269:
425:(colonels with bibs), pointing to the obvious antagonism between these and the older seasoned officers in the standard promotion track that served under younger and less experienced commanders. The median age for promotion to colonel was 36 years, while for captains with company commands it was 45 years. The common saying in the army was that one was born either to be colonel or to be captain. The social background of the rankers deviated significantly from the rank and file. A study shows that 48% came from the petty bourgeoisie, 18% from the higher bourgeoisie, and 11% from the nobility. Many families of the petty nobility could not afford to support a son during the one or two years without pay he had to serve as a supernumerary second lieutenant or as a badly paid officer cadet and he had to seek his fortune in the ranks. There were also commoner families who had a tradition of service as non-commissioned officers, and some of them managed to reach officer rank.
537:
company grade officers were promoted through selection by the commanding officer, the other half by the election of the troops, although the commanding officer exercised great influence as he choose the candidates for promotion. Field grade officers were promoted through both seniority and selection, general officers only by selection. Election of officers gradually disappeared, but took in singular cases place as late as in 1812. In 1805, four years in the lower rank was established as the minimum time before further promotion could take place, but that was a rule that which was not followed later. In 1811, it was stipulated that two years service was required to become a corporal, four years to become a sergeant, and eight years to become a second lieutenant. The
205:
260:, since French Army administration was based on regimental and company proprietorship. The commanding officers advanced their own means to equip the regiment and the company. Reimbursement from the Crown was often late in coming, especially during war. The commanders used false musters and other underhand methods to build up funds to cover expenses. A purchase was hence required, in order to compensate the old proprietor for his investments in the unit. This was officially recognized by the Crown. Besides this, there was among officers of all ranks a common, yet unofficial and illegal, scheme of selling the commission to one's successor upon promotion or retirement.
317:
494:
233:. While most sergeants were able to read and write, about a third of the corporals were illiterate. Among the privates, however, only 25% were literate. As literacy played a decisive role in the selection of sergeant, a definite social pattern was found amongst them. While the proportion of petty bourgeoisie and higher classes amongst the rank and file gradually diminished during the 18th century, their share of the non-commissioned officer corps increased from about 25% to 33% during the century.
434:
17:
357:
481:. Yet, the professionalization efforts failed as the privileged promotion track of the high nobility remained in place, creating a devastating crack within the French nobility. Many officers from the petty nobility began to be in agreement with the civilian bourgeoisie who saw themselves as the victims of discriminatory
344:
captain promotion took place directly to lieutenant colonel by seniority, and from that rank it was possible to be promoted directly to brigadier based on merit, and from thence to general officers rank, also on merit. Those lacking funds to buy a company command, could become captain of grenadiers, a billet not open to
81:
The high nobility quickly reached high rank, the mean age of promotion to colonel being 36 years. The standard career path was based on seniority and was rather inert; the mean age of promotion to captain was 45 years. Promoted sergeants could normally not reach higher than to substantive lieutenants
241:
There were in reality three discrete promotion tracks for officers in the French army during the 18th century. One for the high nobility, one for the middle and lower nobility and the higher bourgeoisie, and one for promoted sergeants. The foundation for this trisection was the existence of both an
228:
company for promotion. Privates were usually promoted directly to the rank of sergeant, bypassing the rank of corporal. Promotion to sergeant therefore took place at a younger age than promotion to corporal. The sergeants were selected on the basis of proven or expected command ability as well as
121:
was an army officered by the bourgeoisie, and over half of the officers came from the higher bourgeoisie, a third from the petty bourgeoisie and a sixth from the peasantry. More officers were from the old nobility than from the working class. Three fourths were former sergeants, the other fourth
343:
about 10% of the officer corps. This promotion track began by appointment to the lowest officer rank, then gradual promotion by seniority to captain. At each step an illicit change of money took place. A captain's command required a more significant, and officially approved monetary outlay. From
536:
The merger of the regular (formerly royal) army and the newly raised regiments of volunteers in 1793 saw the creation of a promotion system based on both seniority and election by the troops. During
Napoleon, the commanding officer of the regiment appointed corporals and sergeants. Half of the
541:
was an army officered by the bourgeoisie; over half of the officers came from the higher bourgeoisie, a third from the petty bourgeoisie, and a sixth from the peasantry. The number of officers from the old nobility was higher than the number from the working class. Three-fourths were former
131:
78:, a third of the sergeants came from the petty bourgeoisie or higher classes. Three career paths existed for officers; one privileged for the high nobility, one standard for the middle and lower nobility and the higher bourgeoisie and one exceptional for promoted sergeants.
