20:
1282:
934:
297:, but every person cannot be shielded from all the burdens incident to exercising every aspect of the right to practice religious beliefs. When followers of a particular sect enter into commercial activity as a matter of choice, the limits they accept on their own conduct as a matter of conscience and faith are not to be superimposed on the statutory schemes which are binding on others in that activity. Granting an exemption from social security taxes to an employer operates to impose the employer's religious faith on the employees.
938:, Kara Loewentheil, Jennifer Drobac, Rob Katz, Fran Quigley, Florence Wagman Roisman, Lea Shaver, Deborah Widiss , Susan H. Williams, Carwina Weng, Jeannine Bell, Aviva Orenstein, Shawn Marie Boyne, Jeffrey O. Cooper, Ira C. Lupu, Nelson Tebbe, Robert W. Tuttle, Ariela Gross, Naomi Mezey, Caroline Mala Corbin, Richard C. Schragger, Micah J. Schwartzman, Steven K. Green, Nomi Stolzenberg, Sarah Barringer Gordon, Frederick Mark Gedicks, Claudia E. Haupt, Marci A. Hamilton, Laura S. Underkuffl and Carlos A. Ball (February 27, 2015).
283:(1985): "The First Amendment ... gives no one the right to insist that, in pursuit of their own interests others must conform their conduct to his own religious necessities.'" Relying on that statement they point that the U.S. Constitution allows special exemptions for religious actors, but only when they don't work to impose costs on others. Insisting on "the constitutional importance of avoiding burdenshifting to third parties when considering accommodations for religion" they point out the case of
189:, guaranteeing religious freedom, has been violated. In the federal Religious Freedom Restoration Act, which usually serves as a model for state RFRAs, Congress states in its findings that a religiously neutral law can burden a religion just as much as one that was intended to interfere with religion; therefore the act states that the "Government shall not substantially burden a person's exercise of religion even if the burden results from a rule of general applicability."
277:
on religious actors if that means shifting meaningful burdens to third parties. This principle protects against the possibility that the government could impose the beliefs of some citizens on other citizens, thereby taking sides in religious disputes among private parties. Avoiding that kind of official bias on questions as charged as religious ones is a core norm of the First
Amendment." The Supreme Court for example stated in
956:
Murray, Baucus, Boxer, Brown, Cantwell, Cardin, Durbin, Feinstein, Harkin, Johnson, Leahy, Levin, Markey, Menendez, Mikulski, Reid, Sanders, Schumer, And Wyden As Amici Curiae In
Support Of Hobby Lobby Petitioners And Conestoga Respondents, Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Inc., 134. U.S. 2751 (2014) (' could not have anticipated, and did not intend, such a broad and unprecedented expansion of RFRA.').
215:, writing that "Congress could not have anticipated, and did not intend, such a broad and unprecedented expansion of RFRA. ... The test Congress reinstated through RFRA ... extended free-exercise rights only to individuals and to religious, non-profit organizations. No Supreme Court precedent had extended free-exercise rights to secular, for-profit corporations."
