223:
916:, which means that it is expected to apply mechanically whenever its structural conditions are met, irrespective of any non-phonological factors like the meaning of the words that are affected. Apparent exceptions to regular change can occur because of dialect borrowing, grammatical analogy, or other causes known and unknown, and some changes are described as "sporadic" and so they affect only one or a few particular words, without any apparent regularity.
66:
25:
1372:, a number of traditional terms designate types of phonetic change, either by nature or result. A number of such types are often (or usually) sporadic, that is, more or less accidents that happen to a specific form. Others affect a whole phonological system. Sound changes that affect a whole phonological system are also classified according to how they affect the overall shape of the system; see
168:
1113:
is to be read as "Sound A changes into (or is replaced by, is reflected as, etc.) sound B". Therefore, A belongs to an older stage of the language in question, and B belongs to a more recent stage. The symbol ">" can be reversed, B < A, which also means that the (more recent) B derives from the
1034:
and other regularization processes, another sound change, or an unrecognized conditioning factor. That is the traditional view expressed by the
Neogrammarians. In the past decades, however, it has been shown that sound change does not necessarily affect all possible words. However, when a sound
1139:
The two sides of such a statement indicate only the start and the end of the change, but additional intermediate stages may have occurred. The example above is actually a compressed account of a
927:
to refer to rules of regular change, perhaps in imitation of the laws of physics, and the term "law" is still used in referring to specific sound rules that are named after their authors like
2119:
1662:, and so on. As in these examples, such features are rarely indicated in standard orthography. In a striking exception, Sanskrit orthography reflects a wide variety of such features; thus,
987:: Sound change does not discriminate between the sources of a sound. If a previous sound change causes X,Y > Y (features X and Y merge as Y), a new one cannot affect only an original X.
1725:: All are losses of sounds. Elision is the loss of unstressed sounds, aphaeresis the loss of initial sounds, syncope is the loss of medial sounds, and apocope is the loss of final sounds.
1409:"legal marriage". The great majority of assimilations take place between contiguous segments, and the great majority involve the earlier sound becoming more like the later one (e.g. in
1468:
contiguous, but, as with assimilations, the great majority involve an earlier sound changing with reference to a later one. Dissimilation is usually a sporadic phenomenon, but
1472:(in Sanskrit and Greek) exemplifies a systematic dissimilation. If the change of a sequence of fricatives such that one becomes a stop is dissimilation, then such changes as
884:, which is a form of alternation, rather than sound change). Since "sound change" can refer to the historical introduction of an alternation (such as postvocalic /k/ in the
958:) and for a limited period of time. For those and other reasons, the term "sound law" has been criticized for implying a universality that is unrealistic for sound change.
841:), such as the merger of two sounds or the creation of a new sound. A sound change can eliminate the affected sound, or a new sound can be added. Sound changes can be
1889:: Vowels followed by nasal consonants can become nasalized. If the nasal consonant is lost but the vowel retains its nasalized pronunciation, nasalization becomes
1434:: The opposite of assimilation. One sound becomes less like another, or (much more rarely) two sounds become less like each other. Examples: Classical Latin
1893:, that is, distinctive. Example: French "-in" words used to be pronounced , but are now pronounced , and the is no longer pronounced (except in cases of
803:
1550:: "Weakening" of a consonant from one that takes more effort to pronounce (and more constriction in the vocal tract) to one that takes less, e.g. a
1030:: If a sound change can happen at a place, it will affect all sounds that meet the criteria for change. Apparent exceptions are possible because of
2126:
186:
1319:
The symbol "#" stands for a word boundary (initial or final) and so the notation "/__#" means "word-finally", and "/#__" means "word-initially":
233:
1958:
1689:
depending on what the first sound of the next word is. These are all assimilations, but medial sequences do not assimilate the same way.
909:'with Carlo'), that label is inherently imprecise and must often be clarified as referring to either phonemic change or restructuring.
1817:(земля). Most commonly, epenthesis is in the nature of a "transitional" consonant, but vowels may be epenthetic: non-standard English
1385:: One sound becomes more like another, or (much more rarely) two sounds become more like each other. Example: in Latin the prefix *
1968:
764:
2236:
2080:
1707:
as . This change usually affects commonly used words. The word haplology itself is sometimes jokingly pronounced "haplogy".
