56:
573:
641:
592:
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297:) reduction spheres form around iron nuclei, leaving a light-green, spotted texture. These spheres are sometimes deformed by a subsequent applied stress field into ovoids, which appear as ellipses when viewed on a cleavage plane of the specimen. However, some evidence shows that reduced spots may also form after deformation and acquire an elliptical shape from preferential infiltration along the cleavage direction, so caution is required in using reduction ellipsoids to estimate deformation.
712:
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recommends that the term "slate" be used in scientific writings only when very little else is known about the rock that would allow a more definite classification. For example, if the characteristics of the rock show definitely that it was formed by metamorphosis of shale, it should be described in
424:
that compares favorably with other roofing materials. Natural slate is used by building professionals as a result of its beauty and durability. Slate is incredibly durable and can last several hundred years, often with little or no maintenance. Natural slate is also fire resistant and energy
428:
Slate roof tiles are usually fixed (fastened) either with nails or with hooks (as is common with
Spanish slate). In the UK, fixing is typically with double nails onto timber battens (England and Wales) or nailed directly onto timber sarking boards (Scotland and Northern Ireland). Nails were
412:. Slate has two lines of breakability—cleavage and grain—which make it possible to split the stone into thin sheets. When broken, slate retains a natural appearance while remaining relatively flat and easy to stack. A series of "slate booms" occurred in Europe from the 1870s until the
449:
Slate tiles are often used for interior and exterior flooring, stairs, walkways and wall cladding. Tiles are installed and set on mortar and grouted along the edges. Chemical sealants are often used on tiles to improve durability and appearance, increase stain resistance, reduce
154:", is caused by strong compression in which fine-grained clay forms flakes to regrow in planes perpendicular to the compression. When expertly "cut" by striking parallel to the foliation with a specialized tool in the quarry, many slates display a property called
546:
Pennsylvania slate is widely used in the manufacture of turkey calls used for hunting turkeys. The tones produced from the slate, when scratched with various species of wood striker, imitates almost exactly the calls of all four species of
419:
Slate is particularly suitable as a roofing material as it has an extremely low water absorption index of less than 0.4%, making the material resistant to frost damage. Natural slate, which requires only minimal processing, has an
733:, the world's largest producer and exporter of natural slate, and 90 percent of Europe's natural slate used for roofing originates from the slate industry there. Lesser slate-producing regions in present-day Europe include
454:, and increase or reduce surface smoothness. Tiles are often sold gauged, meaning that the back surface is ground for ease of installation. Slate flooring can be slippery when used in external locations subject to rain.
181:, which was traditionally a small, smooth piece of the rock, often framed in wood, used with chalk as a notepad or notice board, and especially for recording charges in pubs and inns. The phrases "clean slate" and "
429:
traditionally of copper, although there are modern alloy and stainless steel alternatives. Both these methods, if used properly, provide a long-lasting weathertight roof with a lifespan of around 60–125 years.
254:, are rotated to form parallel layers perpendicular to the direction of compaction, which begin to impart cleavage to the rock. Slaty cleavage is fully developed as the clay minerals begin to be converted to
147:. It is the finest-grained foliated metamorphic rock. Foliation may not correspond to the original sedimentary layering, but instead is in planes perpendicular to the direction of metamorphic compression.
2475:
1928:
FundaciĂłn Centro TecnolĂłgico de la
Pizarra. Report into the "Technical properties of Bambui Slate from the State of Minas Gerais (Brazil) to ascertain its compliance with the Standard EN12326".
668:
has vast slate deposits; in recent years its export of finished and unfinished slate has increased. Deposits of slate exist throughout
Australia, with large reserves quarried in the
1188:
Glass, Alexander; Blake, Daniel B. (April 2004). "Preservation of tube feet in an ophiuroid (Echinodermata) from the Lower
Devonian HunsrĂĽck Slate of Germany and a redescription of
477:
to level floor joists. In areas where slate is plentiful it is also used in pieces of various sizes for building walls and hedges, sometimes combined with other kinds of stone.
442:
Hook fixing is particularly suitable in regions subject to severe weather conditions, since there is greater resistance to wind uplift, as the lower edge of the slate is secured.
204:
Slate is a fine-grained, metamorphic rock that shows no obvious compositional layering but can easily be split into thin slabs and plates. It is usually formed by low-grade
55:
908:, during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, where the slate is usually dark purple to blackish, and many local structures are roofed with slate tiles. The roof of
170:
can be found in many shades of grey, from pale to dark, and may also be purple, green, or cyan. Slate is not to be confused with shale, from which it may be formed, or
2460:
1418:
Cárdenes, VĂctor; Cnudde, Jean Pierre; Wichert, Jörn; Large, David; LĂłpez-Mungira, Aurora; Cnudde, Veerle (July 2016). "Roofing slate standards: A critical review".
1567:
1495:
243:(M-domains). These are typically less than 100 ÎĽm (micron) thick. Because slate was formed in low heat and pressure, compared to most other metamorphic rocks, some
250:
The process of conversion of mudrock to slate involves a loss of up to 50% of the volume of the mudrock as it is compacted. Grains of platy minerals, such as
317:
in the United States, the term slate was commonly used to refer to shale well into the 20th century. For example, roof slate referred to shale above a
1251:
Walsh, Joan A. (November 2007). "The use of the scanning electron microscope in the determination of the mineral composition of
Ballachulish slate".
877:, not a true slate). Some of the slate from Wales and Cumbria is colored slate (non-blue): purple and formerly green in Wales and green in Cumbria.
572:
212:. This mild degree of metamorphism produces a rock in which the individual mineral crystals remain microscopic in size, producing a characteristic
2010:
3248:
231:
of the slate is totally dominated by these pervasive cleavage planes. Under a microscope, the slate is found to consist of very thin lenses of
512:
to hone knives, but whetstones are nowadays more typically made of quartz. In 18th- and 19th-century schools, slate was extensively used for
557:
1932:
591:
227:
Slaty cleavage is continuous, meaning that the individual cleavage planes are too closely spaced to be discernible in hand samples. The
329:
scientific writings as a metashale. If its origin is uncertain, but the rock is known to be rich in mica, it should be described as a
177:
The word "slate" is also used for certain types of object made from slate rock. It may mean a single roofing tile made of slate, or a
1447:
2470:
2465:
992:
1488:
1463:
2071:
1869:
Healy, Paul F.; Awe, Jaime J.; Iannone, Gyles; Bill, Cassandra (June 1995). "Pacbitun (Belize) and ancient Maya use of slate".