635:
On May 20, 2019, the Texas House passed a version of Senate Bill 1978 which prohibits the government from penalizing anyone for “membership in, affiliation with, or contribution...to a religious organization.” The bill was expected to pass the Senate again rapidly and to be signed by the governor. On
276:
jurisprudence under that "neither the government nor the law may accommodate religious belief by lifting burdens on religious actors if doing so shifts those burdens to third parties. The
Supreme Court has consistently held that the government may not accommodate religious belief by lifting burdens
234:
defines a "person" as "a partnership, a limited liability company, a corporation, a company, a firm, a society, a joint-stock company, an unincorporated association" or another entity driven by religious belief that can sue and be sued, "regardless of whether the entity is organized and operated for
260:
reports that "Conservatives in
Indiana and elsewhere see the Religious Freedom Restoration Act as a vehicle for fighting back against the legalization of same-sex marriage." Despite being of intense interest to religious groups, state RFRAs have never been successfully used to defend discrimination
1283:
Katherine Franke, Kara
Loewentheil, Jennifer Drobac, Rob Katz, Fran Quigley, Florence Wagman Roisman, Lea Shaver, Deborah Widiss , Susan H. Williams, Carwina Weng, Jeannine Bell, Aviva Orenstein, Shawn Marie Boyne, Jeffrey O. Cooper, Ira C. Lupu, Nelson Tebbe, Robert W. Tuttle, Ariela Gross, Naomi
192:
The federal RFRA provided an exception if two conditions are both met. First, the burden must be necessary for the "furtherance of a compelling government interest". Under strict scrutiny, a government interest is compelling when it is more than routine and does more than simply improve government
210:
recognizing a for-profit corporation's claim of religious belief. Nineteen members of
Congress who signed the original RFRA stated in a submission to the Supreme Court that they "could not have anticipated, and did not intend, such a broad and unprecedented expansion of RFRA". The United States
955:
Nineteen members of
Congress who voted for the passage of the law in 1993 have now withdrawn their support for the federal RFRA given that it has been interpreted by the courts in ways that were not intended by the Congress at the time of the law's passage. See Brief For United States Senators
502:, signed a religious freedom bill into law. The version of the bill he signed was more narrow in scope than the original version, which would have required state and local governments to demonstrate a compelling governmental interest to be able to infringe on someone's religious beliefs.
49:. The laws mandate that religious liberty of individuals can only be limited by the "least restrictive means of furthering a compelling government interest". Originally, the federal law was intended to apply to federal, state, and local governments. In 1997, the U.S. Supreme Court in
55:
held that the
Religious Freedom Restoration Act only applies to the federal government but not states and other local municipalities within them. As a result, 21 states have passed their own RFRAs that apply to their individual state and local governments.
606:
passed a religious freedom bill. Senate
Democrats tried to stop the bill with a 39-hour filibuster, but Republicans responded by forcing a vote using a rarely used procedural maneuver, which resulted in the bill passing. In April, it was defeated 6-6 in a
1284:
Mezey, Caroline Mala Corbin, Richard C. Schragger, Micah J. Schwartzman, Steven K. Green, Nomi
Stolzenberg, Sarah Barringer Gordon, Frederick Mark Gedicks, Claudia E. Haupt, Marci A. Hamilton, Laura S. Underkuffl and Carlos A. Ball (February 27, 2015).
697:
social conservatives have been re-energized in their push for "religious freedom" laws after the Supreme Court's decision in a health care-related case that allowed Hobby Lobby and other businesses to opt not to provide insurance coverage for
586:, signed into law a bill that protects people from government punishment if they refuse to serve others on the basis of their own religious objection to same-sex marriage, transgender people, or extramarital sex. The sponsors of "
246:
for-profit corporations from the proposed law, but the amendment was rejected because it would not give protections to closely held corporations to practice religious freedoms granted by the Supreme Court in the Hobby Lobby case.
193:
efficiency. A compelling interest relates directly with core constitutional issues. The second condition is that the rule must be the least restrictive way in which to further the government interest.
1285:
261:
against gay people—and have rarely been used at all. The New York Times noted in March 2015 that state RFRAs became so controversial is due to their timing, context and substance following the
824:"Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc. (slip opinion), Concurring opinion by judge Anthony Kennedy at page 1 of that concurring opinion respectively page 56 of 95 of the slip opinion in general"
1099:
1860:
148:
decision in 1997, which ruled that the RFRA is not a proper exercise of Congress's enforcement power. However, it continues to be applied to the federal government—for instance, in
731:
636:
June 10, 2019 the governor signed the bill officially into law and it took effect immediately. Some have called it the "Save Chick-fil-A" law, given that the fast-food chain
158:
and other related RFRA issues, twenty-one individual states have passed State Religious Freedom Restoration Acts that apply to state governments and local municipalities.
1943:
150:
1762:
1254:
2125:
1060:
848:
1013:
1334:
2047:
994:
235:
profit or nonprofit purposes". Indiana Democrats proposed an amendment that would not permit businesses to discriminate and the amendment was voted down.
1131:
1600:
1292:
939:
1531:
1482:
1460:
2251:
186:
1229:
627:, signed into law SB 149, which allows taxpayer-funded adoption agencies to deny services under circumstances that conflict with religious beliefs.
