329:
populations respond to habitat loss or change. Because a large proportion of a species' population could exist in sink habitat, conservation efforts may misinterpret the species' habitat requirements. Similarly, without considering the presence of a trap, conservationists might mistakenly preserve trap habitat under the assumption that an organism's preferred habitat was also good quality habitat. Simultaneously, source habitat may be ignored or even destroyed if only a small proportion of the population resides there. Degradation or destruction of the source habitat will, in turn, impact the sink or trap populations, potentially over large distances. Finally, efforts to restore degraded habitat may unintentionally create an ecological trap by giving a site the appearance of quality habitat, but which has not yet developed all of the functional elements necessary for an organism's survival and reproduction. For an already threatened species, such mistakes might result in a rapid population decline toward extinction.
312:, a group of populations residing in patches of habitat. Though some patches may go extinct, the regional persistence of the metapopulation depends on the ability of patches to be re-colonized. As long as there are source patches present for successful reproduction, sink patches may allow the total number of individuals in the metapopulation to grow beyond what the source could support, providing a reserve of individuals available for re-colonization. Source–sink dynamics also has implications for studies of the coexistence of species within habitat patches. Because a patch that is a source for one species may be a sink for another, coexistence may actually depend on immigration from a second patch rather than the interactions between the two species. Similarly, source–sink dynamics may influence the regional coexistence and demographics of species within a
256:
individuals. Note that in all of these systems, source patches are capable of supporting stable or growing populations and are net exporters of individuals. The major difference between them is that in the ecological trap model, the source patch is avoided (or at least not preferred to the low quality trap patch). All of the low quality patches (whether sinks, pseudo-sinks, or traps) are net importers of dispersing individuals, and in the absence of dispersal, would show a population decline. However, pseudo-sinks would not decline to extinction as they are capable of supporting a smaller population. The other major difference between these low quality patch types is in their attractiveness; sink populations are avoided while trap patches are preferred (or at least not avoided).
288:(survival rate or reproductive success) of the individuals in the patch drops below the average fitness in a second, lower quality patch, individuals are expected to move to the second patch. However, as soon as the second patch becomes sufficiently crowded, individuals are expected to move back to the first patch. Eventually, the patches should become balanced so that the average fitness of the individuals in each patch and the rates of dispersal between the two patches are even. In this balanced dispersal model, the probability of leaving a patch is inversely proportional to the carrying capacity of the patch. In this case, individuals should not remain in sink habitat for very long, where the carrying capacity is zero and the probability of leaving is therefore very high.
292:
site can be preempted if it has already been occupied. For example, the dominant, older individuals in a population may occupy all of the best territories in the source so that the next best territory available may be in the sink. As the subordinate, younger individuals age, they may be able to take over territories in the source, but new subordinate juveniles from the source will have to move to the sink. Pulliam argued that such a pattern of dispersal can maintain a large sink population indefinitely. Furthermore, if good breeding sites in the source are rare and poor breeding sites in the sink are common, it is even possible that the majority of the population resides in the sink.
340:). Either way, determining which areas are sources or sinks for any one species may be very difficult, and an area that is a source for one species may be unimportant to others. Finally, areas that are sources or sinks currently may not be in the future as habitats are continually altered by human activity or climate change. Few areas can be expected to be universal sources, or universal sinks. While the presence of source, sink, or trap patches must be considered for short-term population survival, especially for very small populations, long-term survival may depend on the creation of networks of reserves that incorporate a variety of habitats and allow populations to interact.
273:
relying on other agents such as wind or water currents to move seeds to another patch. Passive dispersal can result in source–sink dynamics whenever the seeds land in a patch that cannot support the plant's growth or reproduction. Winds may continually deposit seeds there, maintaining a population even though the plants themselves do not successfully reproduce. Another good example for this case are soil protists. Soil protists also disperse passively, relying mainly on wind to colonize other sites. As a result, source–sink dynamics can arise simply because external agents dispersed protist propagules (e.g., cysts, spores), forcing individuals to grow in a poor habitat.
305:
species could successfully occupy. In contrast, the "realized niche", was described as all of the places a species actually did occupy, and was expected to be less than the extent of the fundamental niche as a result of competition with other species. However, the source–sink model demonstrated that the majority of a population could occupy a sink which, by definition, did not meet the niche requirements of the species, and was therefore outside the fundamental niche (see Figure 2). In this case, the realized niche was actually larger than the fundamental niche, and ideas about how to define a species' niche had to change.
97:(the number of individuals it can support). However, in the absence of immigration, the patches are able to support a smaller population. Since true sinks cannot support any population, the authors called these patches "pseudo-sinks". Definitively distinguishing between true sinks and pseudo-sinks requires cutting off immigration to the patch in question and determining whether the patch is still able to maintain a population. Thomas et al. were able to do just that, taking advantage of an unseasonable frost that killed off the host plants for a source population of
152:, an annual survey of North American birds, they looked for relationships between survey sites showing such a one-year time lag. They found several pairs of sites showing significant relationships 60–80 km apart. Several appeared to be sources to more than one sink, and several sinks appeared to receive individuals from more than one source. In addition, some sites appeared to be a sink to one site and a source to another (see Figure 1). The authors concluded that source–sink dynamics may occur on continental scales.
156:
ignored, then individuals that emigrate may be treated as mortalities, thus causing sources to be classified as sinks. This issue is important if the source–sink concept is viewed in terms of habitat quality (as it is in Table 1) because classifying high-quality habitat as low-quality may lead to mistakes in ecological management. Runge et al. showed how to integrate the theory of source–sink dynamics with population projection matrices and ecological statistics in order to differentiate sources and sinks.
137:. Following the frost, the butterflies had difficulty recolonizing the former source patches. Boughton found that the host plants in the former sources senesced much earlier than in the former pseudo-sink patches. As a result, immigrants regularly arrived too late to successfully reproduce. He found that the former pseudo-sinks had become sources, and the former sources had become true sinks.
284:", which describes a population in which individuals distribute themselves evenly among habitat patches according to how many individuals the patch can support. When there are patches of varying quality available, the ideal free distribution predicts a pattern of "balanced dispersal". In this model, when the preferred habitat patch becomes crowded enough that the average
85:
in a sink patch, death rates were greater than birth rates, resulting in a population decline toward extinction unless enough individuals emigrated from the source patch. Immigration rates were expected to be greater than emigration rates, so that sinks were a net importer of individuals. As a result, there would be a net flow of individuals from the source to the sink
320:, a model in which organisms prefer sink habitat over source habitat. Besides being ecological trap sink habitat may vary in their response i major disturbance and colonization of sink habitat may allow species survival even if population in source habitat extinct due to some catastrophic event which may substantially increase metapopulational stability.