101:
officer corps built on the petty nobility. However, the privileged career of the high nobility being retained caused the failure of the reforms. In consequence, many noblemen in the officer corps sided with the bourgeoisie in the struggle against the class
532:
contained 75% former sergeants. During two years the proportion of nobility in the officer corps diminished from 80% to 5%. However, the large number of sergeants becoming officers depleted the military competency of the non-commissioned officer corps.
420:
in 1789, 6,650 were noblemen, 1,850 commoners from the higher bourgeoisie, and 1,100 rankers. Among the noblemen, an abyss separated the high from the petty nobility. The speedy promotions of the high nobility made contemporary sources refer to
551:
473:, but part of an attempt to professionalize the officer corps through the creation of military schools for poor sons of the nobility, the centralizing of the promotion system, the gradual abolishment of the
178:
meant that most noblemen served as officers. During the 18th century, the nobility was officially prohibited from serving in the ranks. Almost 90% of the rank and file came during the 18th century from the
195:
and of the nobility were also found among the other ranks, although their proportion gradually diminished during the century. About a third of the soldiery was born in towns, the rest in the countryside.
86:
although their social background significantly deviated from the rank and file; over two thirds came from the petty bourgeoisie or higher classes. The different career paths created a lack of social
150:. Domestic recruitment difficulties were solved through enlistment of Germans, Swiss, Irish, and others abroad. During the 18th century about 15% of the other ranks in the French army belonged to
368:, were ordinarily non-commissioned officers with very long time under the colors, 20 years or more. Certain officer billets were reserved for rankers. In each regiment there were two rankers as
304:
or supernumerary second lieutenant. After a few years, his father bought him a company command; after some more years he or his father bought a regimental command. Later promotions to
268:
441:
of artillery was the most successful technical reform at the end of the Ancien Regime. The comprehensive reforms planned for the structure of the officers corps, failed however.
292:
and having the ability to hold high office. They were members of the noble families that could show that they had been nobles since the 14th century, thereby laying claim to a
500:
was one whose military talents were liberated by the French
Revolution. As a Warrant officer, it was not long after the revolution before he became a general and later a
388:, until this billet was abolished in 1776. From adjutant it was possible to be promoted to major. Lack of money and old age prevented promotion of many rankers. The
516:
replaced volunteer enlistment. The right to hold office irrespective of birth or descent was enshrined in law. The term for non-commissioned officer was changed to
392:
took care of the daily routine that many of their brother officers from the nobility found less attractive. In spite of this, they were the first to be put on
449:
led to extensive military reforms. Many of the tactical and technical improvements then introduced laid the groundwork for the French victories during the
909:
904:
372:, color bearers with the rank of second lieutenant. The two second lieutenants and the two lieutenants of grenadiers, as well as the regimental
331:
The standard promotion track was open to both the middle and the petty nobility, as well as to the higher bourgeoisie. The middle nobility, the
339:, had neither the right to hold high office nor to attend court. The officers of bourgeoisie birth were a decided minority, at the time of the
224:
of the company and regiment. If suitable candidates were not found within the company, the company commander usually selected a member of the
380:. In exceptional cases they could hold company command and later be promoted to major and lieutenant colonel. Rankers could also become
113:
replaced volunteer enlistment. Regulations favouring sergeants and the flight of the nobility created an officer corps who under
151:
457:. Both the high nobility and the higher bourgeoisie were the targets, when progressive ministers of war tried to create a
462:
208:
An artist is drawing a sergeant in uniform model 1791. Sergeants were literate and many came from the petty bourgeoisie.
