209:, Peru, in 1996, when members of a militant movement took hostage hundreds of people attending a party at the official residence of Japan's ambassador. Lima syndrome is poorly understood, as the main example for research on this variation came from the Japanese embassy hostage crisis in Lima. Two main factors observed in the evaluation were that spending time with the captives may have strengthened the bonds between the captor and captive, however, this had little basis as the majority of captives were released earlier on. Establishing a friendly rapport with a captor could contribute to a positive bond, as most of the captives in this situation were high-level diplomats who were well-versed in their communication skills.
287:
agencies in 1989, performed by the FBI and the
University of Vermont, found not a single case when emotional involvement between the victim and the kidnapper interfered with or jeopardized an assault. In short, this database provides empirical support that the Stockholm syndrome remains a rare occurrence. The sensational nature of dramatic cases causes the public to perceive this phenomenon as the rule rather than the exception. The bulletin concludes that, although depicted in fiction and movies and often referred to by the news media, the phenomenon actually occurs rarely. Therefore, crisis negotiators should place the Stockholm syndrome in proper perspective.
29:
181:, "an urban guerrilla group", in 1974. She was recorded denouncing her family as well as the police using her new name, "Tania", and was later seen working with the SLA to rob banks in San Francisco. She publicly asserted her "sympathetic feelings" toward the SLA and their pursuits as well. After her 1975 arrest, pleading Stockholm syndrome (although the term was not used then, due to the recency of the event) did not work as a proper defense in court, much to the chagrin of her defense lawyer
146:
rationally than the police negotiators and subsequently developed a deep distrust towards the latter. Enmark had criticized
Bejerot specifically for endangering their lives by behaving aggressively and agitating the captors. She had criticized the police for pointing guns at the convicts while the hostages were in the line of fire, and she had told news outlets that one of the captors tried to protect the hostages from being caught in the crossfire. She was also critical of prime minister
380:
368:, reported that Palme told her that the government would not negotiate with criminals, and that "you will have to content yourself that you will have died at your post"); as well, she observed that not only was Bejerot's diagnosis of Enmark made without ever having spoken to her, it was in direct response to her public criticism of his actions during the siege.
150:, as she had negotiated with the captors for freedom, but the prime minister told her that she would have to content herself with dying at her post rather than Palme giving in to the captors' demands. Ultimately, Enmark explained she was more afraid of the police, whose attitude seemed to be a much larger, direct threat to her life than the robbers.
327:(PTSD) and there is no consensus about the correct clarification. In addition, there is no extensive body of research or consensus to help solve the argument, although before the fifth edition (DSM 5) was released, Stockholm syndrome was under consideration to be included under 'Disorders of Extreme Stress, Not Otherwise Specified'.
339:
after interviewing
Kristin Enmark. In this presentation he posits that "Stockholm Syndrome" and related ideas such as "traumatic bonding", "learned helplessness", "battered women's syndrome", "internalized oppression", and "identification with the aggressor/oppressor" shift the focus away from actual
145:
According to accounts by
Kristin Enmark, one of the hostages, the police were acting incompetently, with little care for the hostages' safety. This forced the hostages to negotiate for their lives and releases with the robbers on their own. In the process, the hostages saw the robbers behaving more
363:
revealed "most diagnoses are made by the media, not by psychologists or psychiatrists." In particular, Hill's analysis revealed that
Stockholm authorities – under direct guidance from Bejerot – responded to the robbery in a way that put the hostages at greater risk from the police than from their
286:
A 1999 report by the FBI containing more than 1,200 hostage incidents found that only 8% of kidnapping victims showed signs of
Stockholm syndrome. When victims who showed only negative feeling toward the law enforcement personnel are excluded, the percentage decreases to 5%. A survey of 600 police
299:
A research group led by
Namnyak has found that although there is vast media coverage of Stockholm syndrome, there has not been much research into the phenomenon. What little research has been done is often contradictory and does not always agree on what Stockholm syndrome is. The term has grown
217:
Victims of the formal definition of
Stockholm syndrome develop "positive feelings toward their captors and sympathy for their causes and goals, and negative feelings toward the police or authorities". These symptoms often follow escaped victims back into their previously ordinary lives.
157:
It was the hostages' fault. They did everything I told them to. If they hadn't, I might not be here now. Why didn't any of them attack me? They made it hard to kill. They made us go on living together day after day, like goats, in that filth. There was nothing to do but get to know each
278:, observed in their 1982 study that the 1970s were rich with apprehension surrounding the potential risks of brainwashing. They assert that media attention to brainwashing during this time resulted in the fluid reception of Stockholm syndrome as a psychological condition.
340:
events in context to invented pathologies in the minds of victims, particularly women. "Stockholm syndrome" can be seen as one of many concepts used to silence individuals who, as victims, speak publicly about negative social (i.e., institutional) responses.
111:
to assist him. They held the hostages captive for six days (23–28 August) in one of the bank's vaults. When the hostages were released, none of them would testify against either captor in court; instead, they began raising money for their defense.