148:) survey data for evidence of source and sink populations on a large scale. The authors reasoned that emigrants from sources would likely be the juveniles produced in one year dispersing to reproduce in sinks in the next year, producing a one-year time lag between population changes in the source and in the sink. Using data from the
105:). Without the host plants, the supply of immigrants to other nearby patches was cut off. Although these patches had appeared to be sinks, they did not become extinct without the constant supply of immigrants. They were capable of sustaining a smaller population, suggesting that they were in fact pseudo-sinks.
120:
Dias also argued that an inversion between source and sink habitat is possible so that the sinks may actually become the sources. Because reproduction in source patches is much higher than in sink patches, natural selection is generally expected to favor adaptations to the source habitat. However,
108:
Watkinson and
Sutherland's caution about identifying pseudo-sinks was followed by Dias, who argued that differentiating between sources and sinks themselves may be difficult. She asserted that a long-term study of the demographic parameters of the populations in each patch is necessary. Otherwise,
84:
rates). In the source patch, birth rates were greater than death rates, causing the population to grow. The excess individuals were expected to leave the patch, so that emigration rates were greater than immigration rates. In other words, sources were a net exporter of individuals. In contrast,
304:
was originally described as the environmental factors required by a species to carry out its life history, and a species was expected to be found only in areas that met these niche requirements. This concept of a niche was later termed the "fundamental niche", and described as all of the places a
37:
Since quality is likely to vary among patches of habitat, it is important to consider how a low quality patch might affect a population. In this model, organisms occupy two patches of habitat. One patch, the source, is a high quality habitat that on average allows the population to increase. The
291:
An alternative to the ideal free distribution and balanced dispersal models is when fitness can vary among potential breeding sites within habitat patches and individuals must select the best available site. This alternative has been called the "ideal preemptive distribution", because a breeding
155:
One of the more confusing issues involves identifying sources and sinks in the field. Runge et al. point out that in general researchers need to estimate per capita reproduction, probability of survival, and probability of emigration to differentiate source and sink habitats. If emigration is
328:
Land managers and conservationists have become increasingly interested in preserving and restoring high quality habitat, particularly where rare, threatened, or endangered species are concerned. As a result, it is important to understand how to identify or create high quality habitat, and how
272:
Why would individuals ever leave high quality source habitat for a low quality sink habitat? This question is central to source–sink theory. Ultimately, it depends on the organisms and the way they move and distribute themselves between habitat patches. For example, plants disperse passively,
255:
Habitat patches are represented in terms of their (1) inherent abilities to maintain a population (in the absence of immigration), (2) their attractiveness to organisms that are actively dispersing and choosing habitat patches, and (3) whether they are net exporters or importers of dispersing
92:
Pulliam's work was followed by many others who developed and tested the source–sink model. Watkinson and
Sutherland presented a phenomenon in which high immigration rates could cause a patch to appear to be a sink by raising the patch's population above its
117:). During the floods, these patches became sinks, but at other times they were no different from other patches. If researchers had not considered what happened during the floods, they would not have understood the full complexity of the system.
121:
if the proportion of source to sink habitat changes so that sink habitat becomes much more available, organisms may begin to adapt to it instead. Once adapted, the sink may become a source habitat. This is believed to have occurred for the
42:
produced in the source frequently moves to the sink, the sink population can persist indefinitely. Organisms are generally assumed to be able to distinguish between high and low quality habitat, and to prefer high quality habitat. However,
63:
Although the seeds of a source–sink model had been planted earlier, Pulliam is often recognized as the first to present a fully developed source–sink model. He defined source and sink patches in terms of their demographic parameters, or
336:, protecting source habitat is often assumed to be the goal, although if the cause of a sink is human activity, simply designating an area as a reserve has the potential to convert current sink patches to source patches (e.g.
109:
temporary variations in those parameters, perhaps due to climate fluctuations or natural disasters, may result in a misclassification of the patches. For example, Johnson described periodic flooding of a river in
51:. Finally, the source–sink model implies that some habitat patches may be more important to the long-term survival of the population, and considering the presence of source–sink dynamics will help inform
276:
In contrast, many organisms that disperse actively should have no reason to remain in a sink patch, provided the organisms are able to recognize it as a poor quality patch (see discussion of
1092:
Manlik O, Chabanne D, Daniel C, Bejder L, Allen SJ, Sherwin WB (2018). "Demography and genetics suggest reversal of dolphin source-sink dynamics, with implications for conservation".
1250:
Frouz J, Kindlmann P (2001). "The role of sink to source re-colonisation in the population dynamics of insects living in unstable habitats: an example of terrestrial chironomids".
858:
Foissner W (1987). "Soil protozoa: fundamental problems, ecological significance, adaptations in ciliates and testaceans, bioindicators, and guide to the literature".
674:
Tittler R, Fahrig L, Villard MA (December 2006). "Evidence of large-scale source-sink dynamics and long-distance dispersal among Wood Thrush populations".
714:
Runge JP, Runge MC, Nichols JD (June 2006). "The role of local populations within a landscape context: defining and classifying sources and sinks".
337:
2466:
1719:
316:, a group of communities connected by the dispersal of potentially interacting species. Finally, the source–sink model has greatly influenced
877:
Fernández LD (February 2015). "Source–sink dynamics shapes the spatial distribution of soil protists in an arid shrubland of northern Chile".
38:
second patch, the sink, is a very low quality habitat that, on its own, would not be able to support a population. However, if the excess of
644:
Boughton DA (December 1999). "Empirical evidence for complex source–sink dynamics with alternative states in a butterfly metapopulation".
2610:
418:
Holt RD (October 1985). "Population dynamics in two-patch environments: some anomalous consequences of an optimal habitat distribution".
1589:
Misenhelter MD, Rotenberry JT (October 2000). "Choices and consequences of habitat occupancy and nest site selection in Sage
Sparrows".
2680:
2252:
2217:
536:
Thomas CD, Singer MC, Boughton DA (December 1996). "Catastrophic extinction of population sources in a butterfly metapopulation".
2690:
2418:
999:
Pulliam HR, Danielson BJ (June 1991). "Sources, sinks, and habitat selection: a landscape perspective on population dynamics".
1484:
Battin J (December 2004). "When good animals love bad habitats: ecological traps and the conservation of animal populations".
1521:
Delibes M, Gaona P, Ferreras P (September 2001). "Effects of an attractive sink leading into maladaptive habitat selection".
791:
766:
2695:
133:
changed, but few modern examples are known. Boughton described a source—pseudo-sink inversion in butterfly populations of
2883:
1204:
2636:
2459:
2300:
1712:
300:
The source–sink model of population dynamics has made contributions to many areas in ecology. For example, a species'
1972:
1668:
Weldon AJ, Haddad NM (June 2005). "The effects of patch shape on Indigo
Buntings: evidence for an ecological trap".
