:portion of surviving wall
502:Curiate reform and census
223:Rome's first true coinage
157:Lucius Tarquinius Priscus
126:
118:
106:
96:
92:
82:
77:Lucius Tarquinius Priscus
72:
61:
54:
33:
28:
3622:Rape of the Sabine Women
2628:National Etruscan Museum
2479:Battle of Cumae (474 BC)
1647:, 72, 2004, pp. 167–183.
1268:: see also Dionysius, 4.
1142:Cornell, pp. 6, 199–122.
847:Mithridates VI of Pontus
824:
434:
363:, historian and emperor
260:and the founding of the
147:, and the second of its
3775:6th-century BC monarchs
3627:Battle of Lacus Curtius
2648:Tumulus of Montefortini
1733:, legendary founder of
1656:Livy, Ab urbe condita,
1479:Livy, Ab urbe condita,
883:Oratio Claudii Caesaris
161:accede without election
3314:
2882:Ancient Roman religion
2469:Siege of Rome (508 BC)
2464:Siege of Rome (509 BC)
1072:The Beginnings of Rome
870:
700:divided the city into
644:, heavy infantry with
3770:6th-century BC Romans
3313:
2379:Monterozzi necropolis
2172:Etruscan civilization
1597:Beard, North, Price,
1369:Cornell, pp. 194–197.
1347:Cornell, pp. 115–118.
1090:ab urbe condita libri
864:
820:Historical appraisals
344:Diocles of Peparethus
340:Quintus Fabius Pictor
102:or Gegania (Plutarch)
3507:Interpretatio graeca
2711:Civita di Bagnoregio
2384:Mythological figures
2010:Roman Census Figures
2005:The Roman Assemblies
1949:Grandazzi, Alexandre
1845:sodalis fidelissimus
1070:Cornell, TJ (1995).
482:Servian constitution
276:, Rome was ruled by
3707:Classical mythology
3528:Theology of victory
3373:Kings of Alba Longa
2580:Tyrsenian languages
2509:Roman-Etruscan Wars
2421:Terracotta warriors
2131:(535–510 BC/509 BC)
1938:, Routledge, 1995.
1804:Grandazzi, 206–211.
1772:Remus: A Roman Myth
1635:and the associated
1151:Cornell, pp. 21–26.
1046:The History of Rome
1022:The History of Rome
496:Tarquinius Superbus
376:Parentage and birth
298:Tarquinius Superbus
21:Servius (praenomen)
3315:
2623:Monteleone Chariot
2574:Tabula Cortonensis
2354:Haruspex/Extispicy
2193:Villanovan culture
1813:Cornell, 131, 146.
1714:Feldherr, Andrew.
1115:Cornell, pp. 57–60
944:comitia centuriata
939:comitia centuriata
871:
865:Painting from the
622:comitia centuriata
588:comitia centuriata
578:comitia centuriata
554:comitia centuriata
232:, he expanded the
3747:
3746:
3724:Etruscan religion
3338:Romulus and Remus
3321:Legendary figures
3305:
3304:
2954:Castor and Pollux
2848:
2847:
2618:Impasto (pottery)
2369:Liver of Piacenza
2319:Chimera of Arezzo
2138:
2137:
2049:
2048:
2040:Succeeded by
2018:Legendary titles
1977:978-0-300-11979-4
1961:978-0-8014-8247-2
1944:978-0-415-01596-7
1783:Cornell, 130–133.
1563:Roman Antiquities
1513:Cornell, pp. 173.
1459:978-0-300-11979-4
1224:Roman Antiquities
782:Arruns Tarquinius
778:Lucius Tarquinius
674:plebeian tribunes
670:phalanx formation
628:The Roman army's
461:Fasti Triumphales
292:, Rome's founder
134:
133:
48:Guillaume Rouillé
3817:
3617:Founding of Rome
3387:Legendary beings
3348:Tullus Hostilius
3185:Abstract deities
3044:Lares Familiares
2907:
2906:
2875:
2868:
2861:
2852:
2851:
2840:
2561:Lemnian language
2532:Cippus Perusinus
2451:Military history
2285:
2203:Founding of Rome
2198:Padanian Etruria
2165:
2158:
2151:
2142:
2141:
2105:Tullus Hostilius
2075:
2068:
2061:
2052:
2051:
2023:Preceded by
2015:
2014:
1989:Smith, William,
1904:
1895:
1889:
1882:
1876:
1873:
1867:
1863:
1857:
1854:
1848:
1841:
1835:
1829:
1823:
1822:Cornell, p. 132.