204:
320:
525:
364:
The third promotion track was reserved for promoted sergeants, most often sergeants of grenadiers. These rankers, or
166:. New recruits during war therefore consisted of from 20% up to 50% drafted men, not volunteer enlistees. During
323:
was an officer from the petty nobility who reached modest rank in the Royal army. Under
Napoleon he became a
273:
792:
Bodinier, Gilbert (1980), "Les officiers de l'armée royale et la Révolution", in
Corvisier, André (ed.),
297:
376:
were also rankers. Normally a ranker could not reach higher than substantive lieutenant and captain by
450:
469:
of nobility as a condition for the appointment of officers, was not the result of an aristocratic
857:
The
Background of Napoleonic Warfare: The Theory of Military Tactics in Eighteenth-Century France
316:
493:
466:
32:
335:, had the right to attend court, but not to hold high office, while the petty nobility, the
899:
167:
8:
458:
446:
413:
284:
The most exclusive and speediest promotion track was reserved for the high nobility, the
175:
98:
94:
497:
147:
509:
501:
438:
377:
340:
324:
188:
83:
75:
63:
865:
860:
277:
174:
was encouraged to serve as private soldiers. The growth of the French Army during
454:
305:
253:
40:
538:
118:
812:
L'armée française de la fin du XVIIe siècle au ministère de
Choiseul: le soldat
524:
which was regarded as demeaning. Regulations favoring sergeants as well as the
417:
396:
when peacetime cutbacks were put into effect. Even if some of them kept their
217:
360:
Rank insignia of a port-drapeau, 1786; a rank reserved for promoted sergeants.
893:
794:
Le metier militaire en France aux époques de grandes transformations sociales
433:
397:
373:
301:
184:
143:
59:
47:
16:
552:
Social background of officers and other ranks in the
British Army, 1750–1815
513:
244:
159:
110:
29:
Social background of officers and other ranks in the French Army, 1750–1815
300:. The young aristocrat began his military career as a young or very young
256:. Colonels of regiments and captains of companies officially bought their
482:
470:
409:
289:
192:
139:
103:
87:
36:
778:
Engineering the
Revolution: Arms and Enlightenment in France, 1763-1815
542:
sergeants, while one-fourth was appointed directly from civilian life.
155:
51:
356:
225:
180:
55:
529:
393:
385:
230:
221:
213:
171:
114:
71:
67:
403:
478:
257:
163:
272:
The high nobility had a yellow brick road to high command. Duke
130:
293:
408:
The three different promotion tracks created a lack of social
814:, Paris: Faculté des lettres et sciences humaines de Paris.
412:
in the French Army officer corps. Of the 9,600 officers of
400:, they were all keen to observe an officer-like conduct.
274:
Louis François Armand de
Vignerot du Plessis de Richelieu
66:. Privates were usually promoted directly to the rank of
236:
796:, Vincennes: Commission française d'histoire militaire.
602:
Corvisier 1964, vol, 1, p. 507-508, 511, 535, 780-781.
20:
Officer and drummer with the regimental colors of the
848:
Giant of the Grand Siècle: the French Army, 1610-1715
488:
744:
Blaufarb 2002, s. 12, 17, 20, 22, 24, 29, 33, 35-38.
216:
were selected by the company commander, amongst the
117:
contained a large majority of former sergeants. The
39:from the mid-eighteenth century to the end of the
803:The French Army 1750-1820: Careers, talent, merit
891:
830:Historire militaire de la France: De 1715 à 1871
575:Corvisier 1964, vol. 1, pp. 157-8, 198, 249-250.
134:The common soldiers came from the common people.
461:officer corps built on the petty nobility. The
404:Lack of social homogeneity in the officer corps
677:Corvisier 1964, vol. 2, pp. 784, 786, 789-790.