3301:
2433:
2715:
2428:
2295:
2007:
1602:
657:
3100:
2973:
1426:
1220:
687:
3286:
3146:
2745:
2700:
2452:
1705:
394:
2232:
807:
Keddy PA (January 1982). "Population ecology on an environmental gradient: Cakile edentula on a sand dune".
3276:
2578:
3296:
2935:
1826:
280:). The reasoning behind this argument is that organisms are often expected to behave according to the "
3271:
3000:
2720:
2207:
1924:
1821:
48:
3181:
2793:
2685:
2543:
2528:
2523:
2202:
1914:
1354:"Forbidden fruit: human settlement and abundant fruit create an ecological trap for an apex omnivore"
1697:
3291:
3171:
3166:
3136:
2403:
2285:
65:
2444:
2075:
1568:
Dwernychuk LW, Boag DA (May 1972). "Ducks nesting in association with gulls—an ecological trap?".
140:
One of the most recent additions to the source–sink literature is by
Tittler et al., who examined
3015:
2878:
2788:
2656:
2538:
2508:
2365:
2330:
2050:
2017:
1992:
281:
1127:
Howe RW, Davis GJ, Mosca V (January 1991). "The demographic significance of 'sink'populations".
3161:
3105:
3040:
2903:
2838:
2773:
2335:
2123:
1831:
1811:
1162:
Leibold MA, Holyoak M, Mouquet N, Amarasekare P, Chase JM, Hoopes MF, et al. (July 2004).
917:
Diffendorfer JE (April 1998). "Testing models of source-sink dynamics and balanced dispersal".
369:
98:
784:
Analysis and management of animal populations : modeling, estimation, and decision making
3065:
3010:
2873:
2858:
2641:
2598:
2588:
2583:
2340:
2320:
2176:
2166:
2108:
2103:
1939:
1791:
1610:
Purcell KL, Verner J (April 1998). "Density and reproductive success of
California Towhees".
3191:
3156:
3151:
3075:
3070:
3025:
2923:
2893:
2888:
2740:
2603:
2593:
2138:
1977:
1766:
1677:
1619:
1493:
1438:
1365:
1306:
1259:
1175:
1136:
1078:
926:
886:
816:
618:
499:
349:
149:
609:
Johnson DM (July 2004). "Source–sink dynamics in a temporally heterogeneous environment".
8:
3281:
3241:
3216:
3080:
3050:
2995:
2908:
2798:
2783:
2730:
2563:
2498:
2380:
2310:
2242:
1841:
1647:
Schlaepfer MA, Runge MC, Sherman PW (October 2002). "Ecological and evolutionary traps".
1295:"Source-Sink Colonization as a Possible Strategy of Insects Living in Temporary Habitats"
384:
27:
1681:
1623:
1497:
1442:
1369:
1310:
1263:
1179:
1140:
930:
890:
820:
622:
503:
47:
theory describes the reasons why organisms may actually prefer sink patches over source
3252:
3201:
3196:
3005:
2968:
2710:
2666:
2631:
2488:
2413:
2315:
2247:
2237:
2171:
2118:
1929:
1874:
1836:
1761:
1635:
1556:
1509:
1462:
1329:
1294:
1232:
1205:"A framework for understanding ecological traps and an evaluation of existing evidence"
1109:
1055:
1016:
981:
942:
840:
739:
553:
515:
469:
389:
52:
1660:
1271:
3141:
3110:
2898:
2725:
2533:
2398:
2375:
2113:
1889:
1801:
1786:
1771:
1751:
1631:
1548:
1505:
1454:
1383:
1334:
1275:
1236:
1224:
1188:
1163:
1148:
962:"On territorial behavior and other factors influencing habitat distribution in birds"
832:
787:
762:
731:
691:
591:
587:
431:
364:
285:
94:
1639:
1466:
1113:
1020:
985:
557:
473:
3095:
2958:
2950:
2868:
2750:
2735:
2671:
2651:
2568:
2558:
2553:
2518:
2350:
2290:
2161:
1962:
1904:
1816:
1776:
1685:
1656:
1627:
1598:
1577:
1560:
1538:
1530:
1513:
1501:
1446:
1373:
1324:
1314:
1267:
1216:
1183:
1144:
1101:
1047:
1008:
973:
934:
898:
894:
844:
824:
743:
723:
683:
653:
626:
583:
545:
507:
461:
427:
399:
317:
301:
277:
162:
Table 1. Summary characteristics of variations on the source–sink dynamics model.
44:
3231:
3090:
3060:
3055:
3045:
2978:
2963:
2843:
2823:
2705:
2573:
2479:
2370:
2280:
2222:
1806:
1732:
1319:
1035:
379:
354:
333:
3211:
3035:
2988:
2918:
2913:
2808:
2675:
2548:
2355:
2345:
2325:
2128:
2093:
2032:
1909:
1864:
1756:
961:
490:
Watkinson AR, Sutherland WJ (January 1995). "Sources, sinks and pseudo-sinks".
374:
309:
113:
which completely inundated patches of the host plant for a rolled-leaf beetle (
1450:
3265:
3236:
2212:
2186:
2143:
2133:
2088:
2055:
1947:
1781:
1736:
1458:
1279:
313:
1378:
1353:
3221:
3206:
2863:
2833:
2778:
2661:
2626:
2503:
2002:
1552:
1387:
1338:
1228:
836:
735:
695:
595:
1164:"The metacommunity concept: a framework for multi-scale community ecology"
759:
Matrix population models : construction, analysis, and interpretation
2513:
2060:
2022:
1997:
1987:
1952:
1899:
1879:
1406:
Roberts CM. "Sources, sinks, and the design of marine reserve networks".
452:
Pulliam HR (November 1988). "Sources, sinks, and population regulation".
141:
73:
3226:
2803:
2768:
2408:
2360:
2305:
2275:
2181:
2098:
2042:
1919:
1869:
1543:
1059:
977:
946:
828:
110:
81:
39:
22:
is a theoretical model used by ecologists to describe how variation in
1427:"Movements and source–sink dynamics of a Masai giraffe metapopulation"
1105:
3131:
3085:
2813:
2257:
2227:
2027:
1982:
1957:
1894:
1884:
1859:
1851:
1796:
1727:
1689:
1581:
1352:
Lamb CT, Mowat G, McLellan BN, Nielsen SE, Boutin S (January 2017).
1051:
938:
630:
519:
3186:
3115:
2646:
2474:
2153:
2065:
2012:
1967:
1534:
1012:
727:
549:
465:
122:
31:
574:
Dias PC (August 1996). "Sources and sinks in population biology".