269:, and chlorite, which account for up to 95% of its composition. The most important accessory minerals are iron oxides (such as
1913:
220:, which is the next-higher grade of metamorphic rock derived from mudstone. The direction of cleavage is independent of any
1767:
1545:
909:
2513:
1560:
685:
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there are still many buildings wholly constructed of slate. Slates can also be set into walls to provide a rudimentary
457:
Slate tiles were used in 19th century UK building construction (apart from roofs) and in slate quarrying areas such as
704:, which extracts 95 percent of Brazil's slate. However, not all "slate" products from Brazil are entitled to bear the
1986:
1157:
1026:
1951:
1366:
166:
covering roofs. However, slate occurs in a variety of colors even from a single locality; for example, slate from
2315:
501:. Because of its thermal stability and chemical inertness, slate has been used for laboratory bench tops and for
1675:
3537:
1623:
1132:
1107:
1082:
1054:
598:
3562:
2480:
1649:
1391:
Crishna, N.; Banfill, P.F.G.; Goodsir, S. (October 2011). "Embodied energy and CO2 in UK dimension stone".
2018:
3522:
921:
3557:
3542:
2225:
2099:
2064:
901:
846:
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247:
can be found in slate; sometimes even microscopic remains of delicate organisms can be found in slate.
17:
3552:
2305:
2185:
754:
689:
673:
520:, for which slate or chalk pencils were used. In modern homes slate is often used as table coasters.
325:
1705:
716:
216:
in which fresh cleavage surfaces appear dull. This is in contrast to the silky cleaved surfaces of
1820:
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2578:
2546:
2506:
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1520:
1329:
770:
734:
730:
486:
290:
1929:
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221:
31:
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Roofing features such as valleys and domes are easier to create since narrow tiles can be used
3567:
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2149:
2057:
1291:
881:
738:
205:
2015:(1884/1904), by F. M. Hower, Cherryville, Penn., on Stone Quarries and Beyond (PDF/18.95 MB)
1904:
Fairbairn, John (1992). "A Survey of the best in Go
Equipment". In Bozulich, Richard (ed.).
3532:
2129:
2124:
1205:
625:
490:
162:, floor tiles, and other purposes. Slate is frequently grey in color, especially when seen
8:
2290:
1792:
Arbel, Yoav (2020). "Miscellaneous Finds from the Magen
Avraham Compound, Yafo (Jaffa)".
1444:
758:
321:, and draw slate referred to shale that fell from the mine roof as the coal was removed.
155:
117:
1842:
Born, Anne (November 1988). "Blue Slate
Quarrying in South Devon: An Ancient Industry".
1752:
1209:
3547:
2794:
2499:
2252:
2134:
2035:
1886:
1801:
1221:
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2019:
Stone
Roofing Association (U.K.) website with detailed information about stone roofing
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1982:
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The metal hooks are, however, visible and may be unsuitable for historic properties.
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in the original mudrock, reflecting instead the direction of regional compression.
129:
121:
46:
1264:
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Some mainland
European slate suppliers suggest that using hook fixing means that:
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1955:
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2809:
2571:
2381:
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2139:
2114:
1908:(2nd ed.). Kiseido Publishing Company (published 2001). pp. 142–155.
982:"BGS Rock Classification Scheme, Volume 2: Classification of metamorphic rocks"
782:
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669:
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578:
502:
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213:
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following improvements in railway, road and waterway transportation systems.
251:
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786:
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144:
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2729:
2684:
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1152:(2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 287–289.
866:
645:
632:
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Areas of weakness on the tile are fewer since no holes have to be drilled
413:
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182:
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1948:
1805:
842:
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2679:
2588:
2439:
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2195:
2180:
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and commemorative tablets. In some cases slate was used by the ancient
524:
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286:
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3013:
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2719:
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2200:
2109:
858:
697:
681:
536:
376:
342:
318:
274:
158:, forming smooth, flat sheets of stone which have long been used for
78:
2005:
1981:; "Chapter 2: Stone and Slate". pp London: Longman, pp. 14–27.
193:
3466:
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3366:
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3206:
3186:
3083:
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790:
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100:
2476:
Operative Plasterers' and Cement Masons' International Association
364:
3486:
3416:
3381:
3356:
3288:
3123:
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3003:
2968:
2861:
2709:
2669:
2637:
2632:
2536:
2491:
2210:
2119:
1102:. Harlow, Essex: Longman Scientific & Technical. p. 22.
893:
862:
834:
830:
814:
806:
802:
750:
357:
244:
209:
137:
92:
388:
313:" were not sharply distinguished. In the context of underground
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2856:
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2764:
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2429:
2409:
2295:
2230:
2205:
2094:
2049:
1123:
Potter, Paul Edwin; Maynard, J. Barry; Pryor, Wayne A. (1980).
1049:(4th ed.). Alexandria, VA: American Geological Institute.
874:
870:
798:
778:
693:
653:
523:
In areas where it is available, high-quality slate is used for
409:
330:
310:
282:
278:
266:
232:
198:
171:
104:
82:
74:
551:
in North America: eastern, Rio Grande, Osceola and Merriam's.
3361:
3278:
3143:
3108:
3028:
2983:
2978:
2391:
2215:
2175:
850:
810:
665:
657:
636:
The historical Vogelsberg 1 pit at Fell Exhibition Slate Mine
494:
466:
306:
125:
1999:
3133:
3078:
2993:
2925:
489:
and fireproof, it was used to construct early-20th-century
240:
159:
133:
2461:
International Union of Bricklayers and Allied Craftworkers
1417:
1331:
Supplement to the Glossary of Geology and Related Sciences
1232:
936:, a form of slate used extensively in Adelaide 1850s–1920s
765:) and, formerly in the West Highlands of Scotland, around
1077:(2nd ed.). New York, NY: W.H. Freeman. p. 365.