1820:
1814:
1811:
1805:
1802:
1796:
1790:
1784:
1781:
1775:
1768:
1762:
1727:
1721:
1712:
1706:
1691:
1685:
1675:
1669:
1654:
1648:
1633:Porta Fenestella
1621:
1615:
1610:Lott, John. B.,
1608:
1602:
1595:
1589:
1572:
1566:
1556:
1550:
1547:
1541:
1520:
1514:
1511:
1505:
1494:
1488:
1477:
1471:
1470:Cornell, p. 196.
1468:
1462:
1447:
1441:
1434:
1428:
1425:
1419:
1394:
1388:
1385:
1379:
1376:
1370:
1367:
1361:
1354:
1348:
1345:
1339:
1336:
1330:
1324:
1318:
1304:
1298:
1291:
1285:
1275:
1269:
1258:
1252:
1242:
1236:
1233:
1227:
1220:
1214:
1203:
1197:
1188:
1182:
1171:
1165:
1158:
1152:
1149:
1143:
1140:
1134:
1131:
1125:
1122:
1116:
1113:
1107:
1103:
1097:
1082:
1076:
1075:
1067:
1058:
1057:
1055:
1053:
1040:
1034:
1033:
1031:
1029:
1016:
1010:
999:
857:Etruscan Servius
810:Vicus Sceleratus
766:Porta Fenestella
100:Tarquinia (Livy)
67:
38:
26:
25:
3825:
3824:
3820:
3819:
3818:
3816:
3815:
3814:
3760:Servius Tullius
3750:
3749:
3748:
3743:
3739:Myth and ritual
3734:Greek mythology
3695:
3657:
3653:Pignora imperii
3648:Parabiago Plate
3631:
3600:
3559:
3493:
3487:
3469:Sibylline Books
3403:
3382:
3353:Servius Tullius
3316:
3301:
3180:
2896:
2888:
2879:
2849:
2844:
2830:
2657:
2589:
2556:Raetic language
2513:
2445:
2349:Fanum Voltumnae
2344:Tiburtine Sibyl
2334:Etruscan League
2286:
2277:
2248:Servius Tullius
2228:Caelius Vibenna
2174:
2169:
2139:
2134:
2123:Servius Tullius
2084:
2079:
2045:
2036:
2028:
1985:
1920:, illustrated,
1913:
1908:
1907:
1896:
1892:
1883:
1879:
1874:
1870:
1864:
1860:
1855:
1851:
1842:
1838:
1830:
1826:
1821:
1817:
1812:
1808:
1803:
1799:
1791:
1787:
1782:
1778:
1769:
1765:
1728:
1724:
1713:
1709:
1692:
1688:
1679:Ab urbe condita
1676:
1672:
1655:
1651:
1622:
1618:
1609:
1605:
1596:
1592:
1584:): see Cicero,
1573:
1569:
1557:
1553:
1548:
1544:
1524:Pliny the Elder
1521:
1517:
1512:
1508:
1495:
1491:
1478:
1474:
1469:
1465:
1448:
1444:
1435:
1431:
1426:
1422:
1395:
1391:
1386:
1382:
1378:Cornell, p. 25.