626:
624:
622:
836:
122:being appointed directly from civilian life.
652:
650:
619:
311:
54:. Almost 90% of the recruits came from the
841:, Paris: Presses universitaires de France.
832:, Paris: Presses Universitaires de France.
805:, Manchester: Manchester University Press.
612:
610:
608:
308:were, however, based on merit, not birth.
109:The French Revolution changed everything.
864:
821:Armies and societies in Europe, 1494-1789
818:
809:
647:
640:
638:
636:
859:, New York: Columbia University Press.,
850:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
823:, Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
800:
791:
780:, Princeton: Princeton University Press.
492:
432:
355:
315:
267:
203:
129:
15:
910:19th-century military history of France
905:18th-century military history of France
605:
242:officially sanctioned purchase system,
892:
854:
827:
664:
662:
633:
477:, and the exclusion of rich bourgeois
872:
775:
593:Corvisier 1964, vol. 1, pp. 390, 511.
237:Promotion tracks in the officer corps
845:
769:
659:
528:created an officer corps who under
152:foreign regiments in French service
13:
695:Wrong 1976, pp. 404,413, 424, 426.
489:The French Revolution and Napoleon
288:, with access to the King and the
248:, and an illegal purchase system,
14:
921:
428:
837:Fouquet-Lapar, Philippe (1986),
263:
187:, while about 10% came from the
62:, while about 10% came from the
50:was recruited through volunteer
756:
753:Delmas 1992, pp. 292, 305, 309.
747:
738:
729:
716:
707:
698:
689:
680:
671:
321:Jean-Mathieu-Philibert Sérurier
93:The military reforms after the
786:Montesquieu and Social Theory.
762:Delmas 1992, pp. 292-294, 298.
596:
587:
578:
569:
158:were largely replaced through
125:
1:
839:Histoire de l’armée française
557:
873:Wrong, Charles (1976), "The
630:Corvisier 1979, pp. 101-102.
562:
199:
7:
788:Oxford: The Pergamon Press.
545:
31:discusses career paths and
10:
926:
855:Quimby, Robert S. (1957),
704:Fouquet-Lapar 1986, p. 24.
351:
138:The early modern standing
46:The Royal Army during the
879:French Historical Studies
877:in the French Infantry",
819:Corvisier, André (1979),
810:Corvisier, André (1964),
784:Baum, John Allan (1979).
713:Blaufarb 2002, pp. 18-19.
445:The French defeat in the
70:and bypassed the rank of
686:Wrong 1976, pp. 401-406.
644:Lynn 1997, pp. 221, 227.
616:Wrong 1976, pp. 402-403.
312:Nobility and bourgeoisie
866:2027/inu.32000003493469
801:Blaufarb, Rafe (2002),
252:, functioning like its
846:Lynn, John A. (1997),
735:Alder 1997, pp. 47-51.
526:flight of the nobility
505:
442:
361:
333:noblesse non-presentée
328:
281:
209:
135:
106:of the high nobility.
97:attempted to create a
90:in the officer corps.
25:
828:Delmas, Jean (1992),
656:Bodinier 1980, p. 59.
496:
436:
423:colonels à la bavette
359:
319:
271:
207:
133:
74:. At the time of the
33:social stratification
19:
875:Officiers de Fortune
512:changed everything.
390:officiers de fortune
366:officiers de fortune
306:general officer rank
148:volunteer enlistment
776:Alder, Ken (1997),
254:British counterpart
22:Régiment de Navarre
506:
443:
362:
329:
286:noblesse présentée
282:
276:on his way to the
210:
193:higher bourgeoisie
136:
26:
668:Baum 1979, p. 13.
584:Lynn 1997, p. 24.