661:
535:. Slate was the traditional material of choice for black
1974:; vol. I. (Chapter on quarries.) Westminster: Constable.
1706:"Everything You Need to Know About Slate Flooring Tiles"
696:, the world's second-largest producer of slate, around
543:
for white stones. It is now considered to be a luxury.
281:), and carbonate minerals. Feldspar may be present as
1390:
1298:. American Institute of Mining Engineers. p. 78.
258:
and mica. Organic carbon in the rock is converted to
1760:
Bulletin of the Massachusetts Archaeological Society
1271:
1868:
380:A fine slate tile work, Saint Leonhard's Church in
1367:"Should I Replace My Slate Roof with a Synthetic?"
1122:
644:Mules carrying slate roof tiles on their backs in
1021:(4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
305:Before the mid-19th century, the terms "slate", "
265:Slate is mainly composed of the minerals quartz,
3509:
1753:"Whetstones Found in Southeastern Massachusetts"
1542:Galician and Spanish Slate website "Hook Fixing"
1349:(print ed.). Basel: De Gruyter. p. 12.
1075:Petrology: Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic
404:Slate can be made into roofing slate, a type of
1590:
1588:
1489:"Natural roofing slate design and fixing guide"
1972:The Victoria History of the County of Cornwall
1818:
1345:Schunck, Eberhard; Oster, Hans Jochen (2003).
566:'s grave with inscription on slate in Cornwall
2507:
2065:
2024:Pierpont, Robert N. (1987). "Slate Roofing".
1729:
1727:
1317:. United States Bureau of Mines. p. 622.
1315:A Glossary of the Mining and Mineral Industry
904:, area. A major slating operation existed in
1699:
1697:
1595:Taylor, Glenda; Vila, Bob (11 August 2016).
1585:
1344:
1334:. American Geological Institute. p. 18.
1296:A Glossary of Mining and Metallurgical Terms
1068:
1066:
1523:. National Slate Association. 3 August 2017
289:. Occasionally, as in the purple slates of
2514:
2500:
2072:
2058:
1724:
1594:
1555:
1553:
1187:
1072:
1019:A Dictionary of Geology and Earth Sciences
715:Workers mining slate at Mintaro Quarry in
54:
1903:
1694:
1597:"All You Need to Know About Slate Floors"
1127:. New York: Springer-Verlag. p. 17.
1063:
1040:
1038:
989:British Geological Survey Research Report
979:
817:(whose name is inherited as the term for
2471:Mason Contractors Association of America
2023:
1650:"How to Lay a Walkway with Slate Pavers"
1624:"Installing Slate Tiles on Front Stairs"
1621:
1100:An Introduction to Metamorphic Petrology
1073:Blatt, Harvey; Tracy, Robert J. (1996).
1045:Jackson, Julia A., ed. (1997). "Slate".
845:(with a former mine open as a museum at
710:
639:
631:
615:
387:
375:
363:
351:
192:
2466:Master of Work to the Crown of Scotland
1550:
1289:
1238:
1097:
1044:
880:In North America, slate is produced in
14:
3510:
1750:
1733:
1364:
1360:
1358:
1356:
1347:Roof Construction Manual Pitched Roofs
1327:
1277:
1147:
1035:
1016:
900:, where colored slate is mined in the
508:Slate was used by earlier cultures as
2495:
2053:
1791:
1673:
1521:"6 Basic Principals of Slate Roofing"
1393:Resources, Conservation and Recycling
1250:
1141:
975:
973:
1841:
1676:"How to Install Exterior Slate Tile"
957:
955:
953:
951:
949:
737:(with UNESCO landscape status and a
239:(QF-domains) separated by layers of
1703:
1420:Construction and Building Materials
1353:
1308:
961:
24:
2521:
1964:
1819:Adam Cherubini (12 October 2011).
1740:. U.S. Government Printing Office.
970:
368:A slate-faced church and homes in
25:
3579:
1993:
1773:from the original on 28 June 2021
1674:Asaff, Sarabeth (December 2013).
1573:from the original on 26 June 2019
1501:from the original on 26 June 2019
1445:Natural Slate, the natural option
1432:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.04.042
1017:Allaby, Michael (2013). "Slate".
998:from the original on 3 April 2018
946:
892:, and the Slate Valley region in
813:, especially between the town of
2079:
2012:Hower’s Lightning Slate Reckoner
1622:Robinson, Kristy (2 July 2012).
590:
571:
556:
150:The foliation in slate, called "
2316:Non-explosive demolition agents
2002:—Photographic database of mines
1942:
1922:
1897:
1862:
1835:
1812:
1785:
1744:
1667:
1642:
1615:
1544:. Retrieved on 26 January 2010
1535:
1513:
1481:
1464:"Slate Design and Fixing Guide"
1456:
1438:
1411:
1405:10.1016/j.resconrec.2011.06.014
1384:
1338:
1328:Weller, J. Marvin, ed. (1960).
1321:
1302:
1283:
1244:
1181:
924:are both made of Monson slate.
392:Slates with holes at a farm in
347:
107:Specific gravity: 2.7 – 2.8,2.9
1939:, retrieved on 27 January 2010
1823:. Popular Woodworking magazine
1166:
1116:
1091:
1010:
599:Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh
300:
188:
13:
1:
1844:Industrial Archaeology Review
1265:10.1016/j.matchar.2007.04.013
1177:: Lost Worlds, Vanished Lives
940:
833:in the north of the country.
720:
605:
480:
60:Slate at Knife Lake Formation
2481:Worshipful Company of Masons
1970:Page, William (ed.) (1906).
1198:Paläontologische Zeitschrift
934:Bluestone in South Australia
473:. Small offcuts are used as
143:through low-grade, regional
7:
1751:Taylor, William B. (2009).
927:
922:Arlington National Cemetery
890:Buckingham County, Virginia
825:) and Fontanabuona valley;
729:Most slate in Europe today
539:stones in Japan, alongside
10:
3584:
1253:Materials Characterization
1098:Yardley, B. W. D. (1989).