1377:
1373:
1368:
1364:
1355:
1351:
1346:
1342:
1337:
1333:
1325:
1321:
1305:
1301:
1292:
1288:
1279:Ab urbe condita
1276:
1272:
1262:Ab urbe condita
1259:
1255:
1243:
1239:
1234:
1230:
1221:
1217:
1207:Ab urbe condita
1204:
1200:
1189:
1185:
1175:Ab urbe condita
1172:
1168:
1159:
1155:
1150:
1146:
1141:
1137:
1132:
1128:
1123:
1119:
1114:
1110:
1104:
1100:
1083:
1079:
1068:
1061:
1051:
1049:
1041:
1037:
1027:
1025:
1017:
1013:
1007:Ab Urbe Condita
1000:
996:
991:
976:
934:
920:magister populi
887:Lugdunum Tablet
859:
827:
822:
806:tragicum scelus
774:
737:
721:
683:
662:), and spears (
596:
583:comitia curiata
558:comitia curiata
550:comitia curiata
539:comitia curiata
533:populus Romanus
509:comitia curiata
504:
484:
478:
476:Servian reforms
437:
429:Valerius Antias
414:
390:king Tarquinius
378:
373:
327:Ab urbe condita
310:
308:Ancient sources
290:Roman tradition
270:
258:Rome's monarchy
244:and son-in-law
234:Roman franchise
184:Caelius Vibenna
137:Servius Tullius
101:
50:
29:Servius Tullius
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3823:
3813:
3812:
3807:
3802:
3797:
3792:
3787:
3785:Etruscan kings
3782:
3777:
3772:
3767:
3762:
3745:
3744:
3742:
3741:
3736:
3731:
3726:
3721:
3720:
3719:
3709:
3703:
3701:
3697:
3696:
3694:
3693:
3692:
3691:
3686:
3681:
3671:
3665:
3663:
3659:
3658:
3656:
3655:
3650:
3645:
3639:
3637:
3633:
3632:
3630:
3629:
3624:
3619:
3614:
3608:
3606:
3602:
3601:
3599:
3598:
3593:
3591:Pythagoreanism
3588:
3586:Peripateticism
3583:
3578:
3573:
3567:
3565:
3561:
3560:
3558:
3557:
3556:
3555:
3550:
3545:
3535:
3530:
3525:
3520:
3515:
3510:
3503:
3497:
3495:
3489:
3488:
3486:
3485:
3484:
3483:
3480:The Golden Ass
3471:
3466:
3465:
3464:
3452:
3447:
3446:
3445:
3438:
3426:
3425:
3424:
3411:
3409:
3405:
3404:
3402:
3401:
3399:Barnacle goose
3396:
3390:
3388:
3384:
3383:
3381:
3380:
3375:
3370:
3365:
3360:
3355:
3350:
3345:
3343:Numa Pompilius
3340:
3335:
3330:
3324:
3322:
3318:
3317:
3308:
3306:
3303:
3302:
3300:
3299:
3294:
3289:
3284:
3279:
3274:
3269:
3264:
3259:
3254:
3249:
3244:
3239:
3234:
3229:
3224:
3219:
3214:
3209:
3204:
3199:
3194:
3188:
3186:
3182:
3181:
3179:
3178:
3173:
3168:
3163:
3158:
3153:
3148:
3143:
3138:
3133:
3128:
3123:
3118:
3113:
3108:
3103:
3098:
3093:
3088:
3083:
3078:
3073:
3068:
3063:
3058:
3053:
3048:
3047:
3046:
3036:
3031:
3026:
3021:
3016:
3011:
3006:
3001:
2996:
2991:
2986:
2981:
2976:
2971:
2966:
2961:
2956:
2951:
2946:
2941:
2936:
2931:
2926:
2921:
2916:
2910:
2904:
2890:
2889:
2878:
2877:
2870:
2863:
2855:
2846:
2845:
2835:
2832:
2831:
2829:
2828:
2823:
2818:
2813:
2808:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2788:
2783:
2778:
2773:
2768:
2763:
2758:
2753:
2748:
2743:
2738:
2733:
2728:
2723:
2718:
2713:
2708:
2703:
2698:
2693:
2688:
2683:
2678:
2673:
2667:
2665:
2659:
2658:
2656:
2655:
2650:
2645:
2640:
2635:
2630:
2625:
2620:
2615:
2610:
2605:
2599:
2597:
2591:
2590:
2588:
2587:
2582:
2577:
2570:
2567:Tabula Capuana
2563:
2558:
2553:
2548:
2541:
2534:
2529:
2523:
2521:
2515:
2514:
2512:
2511:
2506:
2501:
2496:
2491:
2486:
2481:
2476:
2471:
2466:
2461:
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441:Ancus Marcius
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361:etruscologist
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3643:Gubernaculum
3612:Golden Bough
3581:Neoplatonism
3576:Epicureanism
3505:
3478:
3459:
3440:
3433:
3419:
3352:
2924:Anna Perenna
2898:
2761:Poggio Colla
2653:Vicus Tuscus
2633:Negau helmet
2572:
2565:
2543:
2536:
2408:
2309:Architecture
2263:Lars Porsena
2247:
2125:(578–535 BC)
2122:
2119:(616–579 BC)
2113:(642–617 BC)
2107:(673–642 BC)
2101:(717–673 BC)
2095:(753–717 BC)
2033:King of Rome
2031:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1968:
1952:
1935:
1917:
1911:Bibliography
1898:
1893:
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1502:ager Romanus
1501:
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1162:Lyons Tablet
1156:
1147:
1138:
1129:
1120:
1111:
1101:
1088:
1080:
1071:
1050:. Retrieved
1045:
1038:
1026:. Retrieved
1021:
1014:
1006:
997:
979:
952:
943:
938:
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923:
919:
911:
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893:in Etruscan
882:
877:(title for "
874:
872:
850:
839:
835:
832:
828:
809:
805:
801:
798:
786:senate-house
775:
765:
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749:Latin League
738:
729:debt bondage
722:
713:sack of Rome
703:
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663:
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629:
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566:Roman censor
557:
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538:
532:
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438:
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417:
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325:
318:De republica
317:
311:
285:
281:
271:
227:
188:
169:
145:king of Rome
136:
135:
56:King of Rome
41:
3717:Persecution
3669:Gallo-Roman
3461:Res divinae
3333:Rhea Silvia
2638:Portonaccio
2613:Etruscology
2213:Tyrrhenians
1639:, see also
916:condottiere
841:Casa Romuli
794:interregnum
656:, shields (
654:breastplate
284:, singular
73:Predecessor
3754:Categories
3662:Variations
3564:Philosophy
3543:Capitolium
3450:Propertius
3217:Averruncus
3202:Aeternitas
3192:Abundantia
3121:Proserpina
2671:Acquarossa
2595:Archeology
1897:Plutarch,
1755:Agathocles
1586:Pro Sestio
1306:Plutarch,
1244:Plutarch,
1190:Plutarch,
989:References
955:Compitalia
757:Compitalia
412:Early life
388:, wife of
382:Corniculum
302:magistracy
268:Background
230:patricians
207:Compitalia
68:578–535 BC
46:(1553) by
3689:Mithraism
3674:Mysteries
3523:Palladium
3501:Festivals
3277:Securitas
3227:Concordia
3171:Vertumnus
2989:Dīs Pater
2886:mythology
2806:Vetulonia
2791:Tarquinia
2766:Populonia
2736:Fescennia
2706:Cerveteri
2663:Key sites
2374:Mezentius
2208:Tyrrhenus
1866:148, 238.
1793:Grandazzi
1735:Praeneste
1581:optimates
1530:360 BC):
1315:1#39|I.39
904:Macstarna
875:Macstarna
814:parricide
634:centuriae
600:centuriae
522:patrician
422:Tarquinia
354:. Livy's
254:abolition
250:hubristic
203:Esquiline
141:legendary
122:Uncertain
83:Successor
3729:Glossary
3700:See also
3596:Stoicism
3571:Cynicism
3533:Pomerium
3492:Concepts
3474:Apuleius
3394:She-wolf
3378:Hersilia
3297:Victoria
3197:Aequitas
3151:Summanus
3141:Silvanus
3126:Quirinus
3056:Libertas
3019:Hercules
2964:Cloacina
2949:Carmenta
2944:Bona Dea
2919:Angerona
2914:Agenoria
2821:Volterra
2816:Volsinii
2811:Vie Cave
2796:Tuscania
2776:Rusellae
2608:Cuniculi
2603:Bucchero
2527:Alphabet
2519:Language
2404:Religion
2394:Poppilia
2243:Tanaquil
2037:578–535
1995:Patricii
1924:, 1998.
1899:Moralia,
1759:Hiero II
1751:Cypselus
1731:Caeculus
1637:Nova Via
1626:Moralia,
1487:, 5. 45.