1741:
1317:
1214:
1078:
968:
526:
threatened to pull future productions from the state if the bill became law. Many other companies had also been opposed to the bill, including the
2177:
154:—because Congress has broad authority to carve out exemptions from federal laws and regulations that it itself has authorized. In response to
2021:
1837:
1814:
1868:
749:
238:
An RFRA bill in Georgia has stalled, with constituents expressing concern to Georgia lawmakers about the financial impacts of such a bill.
19:
561:
551:
182:
2216:
1508:
735:
1434:
68:
1891:
1553:
1168:
1575:
2246:
211:
government stated a similar position in a brief for the case submitted before the U.S. Supreme Court handed down its decision in
805:
1187:
250:
Some commentators believe that the existence of a state-level RFRA bill in Washington could have affected the outcome of the
222:
decision, many states have proposed expanding state RFRA laws to include for-profit corporations, including in Arizona where
2151:
671:
573:
434:
An additional 9 states have RFRA-like provisions that were provided by state court decisions rather than via legislation:
206:
33: 16 states had RFRA legislation proposed during the 2015 legislative season. Only two, Indiana and Arkansas, passed.
2073:
688:
279:
80:
72:
45:(RFRA), a federal law that was passed almost unanimously by the U.S. Congress in 1993 and signed into law by President
564:, allowing business owners who object to same-sex couples on religious grounds to opt out of providing them services.
919:
894:
608:
42:
1411:
856:
657:
515:
120:
108:
1995:
1727:
1100:"'Religious liberty' bill takes a sharp rightward turn, convention industry says $ 15 million in business at risk"
1917:
1663:
1011:
1117:
2099:
779:
713:
285:
251:
1046:
242:
proposed an amendment to change references of "persons" to "individuals", which would have eliminated
1788:
92:
1061:"Did Barack Obama vote for Religious Freedom Restoration Act with 'very same' wording as Indiana's?"
1641:
1354:
527:
243:
144:
51:
1032:
757:
591:
368:
318:
If religious liberty is to be limited, it must be done in the least restrictive manner possible
268:
Several law professors from Indiana stated that State Religious Freedom Restoration Acts like "
823:
1746:
1338:
1150:
603:
535:
611:
committee vote, with three Republicans joining three Democrats in voting against the bill.
511:
294:
273:
332:
Legislatures of 28 states have enacted versions of the Religious Freedom Restoration Act:
8:
2217:"Texas is about to get a 'Save Chick-fil-A' law that legalizes anti-LGBTQ discrimination"
1132:"LGBT rights amendment proves to be 'poison pill' for Georgia's 'religious freedom' bill"
594:
at the state level across the United States, see Mississippi's law as model legislation.
523:
100:
1341:
173:
167:
84:
1601:"Opinion: Is Iowa's new Religious Freedom Restoration Act a license to discriminate?"
1311:
1208:
962:
915:
890:
1968:
1012:
How Hobby Lobby paved the way for Indiana's 'religious freedom' bill (27 Mar 2015).
76:
935:
343:
112:
620:
474:
310:
223:
178:
1255:"Context for the Debate on 'Religious Freedom' Measures in Indiana and Arkansas"
1861:"Colorado Victory: Discriminatory Legislation Does Not Progress in Legislature"
1705:
1576:"Conference Committee Report Digest for ESB 50; Citations Affected. IC 34-13-9"
1185:
499:
360:
269:
231:
27: 20 states had existing RFRA laws prior to their 2015 legislative session.
1614:
982:
Mott, Ronni. "Hobby Lobby Wages War on Birth Control". The Jackson Free Press.