3176:
2983:
2853:
2848:
2475:
2423:
2083:
1728:
511:
359:
130:
23:
1161:
308:
Source–sink dynamics has also been incorporated into studies of
77:
69:
1603:
10.1890/0012-9658(2000)081[2892:CACOHO]2.0.CO;2
658:
10.1890/0012-9658(1999)080[2727:EEFCSS]2.0.CO;2
1221:
10.1890/0012-9658(2006)87[1075:AFFUET]2.0.CO;2
1091:
688:
10.1890/0012-9658(2006)87[3029:eolsda]2.0.co;2
1351:
761:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer Associates.
1646:
1588:
781:
1520:
1036:"The niche-relationships of the California Thrasher"
912:
910:
908:
673:
535:
489:
905:
713:
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998:
959:
485:
483:
1401:
1399:
1397:
1567:
1292:
1249:
1202:
1126:
669:
667:
447:
445:
443:
441:
2460:
1713:
1609:
1027:
775:
531:
529:
480:
1667:
1394:
916:
750:
709:
707:
705:
637:
782:Williams BK, Nichols JD, Conroy MJ (2002).
664:
569:
567:
438:
16:Ecological model of population distribution
2681:Latitudinal gradients in species diversity
2467:
2453:
1720:
1706:
1072:
526:
129:) 7500 years ago as forest composition on
1542:
1424:
1377:
1328:
1318:
1187:
1120:
876:
702:
2579:Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations
2218:Tritrophic interactions in plant defense
1033:
857:
643:
564:
295:
2611:Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model
960:Fretwell SD, Lucas Jr HL (March 1969).
756:
608:
451:
3264:
2419:Herbivore adaptations to plant defense
1483:
1345:
2448:
1701:
806:
267:
58:
2434:Predator avoidance in schooling fish
573:
417:
2884:Intermediate disturbance hypothesis
1405:
1293:Frouz J, Kindlmann P (2015-06-05).
1203:Robertson BA, Hutto RL (May 2006).
13:
2637:Ecological effects of biodiversity
1476:
14:
3313:
1973:Generalist and specialist species
1649:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
1272:10.1034/j.1600-0706.2001.930105.x
1081:. Vol. 22. pp. 415–427.
576:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
2696:Occupancy–abundance relationship
1632:10.1111/j.1523-1739.1998.96354.x
1506:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2004.00417.x
1425:Lee DE, Bolger DT (2017-05-05).
1189:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2004.00608.x
2716:Relative abundance distribution
2429:Plant defense against herbivory
2296:Competitive exclusion principle
2008:Mesopredator release hypothesis
1418:
1286:
1243:
1196:
1155:
1085:
1077:. Cold Spring Harbor Symposium
1066:
992:
953:
870:
851:
800:
323:
2301:Consumer–resource interactions
899:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2014.10.007
602:
420:Theoretical Population Biology
411:
332:In considering where to place
1:
3147:Biological data visualization
2974:Environmental niche modelling
2701:Population viability analysis
1661:10.1016/S0169-5347(02)02580-6
1358:The Journal of Animal Ecology
786:. San Diego: Academic Press.
405:
395:Population viability analysis
2632:Density-dependent inhibition
1320:10.1371/journal.pone.0127743
1149:10.1016/0006-3207(91)90071-G
879:Journal of Arid Environments
588:10.1016/0169-5347(96)10037-9
432:10.1016/0040-5809(85)90027-9
7:
3101:Liebig's law of the minimum
2936:Resource selection function
1827:Metabolic theory of ecology
1570:Canadian Journal of Zoology
1034:Grinnell J (October 1917).
343:
86:
10:
3318:
3001:Niche apportionment models
2721:Relative species abundance
1925:Primary nutritional groups
1822:List of feeding behaviours
3250:
3182:Ecosystem based fisheries
3124:
3024:
2949:
2822:
2794:Interspecific competition
2759:
2686:Minimum viable population
2619:
2544:Maximum sustainable yield
2529:Intraspecific competition
2524:Effective population size
2487:
2404:Anti-predator adaptations
2389:
2268:
2195:
2152:
2074:
2041:
1938:
1915:Photosynthetic efficiency
1850:
1744:
1451:10.1007/s10144-017-0580-7
492:Journal of Animal Ecology
249:
3172:Ecological stoichiometry
3137:Alternative stable state
860:Progress in Protistology
3302:Ecological connectivity
3016:Ontogenetic niche shift
2879:Ideal free distribution
2789:Ecological facilitation
2539:Malthusian growth model
2509:Consumer-resource model
2366:Paradox of the plankton
2331:Energy systems language
2051:Chemoorganoheterotrophy
2018:Optimal foraging theory
1993:Heterotrophic nutrition
1523:The American Naturalist
1379:10.1111/1365-2656.12589
1129:Biological Conservation
1001:The American Naturalist
716:The American Naturalist
538:The American Naturalist
454:The American Naturalist
282:ideal free distribution
228:Declines to stable size
182:(high quality habitat)
26:quality may affect the
3162:Ecological forecasting
3106:Marginal value theorem
2904:Landscape epidemiology
2839:Cross-boundary subsidy
2774:Biological interaction
2124:Microbial intelligence
1812:Green world hypothesis
1073:Hutchinson GE (1957).
370:List of ecology topics
318:ecological trap theory
237:Declines to extinction
219:Declines to extinction
216:(low quality habitat)
115:Cephaloleia fenestrata
3167:Ecological humanities
3066:Ecological energetics
3011:Niche differentiation
2874:Habitat fragmentation
2642:Ecological extinction
2589:Small population size
2341:Feed conversion ratio
2321:Ecological succession
2253:San Francisco Estuary
2167:Ecological efficiency
2109:Microbial cooperation
1094:Marine Mammal Science
296:Importance in ecology
241:Attractive (or equal)
30:growth or decline of
3287:Conservation biology
3192:Evolutionary ecology
3157:Ecological footprint
3152:Ecological economics
3076:Ecological threshold
3071:Ecological indicator
2941:Source–sink dynamics
2894:Land change modeling
2889:Insular biogeography
2741:Species distribution
2480:Modelling ecosystems
2139:Microbial metabolism
1978:Intraguild predation
1767:Biogeochemical cycle
1733:Modelling ecosystems
1612:Conservation Biology
1486:Conservation Biology
1079:Quantitative Biology
350:Conservation biology
150:Breeding Bird Survey
146:Hylocichla mustelina
20:Source–sink dynamics
3277:Ecological theories
3242:Theoretical ecology
3217:Natural environment
3081:Ecosystem diversity
3051:Ecological collapse
3041:Bateman's principle
2996:Limiting similarity
2909:Landscape limnology
2731:Species homogeneity
2569:Population modeling
2564:Population dynamics
2381:Trophic state index
1682:2005Ecol...86.1422W
1624:1998ConBi..12..442P
1498:2004ConBi..18.1482B
1443:2017PopEc..59..157L
1370:2017JAnEc..86...55L
1311:2015PLoSO..1027743F
1264:2001Oikos..93...50F
1180:2004EcolL...7..601L
1141:1991BCons..57..239H
931:1998Oikos..81..417D
891:2015JArEn.113..121F
821:1982Oecol..52..348K
623:2004Ecol...85.2037J
504:1995JAnEc..64..126W
385:Population dynamics
163:
99:Edith's checkerspot
3297:Behavioral ecology
3253:Outline of ecology
3202:Industrial ecology
3197:Functional ecology
3061:Ecological deficit
3006:Niche construction
2969:Ecosystem engineer
2746:Species–area curve
2667:Introduced species
2482:: Other components
2414:Deimatic behaviour
2316:Ecological network
2248:North Pacific Gyre
2233:hydrothermal vents
2172:Ecological pyramid
2119:Microbial food web
1930:Primary production
1875:Foundation species
1431:Population Ecology
1075:Concluding remarks
978:10.1007/BF01601955
966:Acta Biotheoretica
829:10.1007/BF00367958
757:Caswell H (2018).