622:Fell Exhibition Slate Mine
609:
340:
277:), iron sulfides (such as
29:
3319:
3157:
2944:
2527:
2453:
2402:
2339:
2306:Lewis (lifting appliance)
2273:
2163:
2087:
1883:10.1017/S0003598X00064735
755:Burlington Slate Quarries
745:(famously the village of
408:which are installed by a
326:British Geological Survey
124:derived from an original
88:
70:
65:
53:
44:
1977:Hudson, Kenneth (1972).
1935:14 February 2010 at the
1856:10.1179/iar.1988.11.1.51
1494:. SSQ Group. p. 8.
717:Mintaro, South Australia
185:" come from this usage.
2579:Basaltic trachyandesite
2547:Alkali feldspar granite
1906:The Go Player's Almanac
1737:The Technology of Slate
1734:Bowles, Oliver (1922).
1309:Fay, Albert H. (1920).
1290:Raymond, R. W. (1881).
1148:Fossen, Haakon (2016).
910:St. Patrick's Cathedral
692:. Slate is abundant in
660:to make the blades for
336:
2006:Granville Slate Museum
1958:accessed 23 March 2011
1954:8 January 2011 at the
1930:Brazilian Slate Report
1821:"What is an Oilstone?"
1194:Palaeophiomyxa grandis
1125:Sedimentology of Shale
980:Robertson, S. (1999).
726:
652:Slate is found in the
649:
637:
629:
401:
385:
373:
361:
222:sedimentary structures
201:
32:Slate (disambiguation)
3538:Metasedimentary rocks
2964:Banded iron formation
1450:10 March 2014 at the
1371:National Park Service
1365:Chavez, Mark (2013).
1190:Bundenbachia beneckei
964:Essentials of Geology
916:and the headstone of
714:
643:
635:
619:
491:electric switchboards
485:Because it is a good
391:
379:
367:
355:
206:regional metamorphism
196:
2130:Massive precut stone
2125:Post-tensioned stone
1259:(11–12): 1095–1103.
626:Rhineland-Palatinate
487:electrical insulator
30:For other uses, see
3563:Industrial minerals
2326:Stonemason's hammer
2291:Ceramic tile cutter
1603:. Action Media, Inc
1241:, pp. 64, 170.
1210:2004PalZ...78...73G
1047:Glossary of Geology
902:Granville, New York
759:Honister Slate Mine
739:museum at Llanberis
497:controls for large
471:damp-proof membrane
285:or, less commonly,
116:is a fine-grained,
41:
3523:Building materials
3320:Specific varieties
1979:Building Materials
1218:10.1007/BF03009131
1175:David Attenborough
1150:Structural Geology
962:Marshak, Stephen.
829:especially around
727:
650:
638:
630:
459:Blaenau Ffestiniog
402:
386:
374:
362:
202:
39:
3558:Roofing materials
3543:Natural materials
3505:
3504:
2755:Nepheline syenite
2489:
2488:
2415:Hardstone carving
2362:Polygonal masonry
2186:Decorative stones
1915:978-4-906574-40-7
1704:Lewitin, Joseph.
1399:(12): 1265–1273.
529:Maya civilization
382:Frankfurt am Main
111:
110:
16:(Redirected from
3575:
3553:Stone (material)
3447:Rapakivi granite
3159:Metamorphic rock
2946:Sedimentary rock
2815:Quartz monzonite
2516:
2509:
2502:
2493:
2492:
2321:Plug and feather
2171:Artificial stone
2074:
2067:
2060:
2051:
2050:
2043:
1959:
1949:Granville: Facts
1946:
1940:
1926:
1920:
1919:
1901:
1895:
1894:
1877:(263): 337–348.
1866:
1860:
1859:
1839:
1833:
1832:
1830:
1828:
1816:
1810:
1809:
1789:
1783:
1782:
1780:
1778:
1772:
1757:
1748:
1742:
1741:
1731:
1722:
1721:
1719:
1717:
1701:
1692:
1691:
1689:
1687:
1671:
1665:
1664:
1662:
1660:
1646:
1640:
1639:
1637:
1635:
1619:
1613:
1612:
1610:
1608:
1592:
1583:
1582:
1580:
1578:
1572:
1565:
1557:
1548:
1539:
1533:
1532:
1530:
1528:
1517:
1511:
1510:
1508:
1506:
1500:
1493:
1485:
1479:
1478:
1476:
1474:
1468:
1460:
1454:
1442:
1436:
1435:
1415:
1409:
1408:
1388:
1382:
1381:
1379:
1377:
1362:
1351:
1350:
1342:
1336:
1335:
1325:
1319:
1318:
1306:
1300:
1299:
1287:
1281:
1275:
1269:
1268:
1248:
1242:
1236:
1230:
1229:
1185:
1179:
1170:
1164:
1163:
1145:
1139:
1138:
1120:
1114:
1113:
1095:
1089:
1088:
1070:
1061:
1060:
1042:
1033:
1032:
1014:
1008:
1007:
1005:
1003:
997:
986:
977:
968:
967:
959:
920:'s gravesite in
731:comes from Spain
725:
722:
656:and was used by
648:, India, in 1993
597:"Slate Cone" in
594:
575:
560:
356:A slate roof in
130:sedimentary rock
122:metamorphic rock
58:
47:Metamorphic rock
42:
38:
27:Metamorphic rock
21:
3583:
3582:
3578:
3577:
3576:
3574:
3573:
3572:
3508:
3507:
3506:
3501:
3315:
3259:Pseudotachylite
3153:
2940:
2872:Tephriphonolite
2523:
2520:
2490:
2485:
2449:
2398:
2335:
2269:
2191:Dimension stone
2159:
2083:
2078:
2047:
1996:
1967:
1965:Further reading
1962:
1956:Wayback Machine
1947:
1943:
1937:Wayback Machine
1927:
1923:
1916:
1902:
1898:
1867:
1863:
1840:
1836:
1826:
1824:
1817:
1813:
1790:
1786:
1776:
1774:
1770:
1755:
1749:
1745:
1732:
1725:
1715:
1713:
1702:
1695:
1685:
1683:
1672:
1668:
1658:
1656:
1648:
1647:
1643:
1633:
1631:
1620:
1616:
1606:
1604:
1593:
1586:
1576:
1574:
1570:
1563:
1559:
1558:
1551:
1540:
1536:
1526:
1524:
1519:
1518:
1514:
1504:
1502:
1498:
1491:
1487:
1486:
1482:
1472:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1461:
1457:
1452:Wayback Machine
1443:
1439:
1416:
1412:
1389:
1385:
1375:
1373:
1363:
1354:
1343:
1339:
1326:
1322:
1307:
1303:
1288:
1284:
1276:
1272:
1249:
1245:
1237:
1233:
1186:
1182:
1171:
1167:
1160:
1146:
1142:
1135:
1121:
1117:
1110:
1096:
1092:
1085:
1071:
1064:
1057:
1043:
1036:
1029:
1015:
1011:
1001:
999:
995:
984:
978:
971:
966:(3rd ed.).