939:
Real-world sound laws often admit exceptions, but the expectation of their regularity or absence of exceptions is of great
130:
102:
864:(within the language of an individual speaker, depending on the neighbouring sounds) and do not change the language's
1051:) before seems to have reached every possible word. By contrast, the voicing of word-initial Latin to occurred in
285:
267:
204:
149:
52:
109:
1166:
Unless a change operates unconditionally (in all environments), the context in which it applies must be specified:
2270:
2249:
2174:
2112:
1236:= "A preconsonantal voiceless non-continuant (voiceless stop) changed into corresponding a voiceless continuant (
785:
346:
1085:: All languages vary from place to place and time to time, and neither writing nor media prevents that change.
87:
116:
1004:. The only exception is that a sound change may recognise word boundaries, even when they are unindicated by
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83:
38:
1907:
1009:
981:
model. However, for modern linguistics, they are not taken as inviolable rules but are seen as guidelines.
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1790:
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1779:
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1733:
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Elision examples: in the southeastern United States, unstressed schwas tend to drop, so "American" is not
1695:: The loss of a syllable when an adjacent syllable is similar or (rarely) identical. Example: Old English
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827:
of a language. A sound change can involve the replacement of one speech sound (or, more generally, one
757:
977:
The following statements are used as heuristics in formulating sound changes as understood within the
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Each sound change is limited in space and time and so it functions in a limited area (within certain
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528:
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1801:(also known as anaptyxis): The introduction of a sound between two adjacent sounds. Examples: Latin
2231:
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1714:
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2006:"The French phoneticians and the Fino-Ugric linguists" are examples according to Anttila, p. 85.
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A sound change that affects the phonological system or the number or the distribution of its
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8:
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1374:
1237:
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1517:. Most such changes are sporadic, but occasionally a sound law is involved, as Romance *
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1927:
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932:
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1588:: Conditioned changes that take place at word-boundaries but not elsewhere. It can be
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Research on sound change is usually conducted under the working assumption that it is
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in three. Epenthesis can be regular, as when the Indo-European "tool" suffix *-
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16:
Process of language change that affects pronunciation or sound system structure
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in Middle
English words was pronounced, but is only retained in spelling as a
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1867:: The addition of a sound at the beginning of a word. Example: word-initial
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2088:
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speaking) exceptionless sound laws rather than sporadic, isolated changes.
993:: A sound change can have only phonological constraints, like X > Z in
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1569:
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1425:
1308:
736:
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588:
1592:-specific, as in the loss of the vowel in the enclitic forms of English
1973:
1798:
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changes, which occur in a language's sound system. On the other hand, "
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617:
541:
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1875:
in Old
Spanish and Old French; hence, the Spanish word for "state" is
1809:; in Slavic an -l- intrudes between a labial and a following yod, as *
1537:. Metathesis can take place between non-contiguous segments, as Greek
1244:(PIr.)" when it was immediately followed by a continuant consonant (a
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can be pronounced differently depending on the preceding sound, as in
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deal primarily with Indo-European languages and do not represent a
1890:
1722:
1710:
1568:: the opposite of lenition, "strengthening" a consonant, e.g. an
1464:. The great majority of dissimilations involve segments that are
1036:
1031:
607:
438:
421:
1614:. Or a small class of elements, such as the assimilation of the
1585:
1530:
1150:), which has since yielded and can be represented more fully:
1143:
of changes: * first changed to (like the initial consonant of
943:
value by allowing historical linguists to define the notion of
612:
567:
1179:= "A changes to B when it is preceded by X and followed by Y."