510:French Revolution
502:Marshal of France
465:, requiring four
439:Gribeauval system
341:French Revolution
325:Marshal of France
191:. Members of the
189:petty bourgeoisie
76:French Revolution
64:petty bourgeoisie
917:
886:
869:
868:
851:
842:
833:
824:
815:
806:
797:
781:
770:Cited literature
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745:
742:
736:
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631:
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614:
603:
600:
594:
591:
585:
582:
576:
573:
459:professionalized
447:Seven Years' War
296:and nobility by
294:Frankish descent
99:professionalized
95:Seven Years' War
82:and captains by
925:
924:
920:
919:
918:
916:
915:
914:
890:
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772:
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583:
579:
574:
570:
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560:
548:
491:
455:Napoleonic wars
431:
406:
370:portes-drapeaux
354:
314:
278:marshal's baton
266:
239:
202:
128:
41:Napoleonic Wars
12:
11:
5:
923:
913:
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902:
888:
887:
870:
852:
843:
834:
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728:
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554:
547:
544:
490:
487:
430:
429:Failed reforms
427:
405:
402:
353:
350:
313:
310:
265:
262:
238:
235:
201:
198:
142:recruited the
127:
124:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
922:
911:
908:
906:
903:
901:
898:
897:
895:
885:(3): 400–431.
884:
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876:
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849:
844:
840:
835:
831:
826:
822:
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799:
795:
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787:
783:
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759:
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741:
732:
725:
722:Quimby 1957,
719:
710:
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683:
674:
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623:
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581:
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519:
518:sous-officier
515:
511:
503:
499:
498:André Masséna
495:
486:
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480:
476:
472:
468:
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456:
452:
451:Revolutionary
448:
440:
435:
426:
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419:
418:company grade
415:
411:
401:
399:
398:nom de guerre
395:
391:
387:
384:, regimental
383:
379:
375:
374:quartermaster
371:
367:
358:
349:
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342:
338:
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326:
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318:
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307:
303:
302:officer cadet
299:
295:
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279:
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264:High nobility
261:
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255:
251:
247:
246:
234:
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227:
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206:
197:
194:
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185:working class
182:
177:
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145:
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132:
123:
120:
116:
112:
107:
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96:
91:
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85:
79:
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73:
69:
65:
61:
60:working class
57:
53:
49:
48:Ancien regime
44:
42:
38:
34:
30:
23:
18:
882:
878:
874:
856:
847:
838:
829:
820:
811:
802:
793:
785:
777:
758:
749:
740:
731:
723:
718:
709:
700:
691:
682:
673:
598:
589:
580:
571:
539:Grande Armée
535:
522:bas-officier
521:
517:
514:Conscription
507:
483:prerogatives
474:
463:Ségur decree
444:
422:
407:
389:
382:aides-majors
381:
369:
365:
363:
345:
336:
332:
330:
285:
283:
249:
243:
240:
211:
137:
119:Grande Armée
111:Conscription
108:
104:prerogatives
92:
80:
45:
28:
27:
21:
900:French Army
467:quarterings
410:homogeneity
290:royal court
144:other ranks
140:French Army
126:Other ranks
88:homogeneity
37:French Army
894:Categories
558:References
168:Louis XIII
156:casualties
154:. Wartime
52:enlistment
563:Citations
386:adjutants
250:concordat
226:grenadier
222:corporals
214:sergeants
200:Sergeants
181:peasantry
176:Louis XIV
162:from the
56:peasantry
546:See also
530:Napoleon
479:parvenus
475:vénalité
471:reaction
394:half-pay
346:venalité
337:annoblis
245:vénalité
231:literacy
218:privates
183:and the
172:nobility
146:through
115:Napoleon
72:corporal
68:sergeant
58:and the
352:Rankers
258:billets
164:militia
35:in the
724:passim
378:brevet
170:, the
160:drafts
84:brevet
520:from
414:field
24:1745.
508:The
453:and
437:The
416:and
298:race
220:and
212:The
861:hdl
896::
881:,
661:^
649:^
635:^
621:^
607:^
485:.
348:.
43:.
883:9
863::
726:.
504:.
327:.
280:.
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