960:
947:
943:
930:
918:John F. Kennedy
723:
614:
608:
601:
595:
586:
583:Mors Triumphans
576:
567:
561:
516:and individual
499:electric motors
483:
422:embodied energy
414:First World War
350:
345:
339:
303:
191:
120:, homogeneous,
61:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3581:
3571:
3570:
3565:
3560:
3555:
3550:
3545:
3540:
3535:
3530:
3528:Building stone
3525:
3520:
3503:
3502:
3500:
3499:
3494:
3489:
3484:
3479:
3474:
3469:
3464:
3459:
3454:
3452:Rhomb porphyry
3449:
3444:
3439:
3434:
3429:
3424:
3419:
3414:
3409:
3404:
3399:
3394:
3389:
3384:
3379:
3374:
3369:
3364:
3359:
3354:
3349:
3344:
3339:
3334:
3329:
3323:
3321:
3317:
3316:
3314:
3313:
3308:
3303:
3302:
3301:
3294:Talc carbonate
3291:
3286:
3281:
3276:
3271:
3266:
3261:
3256:
3251:
3246:
3241:
3236:
3231:
3226:
3221:
3216:
3215:
3214:
3204:
3199:
3194:
3189:
3184:
3179:
3174:
3169:
3163:
3161:
3155:
3154:
3152:
3151:
3146:
3141:
3136:
3131:
3126:
3121:
3116:
3111:
3106:
3101:
3096:
3091:
3086:
3081:
3076:
3071:
3066:
3061:
3056:
3051:
3046:
3041:
3036:
3031:
3026:
3021:
3016:
3011:
3006:
3001:
2996:
2991:
2986:
2981:
2976:
2971:
2966:
2961:
2956:
2950:
2948:
2942:
2941:
2939:
2938:
2933:
2928:
2923:
2918:
2913:
2908:
2907:
2906:
2896:
2895:
2894:
2887:Trachyandesite
2884:
2879:
2874:
2869:
2864:
2859:
2854:
2849:
2844:
2843:
2842:
2837:
2827:
2822:
2817:
2812:
2810:Quartz diorite
2807:
2802:
2797:
2792:
2787:
2782:
2777:
2772:
2767:
2762:
2757:
2752:
2747:
2742:
2737:
2732:
2727:
2722:
2717:
2712:
2707:
2702:
2697:
2692:
2687:
2682:
2677:
2672:
2667:
2662:
2657:
2652:
2647:
2646:
2645:
2635:
2630:
2625:
2624:
2623:
2613:
2608:
2603:
2598:
2593:
2592:
2591:
2586:
2576:
2575:
2574:
2572:Picrite basalt
2569:
2559:
2554:
2549:
2544:
2539:
2533:
2531:
2525:
2524:
2522:Types of rocks
2519:
2518:
2511:
2504:
2496:
2487:
2486:
2484:
2483:
2478:
2473:
2468:
2463:
2457:
2455:
2451:
2450:
2448:
2447:
2442:
2437:
2432:
2427:
2417:
2412:
2406:
2404:
2400:
2399:
2397:
2396:
2395:
2394:
2384:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2364:
2359:
2354:
2349:
2343:
2341:
2337:
2336:
2334:
2333:
2328:
2323:
2318:
2313:
2308:
2303:
2298:
2293:
2288:
2283:
2277:
2275:
2271:
2270:
2268:
2267:
2262:
2257:
2256:
2255:
2245:
2240:
2239:
2238:
2228:
2223:
2218:
2213:
2208:
2203:
2198:
2193:
2188:
2183:
2178:
2173:
2167:
2165:
2161:
2160:
2158:
2157:
2152:
2147:
2142:
2137:
2132:
2127:
2122:
2117:
2115:Letter cutting
2112:
2107:
2102:
2097:
2091:
2089:
2085:
2084:
2077:
2076:
2069:
2062:
2054:
2045:
2044:
2021:
2016:
2008:
2003:
1995:
1994:External links
1992:
1991:
1990:
1975:
1966:
1963:
1961:
1960:
1941:
1921:
1914:
1896:
1861:
1834:
1811:
1784:
1743:
1723:
1693:
1666:
1641:
1614:
1584:
1549:
1534:
1512:
1480:
1455:
1437:
1410:
1383:
1352:
1337:
1320:
1301:
1282:
1270:
1243:
1231:
1180:
1165:
1158:
1140:
1133:
1115:
1108:
1090:
1083:
1062:
1055:
1034:
1027:
1009:
969:
944:
942:
939:
938:
937:
929:
926:
775:United Kingdom
670:Adelaide Hills
612:Slate industry
610:Main article:
607:
604:
603:
602:
596:
589:
587:
585:(oil on slate)
579:Leonard Bramer
577:
570:
568:
562:
555:
518:writing slates
503:billiard table
482:
479:
444:
443:
440:
437:
349:
346:
338:
335:
302:
299:
214:slaty cleavage
190:
187:
152:slaty cleavage
109:
108:
90:
86:
85:
72:
68:
67:
63:
62:
59:
51:
50:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3580:
3569:
3566:
3564:
3561:
3559:
3556:
3554:
3551:
3549:
3546:
3544:
3541:
3539:
3536:
3534:
3531:
3529:
3526:
3524:
3521:
3519:
3516:
3515:
3513:
3498:
3495:
3493:
3490:
3488:
3485:
3483:
3480:
3478:
3475:
3473:
3470:
3468:
3465:
3463:
3460:
3458:
3455:
3453:
3450:
3448:
3445:
3443:
3440:
3438:
3435:
3433:
3430:
3428:
3425:
3423:
3420:
3418:
3415:
3413:
3412:Litchfieldite
3410:
3408:
3405:
3403:
3400:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3390:
3388:
3385:
3383:
3380:
3378:
3377:Hyaloclastite
3375:
3373:
3370:
3368:
3365:
3363:
3360:
3358:
3355:
3353:
3350:
3348:
3345:
3343:
3340:
3338:
3335:
3333:
3330:
3328:
3325:
3324:
3322:
3318:
3312:
3309:
3307:
3304:
3300:
3297:
3296:
3295:
3292:
3290:
3287:
3285:
3282:
3280:
3277:
3275:
3272:
3270:
3267:
3265:
3262:
3260:
3257:
3255:
3252:
3250:
3247:
3245:
3242:
3240:
3237:
3235:
3232:
3230:
3227:
3225:
3224:Litchfieldite
3222:
3220:
3217:
3213:
3210:
3209:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3190:
3188:
3185:
3183:
3180:
3178:
3175:
3173:
3170:
3168:
3165:
3164:
3162:
3160:
3156:
3150:
3147:
3145:
3142:
3140:
3137:
3135:
3132:
3130:
3127:
3125:
3122:
3120:
3117:
3115:
3112:
3110:
3107:
3105:
3102:
3100:
3097:
3095:
3092:
3090:
3087:
3085:
3082:
3080:
3077:
3075:
3072:
3070:
3067:
3065:
3062:
3060:
3057:
3055:
3052:
3050:
3047:
3045:
3042:
3040:
3037:
3035:
3032:
3030:
3027:
3025:
3022:
3020:
3017:
3015:
3012:
3010:
3007:
3005:
3002:
3000:
2997:
2995:
2992:
2990:
2987:
2985:
2982:
2980:
2977:
2975:
2972:
2970:
2967:
2965:
2962:
2960:
2957:
2955:
2952:
2951:
2949:
2947:
2943:
2937:
2934:
2932:
2929:
2927:
2924:
2922:
2919:
2917:
2914:
2912:
2909:
2905:
2902:
2901:
2900:
2897:
2893:
2890:
2889:
2888:
2885:
2883:
2880:
2878:
2875:
2873:
2870:
2868:
2865:
2863:
2860:
2858:
2855:
2853:
2850:
2848:
2845:
2841:
2838:
2836:
2833:
2832:
2831:
2828:
2826:
2823:
2821:
2818:
2816:
2813:
2811:
2808:
2806:
2803:
2801:
2798:
2796:
2793:
2791:
2790:Phonotephrite
2788:
2786:
2783:
2781:
2778:
2776:
2773:
2771:
2768:
2766:
2763:
2761:
2758:
2756:
2753:
2751:
2748:
2746:
2743:
2741:
2738:
2736:
2733:
2731:
2728:
2726:
2723:
2721:
2718:
2716:
2713:
2711:
2708:
2706:
2703:
2701:
2698:
2696:
2695:Hyaloclastite
2693:
2691:
2688:
2686:
2683:
2681:
2678:
2676:
2673:
2671:
2668:
2666:
2663:
2661:
2658:
2656:
2653:
2651:
2648:
2644:
2641:
2640:
2639:
2636:
2634:
2631:
2629:
2626:
2622:
2619:
2618:
2617:
2614:
2612:
2609:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2594:
2590:
2587:
2585:
2582:
2581:
2580:
2577:
2573:
2570:
2568:
2567:Alkali basalt
2565:
2564:
2563:
2560:
2558:
2555:
2553:
2550:
2548:
2545:
2543:
2540:
2538:
2535:
2534:
2532:
2530:
2526:
2517:
2512:
2510:
2505:
2503:
2498:
2497:
2494:
2482:
2479:
2477:
2474:
2472:
2469:
2467:
2464:
2462:
2459:
2458:
2456:
2454:Organizations
2452:
2446:
2445:Machicolation
2443:
2441:
2438:
2436:
2433:
2431:
2428:
2425:
2421:
2418:
2416:
2413:
2411:
2408:
2407:
2405:
2401:
2393:
2390:
2389:
2388:
2385:
2383:
2380:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2368:
2365:
2363:
2360:
2358:
2355:
2353:
2350:
2348:
2345:
2344:
2342:
2338:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2319:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2301:Diamond blade
2299:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2289:
2287:
2284:
2282:
2281:Angle grinder
2279:
2278:
2276:
2272:
2266:
2263:
2261:
2258:
2254:
2251:
2250:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2241:
2237:
2234:
2233:
2232:
2229:
2227:
2224:
2222:
2219:
2217:
2214:
2212:
2209:
2207:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2197:
2194:
2192:
2189:
2187:
2184:
2182:
2179:
2177:
2174:
2172:
2169:
2168:
2166:
2162:
2156:
2153:
2151:
2148:
2146:
2143:
2141:
2138:
2136:
2133:
2131:
2128:
2126:
2123:
2121:
2118:
2116:
2113:
2111:
2108:
2106:
2103:
2101:
2098:
2096:
2093:
2092:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2075:
2070:
2068:
2063:
2061:
2056:
2055:
2052:
2048:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2028:
2022:
2020:
2017:
2014:
2013:
2009:
2007:
2004:
2001:
1998:
1997:
1988:
1987:0-582-12791-2
1984:
1980:
1976:
1973:
1969:
1968:
1957:
1953:
1950:
1945:
1938:
1934:
1931:
1925:
1917:
1911:
1907:
1900:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1865:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1838:
1822:
1815:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1788:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1754:
1747:
1739:
1738:
1730:
1728:
1711:
1707:
1700:
1698:
1681:
1677:
1670:
1655:
1651:
1645:
1629:
1625:
1618:
1602:
1598:
1591:
1589:
1569:
1566:. SSQ Group.
1562:
1561:"Hook fixing"
1556:
1554:
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1297:
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1286:
1280:, p. 61.