1416:denarius
1411:sesterce
974:See also
925:dictator
912:magister
908:magister
879:dictator
836:Comitium
802:Superbus
790:senators
735:Religion
704:regiones
698:Augustus
687:regiones
642:hoplites
638:iuniores
630:centuria
612:iuniores
608:seniores
466:triumphs
386:Tanaquil
365:Claudius
336:Plutarch
274:Republic
195:Quirinal
180:Claudius
149:Etruscan
139:was the
3712:Decline
3636:Objects
3538:Temples
3518:Charity
3252:Laverna
3242:Fortuna
3232:Feronia
3161:Veritas
3131:Salacia
3116:Priapus
3101:Penates
3081:Neptune
3076:Minerva
3071:Mercury
3034:Jupiter
2974:Dea Dia
2939:Bellona
2894:Deities
2756:Perusia
2751:Orvieto
2746:Norchia
2741:Fidenae
2731:Falerii
2726:Etruria
2716:Clusium
2691:Bologna
2686:Baratti
2389:Persius
2359:Jewelry
2296:society
2292:Culture
2218:Tarchon
2188:Origins
2180:History
2093:Romulus
1999:Comitia
1697:of the
1358:censere
1308:Moralia
1246:Moralia
1192:Moralia
964:Romulus
948:consuls
899:Vibenna
885:of the
743:on the
725:coinage
719:Economy
702:14 new
659:clipeus
650:greaves
594:Classes
543:comitia
418:familia
371:Origins
356:sources
294:Romulus
280:(Latin
238:classes
215:Fortuna
211:temples
199:Viminal
163:by the
153:servile
130:Ocrisia
3790:Tullii
3679:Cybele
3605:Events
3553:Celtic
3421:Aeneid
3415:Virgil
3328:Aeneas
3262:Pietas
3247:Fontus
3222:Caelus
3212:Annona
3207:Africa
3176:Vulcan
3136:Saturn
3111:Pomona
3014:Genius
3004:Faunus
2994:Egeria
2934:Aurora
2929:Apollo
2842:Portal
2681:Aleria
2436:Vegoia
2364:Lausus
1975:
1959:
1942:
1928:
1739:Sargon
1677:Livy,
1576:Cicero
1457:
1326:Livy,
1293:Livy,
1277:Livy,
1260:Livy,
1226:, 4.3.
1205:Livy,
1052:Nov 9,
1028:Nov 9,
932:Legacy
838:, the
665:hastae
646:helmet
604:centum
562:census
527:gentes
518:tribes
514:curiae
456:warred
445:senate
406:Vulcan
394:client
334:, and
314:Cicero
288:). In
242:Tullia
172:divine
165:Senate
143:sixth
127:Mother
119:Father
113:Tullia
97:Spouse
3548:Cella
3455:Varro
3435:Fasti
3408:Texts
3292:Terra
3272:Salus
3237:Fides
3166:Vesta
3156:Venus
3106:Pluto
3096:Orcus
3051:Liber
3039:Lares
3024:Janus
3009:Flora
2999:Fauna
2979:Diana
2969:Cupid
2959:Ceres
2826:Vulci
2786:Spina
2771:Pyrgi
2721:Cumae
2696:Caere
2676:Adria
2441:Vulca
2416:Tages
2399:Raeti
2324:Coins
2233:Capys
1795:, 45.
1743:Cyrus
1703:vicus
1695:Lares
1588:, 96.
1532:Varro
1528:circa
895:Vulci
825:Birth
761:Lares
692:plebs
617:asses
488:plebs
470:Fasti
435:Reign
282:reges
278:kings
219:Diana
176:Latin
108:Issue
62:Reign
3684:Isis
3429:Ovid
3282:Spes
3267:Roma
3066:Mars
3061:Luna
3029:Juno
2984:Dies
2884:and
2801:Veii
2701:Ceri
2294:and
1973:ISBN
1957:ISBN
1940:ISBN
1926:ISBN
1757:and
1745:and
1699:vici
1683:1.49
1666:1.47
1662:1.46
1658:1.42
1498:pagi
1481:1.44
1455:ISBN
1438:1.43
1396:The
1328:1.42
1295:1.41
1283:1.40
1266:1.39
1211:1.39
1179:1.39
1085:Livy
1054:2019
1030:2019
1003:Livy
780:and
753:vici
350:and
322:Livy
217:and
201:and
191:Veii
3257:Pax
3146:Sol
3091:Ops
3086:Nox
2314:Art
1701:(s.
1565:4.9
1414:or
472:).
404:or
402:Lar
316:'s
286:rex
256:of
213:to
3756::
1997:,
1951:,
1753:,
1741:,
1681:,
1664:,
1660:,
1561:,
1408:,
1406:as
1402:as
1398:as
1281:,
1264:,
1209:,
1177:,
1093:,
1087:,
1062:^
1005:,
950:.
928:.
652:,
648:,
590:.
346:,
342:,
225:.
197:,
186:.
66:c.
2903:)
2897:(
2874:e
2867:t
2860:v
2164:e
2157:t
2150:v
2074:e
2067:t
2060:v
1761:.
1668:.
1297:.
1213:.
1164:.
1095:I
1056:.
1032:.
23:.
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