1035:
change is initiated, it often eventually expands to the whole
1953:
1200:
835:) or a more general change to the speech sounds that exist (
1295:). The fricativization did not occur before stops and so *
1484:) in English would count as a regular sound law: PGmc. *
1311:, fricativization occurred in all clusters: Old Persian
1192:
It. b > v /V__V (in which the V stands for any vowel)
1902:
Examples of specific sound changes in various languages
2073:
Sound
Structure and Sound Change: A Modeling Approach
1747:
Syncope examples: the Old French word for "state" is
1363:
790:. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see
177:
may be too technical for most readers to understand
90:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1016:(such as verbal inflection), when it is no longer
923:linguists of the 19th century introduced the term
1501:: Two sounds switch places. Example: Old English
1424:). Assimilation between contiguous segments are (
1189:It. b > v /__, which can be simplified to just
2262:
1786:were apocopated in final position after nasals:
804:IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters
2120:
758:
230:The examples and perspective in this article
1871:+ stop clusters in Latin gained a preceding
53:Learn how and when to remove these messages
2134:
2127:
2113:
765:
751:
2093:http://langsci-press.org/catalog/book/251
2052:Historical Linguistics: Theory and Method
902:and alternates with in other positions:
286:Learn how and when to remove this message
268:Learn how and when to remove this message
205:Learn how and when to remove this message
189:, without removing the technical details.
150:Learn how and when to remove this message
2045:Historical Linguistics: An Introduction
2263:
2038:Historical and Comparative Linguistics
2017:Grammatically conditioned sound change
2237:Farming/language dispersal hypothesis
2108:
1578:: Syllables come to have distinctive
1000:. For example, it cannot affect only
187:make it understandable to non-experts
2059:Principles of Historical Linguistics
1332:= "Word-final stops were deleted in
794:. For the distinction between ,
216:
161:
88:adding citations to reliable sources
59:
18:
1572:becoming an affricate or fricative.
13:
2075:. Berlin: Language Science Press.
2066:Labial Instability in Sound Change
1959:Phonetic change "f → h" in Spanish
1853:). Some scholars reserve the term
1607:adjacent to a voiceless consonant
1364:Terms for changes in pronunciation
1088:
1008:clues. Also, sound changes may be
852:The term "sound change" refers to
845:if the change occurs in only some
831:value) by a different one (called
14:
2292:
2099:Language History: An Introduction
2068:. Organizational Knowledge Press.
2021:Language and Linguistics Compass,
1703:, or the common pronunciation of
1275:"four" (masc. nom. pl.) > Av.
1267:"three" (masc. nom. pl.)> Av.
1199:= "Intervocalic (inherited from
34:This article has multiple issues.
860:" refers to changes that happen
221:
166:
64:
23:
1908:Anglo-Frisian nasal spirant law
1857:for "intrusive" vowels and use
786:International Phonetic Alphabet
347:Consonant voicing and devoicing
75:needs additional citations for
42:or discuss these issues on the
2009:
2000:
1991:
1303:. (However, in the variety of
1131:(POc.) *t is reflected as in
1:
2064:McDorman, Richard E. (1999).
2030:
1770:Apocope examples: the final -
1529:"chapter (of a cathedral)", "
1028:Sound change is exceptionless
972:
2015:See Hill, Nathan W. (2014) '
1599:, with subsequent change of
991:Sound change ignores grammar
7:
2057:Hock, Hans Henrich (1991).
1944:High German consonant shift
1541:"I milk" > Modern Greek
843:environmentally conditioned
244:, discuss the issue on the
10:
2297:
2097:Sihler, Andrew L. (2000).
1829:everywhere becomes Latin -
1441:"five" > Vulgar Latin *
1356:in which P stands for any
1344:That can be simplified to
1223:Here is a second example:
1092:
1083:Sound change is inevitable
985:Sound change has no memory
2245:
2221:
2183:
2142:
1861:for intrusive consonants.
1759:. Similarly, the loss of
1105:
2232:Father Tongue hypothesis
2071:Morley, Rebecca (2019).
1984:
1099:A statement of the form
888:, which was once as in
697:Compensatory lengthening
469:Compensatory lengthening
2155:Synchrony and diachrony
2150:Comparative Linguistics
2043:Campbell, Lyle (2004).
2036:Anttila, Raimo (1989).
1405:"to found, establish",
1219:'owe (3rd pers. sing.)'