65:
Emotional bonds can possibly form between captors and captives, during intimate time together, but these are considered irrational by some in light of the danger or risk endured by the victims. Stockholm syndrome has never been included in the
138:(after Norrmalmstorg Square where the attempted robbery took place), meaning "the Norrmalmstorg syndrome"; it later became known outside Sweden as Stockholm syndrome. It was originally defined by psychiatrist
221:
Stockholm syndrome is paradoxical because the sympathetic sentiments that captives feel towards their captors are the opposite of the fear and disdain which an onlooker might feel towards the captors.
201:, has been proposed, in which abductors develop sympathy for their hostages. An abductor may also have second thoughts or experience empathy towards their victims. Lima syndrome was named after
1040:
134:
was not a new concept, Bejerot, speaking on "a news cast after the captives' release", described the hostages' reactions as a result of being brainwashed by their captors. He called it
153:
Olsson later said in an interview that he could have easily killed the hostages in the beginning, but over time it became more difficult, as he developed an emotional bond with them:
260:
Physical: increase in effects of pre-existing conditions; development of health conditions due to possible restriction from food, sleep, and exposure to outdoors.
76:), the standard tool for diagnosis of psychiatric illnesses and disorders in the United States, mainly due to the lack of a consistent body of academic research.
68:
1014:
355:, Australian journalist Jess Hill described the syndrome as a "dubious pathology with no diagnostic criteria", and stated that it is "riddled with
237:
A hostage's belief in the humanity of the captor, ceasing to perceive them as a threat, when the victim holds the same values as the aggressor.
925:
250:
Emotional: lack of feeling, fear, helplessness, hopelessness, aggression, depression, guilt, dependence on captor, and development of
130:
asked him for assistance with analyzing the victims' reactions to the 1973 bank robbery and their status as hostages. As the idea of
300:
beyond kidnappings to all definitions of abuse. It stated that there is no clear definition of symptoms to diagnose the syndrome.
419:
785:
750:
485:
551:
Adorjan, Michael; Christensen, Tony; Kelly, Benjamin; Pawluch, Dorothy (2012). "Stockholm
Syndrome as Vernacular Resource".
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captors (hostage
Kristin Enmark, who during the siege was granted a telephone call with Swedish Prime Minister
324:
251:
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618:
933:
894:"The use of the 'Brainwashing' Theory by the Anti-cult Movement in the United States of America, pre-1996"
501:
Jameson C (2010). "The Short Step From Love to Hypnosis: A Reconsideration of the Stockholm Syndrome".
178:
274:
Robbins and Anthony, who had historically studied a condition similar to Stockholm syndrome, known as
444:
337:
The myth of "Stockholm Syndrome" (and other concepts invented to discredit women victims of violence)
28:
1151:
185:. Her seven-year prison sentence was later commuted, and she was eventually pardoned by President
62:
Stockholm syndrome is a "contested illness" due to doubts about the legitimacy of the condition.
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319:. Stockholm syndrome has not historically appeared in the manual, as many believe it falls under
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107:, hostage during a failed bank robbery. He negotiated the release from prison of his friend
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is widely used as the "classification system for psychological disorders" by the
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A refusal by hostages to cooperate with police and other government authorities.
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deFabrique, N.; Romano, S.; Vecchi, G.; Hasselt, Vincent Van (1 January 2007).
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Namnyak M, Tufton N, Szekely R, Toal M, Worboys S, Sampson EL (January 2008).
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845:"Kidnapping and hostage-taking: a review of effects, coping and resilience"
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Cognitive: confusion, blurred memory, delusion, and recurring flashbacks.
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99:, a convict on parole, took four employees (three women and one man) of
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37:
906:
893:
224:
There are four key components that characterize Stockholm syndrome:
670:"Lyssna på Kristin Enmark prata med Olof Palme under gisslandramat"
356:
303:
768:
Kato, Nobumasa; Kawata, Mitsuhiro; Pitman, Roger K, eds. (2006).
189:, who was informed that she was not acting by her own free will.
228:
A hostage's development of positive feelings towards the captor.
52:
751:"Peru: Tale of a Kidnapping – from Stockholm to Lima Syndrome"
550:
257:
Social: anxiety, irritability, cautiousness, and estrangement.
1104:
312:
969:"'Stockholm syndrome': psychiatric diagnosis or urban myth?"
206:
644:
See What You Made Me Do: Power, Control and Domestic Abuse
966:
55:
that tries to explain why hostages sometimes develop a
281:
335:
At Dignity Conference 2015, Dr. Allan Wade presented
241:
69:
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
375:
231:
No previous relationship between hostage and captor.
477:
Six Days in August: The Story of Stockholm Syndrome
359:and founded on a lie"; she also noted that a 2008
1123:
767:
1046:. Archived from the original on 23 January 2016
926:"Placing the Stockholm Syndrome in Perspective"
842:
546:
544:
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821:
269:
173:Patty Hearst, the granddaughter of publisher
142:to aid the management of hostage situations.
960:
892:Young, Elizabeth Aileen (31 December 2012).