390:Population ecology
268:Modes of dispersal
212:Sink, pseudo-sink,
203:Avoided (or equal)
172:Source–pseudosink
161:
59:Theory development
3272:Landscape ecology
3259:
3258:
3142:Balance of nature
2899:Landscape ecology
2784:Community ecology
2726:Species diversity
2662:Indicator species
2657:Gradient analysis
2534:Logistic function
2442:
2441:
2399:Animal coloration
2376:Trophic mutualism
2114:Microbial ecology
1905:Photoheterotrophs
1890:Myco-heterotrophy
1802:Ecosystem ecology
1787:Carrying capacity
1752:Abiotic component
1106:10.1111/mms.12555
793:978-0-08-057472-1
768:978-0-87893-096-8
365:Landscape ecology
265:
264:
261:
260:
199:Stable or growing
192:Stable or growing
185:Stable or growing
103:Euphydryas editha
95:carrying capacity
3309:
2959:Ecological niche
2931:selection theory
2751:Umbrella species
2736:Species richness
2672:Invasive species
2652:Flagship species
2559:Population cycle
2554:Overexploitation
2519:Ecological yield
2469:
2462:
2455:
2446:
2445:
2351:Mesotrophic soil
2291:Climax community
2223:Marine food webs
2162:Biomagnification
1963:Chemoorganotroph
1817:Keystone species
1777:Biotic component
1722:
1715:
1708:
1699:
1698:
1693:
1664:
1643:
1606:
1597:(10): 2892–901.
1585:
1564:
1546:
1517:
1471:
1470:
1422:
1416:
1415:
1403:
1392:
1391:
1381:
1349:
1343:
1342:
1332:
1322:
1290:
1284:
1283:
1247:
1241:
1240:
1200:
1194:
1193:
1191:
1159:
1153:
1152:
1124:
1118:
1117:
1089:
1083:
1082:
1070:
1064:
1063:
1031:
1025:
1024:
996:
990:
989:
957:
951:
950:
914:
903:
902:
874:
868:
867:
855:
849:
848:
804:
798:
797:
779:
773:
772:
754:
748:
747:
711:
700:
699:
671:
662:
661:
641:
635:
634:
606:
600:
599:
571:
562:
561:
533:
524:
523:
487:
478:
477:
449:
436:
435:
415:
400:Refuge (ecology)
278:ecological traps
251:
250:
175:Ecological trap
164:
160:
3317:
3316:
3312:
3311:
3310:
3308:
3307:
3306:
3292:Disease ecology
3262:
3261:
3260:
3255:
3246:
3232:Systems ecology
3120:
3091:Extinction debt
3056:Ecological debt
3046:Bioluminescence
3027:
3020:
2989:marine habitats
2964:Ecological trap
2945:
2825:
2818:
2761:
2755:
2711:Rapoport's rule
2706:Priority effect
2647:Endemic species
2615:
2574:Population size
2490:
2483:
2473:
2443:
2438:
2391:
2385:
2371:Trophic cascade
2281:Bioaccumulation
2264:
2191:
2148:
2070:
2037:
1934:
1846:
1807:Ecosystem model
1740:
1726:
1696:
1690:10.1890/04-0913
1582:10.1139/z72-076
1479:
1477:Further reading
1474:
1423:
1419:
1404:
1395:
1350:
1346:
1305:(6): e0127743.
1291:
1287:
1248:
1244:
1201:
1197:
1168:Ecology Letters
1160:
1156:
1125:
1121:
1090:
1086:
1071:
1067:
1052:10.2307/4072271
1032:
1028:
997:
993:
958:
954:
939:10.2307/3546763
915:
906:
875:
871:
856:
852:
805:
801:
794:
780:
776:
769:
755:
751:
712:
703:
682:(12): 3029–36.