2240:
587:
162:
124:
104:
590:," a coalition of conservative Christian organizations supporting dozens of
306:
Mandates courts use the following when considering religious liberty cases:
204:
In 2014, the United States Supreme Court handed down a landmark decision in
2201:
1918:"Ga. governor cites Jesus in signaling 'religious freedom' bill opposition"
624:
239:
142:
The federal RFRA was held unconstitutional as applied to the states in the
136:
46:
1996:"Georgia's 'anti-LGBT' bill: These companies are speaking out the loudest"
1838:"Klingenschmitt bill to amend Colorado anti-discrimination bill shot down"
1664:"The Mississippi Religious Freedom Restoration Act (Senate Bill No. 2681)"
315:
Religious liberty can only be limited for a compelling government interest
293:
Congress and the courts have been sensitive to the needs flowing from the
2178:"Texas House passes religious liberty bill amid LGBTQ Caucus' objections"
1691:
1432:
637:
583:
579:
519:
132:
116:
1286:"Letter to Representative Ed DeLaney (Indiana House of Representatives)"
940:"Letter to Representative Ed DeLaney (Indiana House of Representatives)"
870:
1944:"Georgia governor vetoes religious freedom bill criticized as anti-gay"
1728:"Utah 'religious freedom' bill advances to Senate • Utah News Dispatch"
1529:
1192:
557:
531:
478:
257:
227:
128:
71:, Pub. L. No. 103-141, 107 Stat. 1488 (November 16, 1993), codified at
1014:"How Hobby Lobby paved the way for Indiana's 'religious freedom' bill"
995:"RFRA Madness: What's Next for Anti-Democratic 'Religious Exemptions'"
115:) on March 11, 1993. A companion bill was introduced in the Senate by
2100:"Missouri 'religious freedom bill' passes as 39-hour filibuster ends"
1706:"An Act to provide protections for the exercise of religious freedom"
1435:"Bills on 'Religious Freedom' Upset Capitols in Arkansas and Indiana"
473:
Some states have had legislation withdrawn or vetoed. Arizona's bill
135:—three senators voted against passage—passed the bill, and President
2126:"Missouri 'Religious Freedom' Bill Defeated In House Committee Vote"
1815:"Lawmakers wrestle with religious rights and nondiscrimination laws"
539:
522:, vetoed the bill after multiple Hollywood figures, as well as the
495:
96:
1186:
Lauren Carroll, Katie Sanders, Aaron Sharockman (March 29, 2015).
806:"Apple's Tim Cook 'deeply disappointed' in Indiana's anti-gay law"
689:"NCAA 'concerned' over Indiana law that allows biz to reject gays"
518:
passed a religious freedom bill. On March 28, Georgia's governor,
1642:"Mississippi Governor Signs Controversial Religious Freedom Bill"
481:. Bills 1161 and 1171 have been vetoed by a Colorado committee.
2048:"Mississippi Governor Signs 'Religious Freedom' Bill Into Law"
1291:. Columbia University in the City of New York. Archived from
1433:
Campbell Robertson and Richard PĂ©res-Pena (March 31, 2015).
1047:"Arizona gov. vetoes controversial 'religious freedom' bill"
1033:"Arizona Gov. Jan Brewer vetoes controversial bill, SB 1062"
660:. National Conference of State Legislatures. March 30, 2015.
484:
1742:"West Virginia GOP governor signs 'religious freedom' bill"
1509:"Here it is: The text of Indiana's 'religious freedom' law"
1483:"Gov. Mike Pence signs 'religious freedom' bill in private"
1461:"Gov. Mike Pence signs 'religious freedom' bill in private"
1227:
640:
has been criticized for its donations to anti-LGBT causes.
1230:"Religious freedom laws not used against gays in the past"
151:
Gonzales v. O Centro Espirita Beneficente Uniao do Vegetal
2152:"South Dakota governor signs first anti-LGBT law of 2017"
1763:"31 states have heightened religious freedom protections"
1692:"Nebraska LB43 | 2023-2024 | 108th Legislature"
1530:
Tony Cook, Tom LoBianco and Brian Eason (April 2, 2015).
1414:. National Conference of State Legislatures. July 6, 2015
1118:"Georgia House Committee Tables 'Religious Liberty' Bill"
674:. National Conference of State Legislatures. 30 Mar 2015.
1169:"Analysis Indiana Religious Freedom Law is not Anti-Gay"
732:"Indiana's Religious Freedom Restoration Act, Explained"
301:
2202:"Texas SB1978 | 2019-2020 | 86th Legislature"
1079:"What Makes Indiana's Religious-Freedom Law Different?"