1279:
1274:
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1247:
1240:
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1215:
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1199:
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1184:
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1159:9781107057647
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1111:
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1094:
1086:
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1058:
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1030:
1028:9780199653065
1024:
1020:
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994:
990:
983:
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958:
956:
954:
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950:
945:
935:
932:
931:
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923:
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914:New York City
911:
907:
906:Monson, Maine
903:
899:
895:
891:
887:
883:
878:
876:
872:
868:
864:
860:
856:
852:
848:
844:
840:
839:Moselle River
836:
832:
828:
824:
820:
816:
812:
808:
804:
800:
796:
792:
788:
784:
780:
776:
772:
771:Slate Islands
768:
764:
763:Skiddaw Slate
760:
756:
752:
748:
744:
740:
736:
732:
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713:
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623:
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569:
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564:John Betjeman
559:
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452:efflorescence
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288:
284:
280:
276:
272:
268:
263:
261:
257:
253:
252:clay minerals
248:
246:
242:
238:
234:
230:
225:
223:
219:
215:
211:
207:
200:
195:
186:
184:
180:
179:writing slate
175:
173:
169:
165:
161:
157:
153:
148:
146:
142:
139:
135:
131:
127:
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119:
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84:
80:
76:
73:
69:
64:
57:
52:
49:
48:
43:
37:
33:
19:
3568:Go equipment
3422:Luxullianite
3402:Lapis lazuli
3347:Blue Granite
3283:
3274:Serpentinite
3249:Metapsammite
2999:Conglomerate
2921:Trondhjemite
2899:Trachybasalt
2840:Pantellerite
2745:Monzogranite
2690:Hornblendite
2675:Granodiorite
2529:Igneous rock
2377:Tuckpointing
2331:Straightedge
2265:Stone veneer
2259:
2081:Stonemasonry
2046:
2034:(2): 10–23.
2031:
2027:APT Bulletin
2025:
2011:
1978:
1971:
1944:
1924:
1905:
1899:
1874:
1870:
1864:
1850:(1): 51–67.
1847:
1843:
1837:
1825:. Retrieved
1814:
1797:
1793:
1787:
1775:. Retrieved
1766:(2): 79–80.
1763:
1759:
1746:
1736:
1714:. Retrieved
1709:
1684:. Retrieved
1679:
1669:
1657:. Retrieved
1654:doityourself
1653:
1644:
1632:. Retrieved
1627:
1617:
1605:. Retrieved
1600:
1575:. Retrieved
1537:
1525:. Retrieved
1515:
1503:. Retrieved
1483:
1471:. Retrieved
1458:
1440:
1423:
1419:
1413:
1396:
1392:
1386:
1374:. Retrieved
1370:
1346:
1340:
1330:
1323:
1314:
1304:
1295:
1285:
1273:
1256:
1252:
1246:
1239:Yardley 1989
1234:
1204:(1): 73–95.
1201:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1183:
1173:
1168:
1149:
1143:
1124:
1118:
1099:
1093:
1074:
1046:
1018:
1012:
1000:. Retrieved
991:. RR 99-02.
988:
963:
886:Pennsylvania
882:Newfoundland
879:
818:
809:in northern
805:(Ardennes),
787:Loire Valley
767:Ballachulish
728:
702:Minas Gerais
651:
582:
545:
522:
507:
484:
456:
448:
445:
431:
427:
418:
403:
348:Construction
323:
304:
264:
249:
226:
203:
176:
163:
149:
145:metamorphism
132:composed of
113:
112:
45:
36:
3533:Dielectrics
3311:Whiteschist
3202:Greenschist
3182:Cataclasite
3172:Amphibolite
3099:Phosphorite
3049:Itacolumite
2974:Calcarenite
2820:Quartzolite
2760:Nephelinite
2730:Lamprophyre
2685:Harzburgite
2643:Napoleonite
2616:Charnockite
2611:Carbonatite
2601:Blairmorite
2552:Anorthosite
2286:Bush hammer
2221:Lime mortar
2100:Rustication
1827:22 February
1800:: 363–372.
1469:. SSQ Group
1278:Fossen 2016
1172:BBC Video:
1002:27 February
777:. Parts of
724: 1880
646:Dharamshala
581:, painting
549:wild turkey
531:to fashion
514:blackboards
425:efficient.
315:coal mining
301:Terminology
293:, ferrous (
291:North Wales
197:Slate with
189:Description
183:blank slate
168:North Wales
66:Composition
3512:Categories
3477:Teschenite
3462:Shonkinite
3437:Pietersite
3432:Novaculite
3342:Borolanite
3327:Adamellite
3244:Metapelite
3212:Calcflinta
3177:Blueschist
3167:Anthracite
3149:Wackestone
3129:Travertine
3074:Lumachelle
3054:Jaspillite
3009:Diamictite
2931:Websterite
2916:Troctolite
2892:Benmoreite
2852:Shonkinite
2825:Rhyodacite
2805:Pyroxenite
2780:Peridotite
2740:Lherzolite
2715:Kimberlite
2705:Ignimbrite
2700:Icelandite
2680:Granophyre
2589:Shoshonite
2440:Stone wall
2367:Repointing
2340:Techniques
2196:Fieldstone
2181:Cast stone
2135:Monumental
1710:The Spruce
1426:: 93–104.