672:
665:
642:
638:
631:10.1890/03-0508
607:
603:
572:
565:
534:
527:
488:
481:
450:
439:
416:
412:
408:
380:Perceptual trap
355:Ecological trap
346:
326:
310:metapopulations
298:
270:
244:
238:
233:
231:
222:
220:
215:
213:
206:
200:
195:
193:
188:
186:
181:
127:Parus caeruleus
61:
45:ecological trap
17:
12:
11:
5:
3315:
3305:
3304:
3299:
3294:
3289:
3284:
3279:
3274:
3257:
3256:
3251:
3248:
3247:
3245:
3244:
3239:
3234:
3229:
3224:
3219:
3214:
3212:Microecosystem
3209:
3204:
3199:
3194:
3189:
3184:
3179:
3174:
3169:
3164:
3159:
3154:
3149:
3144:
3139:
3134:
3128:
3126:
3122:
3121:
3119:
3118:
3113:
3111:Thorson's rule
3108:
3103:
3098:
3093:
3088:
3083:
3078:
3073:
3068:
3063:
3058:
3053:
3048:
3043:
3038:
3036:Assembly rules
3032:
3030:
3022:
3021:
3019:
3018:
3013:
3008:
3003:
2998:
2993:
2992:
2991:
2981:
2976:
2971:
2966:
2961:
2955:
2953:
2947:
2946:
2944:
2943:
2938:
2933:
2921:
2919:Patch dynamics
2916:
2914:Metapopulation
2911:
2906:
2901:
2896:
2891:
2886:
2881:
2876:
2871:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2851:
2846:
2841:
2836:
2830:
2828:
2820:
2819:
2817:
2816:
2811:
2809:Storage effect
2806:
2801:
2796:
2791:
2786:
2781:
2776:
2771:
2765:
2763:
2757:
2756:
2754:
2753:
2748:
2743:
2738:
2733:
2728:
2723:
2718:
2713:
2708:
2703:
2698:
2693:
2691:Neutral theory
2688:
2683:
2678:
2676:Native species
2669:
2664:
2659:
2654:
2649:
2644:
2639:
2634:
2629:
2623:
2621:
2617:
2616:
2614:
2613:
2608:
2607:
2606:
2601:
2591:
2586:
2581:
2576:
2571:
2566:
2561:
2556:
2551:
2549:Overpopulation
2546:
2541:
2536:
2531:
2526:
2521:
2516:
2511:
2506:
2501:
2495:
2493:
2485:
2484:
2472:
2471:
2464:
2457:
2449:
2440:
2439:
2437:
2436:
2431:
2426:
2421:
2416:
2411:
2406:
2401:
2395:
2393:
2387:
2386:
2384:
2383:
2378:
2373:
2368:
2363:
2358:
2356:Nutrient cycle
2353:
2348:
2346:Feeding frenzy
2343:
2338:
2333:
2328:
2326:Energy quality
2323:
2318:
2313:
2308:
2303:
2298:
2293:
2288:
2286:Cascade effect
2283:
2278:
2272:
2270:
2266:
2265:
2263:
2262:
2261:
2260:
2255:
2250:
2245:
2240:
2235:
2230:
2220:
2215:
2210:
2205:
2199:
2197:
2193:
2192:
2190:
2189:
2184:
2179:
2174:
2169:
2164:
2158:
2156:
2150:
2149:
2147:
2146:
2141:
2136:
2131:
2129:Microbial loop
2126:
2121:
2116:
2111:
2106:
2101:
2096:
2094:Lithoautotroph
2091:
2086:
2080:
2078:
2076:Microorganisms
2072:
2071:
2069:
2068:
2063:
2058:
2053:
2047:
2045:
2039:
2038:
2036:
2035:
2033:Prey switching
2030:
2025:
2020:
2015:
2010:
2005:
2000:
1995:
1990:
1985:
1980:
1975:
1970:
1965:
1960:
1955:
1950:
1944:
1942:
1936:
1935:
1933:
1932:
1927:
1922:
1917:
1912:
1910:Photosynthesis
1907:
1902:
1897:
1892:
1887:
1882:
1877:
1872:
1867:
1865:Chemosynthesis
1862:
1856:
1854:
1848:
1847:
1845:
1844:
1839:
1834:
1829:
1824:
1819:
1814:
1809:
1804:
1799:
1794:
1789:
1784:
1779:
1774:
1769:
1764:
1759:
1757:Abiotic stress
1754:
1748:
1746:
1742:
1741:
1725:
1724:
1717:
1710:
1702:
1695:
1694:
1676:(6): 1422–31.
1665:
1655:(10): 474–80.
1644:
1607:
1586:
1565:
1535:10.1086/321319
1518:
1492:(6): 1482–91.
1480:
1478:
1475:
1473:
1472:
1437:(2): 157–168.
1417:
1393:
1344:
1285:
1242:
1215:(5): 1075–85.
1195:
1154:
1119:
1100:(3): 732–759.
1084:
1065:
1026:
1013:10.1086/285139
991:
952:
904:
869:
850:
815:(3): 348–355.
799:
792:
774:
767:
749:
728:10.1086/503531
701:
663:
652:(8): 2727–39.
636:
617:(7): 2037–45.
601:
563:
550:10.1086/285966
525:
479:
466:10.1086/284880
437:
426:(2): 181–208.
409:
407:
404:
403:
402:
397:
392:
387:
382:
377:
375:Metapopulation
372:
367:
362:
357:
352:
345:
342:
325:
322:
297:
294:
269:
266:
263:
262:
259:
258:
247:
246:
235:
224:
217:
209:
208:
197:
190:
183:
177:
176:
173:
170:
167:
60:
57:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3314:
3303:
3300:
3298:
3295:
3293:
3290:
3288:
3285:
3283:
3280:
3278:
3275:
3273:
3270:
3269:
3267:
3254:
3249:
3243:
3240:
3238:
3237:Urban ecology
3235:
3233:
3230:
3228:
3225:
3223:
3220:
3218:
3215:
3213:
3210:
3208:
3205:
3203:
3200:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3190:
3188:
3185:
3183:
3180:
3178:
3175:
3173:
3170:
3168:
3165:
3163:
3160:
3158:
3155:
3153:
3150:
3148:
3145:
3143:
3140:
3138:
3135:
3133:
3130:
3129:
3127:
3123:
3117:
3114:
3112:
3109:
3107:
3104:
3102:
3099:
3097:
3096:Kleiber's law
3094:
3092:
3089:
3087:
3084:
3082:
3079:
3077:
3074:
3072:
3069:
3067:
3064:
3062:
3059:
3057:
3054:
3052:
3049:
3047:
3044:
3042:
3039:
3037:
3034:
3033:
3031:
3029:
3023:
3017:
3014:
3012:
3009:
3007:
3004:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2994:
2990:
2987:
2986:
2985:
2982:
2980:
2977:
2975:
2972:
2970:
2967:
2965:
2962:
2960:
2957:
2956:
2954:
2952:
2948:
2942:
2939:
2937:
2934:
2932:
2930:
2926:
2922:
2920:
2917:
2915:
2912:
2910:
2907:
2905:
2902:
2900:
2897:
2895:
2892:
2890:
2887:
2885:
2882:
2880:
2877:
2875:
2872:
2870:
2869:Foster's rule
2867:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2857:
2855:
2852:
2850:
2847:
2845:
2842:
2840:
2837:
2835:
2832:
2831:
2829:
2827:
2821:
2815:
2812:
2810:
2807:
2805:
2802:
2800:
2797:
2795:
2792:
2790:
2787:
2785:
2782:
2780:
2777:
2775:
2772:
2770:
2767:
2766:
2764:
2758:
2752:
2749:
2747:
2744:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2719:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2709:
2707:
2704:
2702:
2699:
2697:
2694:
2692:
2689:
2687:
2684:
2682:
2679:
2677:
2673:
2670:
2668:
2665:
2663:
2660:
2658:
2655:
2653:
2650:
2648:
2645:
2643:
2640:
2638:
2635:
2633:
2630:
2628:
2625:
2624:
2622:
2618:
2612:
2609:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
2596:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2585:
2582:
2580:
2577:
2575:
2572:
2570:
2567:
2565:
2562:
2560:
2557:
2555:
2552:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2542:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2522:
2520:
2517:
2515:
2512:
2510:
2507:
2505:
2502:
2500:
2497:
2496:
2494:
2492:
2486:
2481:
2477:
2470:
2465:
2463:
2458:
2456:
2451:
2450:
2447:
2435:
2432:
2430:
2427:
2425:
2422:
2420:
2417:
2415:
2412:
2410:
2407:
2405:
2402:
2400:
2397:
2396:
2394:
2388:
2382:
2379:
2377:
2374:
2372:
2369:
2367:
2364:
2362:
2359:
2357:
2354:
2352:
2349:
2347:
2344:
2342:
2339:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2319:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2299:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2289:
2287:
2284:
2282:
2279:
2277:
2274:
2273:
2271:
2267:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2241:
2239:
2236:
2234:
2231:
2229:
2226:
2225:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2216:
2214:
2211:
2209:
2206:
2204:
2201:
2200:
2198:
2194:
2188:
2187:Trophic level
2185:
2183:
2180:
2178:
2175:
2173:
2170:
2168:
2165:
2163:
2160:
2159:
2157:
2155:
2151:
2145:
2144:Phage ecology
2142:
2140:
2137:
2135:
2134:Microbial mat
2132:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2122:
2120:
2117:
2115:
2112:
2110:
2107:
2105:
2102:
2100:
2097:
2095:
2092:
2090:
2089:Bacteriophage
2087:
2085:
2082:
2081:
2079:
2077:
2073:
2067:
2064:
2062:
2059:
2057:
2056:Decomposition
2054:
2052:
2049:
2048:
2046:
2044:
2040:
2034:
2031:
2029:
2026:
2024:
2021:
2019:
2016:
2014:
2011:
2009:
2006:
2004:
2003:Mesopredators
2001:
1999:
1996:
1994:
1991:
1989:
1986:
1984:
1981:
1979:
1976:
1974:
1971:
1969:
1966:
1964:
1961:
1959:
1956:
1954:
1951:
1949:
1948:Apex predator
1946:
1945:
1943:
1941:
1937:
1931:
1928:
1926:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1916:
1913:
1911:
1908:
1906:
1903:
1901:
1898:
1896:
1893:
1891:
1888:
1886:
1883:
1881:
1878:
1876:
1873:
1871:
1868:
1866:
1863:
1861:
1858:
1857:
1855:
1853:
1849:
1843:
1840:
1838:
1835:
1833:
1830:
1828:
1825:
1823:
1820:
1818:
1815:
1813:
1810:
1808:
1805:
1803:
1800:
1798:
1795:
1793:
1790:
1788:
1785:
1783:
1782:Biotic stress
1780:
1778:
1775:
1773:
1770:
1768:
1765:
1763:
1760:
1758:
1755:
1753:
1750:
1749:
1747:
1743:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1723:
1718:
1716:
1711:
1709:
1704:
1703:
1700:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1618:(2): 442–50.
1617:
1613:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1576:(5): 559–63.
1575:
1571:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1545:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1529:(3): 277–85.
1528:
1524:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1482:
1481:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1421:
1413:
1409:
1402:
1400:
1398:
1389:
1385:
1380:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1348:
1340:
1336:
1331:
1326:
1321:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1289:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1253:
1246:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1199:
1190:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1174:(7): 601–13.
1173:
1169:
1165:
1158:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1135:(3): 239–55.
1134:
1130:
1123:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1088:
1080:
1076:
1069:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1046:(4): 427–33.
1045:
1041:
1037:
1030:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1002:
995:
987:
983:
979:
975:
971:
967:
963:
956:
948:
944:
940:
936:
932:
928:
925:(3): 417–33.
924:
920:
913:
911:
909:
900:
896:
892:
888:
884:
880:
873:
865:
861:
854:
846:
842:
838:
834:
830:
826:
822:
818:
814:
810:
803:
795:
789:
785:
778:
770:
764:
760:
753:
745:
741:
737:
733:
729:
725:
722:(6): 925–38.
721:
717:
710:
708:
706:
697:
693:
689:
685:
681:
677:
670:
668:
659:
655:
651:
647:
640:
632:
628:
624:
620:
616:
612:
605:
597:
593:
589:
585:
582:(8): 326–30.
581:
577:
570:
568:
559:
555:
551:
547:
544:(6): 957–75.
543:
539:
532:
530:
521:
517:
513:
509:
505:
501:
498:(1): 126–30.
497:
493:
486:
484:
475:
471:
467:
463:
460:(5): 652–61.
459:
455:
448:
446:
444:
442:
433:
429:
425:
421:
414:
410:
401:
398:
396:
393:
391:
388:
386:
383:
381:
378:
376:
373:
371:
368:
366:
363:
361:
358:
356:
353:
351:
348:
347:
341:
339:
338:no-take zones
335:
330:
321:
319:
315:
314:metacommunity
311:
306:
303:
293:
289:
287:
283:
279:
274:
257:
253:
252:
248:
245:Net importer
243:
242:
236:
234:Net importer
230:
229:
225:
223:Net importer
218:
214:or trap patch
211:
210:
207:Net exporter
205:
204:
198:
196:Net exporter
191:
189:Net exporter
184:
179:
178:
174:
171:
168:
166:
165:
159:
157:
153:
151:
147:
143:
138:
136:
132:
128:
124:
118:
116:
112:
106:
104:
100:
96:
90:
88:
87:(see Table 1)
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
56:
54:
50:
46:
41:
35:
33:
29:
25:
21:
3222:Regime shift
3207:Macroecology
2940:
2928:
2924:
2864:Edge effects
2834:Biogeography
2779:Commensalism
2627:Biodiversity
2504:Allee effect
2243:kelp forests
2196:Example webs
2061:Detritivores
1900:Organotrophs
1880:Kinetotrophs
1832:Productivity
1673:
1669:
1652:
1648:
1615:
1611:
1594:
1590:
1573:
1569:
1526:
1522:
1489:
1485:
1434:
1430:
1420:
1411:
1407:
1364:(1): 55–65.
1361:
1357:
1347:
1302:
1298:
1288:
1258:(1): 50–58.
1255:
1251:
1245:
1212:
1208:
1198:
1171:
1167:
1157:
1132:
1128:
1122:
1097:
1093:
1087:
1074:
1068:
1043:
1039:
1029:
1004:
1000:
994:
972:(1): 45–52.
969:
965:
955:
922:
918:
882:
878:
872:
863:
859:
853:
812:
808:
802:
783:
777:
758:
752:
719:
715:
679:
675:
649:
645:
639:
614:
610:
604:
579:
575:
541:
537:
512:10.2307/5833
495:
491:
457:
453:
423:
419:
413:
331:
327:
324:Conservation
307:
299:
290:
275:
271:
254:
240:
239:
227:
226:
202:
201:
180:Source patch
169:Source–sink
158:
154:
145:
139:
134:
126:
119:
114:
107:
102:
91:
62:
53:conservation
36:
19:
18:
2859:Disturbance
2762:interaction
2584:Recruitment
2514:Depensation
2306:Copiotrophs
2177:Energy flow
2099:Lithotrophy
2043:Decomposers
2023:Planktivore
1998:Insectivore
1988:Heterotroph
1953:Bacterivore
1920:Phototrophs
1870:Chemotrophs
1842:Restoration
1792:Competition
1544:10261/50227
142:wood thrush
101:butterfly (
74:immigration
55:decisions.