895:'of Carlo' but is now
782:phonetic transcriptions
322:Quantitative metathesis
2271:Historical linguistics
2136:Historical linguistics
2089:10.5281/zenodo.3264909
1879:, deriving from Latin
1765:soften, hasten, castle
1755:disappeared, yielding
1736:. Standard English is
1699:became Modern English
1509:became Middle English
1370:historical linguistics
1014:inflectional paradigms
945:regular correspondence
813:historical linguistics
779:This article contains
1969:Slavic palatalization
1845:"drinking cup" < *
2061:. Mouton De Gruyter.
1813:"land" > Russian
462:Transphonologization
250:create a new article
242:improve this article
84:improve this article
2054:. Oxford, Blackwell
2050:Hale, Mark (2007).
2023:8 (6). pp. 211-229.
1460:"man" > Spanish
1375:phonological change
1120:POc. *t > Rot. f
1039:. For example, the
967:phonological change
838:phonological change
342:Consonant gradation
2222:Relationship with
1821:in two syllables,
1666:"that" is written
1350:Gk. P > ∅ / __#
1283:"of a cow" (nom. *
1250:Proto-Indo-Iranian
949:comparative method
868:(for example, the
849:, and not others.
847:sound environments
727:Consonant mutation
702:Monophthongization
584:Consonant mutation
2258:
2257:
2101:. John Benjamins.
2081:978-3-96110-191-7
2040:. John Benjamins.
1933:Great Vowel Shift
1918:Cot-caught merger
1612:/ˈfræŋksnɒtˈhɪər/
1299:"seven" > Av.
1248:or a fricative):
1095:Phonological rule
1077:lexical diffusion
1049:voiced velar stop
866:underlying system
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722:Shm-reduplication
712:Rhinoglottophilia
548:Consonant harmony
449:Cluster reduction
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2047:. The MIT Press.
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2013:
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1791:/læm/,/lɒŋ~lɔːŋ/
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1609:Frank's not here
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1325:Gk. > ∅ /__#
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1928:Grassmann's law
1913:Canaanite shift
1904:
1850:
1837:"mirror" < *
1630:(including the
1626:to a preceding
1533:" > Spanish
1527:kapitlu, *titlu
1470:Grassmann's Law
1445:(whence French
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1229:PIr. > /__
1209:caballum, dēbet
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1535:cabildo, tilde
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1474:Proto-Germanic
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1426:diachronically
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1172:A > B /X__Y
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802:⟩, see
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2160:Protolanguage
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2018:
2012:
2003:
1997:Sihler, p. 50
1994:
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1805:> English
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1778:. In English
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1521:> Spanish
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1475:
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1433:
1432:Dissimilation
1430:
1427:
1423:
1419:
1415:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1388:
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1278:
1274:
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1266:
1262:
1259:
1256:'forth' >
1255:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1242:Proto-Iranian
1239:
1235:
1234:
1228:
1227:
1226:
1225:
1224:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1203:) became in
1202:
1198:
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1188:
1187:
1186:
1185:
1184:
1183:For example:
1178:
1177:
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1167:
1155:
1154:
1153:
1152:
1151:
1149:
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1134:
1130:
1129:Proto-Oceanic
1126:
1125:
1119:
1118:
1117:
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1104:
1103:
1102:
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1100:
1096:
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1038:
1033:
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1023:
1022:morphological
1019:
1015:
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1007:
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986:
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979:Neogrammarian
970:
968:
964:
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957:
952:
950:
946:
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926:
922:
921:Neogrammarian
917:
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910:
908:
905:
901:
898:
894:
891:
887:
883:
879:
875:
871:
867:
863:
859:
855:
850:
848:
844:
840:
839:
834:
830:
826:
825:pronunciation
822:
818:
814:
805:
793:
789:
787:
783:
768:
763:
761:
756:
754:
749:
748:
746:
745:
738:
735:
733:
730:
728:
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723:
720:
718:
717:Sulcalization
715:
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572:
569:
564:
563:
560:
559:Dissimilation
557:
556:
549:
546:
543:
539:
538:vowel harmony
535:
532:
530:
527:
525:
524:Labialization
522:
520:
517:
515:
512:
510:
507:
505:
502:
501:
498:
493:
492:
485:
484:Floating tone
482:
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472:
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209:
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198:
188:
184:
178:
175:This article
173:
164:
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154:
151:
143:
132:
129:
125:
122:
118:
115:
111:
108:
104:
101: –
100:
96:
95:Find sources:
89:
85:
79:
78:
73:This article
71:
67:
62:
61:
56:
54:
47:
46:
41:
40:
35:
30:
21:
20:
2224:anthropology
2193:Sound change
2192:
2098:
2072:
2065:
2058:
2051:
2044:
2037:
2020:
2011:
2002:
1993:
1979:Verner's law
1887:Nasalization
1880:
1876:
1858:
1854:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1787:
1771:
1764:
1756:
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1748:
1741:
1737:
1704:
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1696:
1686:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1655:
1647:
1635:
1623:
1619:
1608:
1593:
1554:becoming an
1542:
1538:
1534:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1512:
1510:
1504:
1502:
1492:
1485:
1481:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1450:
1446:
1442:
1435:
1421:
1420:rather than
1417:
1413:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1393:- before an
1390:
1386:
1383:Assimilation
1373:
1367:
1355:
1343:
1337:
1318:
1312:
1307:that led to
1300:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1253:
1222:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1182:
1165:
1147:
1140:
1138:
1127:means that "
1114:(older) A":
1112:
1098:
1082:
1081:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1045:Vulgar Latin
1027:
1026:
1018:phonological
990:
989:
984:
983:
976:
960:
953:
944:
924:
918:
913:
911:
906:
903:
899:
896:
892:
889:
881:
877:
869:
851:
842:
836:
832:
817:sound change
816:
810:
798:and ⟨
780:
594:Vowel hiatus
519:Velarization
497:Assimilation
474:Nasalization
352:Assibilation
302:Sound change
301:
282:
264:
255:
231:
201:
192:
176:
146:
137:
127:
120:
113:
106:
94:
82:Please help
77:verification
74:
50:
43:
37:
36:Please help
33:
1949:Kluge's law
1939:Grimm's law
1859:excrescence
1763:in English
1730:/əˈmɛɹəkən/
1618:of English
1576:Tonogenesis
1570:approximant
1490:Old English
1488:"six" >
1455:Old Spanish
1401:"touched",
1395:apical stop
1309:Old Persian
1287:) > Av.
1075:. See also
1067:but not in
1024:in nature.
1010:regularized
929:Grimm's law
858:alternation
737:Chain shift
732:Vowel shift
652:Affrication
641:Other types
589:Tone sandhi
479:Tonogenesis
306:alternation
2265:Categories
2031:References
1923:Dahl's law
1855:epenthesis
1799:Epenthesis
1788:lamb, long
1751:, but the
1715:aphaeresis
1499:Metathesis
1449:, Italian
1439:/kʷiːnkʷe/
1411:connūbium,
1389:- becomes
1093:See also:
1002:adjectives
995:unstressed
973:Principles
854:diachronic
657:Gemination
618:Synaeresis
387:Epenthesis
315:Metathesis
258:April 2024
195:March 2013
140:April 2010
110:newspapers
39:improve it
2276:Phonology
1935:(English)
1865:Prothesis
1697:Englaland
1693:Haplology
1638:when the
1620:the, this
1566:Fortition
1560:fricative
1556:affricate
1480:(spelled
1453:, etc.);
1407:connūbium
1399:contactus
1315:"seven".)
1238:fricative
1215:'horse',
998:syllables
941:heuristic
925:sound law
707:Rhotacism
627:Synizesis
622:diaeresis
601:Synalepha
579:linking R
534:Metaphony
444:Haplology
429:Apheresis
404:Unpacking
394:Prothesis
378:Fortition
246:talk page
45:talk page
2250:Category
2213:Archaism
1891:phonemic
1839:speḱtlom
1835:speculum
1776:silent E
1734:/ˈmɚkən/
1705:probably
1590:morpheme
1548:Lenition
1525:, thus *
1416:becomes
1397:() or :
1273:čatwāras
1246:resonant
1141:sequence
1135:(Rot.)".