1134:0387904301
1109:0582300967
1084:0716724383
1056:0922152349
941:References
884:, eastern
873:(actually
861:and north
855:Westerwald
819:chalkboard
680:, and the
606:Extraction
525:tombstones
481:Other uses
341:See also:
287:orthoclase
18:Slate roof
3548:Pavements
3492:Variolite
3482:Theralite
3472:Tachylite
3457:Rodingite
3427:Mangerite
3407:Larvikite
3392:Jasperoid
3387:Jadeitite
3352:Epidosite
3306:Tectonite
3299:Soapstone
3264:Quartzite
3234:Migmatite
3219:Itabirite
3197:Granulite
3139:Turbidite
3119:Sylvinite
3114:Siltstone
3104:Sandstone
3089:Oil shale
3069:Limestone
3044:Gritstone
3039:Greywacke
3034:Geyserite
3024:Evaporite
3014:Diatomite
2989:Claystone
2954:Argillite
2867:Tachylyte
2835:Comendite
2785:Phonolite
2775:Pegmatite
2750:Monzonite
2725:Lamproite
2720:Komatiite
2660:Foidolite
2621:Enderbite
2584:Mugearite
2435:Sculpture
2424:Footstone
2420:Headstone
2387:Brickwork
2372:Scabbling
2352:Flushwork
2248:Sandstone
2226:Limestone
2201:Flagstone
2164:Materials
2145:Sculpture
2110:Dry stone
1891:162523022
1871:Antiquity
1712:. Dotdash
1226:140689763
859:Thuringia
698:Papagaios
682:Mid North
678:Kanmantoo
628:, Germany
541:clamshell
510:whetstone
406:roof tile
400:, England
384:, Germany
372:, Germany
343:Flagstone
319:coal seam
275:magnetite
156:fissility
89:Secondary
79:muscovite
3467:Taconite
3442:Pyrolite
3367:Ganister
3337:Aphanite
3332:Appinite
3254:Phyllite
3239:Mylonite
3207:Hornfels
3187:Eclogite
3084:Mudstone
3059:Laterite
3019:Dolomite
2936:Wehrlite
2911:Trachyte
2904:Hawaiite
2882:Tonalite
2877:Tephrite
2830:Rhyolite
2795:Porphyry
2770:Obsidian
2655:Essexite
2606:Boninite
2596:Basanite
2542:Andesite
2403:Products
2357:Knapping
2150:Slipform
1952:Archived
1933:Archived
1806:26954598
1768:Archived
1682:. Hearst
1630:. Hearst
1601:bob vila
1568:Archived
1546:archived
1496:Archived
1448:Archived
993:Archived
928:See also
898:New York
843:HunsrĂĽck
841:region,
827:Portugal
795:Brittany
791:Ardennes
769:and the
747:Delabole
743:Cornwall
690:Spalding
674:Willunga
463:Bethesda
398:Cornwall
394:Tremedda
370:Wurzbach
309:", and "
295:iron(II)
271:hematite
260:graphite
256:chlorite
237:feldspar
218:phyllite
164:en masse
138:volcanic
118:foliated
101:hematite
97:chlorite
3487:Unakite
3417:Llanite
3382:Ijolite
3357:Felsite
3289:Suevite
3124:Tillite
3064:Lignite
3004:Coquina
2969:Breccia
2862:Syenite
2710:Ijolite
2670:Granite
2638:Diorite
2633:Diabase
2537:Adakite
2347:Flaming
2211:Granite
2155:Snecked
2120:Masonry
2105:Carving
2040:1494158
2000:AditNow
1794:'Atiqot
1777:28 June
1716:28 June
1686:28 June
1659:28 June
1634:28 June
1607:28 June
1577:28 June
1527:28 June
1505:28 June
1473:28 June
1376:28 June
1311:"Slate"
1292:"Slate"
1206:Bibcode
894:Vermont
863:Bavaria
835:Germany
831:Valongo
823:Italian
815:Lavagna
807:Liguria
803:Belgium
773:in the
751:Cumbria
706:CE mark
686:Mintaro
360:, Wales
358:Cardiff
245:fossils
229:texture
210:mudrock
160:roofing
93:biotite
71:Primary
3397:Kenyte
3372:Gossan
3269:Schist
3229:Marble
3192:Gneiss
3094:Oolite
2959:Arkose
2857:Sovite
2847:Scoria
2800:Pumice
2765:Norite
2735:Latite
2665:Gabbro
2650:Dunite
2628:Dacite
2562:Basalt
2557:Aplite
2430:Mosaic
2410:Castle
2382:Veneer
2311:Trowel
2296:Chisel
2243:Mortar
2231:Marble
2206:Gabion
2140:Rubble
2095:Ashlar
2038:
1985:
1912:
1889:
1804:
1680:SFGate
1628:SFGate
1224:
1156:
1131:
1106:
1081:
1053:
1025:
875:schist
871:Norway
865:; and
801:) and
799:Savoie
779:France
694:Brazil
654:Arctic
533:stelae
505:tops.
410:slater
331:pelite
311:schist
283:albite
279:pyrite
267:illite
233:quartz
199:pyrite
172:schist
128:-type
105:pyrite
83:illite
75:quartz
3518:Slate
3362:Flint
3284:Slate
3279:Skarn
3144:Varve
3109:Shale
3029:Flint
2984:Chert
2979:Chalk
2392:Wythe
2274:Tools
2260:Slate
2236:Types
2216:Grout
2176:Brick
2088:Types
2036:JSTOR
1887:S2CID
1802:JSTOR
1771:(PDF)
1756:(PDF)
1571:(PDF)
1564:(PDF)
1499:(PDF)
1492:(PDF)
1467:(PDF)
1222:S2CID
996:(PDF)
985:(PDF)
851:Eifel
811:Italy
783:Anjou
753:(see
735:Wales
666:China
658:Inuit
495:relay
475:shims
467:Wales
307:shale
126:shale
114:Slate
40:Slate
3134:Tufa
3079:Marl
2994:Coal
2926:Tuff
2253:List
1983:ISBN
1910:ISBN
1829:2017
1779:2021
1718:2021
1688:2021
1661:2021
1636:2021
1609:2021
1579:2021
1529:2021
1507:2021
1475:2021
1378:2021
1192:and
1154:ISBN
1129:ISBN
1104:ISBN
1079:ISBN
1051:ISBN
1023:ISBN
1004:2021
896:and
867:Alta
847:Fell
761:and
688:and
662:ulus
620:The
493:and
461:and
337:Uses
324:The
273:and
241:mica
235:and
134:clay
3497:Wad
1879:doi
1852:doi
1798:100
1428:doi
1424:115
1401:doi
1261:doi
1214:doi
1196:".
912:in
849:),
837:'s
821:in
749:),
741:),
700:in
684:at
672:in
624:in
208:of
141:ash
136:or
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2030:.
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1875:69
1873:.
1848:11
1846:.
1796:.
1764:70
1762:.
1758:.
1726:^
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1652:.
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1587:^
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1395:.
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1355:^
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1220:.
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1200:.
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1037:^
987:.
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857:,
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793:,
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1918:.
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1831:.
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1720:.
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1581:.
1531:.
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1430::
1407:.
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
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