919:
917:
898:Zeitschrift für junge Religionswissenschaft
529:
197:An inversion of Stockholm syndrome, termed
828:Sundaram CS (2013). "Stockholm Syndrome".
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634:
1015:"Therapist challenges Stockholm Syndrome"
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849:Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine
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667:
290:
27:
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616:
593:
500:
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843:Alexander DA, Klein S (January 2009).
694:
619:"The Ties That Bind Captive to Captor"
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420:Complex post-traumatic stress disorder
891:
809:Giambrone, Andrew (16 January 2015).
1038:
761:
748:
718:
716:
640:
473:
330:
203:an abduction at the Japanese embassy
177:, was taken and held hostage by the
343:
282:FBI law enforcement bulletin (1999)
40:, Sweden, the location of the 1973
21:Stockholm Syndrome (disambiguation)
13:
1107:"Understanding Stockholm Syndrome"
1041:"The myth of 'Stockholm Syndrome'"
242:Physical and psychological effects
14:
1163:
1098:
924:Fuselier, G. Dwayne (July 1999).
713:
430:Identification with the Aggressor
305:Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
16:Contested psychological condition
985:10.1111/j.1600-0447.2007.01112.x
565:10.1111/j.1533-8525.2012.01241.x
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317:American Psychiatric Association
192:
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1007:
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802:
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973:Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica
832:– via Research Starters.
749:Lama, Abraham (10 July 1996).
688:
661:
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596:"The six day war in Stockholm"
587:
467:
325:post-traumatic stress disorder
252:post-traumatic stress disorder
126:, invented the term after the
103:, one of the largest banks in
1:
1081:Rethinking Stockholm Syndrome
724:"What is Stockholm syndrome?"
668:Westcott K (22 August 2013).
503:Journal for Cultural Research
461:
1111:FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin
934:FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin
697:Jag blev Stockholmssyndromet
264:
7:
1147:Interpersonal relationships
641:Hill, Jess (24 June 2019).
371:
51:is a proposed condition or
10:
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1039:Wade, Allan (1 May 2015).
699:. Stockholm: SAGA Egmont.
617:Ochberg F (8 April 2005).
553:The Sociological Quarterly
270:Robbins and Anthony (1982)
179:Symbionese Liberation Army
166:
88:
79:
18:
1064:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
515:10.1080/14797581003765309
445:Symptoms of victimization
276:destructive cult disorder
59:bond with their captors.
861:10.1258/jrsm.2008.080347
830:Salem Press Encyclopedia
811:"Coping After Captivity"
695:Enmark, Kristin (2020).
348:In her 2019 treatise on
353:See What You Made Me Do
175:William Randolph Hearst
136:Norrmalmstorgssyndromet
213:Symptoms and behaviors
160:
85:Stockholm bank robbery
45:
44:(photographed in 2005)
778:10.1007/4-431-29567-4
155:
91:Norrmalmstorg robbery
42:Norrmalmstorg robbery
31:
474:King, David (2020).
435:Learned helplessness
410:Cognitive dissonance
19:For other uses, see
755:Inter Press Service
440:Parental alienation
594:Bejerot N (1974).
455:Uncle Tom syndrome
415:Colonial mentality
49:Stockholm syndrome
46:
1084:, 11 October 2015
787:978-4-431-29566-2
624:Los Angeles Times
487:978-0-393-63508-9
450:Traumatic bonding
400:Attachment theory
395:Atlas personality
386:Psychology portal
361:literature review
350:domestic violence
331:Allan Wade (2015)
105:Stockholm, Sweden
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941:(7): 22–25.
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163:Patty Hearst
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132:brainwashing
124:psychiatrist
118:, a Swedish
116:Nils Bejerot
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101:Kreditbanken
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36:building in
34:Kreditbanken
25:
979:(1): 4–11.
734:5 September
1126:Categories
462:References
425:Enmeshment
366:Olof Palme
148:Olof Palme
1019:NZ Herald
796:241676227
680:5 October
581:141676449
523:144260301
265:Criticism
95:In 1973,
38:Stockholm
1117:: 10–15.
1088:14 March
1060:cite web
1024:14 March
1001:39620244
993:18028254
947:10256916
879:19147852
728:BBC News
674:BBC News
573:41679728
372:See also
357:misogyny
291:Namnyak
1050:18 July
870:2627800
254:(PTSD).
80:History
32:Former
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295:(2008)
293:et al.
158:other.
53:theory
1132:Abuse
1044:(PDF)
997:S2CID
954:(PDF)
943:S2CID
929:(PDF)
900:(7).
792:S2CID
577:S2CID
569:JSTOR
519:S2CID
313:DSM-5
1090:2023
1066:link
1052:2023
1026:2023
989:PMID
875:PMID
782:ISBN
770:PTSD
736:2023
701:ISBN
682:2015
649:ISBN
482:ISBN
311:The
207:Lima
122:and
981:doi
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902:doi
865:PMC
857:doi
853:102
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561:doi
511:doi
323:or
205:in
74:DSM
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