708:
706:
1892:"Arkansas governor signs new 'religious freedom' bill"
672:"2015 State Religious Freedom Restoration Legislation"
1249:
1247:
1030:
750:"Full Text of the Religious Freedom Restoraction Act"
1941:
1858:
1789:"1A. What Is the Religious Freedom Restoration Act?"
1361:. Lewis Roca Rothgerber Religious Institutions Group
780:"1A. What Is the Religious Freedom Restoration Act?"
714:"1A. What Is the Religious Freedom Restoration Act?"
703:
2022:"Indiana's Governor Signs 'Religious Freedom' Bill"
1969:"Governor of Georgia vetoes religious freedom bill"
1244:
2045:
1151:"The Christian conscience of Barronelle Stutzman"
187:First Amendment to the United States Constitution
2238:
2123:
1331:United States v. Lee (1982)|United States v. Lee
912:Deciding communication law: key cases in context
272:" are in conflict with the U.S. Supreme Court's
1993:
1053:
869:Religious Freedom Restoration Act full text at
2149:
1278:
1276:
1228:Rachel Zoll and David Crary (March 31, 2015).
887:American Indians: Answers to Today's Questions
2097:
2019:
1915:
1889:
1786:
945:. Columbia University in the City of New York
889:. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 159.
1817:. The Washington Times. The Associated Press
1316:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1213:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
967:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
829:. United States Supreme Court. June 30, 2014
1273:
914:. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
552:Religious Freedom Restoration Act (Indiana)
1708:. South Dakota Legislature. March 10, 2021
1621:. Kentucky Legislative Research Commission
1412:"State Religious Freedom Restoration Acts"
1355:"State Religious Freedom Restoration Acts"
1094:
1092:
992:
658:"State Religious Freedom Restoration Acts"
429:
2214:
853:National Conference of State Legislatures
683:
681:
485:Additional details on specific state laws
69:Religious Freedom Restoration Act of 1993
2252:United States legislation about religion
1883:
1835:
1760:
1554:"Read the text of proposed RFRA changes"
1406:
1404:
1402:
1400:
1398:
1396:
880:
878:
39:State Religious Freedom Restoration Acts
18:
2175:
2071:
1859:Hope Errico Wisneski (March 10, 2014).
1394:
1392:
1390:
1388:
1386:
1384:
1382:
1380:
1378:
1376:
1188:"Fact-checking the March 29 news shows"
1104:The Atlanta Journal-Constitution (blog)
1089:
2239:
1942:Somashekhar, Sandhya (28 March 2016).
1812:
1639:
798:
678:
337:Alabama (state constitution amendment)
1031:Catherine E. Shoichet (27 Feb 2015).
884:
875:
871:http://www.prop1.org/rainbow/rfra.htm
302:Effects of RFRAs on state court cases
181:be used when determining whether the
1458:
1373:
1148:
909:
863:
574:Religious Liberty Accommodations Act
322:
16:1993 state laws in the United States
226:passed by in Arizona but vetoed by
207:Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc.
196:
13:
2124:Farrington, Dara (27 April 2016).
2072:Stewart, Katherine (26 May 2018).
2046:Domonoske, Camila (5 April 2016).
1836:Schrader, Megan (March 10, 2015).
1787:Eugene Volokh (December 2, 2013).
1761:Eilperin, Juliet (March 1, 2014).
280:Estate of Thornton v. Caldor, Inc.
59:
14:
2263:
1994:Wattles, Jackie (25 March 2016).
754:religiousfreedom.lib.virginia.edu
609:Missouri House of Representatives
562:Religious Freedom Restoration Act
327:
43:Religious Freedom Restoration Act
2150:Johnson, Chris (10 March 2017).
1532:"Gov. Mike Pence signs RFRA fix"
1149:Burk, Denny (20 February 2015).
981:
516:Georgia House of Representatives
95:that "ensures that interests in
2208:
2194:
2169:
2143:
2117:
2091:
2074:"A Christian Nationalist Blitz"
2065:
2039:
2020:Neuman, Scott (26 March 2015).
2013:
1987:
1961:
1935:
1916:Botehlo, Greg (17 March 2016).