40:individuals
3282:Population
3266:Categories
3227:Sexecology
2804:Parasitism
2769:Antibiosis
2604:Resistance
2599:Resilience
2489:Population
2409:Camouflage
2361:Oligotroph
2276:Ascendency
2238:intertidal
2228:cold seeps
2182:Food chain
1983:Herbivores
1958:Carnivores
1885:Mixotrophs
1860:Autotrophs
1739:components
1007:: S50-66.
406:References
194:Attractive
187:Attractive
111:Costa Rica
82:emigration
66:BIDE rates
28:population
3132:Allometry
3086:Emergence
2814:Symbiosis
2799:Mutualism
2594:Stability
2499:Abundance
2311:Dominance
2269:Processes
2258:tide pool
2154:Food webs
2028:Predation
2013:Omnivores
1940:Consumers
1895:Mycotroph
1852:Producers
1797:Ecosystem
1762:Behaviour
1459:1438-3896
1408:Fisheries
1280:1600-0706
1237:266029513
885:: 121–5.
866:: 69–212.
809:Oecologia
135:E. editha
32:organisms
3187:Endolith
3116:Xerosere
3028:networks
2844:Ecocline
2390:Defense,
2066:Detritus
1968:Foraging
1837:Resource
1640:85652768
1553:18707324
1467:24276021
1414:: 16–19.
1388:27677529
1339:26047010
1299:PLOS ONE
1229:16761584
1114:92108810
1021:85125604
986:89682949
837:28310394
736:16615034
696:17249228
596:21237863
558:85253063
474:84423952
344:See also
334:reserves
123:blue tit
3177:Ecopath
2984:Habitat
2854:Ecotype
2849:Ecotone
2826:ecology
2824:Spatial
2760:Species
2620:Species
2491:ecology
2476:Ecology
2424:Mimicry
2392:counter
2336:f-ratio
2084:Archaea
1772:Biomass
1745:General
1737:Trophic
1729:Ecology
1678:Bibcode
1670:Ecology
1620:Bibcode
1591:Ecology
1561:1345605
1514:2383356
1494:Bibcode
1439:Bibcode
1366:Bibcode
1330:4457784
1307:Bibcode
1260:Bibcode
1209:Ecology
1176:Bibcode
1137:Bibcode
1060:4072271
1040:The Auk
947:3546763
927:Bibcode
887:Bibcode
845:7778352
817:Bibcode
744:8952958
676:Ecology
646:Ecology
619:Bibcode
611:Ecology
500:Bibcode
360:Ecology
286:fitness
221:Avoided
131:Corsica
49:patches
24:habitat
2208:Rivers
2104:Marine
1638:
1559:
1551:
1512:
1465:
1457:
1386:
1337:
1327:
1278:
1235:
1227:
1112:
1058:
1019:
984:
945:
843:
835:
790:
765:
742:
734:
694:
594:
556:
518:
472:
232:Either
80:, and
3125:Other
3026:Other
2979:Guild
2951:Niche
2203:Lakes
1636:S2CID
1557:S2CID
1510:S2CID
1463:S2CID
1252:Oikos
1233:S2CID
1110:S2CID
1056:JSTOR
1017:S2CID
982:S2CID
943:JSTOR
919:Oikos
841:S2CID
740:S2CID
554:S2CID
516:JSTOR
470:S2CID
302:niche
78:death
70:birth
2213:Soil
1549:PMID
1455:ISSN
1384:PMID
1335:PMID
1276:ISSN
1225:PMID
833:PMID
788:ISBN
763:ISBN
732:PMID
692:PMID
592:PMID
520:5833
1686:doi
1657:doi
1628:doi
1599:doi
1578:doi
1539:hdl
1531:doi
1527:158
1502:doi
1447:doi
1374:doi
1325:PMC
1315:doi
1268:doi
1217:doi
1184:doi
1145:doi
1102:doi
1048:doi
1009:doi
1005:137
974:doi
935:doi
895:doi
883:113
825:doi
724:doi
720:167
684:doi
654:doi
627:doi
584:doi
546:doi
542:148
508:doi
462:doi
458:132
428:doi
3268::
2674:/
2478::
1735::
1731::
1684:.
1674:86
1672:.
1653:17
1651:.
1634:.
1626:.
1616:12
1614:.
1595:81
1593:.
1574:50
1572:.
1555:.
1547:.
1537:.
1525:.
1508:.
1500:.
1490:18
1488:.
1461:.
1453:.
1445:.
1435:59
1433:.
1429:.
1412:23
1410:.
1396:^
1382:.
1372:.
1362:86
1360:.
1356:.
1333:.
1323:.
1313:.
1303:10
1301:.
1297:.
1274:.
1266:.
1256:93
1254:.
1231:.
1223:.
1213:87
1211:.
1207:.
1182:.
1170:.
1166:.
1143:.
1133:57
1131:.
1108:.
1098:35
1096:.
1054:.
1044:34
1042:.
1038:.
1015:.
1003:.
980:.
970:19
968:.
964:.
941:.
933:.
923:81
921:.
907:^
893:.
881:.
862:.
839:.
831:.
823:.
813:52
811:.
738:.
730:.
718:.
704:^
690:.
680:87
678:.
666:^
650:80
648:.
625:.
615:85
613:.
590:.
580:11
578:.
566:^
552:.
540:.
528:^
514:.
506:.
494:.
482:^
468:.
456:.
440:^
424:28
422:.
89:.
76:,
72:,
34:.
2929:K
2927:/
2925:r
2468:e
2461:t
2454:v
1721:e
1714:t
1707:v
1692:.
1688::
1680::
1663:.
1659::
1642:.
1630::
1622::
1605:.
1601::
1584:.
1580::
1563:.
1541::
1533::
1516:.
1504::
1496::
1469:.
1449::
1441::
1390:.
1376::
1368::
1341:.
1317::
1309::
1282:.
1270::
1262::
1239:.
1219::
1192:.
1186::
1178::
1172:7
1151:.
1147::
1139::
1116:.
1104::
1062:.
1050::
1023:.
1011::
988:.
976::
949:.
937::
929::
901:.
897::
889::
864:2
847:.
827::
819::
796:.
771:.
746:.
726::
698:.
686::
660:.
656::
633:.
629::
621::
598:.
586::
560:.
548::
522:.
510::
502::
496:1
476:.
464::
434:.
430::
144:(
125:(
68:(
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