1106:A > B
1053:colaphus
1006:prosodic
963:phonemes
956:dialects
796:/ /
792:Help:IPA
682:Iotacism
677:Betacism
667:Fronting
662:Clipping
647:Apophony
399:Paragoge
335:Lenition
240:You may
2175:More...
1895:liaison
1843:pōculum
1823:athlete
1803:humilis
1742:opossum
1723:apocope
1719:syncope
1711:Elision
1701:England
1652:/ɔːllə/
1648:all the
1543:armégō.
1476:*hs to
1436:quīnque
1403:condere
1358:plosive
1305:Iranian
1277:čaθwārō
1258:Avestan
1213:cavallo
1205:Italian
1156:t >
1145:English
1133:Rotuman
1041:Spanish
1037:lexicon
1032:analogy
947:by the
914:regular
872:in the
823:in the
784:in the
672:Raising
608:Elision
575:Liaison
439:Apocope
434:Syncope
422:Elision
181:Please
124:scholar
2143:Topics
2079:
1974:Umlaut
1881:status
1877:estado
1815:zemlya
1807:humble
1767:, etc.
1738:possum
1721:, and
1660:/ɪnnə/
1658:often
1656:in the
1650:often
1586:Sandhi
1539:amélgō
1531:tittle
1495:, etc.
1462:hombre
1451:cinque
1443:kinkʷe
1414:m- + n
1291:(nom.
1265:trayas
1160:> f
1061:cattus
821:change
800:
692:Merger
687:Fusion
613:Crasis
568:Sandhi
542:umlaut
504:Fusion
126:
119:
112:
105:
97:
1985:Notes
1954:Onbin
1851:-tlom
1831:culum
1811:zemya
1749:estat
1740:<
1334:Greek
1313:hafta
1301:hapta
1297:sapta
1289:fšāoš
1281:pśaws
1269:θrayō
1240:) in
1211:>
1201:Latin
1071:>
1069:canna
1063:>
1057:golpe
1055:>
965:is a
819:is a
788:(IPA)
248:, or
131:JSTOR
117:books
2077:ISBN
1833:(so
1827:tlom
1819:film
1782:and
1757:état
1732:but
1624:that
1622:and
1597:/ɪz/
1493:siex
1486:sehs
1478:/ks/
1458:omne
1447:cinq
1422:-mm-
1418:-nn-
1293:pasu
1285:paśu
1217:deve
1148:thin
1073:caña
1065:gato
1059:and
1020:but
937:etc.
919:The
907:arlo
900:arlo
893:arlo
815:, a
620:and
304:and
103:news
2085:doi
2019:.'
1873:/e/
1869:/s/
1847:poH
1784:/ɡ/
1780:/b/
1761:/t/
1687:tan
1685:or
1680:tad
1676:taj
1672:tac
1668:tat
1664:tat
1644:/l/
1640:/d/
1636:and
1634:of
1632:/n/
1628:/n/
1616:/ð/
1605:/s/
1603:to
1601:/z/
1558:or
1507:dda
1466:not
1391:con
1387:kom
1368:In
1340:)".
1338:Gk.
1279:; *
1271:; *
1263:; *
1261:fra
1254:pra
1012:in
904:con
882:bed
878:bet
811:In
185:to
86:by
2267::
2083:.
1897:).
1841:,
1717:,
1713:,
1654:,
1646::
1594:is
1523:ld
1519:tl
1513:ir
1511:th
1505:ri
1503:th
1378:.
1360:.
1079:.
969:.
951:.
935:,
931:,
897:di
890:di
880:,
870:-s
577:,
540:,
48:.
2128:e
2121:t
2114:v
2087::
1883:.
1849:3
1793:.
1772:e
1753:s
1744:.
1682:,
1678:,
1674:,
1670:,
1582:.
1562:.
1515:d
1482:x
1336:(
1252:*
1158:θ
1047:(
806:.
766:e
759:t
752:v
544:)
536:(
289:)
283:(
271:)
265:(
260:)
256:(
238:.
208:)
202:(
197:)
193:(
179:.
153:)
147:(
142:)
138:(
128:·
121:·
114:·
107:·
80:.
55:)
51:(
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