1909:
1852:
1829:
1806:
1780:
1754:
1734:
1720:
1698:
1684:
1656:
1633:
1607:
1593:
1568:
1546:
1523:
1501:
1475:
1452:
1426:
1347:
1324:
1221:
1179:
1161:
1142:
1124:
1110:
1071:
1039:
1024:
1005:
993:Michaelson, Jay (16 Nov 2014).
986:
975:
928:
903:
841:
614:
494:In April 2015, the governor of
289:(1982). Here the court stated:
2247:State law in the United States
2215:Bollinger, Alex (2019-05-21).
2098:Botehlo, Greg (9 March 2016).
1890:Trager, Kevin (2 April 2015).
1813:Moreno, Ivan (March 9, 2015).
1640:Rogers, Alex (April 4, 2015).
1556:. The Indy Star. April 2, 2015
1511:. The Indy Star. April 2, 2015
849:"State Religious Freedom Acts"
816:
772:
742:
724:
664:
650:
567:
103:was introduced by Congressman
1:
855:. May 5, 2017. Archived from
643:
2176:Platoff, Emma (2019-05-20).
1459:Cook, Tony (April 2, 2015).
1120:. 90.1 FM WABE. 26 Mar 2015.
468:
161:State RFRA laws require the
127:) the same day. A unanimous
99:freedom are protected." The
41:are state laws based on the
7:
597:
489:
10:
2268:
571:
549:
545:
505:
1865:The Human Rights Campaign
1671:billstatus.ls.state.ms.us
1049:. Aljazeera. 26 Feb 2015.
592:"religious liberty" bills
165:, which was set forth by
93:United States federal law
630:
528:National Football League
252:Arlene's Flowers lawsuit
156:City of Boerne v. Flores
145:City of Boerne v. Flores
52:City of Boerne v. Flores
477:was vetoed by Governor
430:By state court decision
131:and a nearly unanimous
1359:www.churchstatelaw.com
1232:. The Associated Press
602:On March 9, 2016, the
299:
220:Burwell v. Hobby Lobby
213:Burwell v. Hobby Lobby
35:
1793:The Volokh Conspiracy
1747:Associated Press News
784:The Volokh Conspiracy
718:The Volokh Conspiracy
604:Missouri State Senate
536:the Coca-Cola Company
291:
22:
910:Ross, Susan (2004).
885:Utter, Jack (2001).
859:on December 6, 2020.
556:In March 2015, Gov.
512:Georgia State Senate
295:Free Exercise Clause
286:United States v. Lee
274:Free Exercise Clause
183:Free Exercise Clause
139:signed it into law.
1767:The Washington Post
619:On March 10, 2017,
524:Walt Disney Company
510:In March 2016, the
1730:. 30 January 2024.
1439:The New York Times
1259:The New York Times
720:. 2 December 2013.
623:, the governor of
582:, the governor of
174:Wisconsin v. Yoder
168:Sherbert v. Verner
36:
2182:The Texas Tribune
1871:on March 10, 2015
1580:documentcloud.org
786:. 2 December 2013
695:. 26 March 2015.
323:States with RFRAs
177:, mandating that
2259:
2231:
2230:
2228:
2227:
2212:
2206:
2205:
2198:
2192:
2191:
2189:
2188:
2173:
2167:
2166:
2164:
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2156:Washington Blade
2147:
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2121:
2115:
2114:
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2110:
2095:
2089:
2088:
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2084:
2069:
2063:
2062:
2060:
2058:
2043:
2037:
2036:
2034:
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2017:
2011:
2010:
2008:
2006:
1991:
1985:
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1982:
1980:
1965:
1959:
1958:
1956:
1954:
1939:
1933:
1932:
1930:
1928:
1913:
1907:
1906:
1904:
1902:
1887:
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1878:
1876:
1867:. Archived from
1856:
1850:
1849:
1847:
1845:
1833:
1827:
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1804:
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1505:
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1424:
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1408:
1371:
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1366:
1351:
1345:
1328:
1322:
1321:
1315:
1307:
1305:
1303:
1297:
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1261:. March 31, 2015
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258:Politifact
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129:U.S. House
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376:Louisiana
230:in 2014.
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